
SCHAFF 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, 



Slielf.v-S-3- 



sw * 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



Dictionary of the Bible : 



INCLUDING 



BIOGRAPHY, NATURAL HISTORY, GEOGRAPHY, TOPOGRAPHY, 
ARCHEOLOGY, AND L[TERATURE. 



WITH TWELVE COLORED MAPS 



OVER FOUR HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS. 



EDITED BY 

PHILIP SCHAFF, D.D., LL.D. 



Professor in the Union Theological Seminary. New York. 



FOURTH EDITION. /L> ° ' ^ 

SEP 21 1887'/] 



REALISED AND ENLARGED 

PHILADELPHIA: 
AMERICAN SUNDAY-SCHOOL UNION, 

1122 Chestnut Street. 

NEW YORK: 8 and 10 BIBLE HOUSE, ASTOR PLACE. 



Copyright, 1880 and 1885, by the American Sunday-School Union. 



PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION. 



This edition has been carefully revised and brought up to the latest bib- 
lical scholarship. Since the first edition was issued, five years ago, much 
progress has been made. The Revision of the New Testament appeared in 
1881, and the Kevision of the Old Testament has been completed. The 
"Palestine Exploration Fund" has published the final results of its scientific 
survey of Western Palestine in seven magnificent volumes and twenty-six 
sheet maps (London, 1881-84). Important discoveries have also been made 
in Egypt, the Sinnitic Peninsula, and in the East-Jordanic territory. 

These and other recent works on biblical literature and criticism have 
been consulted. Several geographical and topographical articles have been 
rewritten, and others revised. The Committee of the Palestine Exploration 
Fund kindly gave official authority for the use of all its researches, illustra- 
tions, and photographs. Of the biblical places now known in Western Pales- 
tine, "two-fifths are the discoveries of this survey." New sites or modifi- 
cations of former sites for over one hundred biblical places have been noted 
in this edition. Any Bible Dictionary based on knowledge attained ten or 
fifteen years ago must be behind the times in completeness and accuracy. 

By permission of Dr. H. Clay Trumbull, a new map of Sinai, based upon 
that in his Kadesh JBarnea (New York, 1884), has been inserted, and the 
maps of Palestine have been made to conform to the recent surveys west 
and east of the Jordan. 

In thus perfecting this Dictionary I have been aided in the geographical 
articles and the revision of maps by the Rev. Edwin W. Pice, D. D., and 
(for the East-Jordanic localities) by Dr. Selah Merrill, U. S. Consul in 
Jerusalem. 

The Editor takes this opportunity to express his grateful acknowledgment 
for the signal favor with which this Dictionary has been received in this 
country and in Europe. Several translations have appeared or are in prep- 
aration, for which permission has been cheerfully granted by the American 
Sunday-School Union. 

PHILIP SCHAFF. 

Union Theological Seminary, New York, January, 1885. 



PKEFACE TO FOUKTH EDITION. 



In this edition we have incorporated results of more recent archaeological 
researches and valuable corrections and suggestions of Rev. Dr. Elias Riggs 
of Constantinople, Prof. George E. Post, M. D., of Beirut, and Rev. Dr. 
Nystrom of Stockholm. Several articles have been rewritten and brought 
up to date. 

PHILIP SCHAFF. 

February, 1887. 



PEEFAOE TO FIEST EDITION. 



This Dictionary aims to be a useful companion in the study of the 
Scriptures by furnishing, in convenient alphabetical order and in popular 
form, the condensed results of the most recent investigations in biblical 
Literature, history, biography, geography, topography, and archaeology. 

The American Sunday-School Union first published a Bible Dictionary in 
1831 under the editorship of the late venerable Dr. Archibald Alexander, of 
the Theological Seminary at Princeton, which was revised by F. A. Packard, 
LL.D., in 1837, and again by the same in 1855. It served a good purpose 
in its day, but biblical learning has since made such vast progress that an 
entirely new work, with new illustrations and maps, was needed. 

I have been effectually aided in the preparation of this volume by several 
competent scholars. The Rev. S. M. Jackson and Mr. Clemens Petersen 
have devoted nearly two years' uninterrupted labor on it in my library, 
and prepared under my direction most of the historical, biographical, and 
archaeological articles; the Rev. Edwin W. Rice wrote the geographical 
and topographical articles, and supervised the selection and preparation 
of the illustrations and maps, crediting them to their proper sources; the 
Rev. W. P. Alcott has had charge of the department of natural history. 
The editor has also had the co-operation of the Rev. David Schley Schaff, 
the late Rev. Isaac Riley, the Rev. Moseley H. Williams, and S. Austin 
Allibone, LL.D., in otherwise perfecting the work. 

The full-page colored maps at the end of the Dictionary were prepared 
and engraved specially for it by the Messrs. W. & A. K. Johnston, of Edin- 
burgh, Scotland, whose reputation as geographers is a sufficient guarantee of 
the accuracy and scholarship of these important aids to the student. 

The multiplication of Bibles and Bible helps in our age and country is 
truly astonishing, and furnishes the best evidence of the divine origin and 
power of the Book of books. 

PHILIP SCHAFF. 

Union Theological Seminary, New York, 
April, 1880. 



LIST OF COLOEED MAPS. 

[these will be found at the end of the volume.] 

1. Distribution of the Descendants of Noah after the Deluge. 

2. Canaan in Patriarchal Times. 

3. Egypt, Ancient and Modern. 

4. Sinai and the Route of the Israelites to Canaan. 

5. Canaan as Divided among the Twelve Tribes. 

6. Kingdom of David and Solomon, and the two Kingdoms of Israel and 

Judah. 

7. Lands of the Jewish Captivities, including the four great Empires 

on the Euphrates. 

8. Palestine in the Time of Christ. 

9. Journeys of St. Paul. 

10. Modern Palestine, showing its Physical Features. 

11. Environs of Jerusalem. 

12. Modern Jerusalem, indicating also its Ancient Divisions. 



LIST OF MAPS NOT COLOEED. 

PAGE 

Sketch-map of Abana and Pharpar 11 

Plan of Alexandria 39 

Sketch-map of Arabia . 61 

Sketch-map of Assyria and Mesopotamia 81 

Plan of Babylon 91 

Sketch-map of Canaan before the Conquest 156 

Sketch-map of Cyprus 212 

Sketch-map of Decapolis 226 

Sketch-map of Egypt 254 

Sketch-map of Route of the Exodus 294 

Sketch-map of Sea of Galilee . 320 

Sketch-map of Greece 317 

Plans of Ancient Jerusalem 447 

sourcks of the jordan 477 

Course of the Jordan from the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea . 478 

Map of Macedonia 534 

Sketch-map of St. Paul's Bay 560 

Sketch-map of Nineveh 613 

The Holy Land during the Monarchy (based on Smith and Grove) 646, 647 

The Salt or Dead Sea . . 753 

Outline-map of Mount Sinai 807 

Plans of the Temple-area 854 

Plan of Herod's Temple 856 



[An Index of Illustrations will be found at the end of the book.] 
4 



LIST OF WORKS ON BIBLICAL LEARNING MADE 
USE OF IN THIS DICTIONARY. 



1. Dictionaries and Concordances to the Original Languages. 

Wilhelm Gesenius : Hebrdisches u. Chalddisches-Handwbrlerbuch iiber das Alte Testament, 
8th revised ed., by Miihlau u. Volck (Leipzig, 1878), also his Thesaurus. Hebrew Lex- 
icon, translated from the Latin and edited by Edward Robinson (1854; 2nth ed , Pos- 
ton, 1872). A thorough revision on the basis of the last German ed. of Gesenius is in 
course of preparation (1886). 

Julius Fuerst : A Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon, translated by Samuel Davidson (4th ed., 
Leipzig and London, 1871). 

Edward Robinson: A Greek and English Lexicon of the New Testament (New York, 
1850). 

C. L. W. Grimm: Lexicon Grceco-Latinum in Lihros Novi Teslamenti (2d ed. Leipzig, 1879); 
translated, revised, and enlarged by J. H. Thayer, D.L\ (4to, New York, 1886). 

Herrmann Cremer, Biblisch-Theologisches Worterbuch der Neuleslamenllichen Grdcildt (3d 
revised ed., Gotha, 1882); Engl, transl. hy YV. Urwick; Biblico- Greek Lexicon (Edin- 
burgh and New York, 1878). 

C. H. Bruder : Concordantice N T. Grceci (Lips., 1853). 

G. V. Wigram: The Englishman's Hebrew and Chaldee Concordance of the Old Testament (3d 
ed , London, 1866; 4 parts, 2 vols.); The Hebraist's Vade Mecum. (London, 1867); The 
Englishman's Greek Concordance of the Neiv Testament (nth ed., London, 1868). 

C. F. Hudson: A Critical Greek and English Concordance of the New Testament, revised and 
completed by Ezra Abbot (7th ed., Boston, 1883). 

Robert Young: Analytical Concordance to the Bible (Edinburgh, 1879; New York, 1881). 

Abr. Trommius : Concordantice Grcecce Versionis LXX. Inlerprelum (Amstel, 1718 ; 2 vols, 
folio). 

William Henderson: Dictionary and Concordance of Scriptural Names (Edinburgh, 1869). 

2. General and Special Introduction to the Old and New Testaments. 

K. F. Keil: Einleitung in das A. Test. (Frankfurt. 2d ed.. 1859) : English transl. with Sup- 
plementary Notes, by Principal G. C. M. Douglas (Edinburgh, 1869; in 2 vols.). 

F. Bleek: Einleitung in's A. T (4th ed., Berlin, 1878) ; translated into English by G. H. 
Venables London, 1869; 2 vols.). By the same: Einleitung in's N. T. (3d ed., Berlin, 
1875); translated by Rev. VV. Urwick Edinburgh, 1870; 2 vols.). 

Ed. Reuss : Gesch. d. heil. Sch. N T. (5th ed. Braunschweig, 1874) ; Gesch d. heil. Schr. A. T. 
(1881). 

W. M. L. De Wette : Hislorisch-krilische Einleitung in die Bibel (8th ed., Berlin, 1869). 

E. H. Plumptre : The Bible Educator (London and New York, 1876-78; 4 vols.). 

E. C. Bissell : The Historic Origin of the Bible (New York, 1873). 

T. H. Horne, Introduction to the Holy Scriptures (14th ed., London, 1877, 4 vols.). 

3. Bible History and Theology. 

The Works of Philo and Josephus. 

Philip Schaff : History of the Apostolic Church (New York, 1853 ; new ed., 1880). 

Heinrich Ewald : Geschichte des Volkes Israel (3d ed., Gottingen, 1864-1868 ; 8 vols.); Eng- 
lish translation, History of Israel (London, 1S71-1876; 5 vols.) ; Life of Jesus Christ (Cam- 
bridge, 1865) ; Antiquities of Israel (London, 1876). 

Rabbi Raphall : Post-Biblical History of the Jews (New York, 1866 , 2 vols.). 

Conybeare and Ho w.sox : Life and Epistles of St. Paul (London, 1853; often reprinted). 

William Brown: The Tabernacle: Its Priests and Services. With diagrams, etc. (Edin- 
burgh, 1872). 

George Rawmnson: The Five Great Monarchies of the Eastern World (2d. ed., London and 
New York, 1873; 3 vols.). 

. . 5 



LIST OF WORKS. 



Thomas Lewin: The Life and Epistles of St. Paul (revised ed. ; London, 1875; 2 vols.). 
A. P. Stanley : History of the Jewish Church (London and New York, 1876 ; revised ed.. 
1880, 3 vols.). 

A. Edersheim : Jewish Social Life in the Bays of Christ (London, 1876). 

F. W. Farrar: Life and Epistles of St. Paul (London and New York, 1879; 2 vols.). 
C. F. Schmid: Biblische Theologie des Neuen Testaments (Stuttgart, 1853). 

G. F. Oehler : Theologie des Alien Testament (Tiibingen, 1863 ; Engl, transl., Edinb., and 

as revised by Dr. Day, N. Y., 1884). 
H. Schultz: Theologie des Allen Testament (Frankfurt; 2d ed., rewritten, 1878). 
J. J. Van Oosterzee: Theology of the Neiv Testament (London, 1870). 
Paul Scholz: Gbtzendiensl u. Zauberwesen bei den alien Hebrdern (Regensburg, 1877). 

B. Weiss: Biblical Theology of the New Testament (Engl, transl. of the 3d ed., London, 

1882-83, 2 vols.). 

Jf,. Bible Lands, especially Palestine. 

Hadrian Reland (professor in Utrecht ; died 1718) : Palestina ex monumentis veieribus 

illustrata (Traj., 1714; 2 vols.). 
H. Maundrell : Aleppo to Jerusalem, and Cairo to Mount Sinai, by Rt. Rev. R. Clayton 

(Loudon, 1810). 
A. H. Layard : Nineveh and its Remains (London, 1849 ; 2 vols.). 
Edward Robinson (professor in Union Theological Seminary, New York; died 1863): 

Biblical Researches in Palestine and the adjacent Regions: A Journal of Travels in the 

Years 1838 and 1852, by E. Robinson and Eli Smith (new ed., Boston, 1856; 3 vols. 

Published sinniltaneouslv in America, England, and Germany); Physical Geography 

of the Holy Land (New York, 1865). 
W. M. Thomson (American missionary in Beirut): The Land and the Book (Edinburgh 

and New York, 1859; 2 vols. A new and enlarged edition in 3 vols., with superior 

illustrations, New York, 1880, sqq.). 

John Wilson : The Lands of the Bible (Edinburgh, 1845; 2 vols.). 

Carl Ritter (who made thorough and comprehensive studies of the subject, although 
he never visited the country): Vergleichende Erdkunde der Sinai-Halbinsel, von Pales/ina 
und Syrien (Berlin, 1848-55, 4 vols.)'. Parts 14-17 of the second edition of the author's 
great'work, Die Erdkunde. Abridged translation by W. L. Gage (New York and Lon- 
don, 1866; 4 vols.). 

W. F. Lynch : Exploration of the Jordan and the Dead Sea (U. S. Expedition). (Philadel- 
phia, 1849.) 

Carl von Raumer: Paldstina (Leipzig, 1835; 4th ed., 1860). 

Arthur P. Stanley: Sinai and Palestine (London, 1853; revised, 1883). 

Edouard Naville : The Store City of Pilhom and Route of the Exodus. 13 maps (Trubner 

& Co., London, 1885). 
H. B. Tristram (Canon of Durham) : The Land of Israel (with special reference to its 

physical features) (London, 1865; 3d ed., 1876) ; Bible Places: or, The Topography of 

the Holy Land (London, 1871 ; new ed. 1875) ; The Land of Moab (London, 1873). 
J. Macgregor : Rob Roy on the Jordan (London and New York, 1870). 
E. H. Palmer : The Desert of the Exodus (Cambridge, 1871, 2 vols. ; N. Y., 1872, 1 vol.). 
J. L. Porter: Giant Cities of Bashan (New York, 1873). 
George Smith: Assyrian Discoveries (New York, 1875). 
H. J. Van Lennep: Bible Lands : their Modern Customs and Manners illustrative of Scripture 

(New York, 1875). 

C. R. Conder: Tent-Work in Palestine (London and New York, 1878 ; 2 vols.). 

Philip Schaff : Through Bible Lands : Notes of Travel in Egypt, the Desert, and Palestine 
(New York and London, 1878; revised and enlarged, London ed., 1880). 

J. G. Wilkinson: Maimers and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians. New ed. ; revised by 
Samuel Birch. LL.D. ( London, 1878; 3 vols.). 

E. W. Lane : Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians (London, 1836 ; 5th ed., 1871). 

S. C. Bartlett: From Egypt to Palestine (New York, 1879). 

G. Schumacher: Across the Jordan (Bentley & Son, London, 1886). 



LIST OF WORKS. 



British Palestine Exploration Fund: Quarterly Statements (London, 1868, sqq.) ; Our 
Work in Palestine (London, 1875) ; Maps and Memoirs (1880-1884, 8 vols). 

American Palestine Exploration Society: Occasional Reports (New York, 1872, sqq.). 

Deutscher Palestina-Verein : ZeLschrift (Leipzig, 1878, sqq.). 

J. L. Porter: Handbook for Travellers in Syria and Palestine (London, Murray, 1875). 

K. Baedeker : Palestine, and Syria. Handbook for Travellers (Leipzig, 1876 ; 'id (iermau ed.> 
levised and enlarged, 1880). By the same: Egypt and Sinai (Leipzig, 1878). 

M. E. Brcgsch : La Trouvaille de Deir-El-Bahari Vingt Photographies ; Texle par G. Mas- 
pern, d' Antiquities Directeur General aes Musees d'Egypte, Le Caire, Irnprimerie Fran- 
caise, F. Monres et O, 1881. 

Georg Ebers : Durch Gosen sum Sinai (2d ed., Leipzig, 1881). 

Selah MERRILL : East of the Jordan, 1 1 vol., N. Y., 1881). 

H. C. Trumbull: Aadesli-barnea (New York, 1884; 1 vol). 

5. Topography of Jerusalem. 

George Williams : The Holy City (2d ed., London, 1849; 2 vols.). 

Dr. Titus Tobler (a Swiss physician and very accurate archaeologist ; died 1877): Topo- 
graphic von Jerusalem (Berliu, 1854; 2 vols.). 

J. T. Barclay, M. D. : The City of the Great King; or, Jerusalem as it Was, as it Is, and as 
it Is to Be (Philadelphia, 1858). 

E. Pierotti : Jerusalem Explored. Trans, by Bonney (London, 1864 ; 2 vols, quarto. The 
second vol. contains plates). 

The Recovery of Jerusalem (London and New York, 1871). Contains the reports and 
journals of Captains Wilson and Warren, etc., relating to the recent excavations of 
the Palestine Exploration Fund during the preceding three years; with an Introduc- 
tion by Dean Stanley. 

Walter Besant and E. H. Palmer : Jerusalem, the City of Herod and Saladin (London, 
1871). 

Charles Warren (captain of Royal Engineers ; late in charge of the explorations in the 
Holy Land): Underground Jerusalem (London, 1876). 

Dr. Carl Zimmermann : Karten und Plane zur Topographie des Allen Jerusalems (Basel, 
1876). 

Bernhard Neumann (a Jewish physician who resided in Jerusalem fifteen years) : Die 
heilige Stadt und deren Bewohner (Hamburg, 1877). Instructive for modern Jerusalem. 

6. Bible Maps. 

Samuel Clark : Biblical Atlas. Index of geographical names by George Grove (quarto : 
London, 1868). 

William Smith: Atlas of Ancient Geography, Biblical and Classical. Edited by William 
Suiith, D. C. L., LL.D., and George Grove (folio; London, 1874). 

Palestine Exp. Fund : Maps of Western Palestine (26 sheets, 1880) ; Map of Eastern Pal- 
estine (1887). 

7. Natural History and Mineralogy of the Bible. 
Petrus Forskal: Flora Mgypliaco-Arabica (Havnise [Copenhagen], 1775). 
C. W. King: Antique Gems and Rings (London , 1860). 
S. Tenney : Natural History of Animals (New York, 1865). 
H. B. Tristram : Natural History of the Bible (London and New York, 1867). 
J. D. Dana, LL.D. : A System of Mineralogy (New York, 1869). 
J. G. Wood : Bible Animals (London, 1869). 
E. Loomis, M. D. : A Treatise on Meteorology (New York, 1872). 
J. T. Moggridge: Harvesting- Ants (London, 1873). 
Edmond Boissier: Flora Orientalis (Basle: now issuing). 
J. G. Wood: Animal Kingdom (London and Boston, 1870). 

Bohn's Naturalises Library. Edited by Sir William Jardine, F. R. S. E., etc. (Edinburgh 
and London, 1858, sqq.; 40 vols.). 

CasselVs Natural History. Edited by Dr. P. M. Duncan, F. R. S. (London and New York, 

1878-1880). 



LIST OF WOKKS. 



8. History of the English Bible. 

B. F. Westcott: History of the English Bible (London, 1868). 
John Eadie : History of the English Bible (London, 1876 ; 2 vols.). 

W. F. Moulton : History of the English Bible (London, Paris, and New York). 
John Stoughton : Our English Bible (London, 1878). 
H. Stevens : The Bibles in the Caxlon Exhibition (London, 1878). 
J. I. Mombert : Handbook of the English Versions (N. Y. and London, 1883). 
P. Schaff : Companion to the Greek Text and the English Version (N. Y. and London, 1883 ; 
revised ed., 1884). 

9, Commentaries. 
J. P. Lange: Commentary on Old and New Testaments (Anglo-American edition, New 

York and Edinburgh, 1864-80, 25 vols. ; new ed., 1884). 
The Bible (Speakers) Commentary (Loudon and New York, 1871-82; 10 vols.). Edited 

by Canon F. C. Cook. 
H. A. W. Meyer : Commentary on the Neiv Testament (Engl, transl., Edinburgh, 1873-82, 

20 vols. ; partly republ. with additions, N. Y., 1881, sqq.). 

C. J. Ellicott: New Testament Commentary for English Readers (London, 1878; 3 vols.). 

J. B. Lightfoot: Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians (6th ed., London, 1880) ; Com- 
mentary on the Epistle to the Philippians (3d ed., Loudon, 1873); Commentary on the 
Ep>stle to the Co/ossians, Philemon (London. 1875). 

Philip Schaff: Popular Illustrated Commentary on the New Testament (New York and 
Edinb., 1879-83, 4 vols.). Also since 1882 in small vols, under title of International 
Revision Commentary. 



A number of other commentaries, German and English, on the Old and New Testa- 
ments, have been used more or less. Among these the German commentaries of 
Keil and DeUlzsch, translated in Clark's Library, and the Scotch of Jamieson, Fausset, 
and Brown, deserve mention. 

10. Biblical Cyclopaedias. 

(a) ENGLISH WORKS. 

William Smith: Dictionary of the Bible (London, 1863, 3 vols.). . Am. ed. complete, with 
a number of original contributions and bibliographical supplements by Prof. H. B. 
Hackett, D. D., and Ezra Abbot, LL.D. (New York, 1868-70 ; 4 vols.). 

J. Kitto : Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature. 3d ed. by W. L. Alexander, P. D., of Edin- 
burgh (London and Philadelphia, 1866, 3 vols.). 

P. Fairbairn: The Imperial Bible Dictionary, Illustrated (Edinburgh. 1867 ; 2 vols.). 

M'Clintock and Strong : Cyclopaedia of Biblical Theology and Ecclesiastical Literature 
(New York, 1867-81; 10 vols. ; 3 vols, of supplements). 

J. Ayre : The Treasury of Bible Knowledge (new ed. London, 1870). 

Potter's Bible Encyclopaedia. Edited by W. Blackwood, D.D., LL.D. (Philadelphia, 1876 ; 
2 vols.). 

A. R. Fausset : The Englishman's Bible Cyclopaedia (London, 1878). 

Schaff-Herzog : Encyclopaedia of Religious Knowledge (N. Y., 1882-84 ; 3 vols.). 

(b) GERMAN WORKS. 

G. B. Winer : Biblisches Realworterbuch (3d ed., Leipzig, 1849 ; 2 vols.). 

H. Zeller (with Fronmiiller, Hainlon, Klaiber, Leyrer, Merz, D. Volter, L. Volter, Wnn- 
derlich, etc.) : Biblisches Worterbuch fiir das chris'tliche Volk (2d ed., Gotha, 1866; 2 vols.X 

D. Schenkel (in connection with Brnch, Diestel, Dillmann, Fritzsche, Gass, Graf. Hans- 
rath, Hitzie, Holtzmann, Keim, Linsins, Mangold, Merx, Noeldeke, Reuss, Boskoft', 
Schrader, Schwarz, Schweizer): Bibel-Lexikon (Leipzig, 1869-75 : 5 vols.). 

Ed. G. Aug. Riehm (aided by G. Baur, BeyscMaa:, Delitzsch, Eners. Kamphansen, Kleinert, 
Schlottmann, Schrader, Schiirer) : Handworterbuch des Biblischen Altertums. With 
many illustrations (Bielefeld and Leipzig, 1875, sqq.). 

Herzog and Plitt: Real-Encyklopaediefiir Protest. Theologie vnd Kirche. (New ed., Leip- 
zig, 1876, sqq. To be completed in 15 vols. The first edition had 22 vols.). 



A 



Dictionary of the Holy Bible. 



A and O. or ALPHA AND OMEGA, 
the first and the last letters of the Greek 
alphabet, are four times used by Christ, 
Rev. 1 : 8, 11 [omitted in oldest MSS.] ; 
21 : 6 ; 22: 13, just as the phrase " The 
first and .... the last" is used by Jeho- 
vah, Isa. 41 : 4 : 44 : 6, to express the idea 
of eternity, and also of divine causality. 
The Church very early adopted these 
two letters as a symbol of the eternal 
divinity of our Lord, and used it exten- I 
sively on monuments of every description, 
sometimes alone, but more frequently in 
connection with the cross and the mono- 
gram of Christ in its various forms, as 



a|w 



AX(0 



AA'RON (mountaineer, or more prob- 
ably, from another root, enlightened), the 
first high priest of the Jews; eldest son 
of Amram, the grandson, and Jochebed, 
the daughter, of Levi ; brother of Mir- 
iam, who was several years older, and 
of Moses, who was three years vounger. 
Ex. 6 : 20: cf. 2:1, 4; 7": 7 ; Num. 26: 
59. The family of Aaron belonged to the 
Kohathite branch of the tribe of Levi, 
the most numerous and powerful. This 
gave them prominence, so that the lead- 
ership naturally fe.l to them. When first 
mentioned he is called, Ex. 4 : 14, the 
"Levite," which implies that he was a 
recognized leader in his tribe, and, as 
the first-born son, he would be the 
priest of the household. Aaron's wife 
was Elisheba, daughter of the prince of 
Judah, and he had four sons, Nadab, 
Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar. Ex. 6 : 
23. The greater portion of his life is 
passed over in silence by the Bible 
writers, and he was eighty-three years 
old before he is introduced to us. Moses 



AAK 

had timidly declined to be the leader of 
his people out of captivity, and had as- 
signed as a reason that he was "slow of 
speech and of a slow tongue," Ex. 4:10; 
whereupon God tells him that Aaron, 
his brother, was coming toward him, 
evidently under divine direction, and 
that he would act as his mouthpiece, 
because he possessed in a high degree 
popular gifts of speech and argument. 

Thus brought together, and under- 
standing their respective functions, the 
brothers started for the court of Pha- 
raoh, and from that time on Aaron 
played a very prominent part in the 
drama of Israel's deliverance. Side by 
side Moses and Aaron stand before the 
Lord, before Pharaoh, before the en- 
raged elders of Israel. Furnished with 
words, Aaron utters them in these 
several presences, works miracles, and 
evinces courage. His work was by no 
means easy, but he carried it on suc- 
cessfully. 

On the way to Sinai the battle with 
Amalek was fought, and Aaron joins 
Hur in holding up the weary arms of 
Moses. Ex. 17 : 9, 13. With his two 
sons. Nadab and Abihu, and seventy 
of the elders of Israel, he and Moses 
saw the Lord. Ex. 24. But when Moses 
was not with him, then he showed him- 
self weak, and it will always be told, to 
his discredit, that he made the golden 
calf — not, indeed, as a substitute for 
Jehovah, but rather as a concession. 
He proclaimed a feast to the Lord, but 
the people ran into great excesses, and 
as Moses was descending from the 
mount it was the noise of the dancing 
and music which so raised his anger. 
Ex. 32. Notwithstanding this griev- 
ous sin Aaron and his sons were con- 
secrated as the first priests of the Israel- 



AAB 



ABA 



ites. Ex. 40: 12-15: cf. Ex. 28 ; Lev. 8. 

See Priest. He was forbidden to mourn 
for his sons, Nadab and Abihu, who were 
destroyed for offering strange fire. Lev. 
10. Miriam, becoming jealous of Moses' 
wife, probably because her influence was 
weakened, induced Aaron to murmur 
against Moses on the ground that he 
assumed too much authority. Aaron 
deeply repented when rebuked, and 
joined with Moses in a prayer for Mir- 
iam's recovery. Num. 12. See Miriam. 
Twenty years later the Lord interposed 
to vindicate Aaron's authority against 
Korah and his company, and by a mir- 
acle, the budding rod, confirmed the orig- 
inal choice. Num. 16, 17. The plague 
which broke out was stopped by Aaron's 
atonement. He stood between the liv- 
ing and the dead. 

Aaron fell under the influence of 
whichever strong nature was nearest 
to his at the time. So he was carried 
away by Moses into sin at the waters 
of Meribah, and in punishment they 
were both kept out of the Promised 
Land. Aaron died first, upon Mount 
Hor, from whence he could obtain a 
distant view of Palestine, and there, 
in the presence of Moses, who stripped 
him of his priestly garments and put 
thern upon Aaron's son, Eleazar, the 
first high priest, who for nearly forty 
years had discharged his sacred office, 
in spite of his faults thus highly ex- 
alted, fell, at the age of one hundred 
and twenty-three, under the dominion 
of the universal conqueror, and was 
buried upon the mountain. Num. 20 : 
23-29. A Mohammedan mosque marks 
the supposed grave of Aaron, on one 
of the two tops of Mount Hor, which 
is near Petra, in the desert. See Hor, 
Mount. 

Aaron is called the "saint of the 
Lord " with reference to his official 
character, Ps. 106 : 16, but, as the most 
superficial study of his life shows, he 
was far from perfect. He was a better 
servant than master. He was weak in 
command, but faithful in duty. He 
yielded like wax to the impressions of 
the moment. Yet it may readily be 
believed that the people loved him, 
perhaps more than Moses, and that 
the mourning over his death, which 
lasted thirty days, Num. 20 : 28, was 
sincere. One of the fasts of later Ju- 
10 



daism was one in his memory, held 
on the first day of the fifth month, 
Ab, our July or August. 

The Jewish priesthood began in the 
family of Aaron and remained its posses- 
sion, though not uninterruptedly, in the 
line of Eleazar; it passed into the family 
of Ithamar, the brother of Eleazar, in the 
person of Eli ; but, in consequence of the 
excesses of Eli's sons, God declared that 
it should be taken from his family, 1 Sam. 
2 : 30, and this prophecy was fulfilled in 
the time of Solomon, who took the priest- 
hood from Abiatbar and restored it to 
Zadok, of the line of Eleazar. 1 Kgs. 
o . 97 

AARONITES. 1 Chr. 12 : 27. 
Levites of the family of Aaron : the 
priests who served the sanctuary. Elea- 
zar, Aaron's son, was their chief. Num. 
4:16. 

AB. See Month. 

ABADDON {destruction), the He- 
brew name for the angel of the bottom- 
less pit, and answering to the Greek 
name Apollyon.fAe destroyer. Rev. 9 : 11. 

ABAG'THA (derivation doubtful; 
probably God-given), one of the seven 
chamberlains of the court of Ahasuerus. 
Esth. 1-10. 

AB'ANA {stony), a river of Da- 
mascus, 2 Kgs. 5 : 12, and supposed 
to be identical with the Amana of 
Song Sol. 4 : 8. Probably the mod- 
ern Barada, which the Greeks called 
the Chrysorrhoas [golden stream). It 
rises in the mountains of Anti-Libanus, 
about 23 miles N. W. of Damascus, runs 
through the city in several streams or 
canals, thence across the plain, and 18 
miles east of Damascus falls by several 
branches into the marshy Bahret-el- 
Kibliyeh, or so-called "Meadow Lakes." 
The river is a clear, limpid, copious, and 
perennial stream, and is the chief source 
of the fertility of the plain of Damascus, 
making it a garden in the desert. It 
falls 1149 feet, and waters 800 square 
miles of territory containing about 14. 
villages. 

AB'ARIM {mountains beyond, or of 
the fords), a range of mountains east 
of the river Jordan, in the land of Moab, 
opposite Jericho. Num. 27:12; 33: 
47; Deut. 32 : 49. Nebo, Peor, and 
Pisgah belong to this range. In Jer. 
22 : 20 the word is translated " pas- 
sages." Ije-abarim in Num. 21 : 11 



ABB 



ABE 




Sketch-Map of the Abana and Pharpar Rivers. 



means heaps or ruins of Abarim, and 
was near the same range. 

ABBA, the Chaldee form of the 
Hebrew word ab, signifying father. Ap- 
plied to God in the New Testament by 
Christ, Mark 14 : 36, and by Paul, Rom. 
8 : 15; Gal. 4 : 6. The syllable ab, in 
the sense of "possessed of," "endowed 
with," frequently occurs in the compo- 
sition of Hebrew proper names; e. g. 
Abner, Absalom. 

AB'DA {servant, Chaldee form). 1. 
Father of Adoniram. 1 Kgs. 4 : 6. 

2. Son of Shammua, Xeh. 11 : 17 ; called 
Obadiah in 1 Chr. 9 : 16. 

ABDEEL {servant of God), father 
of Shelemiah. Jer. 36 : 26. 

AB'DI {my servant). 1. A Merarite 
Levite, and ancestor of Ethan the singer. 
1 Chr. 6 : 41. 

2. A Levite of the same family, father 
of Kish. 2 Chr. 29 : 12. 

3. One of the sons of Elam, who had 
taken a foreign wife. Ezr. 10 : 26. 

AB'DIEL {servant of God), a chief 
of Gad. 1 Chr. 5 : 15. 

AB'DON(»«n:i7e). 1. An Ephraim- 
ite who judged Israel, Jud. 12 : 13-15; 
perhaps the same with Bedan of 1 Sam. 
12: 11. 

2. A Benjamite, son of Shashak. 
1 Chr. 8 : 23. 

3. A Benjamite, son of Jehiel, of Gib- 
eon. 1 Chr. 8:30; 9 : 36. 



4. A son of Micah, one of Josiah's 
officers, 2 Chr. 34 : 20 ; called Achbor. 
2 Kgs. 22 : 12, 14. 

AB'DON {servile), a city in the 
territory of Asher, assigned to the Le- 
vites. Josh. 21 : 30 ; 1 Chr. 6 : 74. It 
may be located at the modern Abdeh, 
ruins 10 miles N. E. of Accho. 

ABED-NEGO {servant of Nego, 
perhaps the same as Nebo, the Chal- 
dean name of the planet Mercury, who 
was worshipped as the scribe and inter- 
preter of the gods), the Chaldee name 
given by an officer of the king of Baby- 
lon to Azariah, one of the four youths 
mentioned in the book of Daniel who were 
taken captive at Jerusalem, B. c. 604, and 
carried to Babylon, where they were 
trained for the royal service. Dan. 1 : 7. 
The names of the others were likewise 
changed. Daniel was called Belteshaz- 
zar ; Hananiah, Shadrach ; and Mishael, 
Meshach. Daniel, promoted in conse- 
quence of his interpretation of the king's 
dream, secured positions for his three 
companions. These three are immortal 
because on the occasion of the dedica- 
tion of a golden image by Nebuchad- 
nezzar they refused to bow down and 
worship it. Accordingly, they were cast 
into a burning fiery furnace, from which 
they were miraculously delivered un- 
scathed. Dan. 3. See Daniel. 

ABEL (Heb. Hebel—i. e. breath, 
11 



ABE 



ABI 



vapor), the second son of Adam and 
Eve, so called perhaps from the fleeting 
character of his life, or because, since 
Cain was not the promised seed, as Eve 
expected at his birth, life itself seemed 
of little worth; it was but "a vapour, 
that appeareth for a little time, and 
then vanisheth away." Gen. 4 : 2. He 
was a keeper or feeder of sheep, and in 
process of time brought of the firstlings 
or first-fruits of his flock an offering 
unto the Lord. God accepted his offer- 
ing and gave him evidence of it. Heb. 
11 : 4. Not so with Cain. Either his 
sacrifice, or the manner of presenting 
it, offended God, and the offering was 
rejected. 1 John 3 : 12. Cain, exceed- 
ingly angry, and filled with envy, 
embraced an opportunity when they 
were in the field together to take his 
brother's life. Gen. 4. 

Our Saviour distinguishes Abel by 
the title "righteous." Matt. 23:35. 
He is also one of the faithful "elders" 
mentioned in the Epistle to the Hebrews, 
ch. 11, and is justly called the first 
martyr. 

A'BEL (meadow), a prefix in the 
names of several places, as below. 

A'BEL, of the vineyards, see mar- 
gin, Jud. 11 : 33, or "plain of the vine- 
yards," as the text reads, was a place 
east of the Jordan, perhaps the present 
Merj Elckeh. 

ABEL, and ABEL- BETH - 

MA'ACHAH {meadow of the house 
of oppression), a town in the north of 
.Paiesdne^^ near Cesarea Philippi, the 
modern Abl, a village and ruin on a 
stream about 7 miles west of Banias. 
It was attacked by Joab, 2 Sam. 20 : 
14, 1 5 ; by Benhadacl, 1 Kgs. 15 : 20 ; and 
bv Tiglath-pileser. 2 Kgs. 15 : 29. 

ABEL-MAIM (meadow of wa- 
ters), another name for Abel-Beth- 
Maachah. 2 Chr. 16 : 4. 

A'BEL-MEHO'LAH (meadow 
of the dance), a place in the Jordan val- 
ley between the Sea of Galilee and the 
Dead Sea. 1 Kgs. 4 : 12. Gideon 

Pursued the Midianites near it, Jud. 
: 22 ; and it was the home of Elisha. 
1 Kgs. 19 : 16. Van de Velde locates 
it 1 6 miles south of Bethshean ; Conder, 
in Wad)/ Maleh, on the road from Bei- 
san to the Jordan, at Ain Hehoeh. 

A'BEL-MIZ'RAIM {meadow of 
Egypt), a name given by the Canaanites 
12 



to the floor of Atad, where Joseph 
mourned for his father, Jacob. Gen. 
50 : 11. It was " beyond " — that is, west 
of-— the Jordan, as the writer was on the 
east side. Some place it at Beth-hog- 
lah, or near Jericho ; others think it 
was near Hebron. 

A'BEL- SHIT'TIM (meadow of 
the acacias), -the name of the last halt- 
ing-place of the Israelites before enter- 
ing Canaan, and in the plain of Moab 5 
near the Jordan. Num. 33 : 49. It is 
also called Shittim. Num. 25 : 1. 

A'BEL, STONE OF. 1 Sam. 
6 : 18. A place near Beth-shemesh, 
where the ark of the Lord was set 
down. 

A'BEZ (tin ? or lofty), a town of Is- 
sachar. Josh. 19 : 20. Some think it 
the same as Thebez, Jud. 9 : 50, near to 
En-gannim and Shunem ; others iden- 
tify it with Kuebiz, three miles S. W. 
of Ihsal. Conder suggests el-Beida. 

A'BI ( father = progenitor), the mo- 
ther of Hezekiah, 2 Kgs. 18 : 2 ; called 
more fully Abiiah. 2 Chr. 29 : 1. 

ABI'A, ABI'AH, and ABIJAH 
(whose father is Jehovah) are all the 
same name. 

ABI'A. 1. Abijah, king of Judah, 
so called in 1 Chr. 3 : 10; Matt. 1 : 7. 

2. The Greek form of Abijah, head of 
one of the courses of priests. Luke 
1 : 5. See Abijah. 

ABI'A, COURSE OF. Luke 1 : 
5. In 1 Chr. 24 we have an account of 
the divisions of the priests into twenty- 
four classes, courses, or orders, who 
ministered at the altar in rotation. The 
courses were distinguished by the name 
of the most prominent member of the 
family from which the course was taken. 
The eighth of these courses fell to the 
family of Abia or Abijah ; and to this 
course belonged Zacharias, the father of 
John the Baptist. 

ABI'AH. 1. Second son of Samuel. 
1 Sam. 8 : 2; 1 Chr. 6 : 28. 

2. The wife of Hezron. 1 Chr. 2 : 24. 

3. Son of Becher, Benjamin's son. 1 
! Chr. 7 : 8. 

A'BI-AL'BON (father of strength, 
i i. e. strong), one of David's warriors, 
• 2 Sam. 23 : 31 ; called Abiel. 1 Chr. 
| 11 : 32. 

ABI'ASAPH (father of gathering, 
i. e. gathered), a Levite, one of the 
sons of Korah, and head of one of the 



ABI 



ABI 



Korhitic families, Ex. 6 : 24 : called 
Ebiasaph in 1 Chr. 6 : 37 and 9:19. 

ABI'ATHAR {father of abun- 
dance, i. e. liberal), the tenth high priest 
of the Jews, and fourth in descent from 
Eli. 1 Sam. 22: 20. He was the son of 
Ahimelech, and the only one who escaped 
when Doeg at Saul's command slew the 
priests at Nob in revenge for Ahimelech's 
service to David in inquiring of the 
Lord for him, and in giving him the 
shew-bread to eat, and Goliath's sword. 

1 Sam. 22. Abiathar fled to David at 
Keilah, and told him what Saul had 
done. David received him, and he af- 
terward became high priest. Thus 
there were two high priests in Israel at 
the same time — Abiathar, in the party 
of David, and Zadok, in the party of 
Saul, 2 Sam. 8 : 17; but, in consequence 
of his supporting Adonijah in his pre- 
tensions to the thronp. of David, Solo- 
mon, upon becoming king, thrust Abi- 
athar out of the priesthood, 1 Kgs. 2 : 
27, and conferred the office exclusively 
upon Zadok. See Zadok. Thus was 
fulfilled the word of God to Eli, 1 Sam. 

2 : 31 ; for Abiathar was the last of the 
priests of the house of Ithamar, to which 
Eli belonged ; and Zadok. who succeed- 
ed him, was of the family of Eleazar; 
and so the priesthood passed into its 
former channel. Abiathar, mentioned 
in Mark 2 : 26, has been supposed by 
some to be the same with Ahimelech. 
The most probable solution of the dif- 
ficulty is, perhaps, that Abiathar and 
Ahimelech may have been hereditary 
names in the family, and therefore were 
both borne by the same person. Hence 
the name Abiathar, being that of David's 
friend, would be more commonly used j 
than Ahimelech. This theory also ac- | 
counts for the substitution of one name ! 
for another in 2 Sam 8:17; 1 Chr. 18 : 
16, and 1 Chr. 24 : 3, 6, 31. The facts ! 
to which the Gospel alludes in the pas- I 
sage cited are fully stated in 1 Sam. 21. 

A'BIB (month). See Month. 

ABIDA, ou ABIDAH (father of 
knowledge, i. e. wise), a son of Midian. 
Gen. 25: 4; 1 Chr. 1 : 33. 

AB'IDAiV {father of the judge), 
prince of Benjamin. Num. 1 : 11; 2 : 
22 ; 7 : 60, 65 ; 10 : 24. 

ABI'EL (father of strength, i. e. 
strong). 1. The father of Kish and 
Ner. 1 Sam. 9:1; 14 : 51. 



2. One of David's warriors. 1 Chr. 11: 
32. See Abi-albon. 

ABIE'ZER [the father of help, i.e. 
helpful), the eldest son of Gilead, Josh. 
17 : 2 ; Num. 26 : 30 ; or of a sister of 
Gilead, 1 Chr. 7:18; founded a family 
at Ophrah, from which sprang Gideon. 
Jud 8 : 32. 

ABIEZ'RITE {the father of help), 
a family descended from Abiezer. Jud. 
6 : 11, 24; 8 : 32. 

AB'IGAIL {father, i. e. source, of 
joy). 1. The wise and beautiful wife 
of the churlish and wicked Nabal, a 
wealthy man of Carmel. 1 Sam. 25 : 3. 
When her husband had exposed him- 
self to the anger of David by his rude 
and contemptuous treatment of his mes- 
sengers, Abigail hastened to meet him 
while he was on his way with four hun- 
dred men to revenge the insult. She 
managed the affair with so much pru- 
dence as to pacify David and obtain 
his blessing. About ten days after her 
return the Lord visited Nabal with 
sickness, and he died, and Abigail be- 
came David's wife. 

2. One of David's sisters, married to 
Jether, and mother of Amasa. 2 Sam. 
17:25: 1 Chr. 2:17. 

ABIHA'IL {father of strength, i. e. 
the strong one). 1. The father of Zuriel, 
" chief of the . . . house of the families of 
Marari." Num. 3 : 35. 

2. The wife of Abishur. 1 Chr. 2 : 29. 

3. The son of Huri, of the tribe of 
Gad. 1 Chr. 5:14. 

4. The wife of Rehoboam. 2 Chr. 
11 : 18. 

5. The father of Esther. Esth. 2 : 15 ; 
9:29. 

ABI'HU {whose father is He, i. e. 
God), the second son of Aaron, who 
with his elder brother, Nadab, his 
father, and 70 of the elders of Israel, 
went upon Mount Sinai with Moses. 
Ex. 6:23; 28:1. He was afterward 
set apart by God, with his brothers, 
Nadab, Eleazar, and Ithamar, to the 
priesthood. Soon after they entered on 
their sacred duties, Nadab and Abihu 
violated God's commands respecting the 
manner of offering incense, and were in- 
stantly consumed. Lev. 10 : 1, 2. This 
event happened in the wilderness of 
Sinai. The nature of their offence is 
very obvious : they used common fire 
instead of the fire which burnt contin- 
13 



ABI 



ABI 



ually upon the altar of burnt-offering, 
and some suppose they were drawn into 
this presumptuous sin by the too free 
use of wine. Their father and brothers 
were forbidden to make public mourn- 
ing for them. 

ABI'HUD (rohose father is Judah, 
i. e. renoivu), the son of Bela and 
grandson of Benjamin. 1 Chr. 8 : 3. 

ABI'JAH (whose father is Jehovah). 
1. A son of Jeroboam I., king of Israel, 
who died under interesting circum- 
stances in early life. 1 Kgs. 14 : 1. 
See Jeroboam. 

2. Abijah or Abijam, 2 Chr. 13 : 1, 
the son of Eehoboam and Michaiah, 
succeeded his father as king of Ju- 
dah b. c. 959. He made war against 
Jeroboam, king of Israel, for the pur- 
pose of getting back the kingship of the 
ten tribes, and defeated him, with a loss 
of 500,000 men. These figures are prob- 
ably through a mistake made too large ; 
the loss, it is likely, was not greater than 
50,000. He began to reign in the 18th 
year of Jeroboam, and was succeeded by 
his son Asa in the 20th year of Jeroboam, 
so that he reigned only a part of three 
years. The apparent contradiction in 
respect to the parentage of this person, 
as it is given in 1 Kgs. 15 : 2 and 2 Chr. 
13 : 2. may be explained by supposing 
that his mother Maachah (or Michaiah) 
was the daughter of Uriel and the 
granddaughter of Absalom, who is called 
Abishalom. 1 Kgs. 15 : 2. The term 
"daughter " is given in the Bible to 
other relatives than one's own child: 
e. g. to a niece, granddaughter, or great- 
granddaughter. 

3. The head of one of the courses of 
priests. 1 Chr. 24 : 10 ; Neh. 12 : 17 ; 
termed Abia in Luke 1 : 5. 

4. The mother of Hezekiah, 2 Chr. 
29 : 1 : also called Abi in 2 Kgs. 18 : 2. 

5. One of the priests who " sealed the 
covenant :" i. e. appended their seals 
unto it to si<rnifv that they were parties 
to it. Neh. 10 : 7. 

6. A priest who returned with Zerub- 
babel from Babylon. Neh. 12:4, 17. 

ABI'JAM (father of the sea, i. e. a 
maritime person). 1 Kgs. 15 : 1, 7, 8. 
See Artj4h (?,). 

ABILE'NE (from Abila), a small 

district of Palestine on the eastern slopes 

of Anti-Libanus, of which Abila on the 

river Barada was the capital. It was 

14 



governed by Lysanias in the time of 
John the Baptist. Luke 3 : 1. 

ABIM'AEL (father of Mad), a 
descendant of Joktan, and supposed 
progenitor of the Arabian tribe Mali. 
Gen. 10:28: 1 Chr. 1 : 22. 

ABIM ELECH (father of the king). 
1. A king of the Philistines at Gerar. 
Gen. 20 : 2. Being deceived by Abra- 
ham, he took Sarah, Abraham's wife, 
to be his wife. God warned him, how- 
ever, in a dream of Sarah's relation to 
Abraham, and thus withheld him from 
the commission of sin. because he did it 
in ignorance. Gen. 20 : 6. Abimelech, 
having rebuked Abraham, restored 
Sarah to him with many gifts, and of- 
fered him a dwelling-place in any part 
of the land. God afterward remitted 
the punishment of the family of Abim- 
elech. 

2. At a subsequent period. Abimelech, 
a successor of the preceding, was de- 
ceived in like manner by Isaac, respect- 
ing his wife Rebekah, while they dwelt 
in Gerar during a time of famine in Ca- 
naan. Gen. 26. 

3. A son of Gideon, who, after the 
death of his father, persuaded the men 
of Shechem to make him king. Jud. 
8 : 31 ; 9 : 1 8. He afterward put to death 
seventy of his brothers who dwelt in his 
father's house at Ophrah, leaving only 
Jotham,the youngest, alive. On learn- 
ing of his exaltation to the kingship of 
the Shechemites, who had formed them- 
selves into an independent state. Jotham 

j told them the fable of the trees, Jud. 9 : 
7, etc., which is the oldest fable extant. 
The Shechemites in the third year of 
his reign rebelled against him during 
his absence, but he put the revolt down 
on his return. Shortly afterward, while 
storming the fortress of Thebez, he was 
mortally wounded by a piece of a mill- 
stone thrown upon his head by a woman 
from the top of a tower. That it might 
not be said a woman slew him, he called 
to his armor-bearer to stab him with his 
sword, and thus he died. Jud. 9 : 54-57. 

4. A son of Abiathar. 1 Chr. 18 : 
16. 

5. The name given to Achish in the 
title of Ps. 34. 

A BIN' AD AB (father of nobleness, 
i e. noble). 1. A Levite of Kirjath- 
jearim, with whom the ark of the Lord 
was deposited when it was brought 



ABI 



ABN 



back from the Philistines. 1 Sam. 
7 : 1 and 1 Chr. 13 : 7. 

2. The second of the eight sons of 
Jesse, and one of his three sons who 
followed Saul in battle. 1 Sam. 16 : 8. 

3. One of Saul's sons who was slain 
at the battle of Gilboa. 1 Sam. 31: 2. 

4. The father of one of the twelve 
officers appointed by Solomon to pro- 
vide alternately, month by month, food 
for the king and his household. 1 Kgs. 
4:11. 

AB'INER {father of light). 1 Sam. 
14 : 50, margin, same as Abner. 

ABIN'OAM {father of pleasant- 
ness), the father of Barak. Jud. 4 : 6, 
12; 5:1, 12. 

ABI 'RAM (father of height, i. e. 
renowned). 1. One of the sons of Eliab, 
the Reubenite, who were destroyed with 
Korah for a conspiracy against Moses. 
See Korah. Num. 16 : 1. 

2. The first-born of Hiel the Beth- 
elite. 1 Kgs. 16:34. His death at the i 
time his father began the rebuilding of | 
Jericho fulfilled the first part of Joshua's 
curse. Josh. 6 : 26. 

AB'ISHAG {father of error), a 
fair woman of Shunem, in the tribe of 
Issachar, who was selected by the ser- 
vants of David to minister to him in his 
old age and to cherish him. 1 Kgs. 
1: 1-4. After David's death and the as- 
cension of Solomon to the throne, Adon- 
ijah desired Abishag in marriage, but 
Solomon perceived his policy (see Adox- 
ijah), and caused him to be put to death. 

1 Kgs. 2 : 25. 

ABISH'AI {father of a gift), 
the eldest son of Zeruiah, David's 
sister, and among the chief of his 
mighty men. 2 Sam. 2 : 18. He ac- 
companied David to the camp of Saul, 
and counselled him to take Saul's life, 
which David refused to do, 1 Sam. 
26 : 5-12, and was probably with David 
during the latter's wandering life. He 
was associated with Joab in the assassi- i 
nation of Abner. 2 Sam. 3 : 30. The ! 
victory over the Edomites in the valley i 
of Salt, which is ascribed to David in 

2 Sam. 8 : 13, is ascribed to Abishai in 
1 Chr. 18 : 12. Probably Abishai actu- \ 
ally obtained the victory , but as he was 
an officer under David, it might also [ 
with propriety be spoken of as David's 
achievement. Abishai, with Joab his 
brother, attacked and defeated the Syr- I 



ians and the children of Ammon. 2 Sam. 
10. David appointed him, in conjunc- 
tion with Joab and Ittai, to the command 
of the people when they went forth to bat- 
tle against Israel in the wood of Eph- 
raim. 2 Sam. 18 : 2. He afterward res- 
cued David from the giant Philistine, 
Ishbi-benob, whom he smote and killed. 
2 Sam. 21:16, 17. 

ABISH'ALOM {father of peace), 
father of Maachah ; called Absalom in 
2 Chr. 11 : 20, 21, and undoubtedly the 
same person. 1 Kgs. 15 : 2, 10. 

ABISH'UA {father of deliverance). 
1. Son of Phineas the high priest. 1 Chr. 
6 : 4, 5, 50 : Ezr. 7 : 5. 

2. A descendant of Benjamin. 1 Chr. 
8:4. 

AB'ISHUR {father of the wall, i. e. 
stronghold), a descendant of Judah. 
1 Chr. 2 : 28, 29. 

AB'ITAL {whose father is the dew), 
one of David's wives. 2 Sam. 3:4; 
1 Chr. 3 : 3. 

AB'ITUB {father of goodness), a 
descendant of Benjamin. 1 Chr. 8 : 11. 

ABI'UD {whose father is Judah), 
a descendant of Zerubbabel, mentioned 
in our Lord's genealogy. Matt. 1 : 13. 

ABNER {father of light), the son 
of Ner, was a first cousin of Saul, and 
a faithful and distinguished general 
of his armies. 1 Sam. 14 : 50. We 
first hear of him, particularly, as the 
captain of the host, of whom Saul in- 
quired concerning the stripling, David, 
whose victory over Goliath had excited 
his astonishment ; and after a little time 
Abner introduced David to Saul, with 
the head of the giant Philistine in his 
hand. 1 Sam. 17 : 57. It was through 
the want of vigilance in Abner that 
Saul's life was placed in David's power 
in the wilderness of Ziph. 1 Sam. 
26. See David, Saul. After David 
was anointed king of Judah, Abner 
procured the appointment of Ish-bo- 
sheth, Saul's son, as king of Israel ; and 
in process of time the army of David, 
under Joab, and the army of Israel, 
under Abner, arrayed themselves on 
either side of the pool of Gibeon. While 
occupying this position twelve men of 
each army met and fought desperately. 
This contest was followed by a general 
battle, which resulted in Abner's defeat. 
He fled, but was pursued by Asahel, 
who " was light of foot as a wild roe." 
15 



ABO 



ABE 



When in the heat of pursuit, Abner 
counselled him to desist, and threatened 
to turn upon him and slay him if he did 
not. but Asahel refused to- turn aside, 
and Abner, " with the hinder end of the 
spear," smote him so that he died. Joab 
and Abishai were also engaged in the 
pursuit, but at Abner's entreaty they 
desisted and returned. 2 Sam. 2. 

As David's strength increased, the 
house of Saul, though faithfully served 
by Abner, became gradually weaker, 
till at length Ish-bosheth charged Abner 
with an offence against Saul's family. 
2 Sam. 3:7. He had taken Eizpah, 
the concubine of Saul, into his harem, 
and this act was interpreted according 
to Oriental ideas as an attempt to seize 
the throne. He was exceedingly irri- 
tated by the charge, and immediately 
forsook the interests of Saul's house and 
espoused the cause of David. David re- 
ceived him cordially, and sent him away 
in peace to persuade Israel to submit to 
David's government. 

While he was gone on this errand, 
Joab returned ; and hearing what had 
been done, he went to the king and 
warned him against Abner as a spy and 
traitor. Soon after, and without Da- 
vid's knowledge, Joab sent for Abner; 
and when he arrived, took him aside 
privately, and murdered him in revenge 
of the death of his brother Asahel ; and 
they buried him in Hebron. The esti- 
mation in which he was held by the 
king and people appears from the sa- 
cred history. The king wept and re- 
fused his food, and all the people wept; 
"And the king said unto his servants, 
Know ye not that there is a prince and 
a great man fallen this day in Israel ?" 
2 Sam. 3 : 38. 

ABOMINABLE, ABOMINA'- 
TION. 1. An abomination, or an 
abominable thing, is a thing hateful or 
detestable, as the employment or call- 
ing of shepherds was to the Egyptians. 
Gen. 46 : 34. 

2. Under the Mosaic law those ani- 
mals and acts are called abominable 
the use or doing of which was pro- 
hibited. Lev. 11 : 13 and Deut. 23 : 18. 

3. Idolatry of every kind is especially 
denoted by this term. Jer. 44 : 4 and 
2Kgs. 23:13. 

4. So of sins in general. Isa. 66 : 3. 
The Abomination of Desolation, Matt. 

16 



24:15 and Dan. 9:27 and 12: 11, prob- 
ably refers to the ensigns or banners of 
the Roman army, with the idolatrous, 




Koman Standards. (After Fairbairn's "Impe- 
rial Dictionary.") 

and therefore abominable, images upon 
them, the approach of which would warn 
the city of its desolation. When the city 
should be besieged, and these idolatrous 
standards should be seen " in the holy 
place," or, more strictly, in the vicinity 
of the holy city, thus threatening a com- 
plete conquest and speedy destruction, 
it would be time for the men of Judea 
to flee to places of refuge to save them- 
selves from tribulation and death. The 
words are hard to interpret. To the ex- 
planation given it is objected that unless 
the standards were worshipped they 
would not properly be "abominations." 
Others say the words refer to the " inter- 
nal desecration of the temple by the 
Jewish zealots, under pretence of de- 
fending it." 

A'BRAM (father of elevation), 
ABRAHAM {father of a multitude), 
the greatest, purest, and most venerable 
of the patriarchs, held in equal rever- 
ence by Jews, Mohammedans, and Chris- 
tians. Gen. 11 : 27. The leading trait in 
his character is unbounded trust in God ; 
hence he is called "the friend of God" 
and " the father of the faithful." He was 
the son of Terah, born at Ur, a city of 
Chaldea, which has been identified with 
Mugheir. The family was probably idol- 
atrous, but all trace of monotheism may 



ABE 



ABR 



not have been lost. Abrain would seem 
always to have been the consistent ser- 
vant of the one God. While he was 
dwelling in his father's house at Ur, God 
directed him to leave his country and kin- 
dred and go to a land which should be 
shown him : promising, at the same time, 
to make of him a great nation, and to 
bless him, and to make his name great, 
and that in him all the families of the 
earth should be blessed. 

Obedient to the heavenly calling, 
Abrara took Sarai his wife, and, with 
Terah his father and other members of 
the family, left Ur to remove to Canaan, 
and stopped at Haran in Mesopotamia. 
There Terah died. Abram, who was 
then seventy-five years old, with his 
wife and Lot, his nephew, pursued his 
journey to Canaan ; and having reached 
Sichem, one of the oldest cities of Pales- 
tine (see Shechem), the Lord appeared 
to him, and repeated his promise to give 
him the land. Gen. 12 :-7. 

A grievous famine soon visited the 
country, and Abram was obliged to go 
into Egypt. Fearful that Sarai's beauty 
might attract the notice of the Egyp- 
tians, and that, if they supposed her to 
be his wife, they would kill him to se- 
cure her, he proposed that she should 
pass for his sister. It happened as he 
expected. The servants of Pharaoh, the 
king of Egypt, commended her beauty 
so much that he sent for her, and took 
her into his house, and loaded Abram 
with tokens of his favor; but the Lord 
punished him severely, so that he sent 
away Abram and his wife, and all 
that he had. His stay in Egypt was 
probably very brief. 

Having become very rich in cattle, 
silver, and gold, he returned from Egypt 
to Canaan, and encamped between Bethel 
and Ai, in Southern Palestine. Lot, his 
nephew, had been with him, and shared 
his prosperity ; and it happened that 
his servants fell into some strife with 
the servants of Abram. Their property 
being too great for them to dwell together, 
Abram generously proposed to his ne- 
phew to avoid controversy by an ami- 
cable separation. He offered Lot his 
choice of the territory, on the right or 
left, as it pleased him — a rare illustra- 
tion of meekness and condescension. 
Lot chose to remove to the eastward, 
and occupy that part of the fertile plain 



of Jordan where Sodom and Gomorrah 
stood, having, perhaps, a desire to quit 
the wandering life. 

Then the Lord appeared again to 
Abram, and renewed the promise of the 
land of Canaan as his inheritance in 
the most explicit manner. He thence 
removed his tent to the oak-groves of 
Mmnre in Hebron. In an invasion of 
the cities of the plain by several of the 
petty kings of the adjoining provinces, 
under the leadership of Chedorlaomer, 
king of Elam, Sodom was taken and 
Lot and his family carried captive. 
When Abram received intelligence of it 
he armed his trained servants, born in 
his house (three hundred and eighteen 
in number), defeated the kings, and 
brought Lot and his family back to 
Sodom ; restoring to liberty the cap- 
tives who had been taken, with all their 
property, of which he generously refused 
to take any part as the reward of his 
services or as the spoils of victory. On 
his return he was met by Melchisedck, 
king of Salem and priest of the most 
high God, to whom he gave a tenth of 
all that he had. Gen. 14. See Mel- 

CHISEDEK. 

While in Hebron the Lord appeared 
again to Abram in a vision, repeated to 
him the promises, and accompanied 
them with the gracious declaration of 
his favor. He appointed a certain sac- 
rifice for him to offer, and toward night 
caused a deep sleep to fall upon him, 
attended by a horror of great darkness, 
during which there were revealed to him 
some of the most important events in his 
future history and in that of his poster- 
ity, which were all accomplished in due 
time and with wonderful exactness. The 
revelation related — 1. To the captivity 
of Israel by the Egyptians and their se- 
vere and protracted bondage ; 2. To the 
judgments which Egypt should suffer 
because of their oppression of God's 
chosen people, and the circumstances 
under which they should leave Egypt; 

3. To Abram's death and burial; and, 

4, to the return of his posterity to the 
promised land. 

In the same day the covenant respect- 
ing the land of promise was renewed and 
confirmed with the strongest expressions 
of divine favor. Sarai, however, was 
childless, and she proposed to Abraham 
that Hagar, an Egyptian woman living 
17 



ABR 



ABR 



with them, should be his concubine ; by 
whom he had a son, called Ishmael. 
He was then in his eighty-sixth year. 
Gen. 16. 

At ninety-nine years of age he was 
favored with another remarkable vision. 
The Almighty was revealed to him in 
such a manner that he was filled with 
awe and fell upon his face, and we are 
told that " God talked with him." The 
promise respecting the great increase of 
his posterity and the possession of Ca- 
naan was repeated in the most solemn and 
explicit terms ; his name was changed 
from Abram (a high father) to Abraham 
(father of a great multitude), and the 
circumcision of every male child at eight 
days old was established as a token of 
the covenant between him and God. 
See Circumcision. At the same time the 
name of Sarai (my princess) was changed 
to Sarah (the princess), and a promise 
was given to Abraham that Sarah should 
have a son and be the mother of nations 
and kings. 

It seemed so entirely out of the course 
of nature that they should become pa- 
rents at their advanced age that Abra- 
ham, filled with reverence and joyful 
gratitude, fell upon his face " and said 
in his heart, Shall a child be born unto 
him that is a hundred years old ? and 
shall Sarah, that is ninety years old, 
bear?" Nevertheless, against hope he 
believed in hope ; and being not weak 
in faith, he staggered not at the promise 
of God, but was fully persuaded that 
what he had promised he was able also 
to pei-form ; and his faith was imputed 
to him for righteousness. Rom. 4 : 
18-22. 

Abraham, finding that the blessings 
of the covenant were to be bestowed on 
his future offspring, immediately thought 
of Ishmael, in whom he had probably be- 
fore supposed the promises were to be 
fulfilled, and he uttered the solemn and 
affecting prayer, " that Ishmael might 
live before thee !" God heard him, and 
almost while he was yet speaking an- 
swered him by making known to him 
his great purposes respecting Ishmael. 
Gen. 17: 20 and 25: 16. 

As soon as the vision had closed, 
Abraham hastened to obey the divine 
command, and with Ishmael, his son, 
and all the men of his house, was cir- 
cumcised in the self-same day. He was 
18 



not long without another divine commu- 
nication. As he sat in the door of his 
tent in the heat of the day three men 
approached him. He received them 
with all the courtesy and hospitality 
customary in the East, and after they 
had refreshed themselves they inquired 
of him respecting Sarah and repeated 
the promise respecting the birth of her 
son. 

It was on this occasion, or in connec- 
tion with these circumstances, that a 
divine testimony was given to the pa- 
triarchal character of Abraham. Gen. 
18 : 19. It was because of his faithful- 
ness that he was favored with a revela- 
tion of God's purposes respecting the 
devoted cities of the plain, and with 
an opportunity to plead for them ; and 
it was for Abraham's sake, and probably 
in answer to his prayers, that Lot and 
his family were rescued from the sudden 
destruction which came upon Sodom. 

After this, Abraham removed to Ge- 
rar, perhaps because the Amorites, with 
whom he was in alliance, had been 
driven from Hebron by the Hittites. 
Here he made a second attempt to have 
Sarah taken for his sister. See Abim- 
elech. Here, also, the prediction was 
fulfilled respecting the birth of a son. 
Sarah had a son, whom he called Isaac, 
and who was duly circumcised on the 
eighth day. 

• When Isaac was weaned, Abraham 
made a feast. Ishmael, being then a 
lad of thirteen years, mocked Isaac, 
quite possibly without malicious intent. 
This roused the jealousy of Sarah, who 
urged Abraham to drive out Hagar and 
her son. Abraham, although unwilling 
to do this injustice, at last obeyed at the 
command of God. Thus it came to pass 
that the prophecy of the wild life Ish- 
mael was to lead was realized. Gen. 
21 : 10-13. 

Abraham so obviously enjoyed the 
favor and blessing of God in all that he 
did that Abimelech, the king, proposed 
to make with him a covenant of perpet- 
ual friendship ; and a matter of wrong 
about a well, of which Abimelech's ser- 
vants had violently deprived Abraham, 
was thus happily adjusted. This trans- 
action was at a place which was there- 
after called Beer-sheba (the icell of the 
oath, or the well of swearing). Gen. 21 : 
23-31. 



ABS 



ABS 



The events of many years are now 
passed over in silence, but the scene 
next related shows how worthy Abra- 
ham was to be called the father of the 
faithful. He was commanded to take 
his son, his only son, Isaac, then a 
young man, and to offer him up for a 
burnt-offering upon a distant mountain.. 
Without an inquiry or murmuring word, 
and with a prompt submission, Abra- 
ham obeyed the command. A journey 
of three days was accomplished. Every 
preparation for the offering was made, 
and the knife was uplifted to slay his 
son, when his purpose was arrested by 
a voice from Hea- 
ven requiring him 
to spare the lad. 
A ram was pro- 
vided in the neigh- 
boring thicket, 
which he took and 
offered up ; and, 
after having been 
favored with spe- 
cial tokens of the 
divine approba- 
tion, he returned 
with his son to 
Beer-sheba. This 
grand trial and 
proof of the patri- 
arch's faith took 
place upon Mount 
Moriali (or, as 
others suppose, on 
Mount Geriziin). 
In commemoration 
of it he gave to the 
place the name Je- 
hovah-jireh {the 
Lord will provide), 
intimating a general truth respecting 
the divine faithfulness and care, and in 
prophetical allusion to the great sacri- 
fice which was to be offered for the sins 
of mankind. Gen. 22: 14. 

At the age of one hundred and twen- 
ty-seven years Sarah died, and Abraham 
purchased the cave of Maehpelah, in the 
field of Ephron at Hebron, for a family 
burial-place, and there buried his wife. 
Gen. 23: 19, 20. 

Isaac had now arrived at mature age, 
and Abraham called one of his servants, 
probably Eliezer. Gen. 15 : 2, and made 
him promise to obtain a wife for Isaac, 
not among the Canaanites, but in Abra- 



ham's native country and from among 
his own kindred. This enterprise ter- 
minated successfully, and every desire 
of the patriarch respecting Isaac's mar- 
riage was answered. Gen. 24. 

Abraham married a second time and 
had several sons, but he made Isaac his 
sole heir, having in his lifetime distrib- 
uted gifts among the other children, who 
were now dispersed. He died in peace 
at the age of one hundred and seventy- 
five years, and was buried by Isaac and 
Ishmael in the same sepulchre with Sarah, 
in the cave of Maehpelah. Gen. 25:8. It 
is now in the possession of the Moham- 




Abraham's Oak, near Hebron. Gen. 13 : 18. 



medans, and jealously guarded by them 
as a most sacred spot beneath the great 
mosque of Hebron. See Machpelah. 
On Abraham's Oak, see Hebron. 

Abraham's Bosom. See Bosom. 

AB'SALOM {father of peace) was 
the third son of David by Maacah, 
daughter of Talmai, king of Geshur. 
2 Sam. 3 : 3. He was remarkable for his 
beauty, and for his hair, which is said 
to have weighed 200 shekels when cut 
off every year. But if the royal shekel 
equal the sacred shekel, this would make 
6 pounds, which is incredible. The dif- 
ficulty is not removed by reducing the 
value of the shekel one-half or one-third. 
19 



ABS 



ABS 



The simplest explanation is that by the 
error of a copyist the 200 was written 
for 20, the difference between the figures 
being very slight in Hebrew notation. 

Absalom's fair sister, called Tamar, 
having been violated by Amnon, his 
half-brother, he meditated revenge, 
since he was her natural avenger ; and 
after brooding over the outrage for two 
years, he at last took Amnon's life at a 
feast to which he had invited him, and 
then at once fled to Talmai, his mater- 
nal grandfather, at Geshur, where he 
stayed three years. 

Joab, in order to secure Absalom's 
return and restoration to his father's 
favor, employed a woman of Tekoa to 
appear before David and feign a case 
similar to the situation of Absalom, and 
having obtained his decision, to apply 
the principle to the real case. After a 
favorable decision was obtained in the 
feigned case, the woman began to plead 
for Absalom's return. The king sus- 
pected Joab's concern in the plot, and 
the woman confessed that it was wholly 
planned by him. David, however, di- 
rected Joab to go to Geshur and bring 
Absalom back to Jerusalem, but would 
not receive him into favor nor admit 
him to his presence, nor did he see his 
face for two years more. 

Wearied with his banishment, Absa- 
lom often attempted to obtain an inter- 
view with Joab, but for some cause Joab 
was not disposed to go to him. To 
compel him to come, Absalom resorted 
to a singular expedient : he directed his 
servants to set fire to Joab's fields. 
Joab immediately came to Absalom, was 
persuaded to plead with the king in his 
behalf, succeeded in his effort, and Ab- 
salom was received into full favor. 

Absalom then showed the object of 
his ambition was to obtain his father's 
throne. He was jealous of the favor 
his father gave to Solomon, Bath-sheba's 
son, for, since he was the oldest living 
son of David, he was by birth the right- 
ful heir to the kingdom. To this end 
he lived in great pomp, procured char- 
iots and horsemen and other appendages 
of royalty, and stood in the public places 
courting the favor of the people by the 
meanest arts, persuading them that their 
rights were not regarded by the govern- 
ment, and that it would be for their in- 
terest to elevate him to power, that equal 
20 



justice might be administered to all. By 

I these and other means Absalom stole the 
hearts of the men of Israel. 

In pursuing his traitorous design, and 
with a pretended regard to filial duty, he 
asked his father's permission to go to 
Hebron and pay a vow which he said 

•he had made. The unsuspicious king 
consented, and Absalom immediately 
sent men throughout Israel, who were, 
at a given signal, to proclaim him king 
in Hebron. He also took two hundred 
men with him from Jerusalem, though 
they did not know his plan, and then 
sent for Ahithophel, who was David's 
counsellor, that he might have his ad- 
vice and assistance. Absalom's party 
increased rapidly, and intelligence of 
the conspiracy was communicated to 
the king, and so alarmed him that he 
fled from the city. 

At length David persuaded Hushai to 
go to Absalom, who had now come back 
to Jerusalem with his party, and become 

1 his servant, and when opportunity oc- 
curred to give such counsel as should 

1 defeat Ahithophel's plans and bring 
confusion and discomfiture upon Absa- 
lom. By a train of providential inter- 
positions Absalom's ruin was hastened. 
Before David's men went out to battle 
with the revolted party, he gave them 
special charge respecting Absalom, and 
commanded them to deal gently with 
him for his father's sake. The two par- 
ties met in the wood of Ephraim, and 
the battle was bloody. Absalom rode 
upon a mule, and in passing under the 
thick boughs of an oak he was caught 
by his head in the fork or angle of two 
branches, and the mule passed onward, 
leaving him suspended in the air. Joab, 
one of David's chief captains, being in- 
formed of it, took three darts and thrust 
them through the heart of Absalcm 
while he was yet alive in the midst of 
the oak ; and they took his body and 
cast it into a pit in the wood, and cov- 
ered it with stones. 

ABSALOM'S PLACE, orPIL- 
LAR, was in the "king's dale," or val- 
ley of the Eedron. 2 Sam. 18 : 18. 
"The Tomb of Absalom," now stand- 
ing east of Jerusalem, at the foot of 
Mount Olivet, is supposed by the Jews 
to be the one erected by Absalom dur- 
ing his lifetime, and is pelted by 
them with stones, as they pass by, in 



ACC 



ACH 



execration of his treason ; but the monu- 
ment betrays Grteco-Latin architecture 




Absalom's Tomb. (From original Photographs. 
Bonfils.) 

(especially the Ionic columns), and is 
not mentioned before A. D. 333. 

AC'CAD (fortress), one of the four 
cities in the kingdom of Ximrod. Gen. 
10:10. It was in the land of Shinar, 
and George Smith locates it at Agadi, 
on the Euphrates, north of Babylon. 
Rawlinson places it at Aker-Kuf, 10 
miles west by north of Bagdad. Others 
had regarded it as identical with Ctesi- 
phon. 

AC'CAROX, the same as Ekron. 

AC'CHO {healed sand), a seaport- 
town of Phoenicia, about 8 miles north 
of Mount Carmel, given to Asher. Jud. 
1: 31. In New Testament times it was 
called Ptolemais. Acts 21:7. It now 
has about 6000 inhabitants, and is call- 
ed Acre (Arabic, Akka). 

ACELDAMA (field of blood), the 
"potter's field - ' purchased with the 
money given to Judas for betraying 
Christ. Matt. 27 : 7 : Acts 1 : 18, 19. 
Tradition locates it on the southern 
slope of the valley of Hinnom, near the 
pool Siloain, and now Hal,-/,- ed Pimm, 



ACHA'IA {trouble), a Roman prov- 
ince in the New Testament times nearly 
co-extensive with the modern kingdom 
of Greece. Paul visited the churches in 
that region. Acts 18 : 12, 27 ; 19 : 21 j 
Rom. 15 : 26 ; 16 : 5 : 2 Cor. 1:1; 9:2; 
11 : 10 ; 1 Thess. 1 : 7, 8. For its towns 
see Corinth. Cexchrea. 

ACHA'ICUS (belonging to Achaia), 
a Christian mentioned in 1 Cor. 16 : 17. 

A'CHAN, or A'CHAR (trouble,-), 
son of Carmi, of the tribe of Judah, 
whose concealment of a part of the 
spoils of Jericho in violation of the di- 
vine command, Josh. 6:18, brought de- 
feat upon his countrymen at Ai. Josh. 
7 : 18 ; 1 Chr. 2:7. He was providen- 
tially convicted, and with his family was 
stoned to death, and his property, to- 
gether with their remains, was burnt. 
The valley in which this event occurred 
was called after him. See Achor. 

A'CHAZ, Matt. 1 : 9, the Greek form 
of Ahaz. 

ACH'BOR (mouse). 1. The father 
of Baal-hanan, king of the Edomites. 
Gen. 36: 38, 39; 1 Chr. 1 : 49. 

2. An officer of Josiah, 2 Kgs. 22 : 
12,14-; Jer. 26:22; 36:12; called Ab- 
don in 2 Chr. 34:20. 

A'CHIM (Hebrew form is Jachin, 
a contraction of Jehoiachin, the Lord 
will establish), an ancestor of Christ. 
Matt. 1:14. 

A'CHISH (serpent-charmer?), a 
king of Gath, called Abimelech in the 
title of Ps. 34, to whom David fled 
twice. The first time, being in danger, 
he feigned madness, whereupon he was 
dismissed. 1 Sam. 21 : 10. The sec- 
ond time Achish received him cordial- 
ly because of his supposed hostility to 
Saul, gave him Ziklag, and took him on 
his campaign against Saul, but finally 
dismissed him, with commendations of 
his fidelity, because of the mistrust of 
his princes. 1 Sam. 27, 29. 

The Achish to whom Shimei went 
seeking for his servants may have been 
this same king, but much more prob- 
ably his grandson, since David's first 
flight took place fifty years before. 1 
Kgs. 2:39. 40. 

ACH'METHA, a city of Media. 
Ezr. 6 : 2. See Ecbatana. 

A'CHOR (trouble), a valley near 
Jericho where Acban was stoned. Josh. 
7 ; 24. Probably the Wady Kelt. 

n 



ACH 



ADA 



ACHSA (anklet), daughter of Ca- 
leb, the son of Hezron. 1 Chr. 2 : 49. 

ACH'SAH (anklet), the daughter 
of Caleb the son of Jephunneh, married \ 
to Othniel, her cousin or uncle (who took S 
Kirjath-sepher or Debir), in accordance 
with Caleb's promise to give her hand to 
whomsoever should first smite the city. 
Achsah after her marriage obtained the 
upper and lower springs, with the fields 
in which they were, in addition to her 
dowry. Josh. 15 : 15-19 j Jud. 1 : 11-15. 
See Othniel. 

ACH' S~H\P~H.( enchantment), n city 
of Canaan, Josh. 11 : 1 ; 12 : 20, allotted to 
Asher. Josh. 19: 25. Some have located 
it at Khaifa, near Mount Carmel : Rob- 
inson at El-Kesaf, above the sources of 
the Jordan : the Palestine Fund " Me- 
moirs" give Kesaf, as Khurbet-Iksdf, 
and accept Robinson's suggestion. 

ACHZIB (false). 1. A town of 
Asher, Josh. 19 : 29, now ez-Zib, 9 
miles north of Acre, on the Mediterra- 
nean. 

2. A city of Judah, Josh. 15 : 44 : Mic. 
1 : 14 ; perhaps identical with Chezib. 
Gen. 38 : 5. Conder locates it at the 
modern A in Kezbeh. 

ACRAB'BIM. Josh. 15:3, mar- 
gin. See Maalew-acrabbim. 

ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, 
the fifth book in the New Testament. 
It is supposed to have been compiled 
by Luke the evangelist in Rome, during 
Paul's imprisonment or shortly after, a.d. 
63, and may be regarded as a continua- 
tion of his Gospel. It contains the history 
of the Christian Church from Jerusalem 
to Rome, or the establishment of Chris- 
tianity among the Jews by Peter, and 
among the Gentiles by Paul. It begins 
with the ascension of Christ and the out- 
pouring of the Holy Spirit, and concludes 
with the first imprisonment of Paul in 
Rome, 61 to 63. It is the first history 
of the Christian Church, and contains 
the only trustworthy account of the mis- 
sionary labors of the apostles. 

The' book of Acts has been subjected 
to very rigid and critical examination 
in connection with the apostolic Epistles, 
and the genuineness of both is proved 
by coincidences so minute and yet so 
undesigned, so obvious and yet so re- 
mote, that no unprejudiced mind can 
entertain a doubt of their truthful- 
ness. 

22 



The period of time embraced in this 
history is about thirty-three years, and 
includes the reigns of the Roman em- 
perors Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and 
Nero. See the Missionary Map at the 
close of the volume. 

AD'ADAH (boundary, or festival), 
a town in the south of Judah, Josh. 15 : 
22 ; probably either the modern el-Foka 
or Adadah. 

A'DAH (ornament). 1. One of the 
two wives of Lamech in the line of Cain. 
Gen. 4:19. 

2. One of Esau's wives, a Hittitess, 
daughter of Elon, Gen. 36 : 2, 4, etc. ; 
called Bashemath in Gen. 26 : 34. 

ADAI'AH (whom Jehovah adorns). 
1. The maternal grandfather of King 
Josiah. 2 Kgs. 22 : 1. 

2. A Levite. 1 Chr. 6 : 41. 

3. A Benjamite. 1 Chr. 8:21. 

4. A priest. 1 Chr. 9 : 12. 

5. A descendant of Bani who had taken 
a foreign wife. Ezr. 10 : 29. 

6. Another descendant guilty of the 
same offence. Ezr. 10 : 39. 

7. A man of Judah. Neh. 11 : 5. 

8. An ancestor of Maaseiah, a cap- 
tain who supported Jehoiada. 2 Chr. 
23:1. 

ADALFA (strong of heart ?), a son 
of Haman. Esth. 9 : 8. 

ADAM (red earth), a city in the 
Jordan valley near Zaretan. Josh. 3 : 

j 16. It has been located at ed-Dami- 
eh, but Drake suggests Khurbet-el- Ham- 
rath, or "the red ruin," 1 mile south of 

j Tell Sarem. 

ADAM (red, or earth-born). The word 

i is used in the Bible in two senses : 

j 1. Man generically, including woman 
(in the English Version translated man). 
Gen. 1 : 26, 27 ; 5:1; 6:1; Job 20 : 
29; 21:33; Ps. 68:18; 76:10. 

2. Man historically, or, as a proper 
name, Adam individually, the first man, 
who was at the same time the represent- 
ative man. Gen. 2:7; 3:8. Adam was 
not born, but created ; not in feeble, 
helpless infancy, but in the maturity of 
his physical and intellectual nature ; 
not a sinful, diseased, dying creature, 
but pure and free from sin, yet liable to 
temptation and in need of trial in order 
to be confirmed in his innocence. He 
was the crown of creation, made on the 
sixth day, after the vegetable and ani- 
mal world. Adam was the root of hu- 



ADA 



ADA 



manity, and all that affected him affect- 
ed his posterity. His sin tainted their 
blood and poisoned their nature ; while 
the Saviour promised to him was the 
Saviour of all who came after him. His 
mortality in consequence of sin has re- 
mained as a permanent fact in man ; his 
immortality in consequence of faith 
upon the promised Saviour will be 
snared in by all of like belief. In him 
God put humanity to the test. If Adam 
had kept his first estate, the world 
would never have been darkened by 
sin and guilt. 

Adam was also the beginning of a 
new order of beings. He was of the 
earth, earthy — the earth is called ada- 
mah in Hebrew in Gen. 2 : 7 — dust from 
dust, as to his physical organization, 
but into him God had breathed a living 
soul ; he was an immortal spirit, made in 
the very "image and likeness of God." 
This is the noblest conception of man. 
The "image of God" means man's per- 
sonality, his rational, moral, and im- 
mortal nature, which is destined for 
the glory and communion of God and 
for everlasting felicity. It also includes 
dominion over the creatures. 

God created Eve to be a help meet 
for Adam. He dreamt of woman, and 
awaked to find her at his side. The 
pair lived together in happiness and 
innocence, the keepers of a garden 
which yielded abundantly of fruit and 
flowers for their nourishment and pleas- 
ure. The fruit of one tree only, the 
tree of the knowledgcof good and evil, 
was forbidden to them. But the pro- 
hibition piqued their desire. Eve lis- 
tened to the specious arguments of Satan, 
who had come to her under the form of 
a serpent ; " she took of the fruit there- 
of, and did eat, and gave also unto her 
husband with her; and he did eat." Gen. 
3:6; comp. 2 Cor. 11 : 3 ; 1 Tim. 2:14; 
John 8 : 14. 

In this simple language does the 
Bible describe the most momentous 
event in history previous to the birth 
of Christ. For then happened the Fall ; 
sin was let loose to ravage the world ; a 
blight had fallen upon the race. The 
first proof of sin was shame. The 
wretched folly of all attempts to cover 
sin is symbolized by the fig-leaf aprons 
of our first parents: they were no cov- 
erings at all. The second proof of sin 



was their fear before God. They stood 
condemned, and owned his dreadful 
sentence just. They were banished 
from Paradise. The ground was cursed 
for their sake. In the hardship of toil 
and labor, in the care and suffering of 
childbirth and parentage, they began to 
feel at once the woes their transgression 
involved. All the burdens of life, the 
heavy cross, sickness, disaster, trouble, 
death, come from the action of that fa- 
tal day. They are the dread remind- 
ers of our fallen state. Our first pa- 
rents involved all their posterity in that 
ruin they first experienced. 

But in the narrative of the Fall there 
stands also the promise of a deliverer, 
the woman's seed (the son of Mary), 
who should crush the serpent's head — 
that is, destroy the power of sin and 
Satan. Gen. 3 : 15. This promise, 
which is called the " first gospel," was 
fulfilled in the Crucifixion. Christ is 
the second Adam, as Paul shows in Rom. 
5 : 12 ff. and 1 Cor. 15 : 45. He undid 
the work of the first. He abolished the 
power of sin and death for believers, and 
brought life and immortality to light 
through the gospel. 2 Tim. 1 : 10. The 
redemption by Christ is the glorious 
solution of the fall of Adam. Christ 
has given us much more than we lost 
by Adam. Paradise regained is better 
than Paradise lost, and can never be 
lost again. God in his infinite wisdom 
and mercy overruled the fall of man 
for the revelation of his redeeming love, 
which in turn calls out the deepest grat- 
itude and bliss of the redeemed. 

"In Christ the tribe of Adam boast 
More blessings tnan their father lost." 

ADAMAH (earth), a fortified city 
of Naphtali, Josh. 19 : 36 ; probably 
Ddmieh, west of the Sea of Galilee. 

ADAMANT. Eze. 3 : 9. This 
word means the unconquerable, and de- 
notes some very hard stone. The same 
substance in Jer. 17 : 1 is called dia- 
mond, which it cannot be, for the He- 
brew name there used is never men- 
tioned with precious stones. Probably 
it was the mineral emery, one of the 
hardest of rocks. 

AD'AMI (earth, or human), a place 
on the border of Naphtali, Josh. 19 : 33 ; 
probably the modern Khurbet Admah. 

A'DAR (height), a town on the 
southern boundary of Judah, Josh. 
23 



ADA 



ADM 



15 : 3, and the same as Hazar-addar, 
Num. 34:4; possibly the modern Ain 
el-Kadeirat. 

A'DAR. See Month. 

AD'ASA, or HAD'ASHAH, a 
town in Judah, Josh. 15 : 37, near Beth- 
horon ; now 'Adaseh. 

ADBEEL (miracle of God), a son 
of Ishmael. Gen. 25 : 1 3 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 29. 

AD'DAN (stoy). Ezr. 2:59; called 
also Addon. Neh. 7 : 61. Its site is 
unknown. 

AD'DAR (chief), a son of Bela, 1 
Chr. 8:3; called Ard in Num. 26 : 40. 

ADDER. The word translated 
thus in various passages of the Bible 
does not always mean what the English 
word denotes. 1. In Gen. 49 : 17 it in- 
dicates a venomous serpent (perhaps the 
cerastes, or horned snake) which lurks in 
the path. The usual habit of the ceras- 




Horned Cerastes. {From specimen in British Museum.) 

tes is "to coil itself on the sand, where 
it basks in the impress of a camel's foot- 
mark, and thence suddenly to dart out 
on any passing animal. So great is the 
terror which its sight inspires in horses, 
that I have known mine, when I was rid- 
ing in the Sahara, to suddenly start and 
rear, trembling and perspiring in every 
limb, and no persuasions would in- 
duce him to proceed. I was quite un- 
able to account for his terror until I 
noticed a cerastes coiled up in a depres- 
sion two or three paces in front, with its 
basilisk eyes steadily fixed on us, and 
no doubt preparing for a spring as the 
horse passed." — Tristram. 

2. In Ps. 58 : 4 and 91 : 13 the Egyp- 
tian cobra is probably meant, for it is 
found in southern Palestine, dwells in 
holes, is used by snake-charmers, and is 
very dangerous. This is the animal 
24 



seen on Egyptian monuments, symbol- 
izing immortality, and always connected 
with the winged globe. In the former 
passage above, there is reference to the 
fact that there are serpents of some 
kinds or particular individuals which 
will not yield to the charmer. Though 
capable of hearing, they w<7/nothear, and 
are properly termed "deaf." See Asp. 

3. Still other kinds of serpents are 
referred to under this name in Ps. 140 : 
3 ; Prov. 23 : 32 — species of viper, it is 
thought. 

AD'DI (ornament), one of the pro- 
genitors of Christ. Luke 3 : 28. 

A'DER (flock), a Benjamite. 1 Chr. 
8:15. 

AD'IDA, a fortified town overlook- 
ing the low country of Judah and near 
Jerusalem, noticed in 1 Mace. 12 : 38, 
and used by Vespasian in his siege of 
Jerusalem ; probably the same as 
Hadid. Ezr. 2 : 33. Conder lo- 
cates it at the modern Haditheh. 

A'DIEL. (ornament of God). 
1. A Simeonite. 1 Chr. 4 : 36. 

2. A priest. 1 Chr. 9:12. 

3. The ancestor of David's 
treasurer, Azmaveth. 1 Chr. 27 : 
25. 

A'DIN (delicate) 
descendants returned 
babel. Ezr. 2:15; 8 
20; 10:16. 

ADTNA (slender), a Reuben- 
ite, one of David's warriors. 1 
Chr. 11 : 42. 
AD'INO THE EZNITE. 2 Sam. 
23 : 8. See Jashobeam. 

ADITHATM (double booty), a town 
of Judah, Josh. 15 : 36 ; afterward called 
HADin, which see. 

ADJURED 1. To bind under a 
curse. Josh. 6 : 26. 

2. Solemnly to require a declaration 
of the truth at the peril of God's dis- 
pleasure. Matt. 26 : 63. Such is the in- 
terpretation of the language of the high 
priest, "I adjure thee," etc., or, "I put 
thee to thy oath," addressed to our Sa- 
viour when he declined to answer the 
false accusations of his persecutors. 
Compare 1 Sam. 14 : 24 and 1 Kgs. 22 : 
16 with Josh. 6:26. 

AD'LAI (justice of Jehovah), the 
father of one of David's chief herdsmen. 
1 Chr. 27:29. 

AD'MAH (earth, or fortress), one of 



one whose 
vith Zerub- 
6; Neh. 7: 



ADM 



ADO 



the five cities in the vale of Siddim I 
taken by Chedorlaomer, Gen. 10 : 19 ; 
14 : 2, and destroyed with Sodom. Deut. 
29 : 23 : Hos. 11 : 8; now ed Ddmieh. 

AD'MATHA {earthy ?), one of | 
the seven Persian princes. Esth. 1 : 1-lt. j 

AD'NA {pleasure). 1. One who 
married a foreign woman. Ezr. 10 : 30. 

2. A priest. Neh. 12 : 15. 

AD'NAH (pleasure). 1. A Manassite 
captain of Saul who followed David. 
1 Chr. 12:20. 

2. A captain of Jehoshaphat. 2 Chr. 
17:14. 

ADOXI-BE'ZEK. Jud. 1 : 5. 
Lord or king of Bezek, a city of the 
Canaanites. See Bezek. His name 
was a title, not a proper name. He 
fled from the armies of Judah, but was 
caught and his thumbs and great "toes 
cut off, so that he could neither fight 
nor flee. He was then carried to Jeru- 
salem, where he died. He seems to 
have regarded the maiming he suffered 
as a just requital of his own cruelty, he 
having mutilated seventy kings or chief- 
tains in the same inhuman manner. 

ADONIJAH {my Lord is Jehovah). 
1. David's fourth son. 2 Sam. 3:4. He 
was born at Hebron, and after the death 
of his brothers, Amnon, Chileab, and Ab- 
salom, he made pretensions to the throne 
of his father, because he was then the 
oldest living son of David. He prepared 
himself with horses and chariots and 
other marks of royalty, and took counsel 
with Joab and Abiathar how he could 
best accomplish his purpose. Bath- 
sheba- Solomon's mother, fearing that 
her son's title to the throne might be dis- 
turbed, immediately informed the king 
of Adonijah's revolt: and Nathan the 
prophet having confirmed the statement 
of the matter, David gave Bath-sheba the 
strongest assurances that her son should 
rei^n after him : and he caused Solomon 
to be anointed and proclaimed king amid 
general rejoicings. 1 Kgs. 1 : 39. 

Adoni.jah was just ending a feast when 
he heard the noise of the shouting, and 
Jonathan came in and told him all that 
had taken place. His guests fled pre- 
cipitately, and Adonijah himself ran 
and caught hold of the horns of the 
altar, which from long-existent custom 
was regarded as a place of safety. But 
Solomon sent for him, and pardoned him 
on condition that he showed himself "a 



worthy man." 1 Kgs. 1 : 52. This was 
an act of rare Clemency. 

After David's death, Adonijah per- 
suaded Bath-sheba to ask Solomon, her 
son, who was now on the throne, to give 
him Abishag for his wife. This request 
was, according to Oriental court-eti- 
quette, equivalent to a fresh attempt on 
the throne. So Solomon caused him to 
be put to death by the hand of Benaiah, 
1 Kgs. 2 : 25. 

2. A Levite in Jehoshaphat's time. 2 
Chr. 17 : 8. 

3. One who sealed the covenant. Neh. 
10:16. 

ADON'IKAM (lord of the enemy), 
one whose descendants came back with 
Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2:13; 8:13; Neh. 
7:18. 

ADONFRAM. See Adoram. 

ADON'I - ZE'DEK {lord of jus- 
tice), the Amorite king of Jerusalem at 
the time the country was entered by the 
Israelites. Josh. 10: 1. The name was 
probably the official title of the Jebusite 
kings of Jerusalem. Hearing of Josh- 
ua's victories over Ai and Jericho, and 
finding that the inhabitants of Gibeon, 
one of the most important cities of the 
kingdom, had made a league with him, 
he called four other kings of the Am- 
monites to his aid and laid siege to 
Gibeon, with a view to destroy it as a 
punishment for their conduct. 

But Joshua came to the assistance of 
the Gibeonites ; hailstones fell upon the 
armies of the five kings, and after a 
hard battle they were overthrown. See 
Joshua. 

Adoni-zedek, with his allies, fled to a 
cave at Makkedah, in which they were 
soon discovered and brought before 
Joshua, who caused them to be slain 
and hanged on separate trees until even- 
ing, and then their bodies were taken 
down and cast into the cave in which 
thev had concealed themselves. Josh. 
101 27. 

ADOP'TION is an act by which a 
stranger is received into a man's family 
as his own child, and becomes entitled 
to the peculiar privileges of that con- 
nection as fully and completely as a 
child by birth. So Moses was adopted 
by Pharaoh's daughter, Ex. 2: 10, and 
Esther by her cousin Mordecai. Esth. 
2:7. 

In the figurative use of the term by 
25 



ADO 



ADU 



the sacred writers it indicates that in- 
timate relation of the believer to God 
which follows regeneration and conver- 
sion from sin to holiness, when we are 
received into the family of God and 
are made, by grace, his children or 
sons, and heirs of God and joint-heirs 
with Christ, Gal. 4 : 4, 5 : Rom. 8 : 14-17. 

ADORA'IM (double mound), a city 
of Judah fortified by Rehoboam, 2 Chr. 
11 : 9 ; supposed to be the modern Dura, 
about 6 miles west of Hebron. 

ADO'RAM, contr. from ADON- 
I'RAM (lord of height). 1. An officer of 
the customs under David. 2 Sam. 20 : 24. 

2. An officer of Rehoboam's treasury 
(perhaps the son of the former), who was 
stoned to death by the people of Israel 
who followed Jeroboam. 1 Kgs. 12 : 18. 
Some suppose him to have been the 
same with Adoniram, 1 Kgs. 5 : 14, who 
was over the customs in Solomon's reign, 
and that the people were so indignant at 
the oppression they had suffered through 
his agency that they took this method 
of revenge. 

ADORATION. The word means 
to pray to, and is properly applied to the 
worship of God. Among the Hebrews 
adoration by outward act was variously 
performed. We gather from different 
Scripture passages that it consisted in 
putting off the shoes, bowing the knee 
or the head, or in slowly prostrating the 
body by first falling on the knees and then 
bending the body until the head touched 
the ground. But these forms of adora- 
tion were not limited to the worship of 
Jehovah. The Eastern mode of saluta- 
tion is very obsequious, and so between 
an inferior and a superior the same cer- 
emonies would be performed, and also 
between equals. Similar was their con- 
duct in the worship of idols when seek- 
ing the good-will of one whom they had 
offended. Kissing the hand of an idol 
was a common mode of adoration. 
These acts were often repeated more 
than once. In the New Testament we 
read that our Lord was treated with 
these outward signs of respect and rev- 
erence. So, too. in the case of Peter, 
to whom Cornelius prostrated himself. 
See Worship. 

ADRAMMELECH (king of fire). 
1. An idol-god of Sepbarvaim, sup- 
posed to represent the sun, while an- 
other idol, called Anainmelech, repre- 
26 



sented the moon. 2 Kgs. 17 : 31. Sac- 
rifices of living children were made to 
these idols, as to Moloch. 




Adrainmelech. (From Nlmrud. After Layard.) 

2. A son of Sennacherib, king of As- 
syria. Isa. 37 : 38. He and his brother, 
Sharezer, killed their father while he 
was in the act of idolatry. Their mo- 
tive for this parricidal deed is not 
known. They both fled to Armenia, 
and Esar-haddon succeeded to the crown. 
ADRAMYT TIUM, named from 
Adramys, brother of Croesus, a seaport- 
town of Mysia, Acts 27 : 2-5, on a bay 
of the iEgean Sea north of Smyrna. It 
i is now a poor village known as Adramyti. 
A'DRIA. Acts 27: 27. The northern 
| part of the Ionian Sea between Greece, 
Italy, and Sicilv. 
A'DRIEL." See Merab. 
ADUI/LAM (justice of the people, 
or hiding- or resting-place), a cave not 
far from Bethlehem in which David hid. 
1 Sam. 22 : 1 ; 2 Sam. 23 : 13 ; 1 Chron. 
■ 11 : 15. Tradition has located it in 
Wady Khnreitun, east of Bethlehem. 
! The cave is said to be well fitted for a 
! robbers' hold, being dry and airy and 
i full of intricate passages. The greatest 
| length of this cave is 550 feet. Lieut. 
I Conder, however, places the cave of 
| Adullam in the valley of Elah, not far 
from the city of Adullam, about 13 
miles west from Bethlehem. Near it 
are numerous caverns, each as large as 
an ordinary cottage, which would give 
room for David and his band. He 



ADU 



AGA 



states that the great caverns at Beit Jib- 
rin, which some have regarded as the 
cave of Adullain, are damp, cold, and 
full of bats and creeping things, and 
carefully avoided by the cave-dwelling 
peasants, while the smaller caves north 
and west of Adullam are almost constant- 
ly in use, and are from their position 
strong and defensible. A row of these 
caves has been found north and west of 
the city of Adullam capable of holding 
200 to 300 men. M. Ganneau first sug- 
gested this location in 1872, from the 
resemblance of the modern name Aid el- 
Ma, and it seems to answer the require- 
ments of the Scripture narrative. 

ADUL'LAM, a royal city of the 
Canaanites allotted to Judah, Gen. 38 : 
1 : Josh. 12 : 15 : 15 : 35 : fortified by 
Rehoboam, 2 Chr. 11 : 7 : repeopled 
by the Jews after the Captivity, Neh. 
11 : 30. See also Mic. 1 : 15. Ganneau 
and Conder locate it in Wady es-Sunt, 
about 2£ miles south of Socoh or Sho- 
coh, where they found heaps of stones 
and ruined walls, called Aid el- Ma. 

ADULTERY, the crime forbid- 
den in the seventh commandment. Ac- 
cording to Jewish law, it is the unlawful 
intercourse of a man, whether married 
or not, with a married or betrothed 
woman not his wife. The crime was 
punished in patriarchal times, if Tamar's 
be a specimen case, by burning, Gen. 
38 : 24, or at least capitally. Under the 
Mosaic law in the case of the free 
woman both offenders were stoned. 
But a bondwoman thus guilty was to 
be scourged, and the man must make a 
trespass-offering. Lev. 19 : 20, 22. The so- 
called " water of jealousy," by which the 
guilt of the accused woman was proven or 
refuted, was simply some " holy water," 
or that from the laver which stood near 
the altar in an earthen vessel, into which 
dust from the floor of the tabernacle 
was sprinkled. This mixture was given 
to the woman, who was solemnly charged 
by the priest with an oath of cursing. 
If she was guilty, then by divine inter- 
position — for it contained nothing in- 
jurious — this test proved her guilt. 
If innocent no effect was produced. 
The accuser in these cases was the hus- 
band. Num. 5 : 11-31. There is no case 
of the use of this test in Scripture. 
Adultery is the only ground of divorce 
recognized by our Lord. Matt. 5 : 32. 



Adultery is used in the Bible in a 
spiritual sense to denote the unfaithful- 
ness and apostasy of the Jews, because 
the union between God and his people 
was set forth as a marriage. In the 
! N. T. " an adulterous generation " 
! means a faithless and God-denying 
people. 

ADUMMIM (red ones), an ascent 
: or steep pass, Josh. 15 : 7, on the road 
from Jericho to Jerusalem, upon the 
south side of the Wady Kelt, " over 
against Geliloth " or Gilgal. Josh. 18 : 
17. Our Lord probably refers to this 
dangerous pass. Luke 10 : 30-36 ; now 
I Talat ed Da mm. 

ADVOCATE, or PAR'A- 

I CLETE. 1 John 2 : 1. One who 

' pleads another's cause, a counsellor, 

an intercessor. It is the term used by 

Christ to describe the office of the Holy 

Spirit, John 14:16; 15:26: 16:7, but 

■ translated in A. V. " Comforter." It is 

i also applied to Christ as our intercessor. 

j 1 John 2 : 1. The forensic office of 

i advocate was unknown among the Jews 

| before their subjection to the Romans; 

then they were obliged to conduct their 

trials before the Roman magistrates 

I after the Roman manner. Their ignor- 

1 ance of their conquerors' law compelled 

them to employ advocates or lawyers 

j speaking Greek and Latin. Such an 

I advocate was Tertullus, whom the Jews 

hired to accuse Paul before Felix. Acts 

24:1. See Trial. 

^E'NEAS, or ENE'AS, the para- 
I lytic at Lydda healed by Peter. Acts 
9 : 33, 34. 

iE'NON. See Enon. 
AFFINITY. 1 Kgs. 3 : 1. Re- 
j lation by marriage, in contradistinction 
from consanguinity, which is relation 
I by birth. The degrees of affinity which 
\ should prevent marriage under the Mo- 
saic law may be found in Lev. 18 : 6-17. 
See Marriage. 
AG'ABUS (possibly locust), a 
i prophet who foretold in Antioch while 
j Paul and Barnabas were there, a. t>. 
43. Acts 11 : 28. A famine took place the 
following year. It was probably limit- 
ed to Judaea, where it was severe. The 
j poor Jews were relieved by Helena, the 
j queen of Adiabene, who bought corn 
for them out of Alexandria. Aid was 
j sent to the Christians in Jerusalem from 
I Antioch. Acts 11 : 29. Many years after, 
27 



AGA 



AGR 



Agabus met Paul at Cesarea, and warned 
him of the sufferings he would endure 
if he went to Jerusalem. Acts 21 : 10. 

A'GAG {flame) was probably the 
title of the Amalekite kings, like Pha- 
raoh of the Egyptian rulers. Two kings 
of this name are mentioned in Scripture. 

1. In Num. 24 : 7, the way in which 
this Agag is referred to indicates that 
he was very powerful, above all other 
kings known to Balaam. 

2. An Agag who was captured by Saul, 
but was spared, contrary to the express 
prohibition of Jehovah. He was after- 
ward brought to Samuel, who hewed 
him in pieces. This act was not only 
the execution of the divine order, but 
it would seem an act of retributive jus- 
tice as well, since Agag is charged with 
infamous cruelty. 1 Sam. 15 : 8, 33- 

A'GAGITE. Haman is called an 
Agagite, perhaps because of his ancestry. 
Esth. 3:1. 

A'GAR. See Hagar. 

AGATE. Ex. 39 : 12. A precious 
stone, variegated chalcedony, translu- 
cent or opaque. It is often banded 
in delicate parallel lines, waving or 
zigzag in their course, and of white, 
tendon-like, wax-like, pale and dark 
brown, black or sometimes bluish colors. 
It is sometimes clouded, and at other 
times presents a group of figures dis- 
posed with so much regularity as to 
seem like a work of art, showing trees, 
plants, rivers, clouds, buildings, and 
human beings. The name is supposed 
by some to be derived from the river 
Achates, in Sicily, where the stone was 
formerly found in great abundance. 
The agate of Isa. 54: 12 and Eze. 27 : 
16 (a different Hebrew word) was doubt- 
less the ruby. The agate was the second 
stone in the third row of the high priest's 
breastplate. Ex. 28:19. 

AG'EE {fugitive), the father of one 
of David's mighty men. 2 Sam. 23 : 11. 

AG'RICULT URE. In its special 
sense, and as here employed, the term 
denotes the cultivation of grain and 
other field crops. In a broader mean- 
ing, the threefold business of many ag- 
riculturists includes, besides such culti- 
vation, the keeping of flocks and herds, 
and horticulture. 

Hixtofij. — To dress and keep the gar- 
den of Eden was the happy employment 
given to man at his creation. After 
28 



I the Fall, Adam was driven forth to till the 
1 ground as the first farmer. This was 
also the employment of Cain, but Abel 
was a keeper of sheep. After the Flood, 
" Noah began to be an husbandman, and 
he planted a vineyard." The patriarchs 
and their descendants, till their settle- 
ment in Palestine, gave little attention 
to agriculture. Joseph's words compre- 
hensively describe their occupation : 
| "The men are shepherds, for their trade 
I hath been to feed cattle." With the pos- 
j session of the cultivated lands of the Ca- 
naanites, the Hebrews adopted a more 
strictly agricultural life, and, in general, 
| the methods of farming of those whom 
they conquered. Pastoral employments 
were, however, never wholly abandoned. 
The tribes east of the Jordan were 
possessed of " a very great multitude 
of cattle," and in Judaaa and all the 
more hilly districts shepherds always 
abounded. 

Soil. — Palestine is divided agricultu- 
rally, and as to all its physical condi- 
tions, into four districts: 1. The mari- 
time plains, including the rich coast- 
i lands of Gaza, Sharon, etc., with a mild 
I and equable climate, under which even 
the orange and banana flourish. 2. The 
valley of the Jordan, reaching from the 
waters of Merom to the southern end 
; of the Dead Sea, having a tropical tem- 
perature. 3. The hill-country between 
these divisions eastward of Carmel, bi- 
sected by the rich plain of Jezreel, and 
bosoming many fertile vales, such as 
those of Nazareth, Shechem, Samaria, 
Hebron, but often rising, especially 
southward, into bleak moors and high- 
lands, where snow sometimes falls in 
winter. 4. Peraea, the rolling and often 
mountainous plateau east of the Jordan 
valley, not very different in climate from 
' the last division, but in soil more fertile. 
In this last region Dr. Merrill reports 
the tillable area of the Hauran (ancient 
Bashan) to be 150 by 40 miles in extent, 
and one vast natural wheat-field. Here 
he has "seen a peasant plough a furrow 
as straight as a line, one and even two 
miles long." In Argob and Trachonitis 
he saw one of the largest lava-beds in the 
world, covering 400 or 500 square miles, 
and the source of inexhaustible fertility. 
Of Palestine west of the Jordan, which 
is less in extent than the State of Ver- 
mont, Captain Warren says: "The soil 



AGR 



AGR 



is so rich, the climate so varied, that 
within ordinary limits it may be said 
that the more people it contained the 
more it may. Its productiveness will 
increase in proportion to the labor be- 
stowed on the soil, until a population of 
fifteen millions may be accommodated 
there." By others we are told that the 
very sand of the shore is fertile if wa- 
tered. The soil of Palestine is enriched 
by the disintegration of the rocks, which 
are commonly limestone, often quite 
chalky. 

Sermons. — Of these there are practi- 
cally but two — the rainy and the dry — 
nearly divided from each other by the 
vernal and autumnal equinoxes. The 
showers begin to fall in November, at 
the latest, and the rains of the winter 
months, except it be February, are 
heavy. These are "the former rain" 
of Scripture, which rarely fails, while 
"the latter rain" of March and early 
April is more uncertain; and as the 
filling of the ears of grain depends upon 
it, this " latter rain " is eagerly expected. 
Job 29 : 23 ; Zech. 10 : 1. Storms in 
Palestine are ordinarily brought by the 
west or south-west wind. 1 Kgs. 18 : 
44; Luke 12: 54. 

Without question, this country was in 
Bible times better supplied with forests 
and orchards than now, and its climate 
was more humid and equable. The 
hills were generally terraced and pro- 
vided with reservoirs, as abundant ruins 
testify, and the sudden torrents, which 
now wash away what little soil they 
find, were, by these means and others, 
dispersed and absorbed by the ground. 
Man}' of the most rugged districts were 
covered with vineyards and olive-or- 
chards, so that Deut. 8 : 7-9 is but a lit- 
eral description of what the land once 
was, and, in particular localities, still 
remains. Unlimited extortion, in ad- 
dition to heavy taxes upon every crop 
and every tree, even to the oak upon the 
hills, the unrestrained pillage of the har- 
vests by Bedouins, with other causes, are 
fast abandoning this fertile land to de- 
nudation, drought, and the desert. 

Calendar of Labor. — There have been 
few changes in the art or instruments of 
agriculture in Western Asia since ancient 
times. The present tense may therefore 
ordinarily be used for the past. Plough- 
ing and sowing grain begin with the 



rainy season, and, as the ground does 
not freeze, continue, when the weather 
permits, till March. Then are sown the 
podded and garden plants, the melons, 
and all the crops which demand a warm- 
er soil. Barley-harvest quickly follows 
the cessation of the latter rain, and then 
wheat-harvest. The remaining crops 
having one after another been brought 
to perfection and gathered, the droughts 
of summer now end most agricultural 
operations till the ingathering of the 
fig, the olive, and the grape in August 
and September. Occasionally, during the 
busy season, the husbandman tents upon 
the land he cultivates. Ordinarily, his 
home is in some village or walled town, 
perhaps miles away from his farm. In 
the early morning he walks or rides to 
his labor, the patient ass or the camel 
bearing his light ploughs and other im- 
plements. Thus in the parable the 
" sower went forth to sow." So varied 
is the character of the soil and climate 
within short ranges as often greatly to 
prolong the season of planting and har- 
vesting. Grain frequently requires re- 
planting or replacing with other crops. 
Where there are permanent streams or 
opportunities for irrigation, sowing fol- 
lows harvest, crop succeeds crop through 
the entire year, and the promises of Lev. 
26 : 5 and Am. 9 : 13 are verified. 

Crops. — In this fertile soil, with an 
almost unparalleled variety of climate 
and exposure, between such points as 
Jericho, Hermon, and Gaza, there is op- 
portunity for the cultivation of nearly 
all plants either of the torrid or tempe- 
rate zones ; and we find in the Bible, for 
such a book, a very extended botanic 
list. The variety of cultivated species 
was, however, much less than now. 
Wheat, barley, millet, and spelt (not 
rye) were the only cereals. Beans and 
lentiles were staples, while flax, cucum- 
bers, fitches, cummin, and the onion fam- 
ily were often extensively cultivated. 
Jewish writers mention peas, lettuce, 
endives, and melons as ancient garden- 
plants. Fruit- and nut-bearing trees 
were cultivated for the most part within 
enclosures. 

Methods and Instruments. — As popu- 
lation increased, irrigation, by conduct- 
ing water to the crops from brooks and 
reservoirs, became more common. The 
painful Egyptian labor of raising a sup- 
29 



AGR 



AGft 



ply from a lower level was rarely neces- 
sary. Such passages as Jer. 9 : 22 show 
that the use of dung as manure was not 
uncommon. In Jer. 4 : 3 ; Hos. 10:12 
there is reference to the practice of leav- 
ing the land fallow for a time. The 
former passage, with many others, re- 
minds us of the great variety and abun- 
dance of thorny plants in Palestine, said 
to be one mark of a fertile soil. Rota- 
tion of crops seems to have been prac- 
tised to some extent. 

The instruments of agriculture are 
particularly described under their re- 
spective titles. Oriental ploughing does 
not turn a sod, but merely scratches the 
earth to the depth of three or four inches 
at most, which is all the primitive and 
light plough and the small cattle of the 
East can do. Often — always in the case 
of new ground — a second ploughing 
crosswise was practised; and this is re- 
ferred to by the word " break " in Isa. 
28:24. Steep hill-sides were prepared 
for planting with the mattock or hoe, an 
iron-pointed instrument of wood resem- 
bling in shape the modern "pick." Isa. 
7 : 25. Good farmers ploughed before the 



rains, that the moisture might be more 
abundantly absorbed. The seed, being 
scattered broadcast upon the soil, was 
ordinarily ploughed in, as is still the 
custom. Light harrowing, often with 
thorn-bushes, completed the process. 
In wet ground the seed was trampled in 
by cattle. Isa. 32 : 20. After its plant- 
ing there was commonly little further 
labor bestowed upon the crop till it was 
ready for the harvest. Weeds were re- 
moved by hand when it was safe to do 
so. Matt. 13 : 28, 29. Irrigation was 
sometimes necessary. As the ingather- 
ing drew near, the fields must be pro- 
tected by the watchman in his lodge 
from the wild boar and other beasts, and 
from human marauders. The newly- 
scattered seed and the ripening crop also 
required to be defended against great 
flocks of birds. Matt. 13 : 4. 

Grain when ripe was, in more ancient 
times, plucked up by the roots. Later, 
it was reaped by a sickle resembling our 
own, either the ears alone being cut off 
or the whole stalk. The sheaves were 
never made into shocks; but this word 
in Scripture use denotes merely a loose 




An Egyptian Threshin 

neap of them. Laborers, animals, or 
carts bore the harvest to the threshing- 
floor, where, as elsewhere described, the 
grain was separated from the ears and 
winnowed. More delicate seeds were 
beaten out with a stick. Isa. 28 : 27. 
Peculiarities. — Agriculture was recog- 
30 



-Floor. (From Eiehm.) 

nized and regulated by the Mosaic law 
as the chief national occupation. Inalien- 
able ownership — under God — of the soil 
was a fundamental provision, and rent- 
ing the ground till the year of jubilee was 
alone possible. " The land shall not be 
sold for ever : for the land is mine ; for 



AGR 



AHA 



ye are strangers and sojourners with 
me." Lev. 25 : 8-16, 23-35. The en- 
couragement such a provision gave to 
agricultural improvements cannot be 
exaggerated. 

That the land must rest one year in 
seven was another remarkable and most 
beneficent requirement. Lev. 25 : 1-7. 
The Jews were forbidden to sow a field 
with divers seeds. Deut. 22 : 9. For 
example, wheat and lentiles must not 
be mixed, nor areas of them meet. The 
rabbis describe with minuteness how to 
vary the position of crops, yet avoid ac- 
tual contact between them, and prescribe 
at least three furrows' margin between 
such divers kinds. The yoking together 
of an ox and ass was prohibited, but is 
common enough among the present in- 
habitants. Horses were never used for 
farm -work. 

Vineyards are enclosed in walls, and 
gardens are usually protected in the 
same way, or by banks of mud taken 
from ditches. Otherwise, in agricultu- 
ral districts the absence of all fences or 
enclosures is, and always was, in striking 
contrast to our own practice. A brook 
or a cliff may serve as a boundary, but 
ordinarily large stones almost covered 
by the soil are the landmarks. Deut. 
19 : 14. Exceedingly beautiful to the 
eye are the vast fertile areas of Pales- 
tine, checkered only by cultivation. As 
cattle find pasture through most of the 
year, there are no proper barns to be 
seen. Grass is cut in watered places 
with a sickle for " soiling," and stock is 
fed. with this or with grain when the 
fields are dried up. More commonly, 
during periods of scarcity, the flocks 
and herds are driven to other feeding- 
grounds. Booths are sometimes pro- 
vided for inclement weather, and at 
night cattle are driven into caves or 
folds. 

The permission to pluck and eat a 
neighbor's grapes or grain, but not to 
put the former in a vessel nor use a 
sickle on the latter, is not to be forgot- 
ten. Deut. 23 : 24, 25. There was also 
merciful provision that the poor might 
glean in the vineyard and harvest-field, 
and that something should be left for 
them. Lev. 19:9, 10; Deut. 24: 19. 

Altogether, the agricultural laws of the 
Pentateuch have been unapproached in 
their wisdom and beneficence by any 



similar legislation on record. See Gar- 
den, Mowing, Plough, Seasons, Thresh, 
Vines, etc. 
AGRIP'PA. See Herod (3, 4). 
A'GUR (an assembler, i. e. of wise 
men), a sage mentioned in Prov. 30: 1. 
Nothing is known of him. The rabbins 
identified him, but groundlessly, with 
Solomon. 

A'HAB {father's brother). 1. Sev- 
enth king of Israel, B. c. 919-896. 1 
Kgs. 16 : 29. Son and successor of Omri. 
He reigned twenty-two years. His 
capital was Samaria. He married Jeze- 
bel, daughter of Ethbaal, king of Tyre, 
who had been priest of Astarte, but had 
seized the throne of his brother. Being 
a weak man, he was ruled by his am- 
bitious and daring wife. Idolatry was 
set up in Israel. Ahab built a temple 
to Baal in Samaria, and Jezebel main- 
tained at her own cost 400 prophets 
of Astarte. These were allowed to be- 
come the relentless persecutors of the 
servants of Jehovah, so that true relig- 
ion was almost extinct. In punishment 
God sent three years of drought. Eli- 
jah had prophesied this event, and at 
its termination appeared before the king, 
challenged the false prophets to a trial 
of power, demonstrated their feebleness, 
and caused them to be slain. Ahab was 
deeply impressed, and might have yield- 
ed, were it not for Jezebel, who threat- 
ened the life of Elijah, and by her en- 
ergy prevented a reaction in favor of 
'Jehovah. See Eltjah. Ahab had a taste 
! for splendid architecture : this he showed 
| by building an ivory palace and several 
j cities. But it was on the city of Jezreel he 
I seems to have spent the most attention. 
The desire to beautify it led to the af- 
fair of Naboth's vineyard. This he 
coveted, that he might add it to his 
pleasure-grounds in Jezreel. But Na- 
both refused to part with the land for 
money or in exchange, for he was for- 
bidden by the Levitical law. Lev. 25: 
] 23. Ahab took the refusal to heart. 
But the scheming Jezebel secured Na- 
both's murder under orders marked with 
Ahab's seal. And thus the land passed 
into his hands. See Naboth. The 
Lord by Elijah denounced Ahab and 
Jezebel, and foretold the extinction of 
their house. But Ahab's remorse and 
repentance secured the postponement 
I of the sentence. 1 Kgs. 21. 

31 



AHA 



AHA 



Ahab fought three wars or campaigns 
with Ben-hadad II., king of Syria, in 
the first two of which, only a year apart, 
both defensive, he was victorious. The 
second victory put Ben-hadad into his 
hands, and he was able to exact very 
favorable terms of peace — viz. that 
all the Israelitish cities lost should be 
restored, and in Damascus Jewish of- 
ficials should be permanently settled in 
their own houses, in order that they 
might look after the interests of Ahab 
and his subjects. This is what is meant 
by making " streets " in Damascus. 
1 Kgs. 20 : 34. For letting Ben-hadad 
go he was strikingly rebuked by a 
prophet, and the failure of his hopes 
prophesied. It was indeed foolish, since 
no pledge had been given by Ben-hadad ; 
and ungrateful, because God, who had 
given the victory, was not consulted. 
For the next three years the kingdom 
had peace. But then Ahab in conjunc- 
tion with Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, his 
son-in-law, fought Ben-hadad the third 
time, in order to recover Kamoth-gilead, 
which Ahab claimed belonged to him. 
Lying prophets encouraged him in his 
enterprise, but at Jehoshaphat's request 
Micaiah, the prophet of Jehovah, was 
called, who foretold his death. Ahab 
in anger imprisoned Micaiah, but still 
was so impressed that he took the pre- 
caution to disguise himself; but a cer- 
tain man drew a bow at a venture and 
smote him, so that at eventide he died. 
His body was carried to Samaria ; the 
dogs licked up his blood as a servant 
washed it from the chariot. Thus the 
prophecy of Elijah was partially fulfilled, 
but more exactly in the case of his son. 
Ahab left three children by Jezebel, all 
of whom died violent deaths ; also, by 
other wives, seventy sons, who were 
slain by Jehu. 

2. Ahab, a false prophet, who de- 
ceived the captive Israelites in Bab- 
ylon, and was burnt by Nebuchad- 
nezzar, b. c. 594. Jer. 29 : 22. 

AHAR'AH (after the brother), the 
third son of Benjamin. 1 Chr. 8:1. 

AHAR'HEL (behind the breast- 
work), a descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 
4:8. 

AHAS'AI (probably a contraction of 
Ahaziah, whom Jehovah holds), a priest, 
Neh. 11: 13 j called Jahzerah in 1 Chr. 
9:12. 

32 



AHASBAI (/ will confide in Je- 
hovah), the father of one of David's 
warriors. 2 Sam. 23 : 34. 

AHASHVEROSH. Ezr. 4 : 6, 
margin : Hebrew form of Ahasuerus. 

AHASUE'RUS (probably lion- 
king), the Hebrew form of Xerxes, 
the name, or perhaps only the title, of 
one Median and two Persian kings men- 
tioned in the Old Testament. 

1. The father of Darius the Median, 
and the same with Astyages. Dan. 9 : 
1. 

2. Supposed to be the son and succes- 
sor of Cyrus, probably Cambyses, who 
reigned seven years and five months 
from b. c. 529. Ezr. 4 : 6. 

3. The husband of Esther, undoubted- 
ly the Xerxes of profane history. Esth. 
1:1. The story of his acts of caprice 
and cruelty recorded in the book of Es- 
ther agrees exactly with what we other- 
wise know of his character, for once he 
scourged the sea and beheaded the engi- 
neers because a storm carried away their 
bridge, and was guilty of many other 
crimes. In the third year of his reign 
he called a council of his nobles, very 
likely for the purpose of arranging the 
invasion of Greece. The meeting lasted 
six months, and was followed by a munif- 
icent feast, on the seventh day of which 
he commanded his queen, Vashti, to 
show herself unto his drunken nobles. 
This she properly refused to do, where- 
upon he deposed her. Four years after, 
he married Esther. The interval is ac- 
counted for by supposing the war with 
Greece intervened. See Esther. 

AHA'VA (water), a place or river 
where Ezra collected the returning ex- 
iles and proclaimed a fast. Ezr. 8: 15, 
21, 31. Rawlinson suggests that Aha- 
va was identical with Ava and Ivah, 
the modern Hit, on the Euphrates, east 
of Damascus. 

A'HAZ (possessor). 1. Eleventh king 
of Judah, son of Jotham, whom he suc- 
ceeded. 2 Kgs. 16: 2; 2 Chr. 28:1. He 
reigned sixteen years, B. c. 742-726. He 
was a gross idolater, and even sacrificed 
his children to the gods. He remodelled 
the temple to fit it for idolatrous rites. 
He kept chariot-horses dedicated to the 
sun. This course brought upon him 
and his kingdom severe judgments. 
God made them to flee before their ene- 
mies. Their allies often proved un- 



AHA 



AHI 



faithful, and involved them in great dis- 
tress. 

Early in his reign, probably the sec- 
ond year, Pekah, king of Israel, and 
Rezin, king of Syria, who, just at the 
close of Jothain's reign, had confeder- 
ated for the destruction of Judah, in- 
vaded the kingdom with a powerful 
army and laid siege to Jerusalem. 

Isaiah foretold their overthrow and 
inspired the king. Isa. 7. But the 
allies, though defeated at Jerusalem, 
captured Elath, wasted Judah, and car- 
ried 200,000 into captivity ; the proph- 
et Oded caused these to be restored. 
Ahaz in his extremity made a league 
with Tilgath-pilneser, king of Assyria, 
who freed him from his enemies, but at 
the cost of the Judaic kingdom, which 
became tributar}', and Ahaz sent him 
all the treasures of the temple and his 
palace, and appeared before him in 
Damascus as a vassal. Neglecting the 
warnings of Isaiah, Hosea, and Micah, 
he ran to even greater excesses in idol- 
atry, and indeed so lowered himself in 
the popular esteem that when he died 
he was refused a burial with his royal 
ancestors. 2 Chr. 28:27. His only 
permanent service to his people was the 
introduction of the sun-dial, which was 
probably connected with the Assyrian 
astrology and necroman v. 

2. A son of Micah, the grandson of 
Jonathan. 1 Chr. 8 : 35, 36 ; 9 : 42. 

AHAZI'AH {whom Jehovah sus- 
tains). 1. The son and successor of 
Ahab, and eighth king of Israel, b. c. 
896-895. 1 Kgs. 22 : 40. He was an 
idolater, and for this reason, when he 
attempted to unite with Jehoshaphat 
in the gold-trade with Ophir, God 
caused the ships to be broken in port 
at Ezion-geber, not allowing this union 
between his friends and foes. See Je- 
hoshaphat. Under him Moab rebelled. 
A fall through a lattice, probably from 
the window of his chamber in his pal- 
ace in Samaria, occasioned his death. 
Characteristically, he sent to inquire at 
Ekron of Baal-zebub whether his injury 
would be fatal. Elijah met the messen- 
gers and told them that he would die. 
The king sent to take Elijah, and thus 
two companies of soldiers were destroy- 
ed. But with the third, Elijah went 
and told the king in person of his 
speedy death. 2 Kgs. 1. 
3 



2. Called also Azariah, 2 Chr. 22:6, 
and Jehoahaz, 2 Chr. 21 : 17, was a son 
of Jehorain and Athaliah, and fifth king 
of Judah, and at the age of twenty-two 
suceeedel his father as king of Judah. 
' 2 Kgs. 8 : 25. lie continued the idol- 
atry of the house of Ahab, and was 
governed by the advice of his infamous 
mother. His reign lasted only one 
year, b. c. 884. He allied himself with 
i his uncle, Jehoram, king of Israel, and 
; attacked Hazael, king of Syria, who de- 
! feated them at Ramoth-gilead. Je- 
: borani was severely wounded and car- 
ried to his palace in Jezreel. There 
; Ahaziah visited him. Israel meanwhile 
' rebelled under Jehu. The two kings 
| went out to meet him, and Jehu killed 
i Jehoram. Ahaziah fled, and was pur- 
sued to the pass of Gur, where he was 
mortally wounded, but escaped, and died 
at Megiddo. In this way the slightly 
! differing accounts, 2 Kgs. 9 : 27 and 2 
i Chr. 22 : 9, can be reconciled. 

AH'BAJf {brother of the wise), a de- 
scendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 29. 

A'HER {after, following), a Benja- 
mite. 1 Chr. 7 : 12. 

A'HI {brother). 1. A Gadite. 1 Chr. 
5:15. 

2. An Asherite. 1 Chr. 7 : 34. 
AHI'AH {friend of Jehovah). I. 
Supposed by some to be the same with 
Ahiraelech, 1 Sam. 21 : 1, was the son of 
Ahitub, and his successor in the priest's 
office. 1 Sam. 14 : 3, 18. See Ahim- 
elech and Ahitub. 

2. The son of Shisha, one of Solomon's 
scribes or secretaries. 1 Kgs. 4 : 3. 

3. A descendant of Benjamin. 1 Chr. 
8:7. 

AHI'AM {father's brother), one of 
David's warriors. 2 Sam. 23 : 33 ; 1 
Chr. 11 : 35. 

AHI'AN {brotherly), a son of Shemi- 
dah. 1 Chr. 7:19. 

AHIE'ZER {brother of help). I. 
A prince of Dan. Num. 1 : 12 • 2:25; 
7 : 66 ; 10 : 25. 

2. A Benjamite chief who joined Da- 
; vid. 1 Chr. 12:3. 

AHI'HUD {brother, i. e. friend, of 
| Judah, i. e. renown), the prince of the 
1 tribe of Asher. Num. 34 : 27. 

AHI'HUD (different name in He- 
brew from the above, brother of union), a 
descendant of Benjamin. 1 Chr. 8:7. 
AHI'JAH {brother, i.e. friend, ofje- 
33 



AHI 



AHI 



hovah). 1. A prominent prophet, called 
the Shilonite from his place of residence, 
who foretold to Jeroboam the disruption 
of the kingdom and the assignment of 
the ten tribes to him. 1 Kgs. 11 : 29-39. 
The prophecy is referred to 1 Kgs. 12 : 
15 ; 2 Chr. 10 : 15. To the wife of Jero- 
boam the same prophet subsequently 
announced not only the fate of the sick 
child, but that of the nation. 1 Kgs. 
14:1-18. A part of this latter proph- 
ecy Baasha realized. 1 Kgs. 15 : 29. He 
left annals of Solomon's reign. 2 Chr. 
9:29. 

2. The father of Baasha, the king. 1 
Kgs. 15 : 27, 33 ; 21 : 22 ; 2 Kgs. 9 : 9. 

3. A descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 
2:25. 

4. One of David's " valiant men." 1 
Chr. 11 : 36. 

5. The Levite " over the treasures of 
the house of God and . . . the dedicated 
things." 1 Chr. 26 : 20. 

6. One who sealed the covenant. Neh. 
10:26. 

AIII'KAIM {brother of the enemy), 
a son of Shaphan, and the father of 
Gedaliah, was an officer at the court of 
Josiah and Jehoiakim, and one of those 
whom Josiah sent to Huldah the proph- 
etess to inquire of her concerning the 
book of the law which had been found 
in the temple. 2 Kgs. 22 : 12. He after- 
ward protected the prophet Jeremiah. 
Jer. 26 : 24. See Jeremiah. 

AHI'IjUD {brother of one born, sc. 
before him), the father of Jehoshaphat, 
the official recorder of the reigns of 
David and Solomon. 2 Sam. 8 : 16 ; 20 : 
24; 1 Kgs. 4:3; 1 Chr. 18:15. The 
father likewise, in all probability, of 
Baana, one of Solomon's twelve com- 
missariat officers. 1 Kgs. 4:12. 

AHIM'AAZ {brother of wrath). 1. 
The father of Saul's wife Ahinoam. 1 
Sam. 14 : 50. 

2. Son and successor of Zadok the 
priest. 

During the revolt of Absalom, Za- 
dok and Abiathar, the high priests, stay- 
ed in Jerusalem with Hushai, David's 
friend; while Ahimaaz and Jonathan, 
the son of Abiathar, stationed them- 
selves at En-rogel, a short distance from 
the city, and the plot was that all that 
Hushai should hear respecting Absa- 
lom's plans he should communicate to 
Zadok and Abiathar, and they to their 
34 



sons Ahimaaz and Jonathan, by whom 
the intelligence should be communicated 
to David. 2 Sam. 15 : 36. As soon as 
Absalom had rejected the counsel of 
Ahithophel, and adopted that of Hushai, 
Zadok and Abiathar were promptly in- 
formed of it, and directed their sons to 
go with all possible haste to David and 
tell him to cross Jordan at once. A 
woman bore the message. Seeing her 
speak to the men, and noticing that 
they ran off with haste, a lad informed 
Absalom of the suspicious event, and 
accordingly he ordered a pursuit. When 
they came to Bahurim, they concealed 
themselves in a well. The woman of the 
house covered the mouth of the well 
with a blanket, on which she spread corn 
to dry ; and when Absalom's messengers 
came up in the pursuit, and inquired 
where they were, she told them that 
the young men had passed on. Thus 
they escaped, and while their pursuers 
returned to Jerusalem they hastened 
to David with their message. 2 Sam. 
17 : 15-22. 

At his own urgent request, Ahimaaz 
was employed to carry the intelligence 
of Absalom's death to David, his father. 
He outran Cushi, who had been previ- 
ously despatched on the same errand. 
Before he had delivered his message, 
however, Cushi came up, and made 
known the sad event. 2 Sam. 18 : 19-33. 
See David. 

3. A son-in-law of Solomon, and one 
of his commissariat officers. 1 Kgs. 4 
15. 

AHI'MAN {brother of a gift). 1 
One of three Hebronitic Anakim, Num 
13 : 22, defeated and killed by' Caleb 
with the help of- Judah. Josh. 15:14; 
Jud. 1:10. 

2. A Levite porter. 1 Chr. 9 : 17. 

AHIM'ELECH {brother or friend 
of the king). 1. The son of Ahitub, and 
his successor in the priesthood at 
Nob. 1 Sam 21 : 1. He gave David 
some of the shew-bread and the sword 
of Goliath when he fled from Saul. 
For this offence he and all the priests at 
Nob were slain at the instigation of 
Doeg the Edomite. 1 Sam. 22 : 11. 
See Abiathar. 

2. A Hittite who was one of David's 
friends during his flight from Saul. 
1 Sam. 26:6. 

AHI'MOTH {brother of death), a 



AHI 



AHU 



Kohathite, 1 Chr. 6 : 25; called in v. 35, 
Mahath. 

AHIX'ADAB (brother of the noble, 
i. e. noble brother), one of Solomon's 
commissariat officers. 1 Kgs. 4 : 14. 
See Abiatiiau. 

AHIN'OAM (brother of pleasant- 
ness, i. a. pleasant). 1. The daughter of 
Ahimaaz, and the wife of Saul. J Sam. 
14 : 50. 

2. A woman of Jezreel, and one of 
David's wives. 1 Sam. 25 : 43. She 
was taken captive by the Amalekites 
in the siege of Ziklag, and afterward 
rescued from captivity by David. 1 
Sam. 30 : 5, 18. She 'lived with him 
while he was king of Judah in Hebron, 
and was the mother of Amnon, his eld- 
est son. 2 Sam. 2:2; 3:2: 1 Chr. 3:1. 

AHI'O (brotherly). 1. A son of 
Abinadab, who, with his brother Uz- 
zah, was intrusted by David with the 
transportation of the ark from Kirjath- 
jearim to Jerusalem. 2 Sam. 6:3; 1 
Chr. 13 : 7. See Uzzah. 

2. A Benjamite. 1 Chr. 8 : 14. 

3. Another Benjamite. 1 Chr. 8:31; 
9 : 37. 

AHI'RA (brother of evil), the prince 
of the tribe of Naphtali. Num. 1 : 15 ; 
2:29: 7:78, 83: 10:27. 

AHI'RAM [brother of the high), a 
son of Benjamin, Num. 23:38; called 
Ehi in Gen. 48:21, and was possibly 
the same as Aher. 1 Chr. 7:12. His 
descendants were called Ahiramites. 
Num. 26:38. 

AHIS'AMACH (brother of sup- 
port), a Danite, the father of Aholiab, 
one of the architects of the tabernacle. 
Ex. 31: (3: 35:31: 38:23. 

AHISH'AHAR (brother of the 
dawn), a great-grandson of Benjamin. 
1 Chr. 7:10. 

AHI'SHAR (brother of the singer), 
the controller of Solomon's household. 
1 Kgs. 4 : (). 

AHITH'OPHEL (brother of fool- 
ishness), a native of Giloh, and the 
familiar frien 1, companion, and coun- 
sellor of David. Ps. 55 : 12-14; 2 Sam. 
15 : 12; 1 Chr. 27 : 33. He was the 
grandfather of Bath-sheba. Cf. 2 Sam. 
11 : 3 with 23 : 31. His wisdom seemed 
superhuman. 2 Sam. 16 : 23. Absalom 
persuaded him t > join in the conspiracy 
against his father, David ; but the cun- 
ning measures which Ahithophel pro- 



j posed for the accomplishment of Absa- 
lom's ambitious plans were all defeated 
■ by the counsel of Hushai. Ahithophel, 
I seeing that the probable issue would be 
the utter ruin of Absalom and his cause, 
which would almost necessarily involve 
his own destruction, returned at once 
to Giloh and hanged himself. 2 Sam. 
17 : 23. 

AHI'TUB (brother of goodness). 1. 
The son of Phinehas, and grandson 
of Eli. 1 Sam. 14 : 3. Some suppose 
that he succeeded Eli in the priesthood. 
See Ahimelech. 

2. The son of Amariah, and the father 
of Zadok. 1 Chr. 6 : 8. 

AH'LAB (fatness, fertility), a 

town iu Asher held by the Canaaaites, 

J Jud. 1:31; probably the place known 

: later as Gush Halab or Ghaleb, and 

' which Robinson locates at el-Jish, near 

Set fed, north-west of the Sea of Galilee. 

AH'IiAI (would God !), daughter of 
| Sheshan ; married to his slave Jarha : an- 
cestress of one of David's mighty men. 
1 Chr. 2:31, 34, 35; 11:41. 

AHO'AH (friendship of Jehovah?), 
a grandson of Benjamin. 1 Chr. 8:4. 

AHO'HITE, from Ahoah, a pa- 
tronymic of some of David's warriors. 

AHO'LAH (her tent), AND 
AHOL'IBAH (my tabernacle in 
her), the names of imaginary harlots; 
symbolically used for Samaria and Je- 
rusalem. Eze. 23 : 4, 5, 36, 44. 

AHO'LIAB (tent of his father), 
son of Ahisamach, of the tribe of Dan, 
who, with Bezaleel, was divinely ap- 
pointed to construct the tabernacle and 
its furniture. Ex. 35 : 34. 

AHOLIB'AMAH (tent of the 
height). 1. A wife of Esau, and daugh- 
ter of Anah, Gen. 36 : 2, etc. She was 
the same with Judith, daughter of 
Beeri. 26 : 34. Judith was perhaps 
her original name. 

2. The name appears in the genea- 
logical list, Gen. 36 : 41 ; 1 Chr. 1 • 52, 
but it is the name of a district, and not 
of a person. 

AHU'MAI (brother of water, i. e. 
pusillanimous), a descendant of Judah. 
1 Chr. 4 : 2. 

AHU'ZAM (their possession), the 
son of Ash'ir. 1 Chr. 4:6. 

AHUZ'ZATH (possession), a par- 
ticular frien I of Abimelech, king of 
Gerar, who attended him when he met 
35 



AT 



ALA 



Isaac, and made a treaty with him at 
Beer-sheba. Gen. 26 : 26. 

A'l {heap of ruins). 1. A city of the 
Canaanites, Gen. 13 : 3 ; taken by Joshua, 
Josh. 7 : 2-5 ; 8 : 1-29 ; also called Aiath, 
Isa. 10 : 28, and Aija. Neh. 11 : 31. 
Abraham pitched his tent between Hai 
and Betbel. Gen. 12 : 8. The two cities 
were so far apart that Joshua could 
place an ambush west of Ai unseen by 
tbe men of Betbel, while he was in the 
valley north of Ai. The city of Ai was 
east of Bethel, and about 9 miles north 
of Jerusalem. It is named 38 times in 
the Bible. It is now Haiyan. 

2. A city of the Ammonites not far 
from Heshbon. Jer. 49 : 3. 

AI'AH (hawk). 1. The father of 
Rizpah, Saul's concubine. 2 Sam. 3 : 
7; 21:8,10,11. 

2. The son of Zibeon, 1 Chr. 1 : 40 ; 
called Ajah in Gen. 36 : 24. 

' AIATH. Isa. 10 : 28. Feminine 
form of Ai, and probably the same as 
Ai. 

AI'JA. Neh. 11 : 31. See Ai. 

AIJ'ALOIV. See Ajalox. 

AIJELETH SHA'HAR (hind 
of the dawn). These words occur in the 
title to Ps. 22, and probably "indicate, 
not the subject-matter of the poem, but 
rather a time for the guidance of the 
precentor." " There was some poem or 
lyrical composition extant which bore 
the name of Aijeleth Shahar — similar 
names have frequently been given to 
poems in the East — and according to the 
well-known measure of that the chief 
musician was to sing or chant the 
psalm." — Avrr: Treasury of Bible 
Knowledge. 

A'lN (eye. spring). 1. A place, or 
pi-obably a fountain, and one of the 
landmarks on the eastern boundary of 
Canaan. Num. 34: 11. It is now known 
as Ain el-Azy, a remarkable spring, one 
of the sources of the Orontes, and about 
10 miles west of Riblah. 

2. A city of southern Palestine, first 
given to Judah, Josh. 15 : 32. afterward 
assigned to Simeon, Josh. 19 : 7, and 
then to the Levites, Josh. 21 : 16 ; 1 
Chr. 4 : 32. The same place as Ashan, 1 
Chr. 6 : 59, and possibly as En-rimmon. 
Neh. 11 : 29. 

A' J AH. See Aiah. 

AJ'ALON (place of gazelles). 1. A 
Levitical city of Dan, Josh. 19 : 42 ; given 
36 



to the Kohathites, Josh. 21 : 24 ; held by 
the Amorites, Jud. 1 : 35 : noticed in the 
wars with the Philistines, 1 Sam. 14 : 
31; 2 Chr. 28:18; fortified by Reho- 
boam, 2 Chr. 11 : 10 ; then in the terri- 
tory of Benjamin, as the Danites had 
extended their territory farther north. 
See Jud. 18 : 1. Being on the border of 
the two kingdoms, it is sometimes men- 
tioned as in Ephraim, 1 Chr. 6 : 66, 69, 
and sometimes as in Judah and Benja- 
min. 2 Chr. 11 : 10 ; 28 : 18. Its modern 
name is Yalo, a small village about 14 
miles west of Jerusalem, and north of 
the Jaffa road. 

2. A valley, Josh. 10 : 12, near the 
above city, now called Merj Ibn Omeir, 
which is broad and very beautiful. There 
Joshua fought a great battle. SeeGiBKON. 

3. A town in Zebulun. possibly named 
after Elon the judge, who was buried 
there. Jud. 12 : 12. Its site may be 
the modern Jalun. 

A 'KAN (sharp-sighted ?), a descend- 
ant of Esau, Gen. 36:27; calkd Jakan 
in 1 Chr. 1 : 42. 

AK'KUB (insidious). 1. A descend- 
ant of David. 1 Chr. 3 : 24. 

2. One of the porters at the east gate 
of the temple. 1 Chr. 9 : 17: Ezr. 2 : 

| 42; Neh. 7:45: 11:19; 12:25. 

3. One of the Nethinim whose fam- 
I ily returned with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 
: 45. 

4. A Levite who assisted Ezra in 
j explaining the law. Neh. 8 : 7. 

AKRAB'BIM (scorpions), a range 
i of hills on the southern boundary of 
Judah, Num. 34 : 4 ; Josh. 15 : 3, and on 
the border of the territory of the Amor- 
ites. Jud. 1 : 36. The "ascent of" 
and the "going up to" Akrabbiin is 
I the famous " Scorpion Pass," where the 
i route from Petra to Hebron passes out 
1 of the Ghor, or Wady, el-Fikreh. At 
; the upper end of this winding valley. 
I 10 miles from Maderah, is a wild ascent 
now called Nakb Kareb, which is regard- 
! ed as the ancient Akrabbim or " Scorpion 
Pass." Scorpions still abound in the 
region. It was also called Maaleh- 
acrabbim. Josh. 15 : 3. 

AI/ABASTER. Matt. 26 : 7. A 
white mineral, easily carved and sus- 
ceptible of a fine polish. It was of two 
distinct kinds. One was a pure variety 
of gypsum or sulphate of lime, the rock 
which is often ground into plaster of 



ALA 



ALE 



Paris ; the other kind was carbon- 
ate of lime, a mineral of the same 
chemical composition as most of the 
marbles. It was highly valued for its 
translucency and for its variety of red- 
dish or grayish streakings. The name 
"alabaster" is from Alabastron, in 
Egypt, where this material was found, 
and where vessels were manufactured 
from it for holding perfumes. Vases 
of the same mineral for containing 
ointments or cosmetics were found at 
Nineveh by Mr. Layard. The well- 
known sculptured slabs from that city 
are of alabaster of the gypsum kind. 
The druggists in Egypt at the present 




Alabaster Vases. (From the British Museum.) 
The inscription on the centre vessel denotes the quantity it holds, 



day use vessels of this substance for the 
purpose of keeping medicines and per- 
fumes. Theocritus, an ancient profane 
historian, speaks of gilded alabasters 
of Syrian ointment. The phrase " she 
brake the box," used Mark 14 : 3, is 
supposed to mean that she broke the 
slender neck of the sealed bottle or 
pitcher. Thus the offering was very 
costly and appropriate. Box was for- 
merly used in a more general sense than 
now. The word is said to come from 
the wood of the same name, and at first 
was used for any vessel formed from 
that material. 

AL'AMETH (covering), another 
form of Alemeth, which see. 1 Chr. 
7:8. 

ALAMMELECH [king's oak), a 



place in Asher. Josh. 19 : 26. The 
name seems to be preserved in the 
Wady Melik, which joins the Kishon 
not far from the sea and near Mt. 
Carmel. 

ALEMETH (covering), a Benjam- 
ite. 1 Chr. 8:36; 9:42. 

ALEMETH, andAL'LE- 
METH, the same as Alameth (cover- 
ing), a Levitical city of Benjamin, 1 Chr. 
6 : 60; called also Almon, Josh. 21 : 18; 
probably the modern Almit, 4 miles 
north-east of Jerusalem, and about 1 
mile north-east of Anata, the ancient 
Anathoth. 

ALEXANDER (man-defender). 1. 
The son of Simon the Cyrenian. 
Mark 15: 21. 

2. A distinguished Jew who, 
with others, took part against 
Peter and John. Acts 4: 6. 

3. A Jew of Ephesus who took 
a conspicuous part in the contro- 
versy between Paul and the popu- 
lace of that city, and attempted, 
without success, to quell the com- 
motion. Acts 19 : 33. 

4. A coppersmith and apostate 
from Christianity, whom Paul 
mentions in terms of severe re- 
proach. 1 Tim. 1 : 19. 20 and 2 
Tim. 4 : 14. 

ALEXANDER THE 
GREAT, the famous king of 
Macedonia and conqueror, died 
B.C. 323. He brought Europe and 
Asia into contact, made the Greek 
the ruling language of civiliza- 
tion, and thus unconsciously pre- 



pared the way for the spiritual conquest 
of the gospel. He is not mentioned by 
name in the canonical books, but in the 
Apocrypha, 1 Mace. 1 : 1-9 ; 6 : 2, and 




Head of Alexander the Great. (On a coin of 
Lysimachus, kinj of Thrace.) 

is meant in the prophecies of Daniel, 
where he is represented first as the 
belly of brass in Nebuchadnezzar's 
37 



ALE 



ALE 



dream of the colossal statue, 2 : 39, and 
then in the vision of Daniel, under the 
figures of a leopard with four wings, 
and a one-horned he-goat, to indicate 
his great strength and the swiftness of 
his conquests, 7:6; 8:5-7; 11 : 3, 4. 
He succeeded his father, Philip, b. c. 
336, conquered Syria, Palestine, Egypt, 
destroyed the Persian empire and sub- 
stituted the Grecian, but died at the age 
of 32, from the effects of intemperance, 
in Babylon, and was buried in Alexan- 
dria, which he had founded, b. c. 332. 
His conquests were divided among his 
four generals. Josephus relates that 
after the siege of Tyre he visited Jeru- 
salem ; and being shown the prophecy 
of Daniel concerning himself, he grant- 
ed the Jews everywhere the most im- 
portant privileges. But the heathen 
historians ignore this event. 

ALEXANDRIA, the Grecian cap- 
ital of Egypt, founded by and named 
after Alexander the Great, B. c. 332. 

Situation. — It was a noted seaport of 
Lower Egypt, and was situated on a 
low, narrow tract of land which divides 
Lake Mareotis from the Mediterranean, 
and near the western mouth of the Nile, 
about 120 miles from the present city 
of Cairo. 

History. — Soon after its foundation by 
Alexander it became the capital of the 
Ptolemies and the Grecian kings reign- 
ing in Egypt, and one of the most pop- 
ulous and prosperous cities of the East. 
Its harbor could accommodate vast na- 
vies, fitting it to become the commercial 
metropolis of the entire Eastern world. 
In front of the city, on the island of 
Pharos, stood a famous light-house, 
named after the island and noted as one 
of the Seven Wonders of the world. 
Alexandria numbered, in the days of 
its ancient prosperity, 600,000 inhabit- 
ants (half of them slaves), and ranked 
next to Athens in literature. It had the 
greatest library of ancient times, which 
contained upward of 700,000 rolls or 
volumes. The portion in the museum, 
consisting of 400,000 volumes, was 
burnt in B. c. 47. The additional or 
" new library " in the Serapeum, after- 
ward increased to about 500,000 vol- 
umes, including the original 300,000 
volumes, was destroyed by the fanatical 
vandalism of the Saracens in A. D. 640. 
A* Alexandria the O. T. was translated 
38 



into the Greek by seventy learned Jews 
(hence called the " Septuagint), in the 
third century before the Christian era. 
The Alexandrian Greek dialect, known 
as Hellenistic Greek, was the language 
used by the early Christian fathers, and 
is still the study of the biblical scholar 
in the pages of the N. T. Alexandria was 
the birthplace of Apollos, Acts 18 : 24, 
and in the apostle Paul's time, it carried 
on an extensive commerce with the coun- 
tries on the Mediterranean. Acts 6:9; 
27 : 6 ; 28 : 11. The city was the home 
of Philo, who there blended the Mosaic 
religion with the philosophy of Plato. 
Mark founded there a Christian church, 
which in later years became a patri- 
archal see, outranking Jerusalem and 
Antioch, being itself afterward out- 
ranked by Constantinople and Rome. In 
its catechetical school — the theological 
seminary of those days — Clement and 
Origen taught the Christian religion, in 
opposition to the false philosophy of 
the Gnostic sects. In Alexandria 
originated the Arian heresy denying 
that Jesus Christ was divine, and there 
Athanasius, the " father of orthodoxy," 
firmly opposed the false and defended 
the true doctrine of the deity of our 
Lord. From a. d. 300 to 600' the city 
was second only to Rome in size and 
importance, and was the chief seat of 
Christian theology. It was conquered 
by the Saracens under Caliph Omar 
about A. D. 640, when it began to decline. 
The rising importance of Constanti- 
nople, and the discovery of an ocean 
passage to India by way of Cape Good 
Hope, contributed to its further ruin, 
until it was reduced from a prosperous 
city of half a million to a poor village 
of only 5000 to 6000 inhabitants. The 
plan of Alexandria on the next page is 
taken from Fairbairn's Imperial Dic- 
tionary of the Bible. 

Present Condition. — It is now an im- 
portant city of 240,000 inhabitants (in- 
cluding 50,000 Franks), and is connected 
with Cairo by a railway, and also with 
Suez, on the Red Sea. The city has a 
new artificial harbor with a breakwater 
two miles long. Among the ancient 
monuments to be seen are the Cata- 
combs, the Column of Diocletian, 94 
feet high and named " Pompey's Pil- 
lar" — not from the famous Pompey, but 
from a Roman prefect who erected the 



ALE 



ALL 



ALEXANDRIA 




column in honor of the emperor Diocle- 
tian — and one of the two obelisks or 
"Needles of Cleopatra," which, however, 
belong to the time of the Pharaohs and 
were brought from Heliopolis. One was 
transferred to London in 187S, and now 
adorns the embankment of the Thames; 
the other is to be removed to the city of 
New York (18S0). 

ALEXANDRIANS. Acts 6 : 9. 
Jews from Alexandria at Jerusalem, 
where they had a synagogue by them- 
selves, or perhaps the Libertines and 
Cyrenians worshipped with them. 

AL'GUM. See Almug. 

ALI'AH (wickedness). See Alvah. 

ALI'AN (tall). 1 Chr. 1 : 40. See 
Alvax. 

A'LIEN. See Stranger. 

AL'LEGORY. Gal. 4:24. A fig- 
ure of speech, nearly resembling the 
parable or fable, common in the Scrip- 
tures and among all Oriental nations. 
It properly means a figurative speech 
which, under the literal sense of the 
words, conveys a deeper spiritual mean- 
ing. But the literal or historic sense 
is not necessarily denied. Paul gives 
two examples of allegorical interpreta- 



tion — the rock in the wilderness of 
which the Israelites did drink, and which 
spiritually or mystically means Christ, 
1 Cor. 10:4; and the story of Hagar 
and Sarah. Gal. 4 : 24, 25. In v. 25 the 
best critical authorities leave out "Agar," 
and thus rid the verse of much of its dif- 
ficulty, for it is not asserted that Agar 
is. but that Sinai is, a mountain in Ara- 
bia. See Parable. 

ALLELU'I A , Rev. 19 : 1 , or HAL- 
LELU'JAH, a Hebrew word signify- 
ing Praise ye the Lord. It was a com- 
mon exclamation of joy and praise in 
the Jewish worship, and begins and con- 
cludes several of the Psalms, as 106, 111, 
112, 113, 117, and 135. The Psalms 113 
to 118 constituted, according to Jewish 
enumeration, the Hallel, which was 
sung on the first of the month and at 
the Feasts of Dedication, Tabernacles, 
Weeks, and of the Passover. 

ALLI'ANCE. The Jews were in 
intention a peculiar people, designed to 
live apart from all other nations. But 
they frustrated this design, and leagued 
themselves in offensive and defensive 
treaties with the surrounding govern- 
ments. We know so little of the details 
39 



ALL 



ALM 



of these affairs that we cannot always 
be sure just when they took place. But 
it is noticeable that the decay of the 
Jewish state in purity is synchronous 
with a desire to receive outside help. 
They left God for man. Before the state 
arose, alliances were indeed formed by 
the patriarchs, Gen. 21 : 27-32; 26 : 28, 
29 ; 31 : 44-54, but they were of very lim- 
ited extent. When the Israelites invad- 
ed Palestine they were forbidden to ally 
themselves with the inhabitants, but the 
Gibeonites fraudulently made a treaty 
with them, to which Israel abode faith- 
ful. Josh. 9. David and Solomon made 
an alliance with Tyre, 2 Sam. 5 : 11 ; 

1 Kgs. 5 : 1-12, but it was for pacific 
ends. When, however, the disruption 
took place, both Judah and Israel look- 
ed to neighboring states for assistance 
in their " intestine internecine wars." 
By means of these foreigners idolatry 
was introduced, the national purity 
eventually destroyed, and the anger of 
God thus excited. 

Alliances were made by an oath be- 
tween the parties, who in solemn fashion 
passed between the parts of an equally- 
divided victim. Gen. 15:10; Jer. 34: 
18-20. A feast followed. Gen. 28 : 30 : 

2 Sam. 3 : 20. Salt, symbol of fidelity 
to this day in the East, was used ; hence 
the phrase "covenant of salt." Num. 
18 : 19 ; 2 Chr. 13 : 5. Once made, these 
alliances must not be broken, Josh. 9: 
18; the punishment for so doing was 
severe. 2 Sam. 21 : 1 ; Eze. 17 : 16. 

AI/JjON (an oak), a place on the 
boundary of Naphtali, Josh. 19 : 33 ; 
probably should be rendered the " oak- 
forest." See Zaanannim. 

AI/JjGN (an oak), the son of Je- 
daiah. 1 Chr. 4:37. 

AL'LON-BACHUTH (oak of 
weeping), an oak tree near Bethel, under 
which Deborah, Bebekah's nurse, was 
buried. Gen. 35: 8. 

ALMO'DAD (immeasurable), the 
Joktanite. Geo. 10:26; 1 Chr. 1: 20. 

ALMON. Josh. 21 : 18. See Ale- 

METJT. 

AI/MOND (Amygdnhi*) communis), 
a tree resembling the peach in size, leaf, 
flower, and fruit. The fruit is green, 
almost pulpless, and shrivels off in Sep- 
tember, leaving the nuts, for which the 
tree is chiefly valued, and which the sons 
of Jacob carried down to the governor 
40 



of Egypt, a country where almonds seem 
to have been rare. Gen. 43: 11. "Hazel," 
in Gen. 30 : 37, probably denotes this 
tree. The bowls of the sacred candle- 
stick were made like unto almonds, Ex. 
25 : 33, by which name of " almonds " 
English workmen to this day call the 
pieces of glass used to ornament branch- 
candlesticks. Aaron's rod that budded 
yielded this fruit. Num. 17 : 8. 

In January, before flowers appear oe 
other trees, they adorn the naked twigs 
of the almond. Hence the allusion of 
the poet: 

" The hope, in dreams of a happier hour, 
That alights on Misery's brow, 
Springs out of the silvery almond-flower, 
That blooms on a leafless beugh." 

The Hebrew name for this tree, doubt- 
less suggested by its early blooming, 
means hasten, which explains Jer. 1:11, 
12 : •' The word of the Lord came unto 
me, saying, Jeremiah, what seest thou ? 
And I said, I see a rod of an almond 
[hasten'] tree. Then said the Lord unto 
me, Thou hast well seen : for I will 
hasten my word to perform it." The 
allusion in Eccl. 12 : 5 is by some 
thought to refer to the beautiful resem- 
blance of the almond tree when in blos- 
som to a hoary head. But as these 




Almond. (Frovi Wm. Smith. ) 

flowers, though white in contrast with 
peach-bloom, are still pinkish, the opin- 
ion now prevails that " as the almond 
ushers in the spring, so do the signs re- 
ferred to in the context indicate the 
hastening of old age and death." 



ALM 



ALT 



AL'MON- DIB'LATHA ' I M 

(hiding of the two Jig-cakes), one of the 

halting-places of the Israelites near 
the river Arnon ; probably the same as 
Beth-diblathaim. Num.* 33 : 46, 47; 
Jer 48 • 22. 

ALMS, ALMS DEEDS. The 
word is not found in the Authorized 
Version of the Old Testament, but is 
frequent in the New Testament. The 
duty was, however, enjoined very strict- 
ly upon the Jews, who by law were re- 
quired always to leave gleanings in the 
fields that the poor might be fed. Lev. 
19 : 9, 10 ; 23 : 22 : Deut. 15 : 11 ; 24 : 
19; 26:2-13; Ruth 2 : 2. Every third 
year the tithe of the produce of the 
farmers was to be shared with the • 
Levite, the fatherless, the stranger, and 
the widow. Deut. 14 : 23. Alms-giving 
is a subject of praise in the Old Testa- 
ment; e.g. Job 31:17; Ps. 41:1 and 
112 : 9. In the temple there was one box 
for the reception of alms to be dedicated 
to the education of the poor children of 
good family. Alms-giving was a part of 
Pharisaic practice. Our Lord did not 
rebuke them for it, but for their self- 
satisfaction in the performance. Matt. 
6:2. In Acts 10 : 31 ; Rom. 15 : 25-27 ; 
1 Cor. 16 : 1-4 the Christian mode of re- 
lieving the wants of others is set forth. 

AI/MUG TREES, 1 Kgs. 10:11, 
AL'GUM TREES, 2 Chr. 2:8; 9: 
10, 11. Two forms of the same word. 
A precious wood used for musical in- 
struments or cabinet-work. Being or- 
dered by Solomon, it was brought from 
Ophir to Tyre, and thence with cedar of 
Lebanon to Jerusalem. As to what 
almug-wood was there are many theo- 
ries, but some of the best authorities 
believe it to have been the red sandal- 
wood of India. 

AI/OES. Ps. 45:8; Song Sol. 4: 
14. We may infer that aloes was some 
fragrant and costly wood or gum entire- 
ly different from the medicine which we 
know by that name. It is believed to 
have been brought from India, and was 
used in embalming the dead. John 19 : 
39. 

Lign- aloes — that is, wood-aloes, Num. 
24: 6 — is a translation of the same He- 
brew word, but probably means a differ- 
ent plant. Balaam appears to refer to 
a well-known tree whose qualities might 
illustrate the condition of the Israelites 



— possibly, to some kind of odoriferous 
cedar. 




Aloes (Aquilaria agallocha. After Dr. Birdwood.) 



A'LOTH, a district in charge of 
Baanah, one of Solomon's officers ; per- 
haps it should be Bealoth. 1 Kgs. 4 : 
16; possibly, Alia, near Malta. 

ALTHA. See A and 0. 

ALPHEUS (exchange ?). 1. The 
father of the apostle James the Less, 
Matt. 10 : 3, and husband or father of 
Mary. John 19 : 25. Others make him 
the uncle of Jesus by identifying him 
with Cleophasand calling his wife a sister 
of the mother of Jesus; but it is more 
likely that "the sister of the mother of 
Jesus," mentioned John 19 : 25, was 
Salome, the mother of John, who was at 
the cross, according to the svnoptical 
Gospels. Matt. 27 : 36 ; Mark'l5 : 40. 

2. The father of Levi or Matthew. 
Mark 2 : 14. 

ALTAR. Gen. 8:20. A structure 
appropriated exclusively to the offering 
of sacrifices, under the Jewish law. 
See Sacrifices. Though sacrifices were 
offered before the Flood, the word altar 
does not occur until the time of Noah's 
departure from the ark. 

Altars were of various forms, and at 
first rude in their construction, being 
nothing more, probably, than a square 
heap of stones or mound of earth. 
The altar on which Jacob made an of- 
fering at Bethel was the single stone 
which had served him for a pillow dur- 
ing the night. Gen. 28 : 18. Primarily 
for sacrifice, they seem at times to have 
been built for a witness merely, to mark 
the spot of God's appearance or other 
41 



ALT 



ALT 



memorable event. Gen. 12 : 7 ; Ex. 17 : 
15, 16; Josh. 22:10-29. The altar 
which Moses was commanded to build, 
Ex. 20 : 24, was to be made of earth. 
If made of stone, it was expi-essly re- 
quired to be rough, the use of a tool 
being regarded as polluting, Ex. 20 : 
25, but this refers only to the body of 
the altar and that part on which the 
victim was laid, as is evident from the 
directions given for making a casing of 
shittim-wood and overlaying it with 
brass for the altar of burnt-oflfering. 
It was also to be without steps. Ex. 
20 : 26. See also Deut. 27 : 2-6 and 
Josh. 8 : 31. The law of Moses forbade 
the erection of altars except in the 
tabernacle ; yet even pious Israelites 
disobeyed the letter of this law, for 
Gideon, Samuel, David, and Solomon 
are mentioned as setting up altars. The 
temple altar was an asylum ; e. g. 1 Kgs. 
1 : 50. Altars were used in idol-worship ; 
and because they were often erected on 
high p'aces they acquired the name of 
"high places." 

The structures are different, as well as 
the apparent ornaments and uses. On 
representations of them are projections 
upward at each cor-ner, which represent 
the true figure of the horns. Ex. 27 : 2 ; 
I Kgs. 2:28; Rev. 9:13. They were 
probably used to confine the victim. 
Ps. 118:27. 

The altars required in the Jewish 
worship were : 

1. "The altar of burnt -offering," 
or the " brazen altar," in the taber- 
nacle in the wilderness. This altar 
stood directly in front of the principal 
entrance. It was made of shittim-wood 
(acacia), seven feet and six inches 
square, and four feet and six inches 
high. It was hollow and overlaid with 
plates of brass. The horns — of which 
there was one on each corner — were of 
wood, and overlaid in the same way. 
A grate or net-work of brass was also 
attached to it, either to hold the fire or 
to support a hearth of earth. The fur- 
niture of the altar was all of brass, and 
consisted of, 1. a shovel to remove the 
ashes from the altar ; 2. a pan to re- 
ceive them ; 3. basins for receiving the 
blood of the victims and removing it ; 
4. hooks for turning the sacrifice ; 5. 
fire-pans, or perhaps censers, for carry- 
ing coals from the fire or for burning 
42 



incense. At each corner was a brass 
ring, and there were also two staves or 
rods overlaid with brass, which passed 
through these rings, and served for car- 




Altar of Burnt-Offering in the Tabernacle. 

rying the altar from place to place. 
The altar is described in Ex. 27. The 
" compass " referred to, v. 5, was a ledge 
running all around the altar about mid- 
way from the ground — affording a con- 
venient place for the priest to stand 
while offering sacrifice — supported by a 
brass net-like grating. The fire used 
on this altar was kindled miraculously 
and was perpetually maintained. It 
was also a place of constant sacrifice. 

In the first temple, which in its gen- 
eral plan was constructed after the pat- 
tern of the tabernacle in the wilderness, 
the altar of burnt-offering stood in the 
same relative position as in the taber- 
nacle. It was much larger, however, 
being thirty feet square and fifteen feet 
high, its particular plan being appoint- 




Altar of Burnt-Offering in the Temple. 
{From Surenhusius's Mislina.) 

ed expressly by divine authority. It 
was made entirely of bronze plates, 
which covered a structure of earth or 
stone. 2 Chr. 4:1. In the second tem- 
ple it occupied the same position, though 
it was still larger and more beautiful than 
in the first. An inclined plane led in 
each case up to the altar, since express 
command forbade the Jews using steps. 
Ex. 20 : 26. 

2. The " altar of incense," or the 
"golden altar/' stood within the holy 



ALT 



AMA 



place and near to the inmost veil. Ex. 
30 : 1-6. It was made of the same 
wood with the brazen altar, and was 
eighteen inches square and three feet 
high. The top, as well as the sides and 
horns, was overlaid with pure gold, and 
it was finished around the upper surface 




Altar of Incense. 
with a crown or border of gold. Just 
below this border four golden rings were 
attached to each side of the altar, one 
near each corner. The staves or rods 
for bearing the altar passed through 
these rings, and were made of the same 
wood with the altar itself, and richly 
overlaid with the same precious metal. 
Upon this altar incense was burned 
every morning and every evening (see 
Incense), so that it was literally per- 
petual. Ex. 30 : 8. The " altar of in- 
cense " in Solomon's temple was made 
of cedar overlaid with gold. Neither 
burnt-sacrifice, nor meat-offering, nor 
drink-offering, was permitted upon this 
altar, nor was it ever stained with blood, 
except once annually, when the priest 
made atonement. Lev. 16 : 18, 19. 

AL TAR TO THE [AN] UN- 
KNOWN GOD, referred to by Paul. 
Acts 17 : 23. There were in Athens several 
altars with this inscription, which were 
erected during a plague, the Athenians 
believing they had unconsciously offend- 
ed some divinity, but not knowing whom. 

AL-TAS'CHITH [destroy not). 
These words are in the titles to Ps. 57, 
58. 59 and 75, and are probably "the 
beginning of some song or poem to the 
tune of which those psalms were to be 
chanted.'' 

A'LUSH (a crowd of men, or place 
of 'old beast 8), an encampment of the 



Israelites on their way to Sinai, and the 
last before Rephidim. Num. 33 : 13, 14. 
See Rephidim. 

AL'VAH (wickedness), a chief of 
Edom. Gen. 36 : 40. Called Aliah in 
1 Car. 1:51. 

AL/VAN (tall), a desctndant of 
Sier the Horite. Gen. 36 : 23. Called 
Allan in 1 Chr. 1:40. 

A'MAD ( people of duration), a town 
ofAsher. Josh. 19 : 26. Robinson sug- 
gested that it might be located at Shefa 
Amar, on a ridge of Haifa. Drake pro- 
poses to identify it with el-Amud. 

A'MAL {labor), an Asherite. 1 Chr. 
7:35. 

AM'ALEK (dweller in a valley), 
the son of Eliphaz, and grandson of 
Esau, chieftain or " duke " of Edom. 
Gen. 36 : 16. The Amalekites were not 
named from him, for they existed long 
before. Gen. 14 : 7. Arabian tradition 
makes him the son of Ham. 

AMALEKITES. 1 Sam. 15 : 6. 
A powerful people of uncertain origin, 
first mentioned in connection with the 
invasion of Chedorlaomer. Gen. 14 : 7. 
They are called, Num. 24: 20, the first 
of all the nations. They were signally 
defeated in a contest with the children 
I of Israel at Rephidim, and for oppos- 
{ ing the progress of Israel they became 
1 objects of God's judgments. They 'were 
afterward defeated and repulsed by Gid- 
eon, Jud. 7 : 22, and by Saul, 1 Sam. 15, 
j and by David, 1 Sam. 30, till at last 
J the word of the Lord was fulfilled to 
I the very letter, and their name was 
blotted from the earth. 1 Sam. 30 : 17 
and 1 Chr. 4 : 43. 

AMALEKITES, COUNTRY 
OF THE, a region lying between 
Canaan and Egypt, chiefly south of the 
mountains of Judah, and from Mount 
Sinai eastward to Mount Seir and the 
Salt Sea. Gen. 14 : 7 : Ex. 17: 8 j Num. 
13 : 29 ; 14 : 25. For the physical fea- 
tures and character of the region see 

AMALEKITES, MOUNT OF 
THE. Jud. 12:15. A mountain or 
hilly district in Ephraim, probably so 
named from an early settlement of the 
Amalekites or a later invasion by 
thenu 

A'MAM (gathering-place), a city in 
the south of Judah. Josh. 15 : 26. 
Wilton and others would join this word 
43 



AMA 



AMA 



with Hazor in the preceding verse, and 
read " Hazor-Ainan," but ancient au- 
thorities do not support this view. Its 
precise location is unknown. 

AM'ANA, or AMA'NA (peren- 
nial). 1. Margin, same as Abana. 2 
Kgs. 5 : 12. See Abana. 

2. A ridge or peak of the Lebanon 
range, in which the river Amana or 
Abana has its source. Song. Sol. 4 : 8. 

AMARI'AH (said, i. e. ]iromised). 
1. Son of Meraioth, a descendant of 
Aaron in the line of Eleazar, and 
father of Ahitub, whose son, Zadok, was 
made high priest, bringing back the of- 
fice to his family. 1 Chr. 6 : 7, 52. 

2. A high priest later on. 1 Chr. 6:11. 

3. A Kohathite Levite. 1 Chr. 23 : 19 j 
24 : 23. 

4. The head of one of the twenty-four 
courses of priests. 2 Chr. 31 : 15 ; Neh. 
10:3. 

5. One in Ezra's time. Ezr. 10 : 42. 

6. An ancestor of Zephaniah the 
prophet. Zeph. 1:1. 

7. One of the family of Perez. Neh. 
11:4. 

AM'ASA (a burden). 1. A son of 
Jether (or Ithra) and Abigail, and 
nephew of David. He joined in Ab- 
salom's rebellion, and was appointed his 
commander-in-chief. 2 Sam. 17 : 25. 
Being defeated by Joab, and Absalom 
being killed, he submitted to David, and 
was made captain of the host in room 
of Joab, his cousin, whose part in the 
death of Absalom and general Jack of 
respect brought him into disfavor. 
When Sheba revolted David sent Amasa 
to assemble the people within three 
days, but his tardiness, owing, perhaps, 
to his unpopularity, obliged David to 
despatch his household troops under 
Abishai in pursuit of the rebel. Joab 
joined his brother, and meeting Amasa 
on the latter's return, under pretence of 
saluting him killed him and put him- 
self again in supreme command. "2 Sam. 
20 : 10. See Joab. 

2. A prince of Ephraim, son of Had- 
lai, in the reign of Ahaz. 2 Chr. 28 : 12. 

AMAS AI (burdensome). 1. A Le- 
vite, one of the sons of Elkanah. 1 Chr. 
6:25. 

2. The chief of a party that came to 
David at Ziklag. 1 Chr. 12 : 18. 

3. One of the priests who blew the 
trumpets before the ark. 1 Chr. 15 : 24. 

44 



4. A Kohathite in the reign of Heze- 
kiah. 2 Chr. 29 : 12. 

AMASH'AI (burdensome), a priest 
of the time of Nehemiah, Neh. 11 : 13. 
Some suppose him to be the same as 
Maasiai. 1 Chr. 9 : 12. 

AMASI'AH (whom Jehovah bears), 
the son of Zichri, captain of 200,000 
men under Jehoshaphat. 2 Chr. 17 : 16. 

AMAZl'AH (whom Jehovah- 
strengthens). 1. The eighth king of Ju 
dah, the son and successor of Joash, 
commenced his reign in his twenty-fifth 
year, and reigned twenty-nine years, 
b. c. 839-809. 2 Kgs. 14 : 1-20. He 
served the Lord, but not perfectly. He 
first slew his father's murderers, but 
not their children, thus observing the 
Mosaic law. 2 Chr. 25 : 4. 

At the commencement of his reign, 
he showed an outward regard to the 
law of the Lord, but by power and 
ambition he fell into a snare, and was 
destroyed by violence. Amaziah re- 
solved to make war upon the Edomites, 
who had revolted from the kingdom of 
Judah several years before. 2 Kgs. 8 : 
20. He raised an army of 300,000 men 
from among his own subjects, and 
hired 100,000 men of Israel, for whose 
services he paid 100,000 talents of sil- 
ver — the first example in Jewish his- 
tory of a mercenary army. Before he 
commenced the expedition, however, 
he was directed by divine authority 
to dismiss his hired soldiers, or if he 
did not he should certainly fall before 
his enemies. After some hesitation he 
sent them home. Amaziah met the 
Edomites in a place called the Valley 
of Salt, and gained a signal victory 
over them, slaying 10,000 and taking 
10,000 prisoners. Elated by his suc- 
cess, and forgetful of God who had 
given him the victory, he set up the 
idols of his vanquished enemy as his 
own gods. The anger of the Almighty 
was kindled against him, and in a mes- 
sage God exposed and rebuked his sin. 
2 Chr. 25:15. The king was already 
hardened enough to question the au- 
thority of God's messenger, and even 
to threaten him with death. Thus 
given up to follow his own devices, he 
sought occasion of war with Jehoash, 
king of Israel. The answer of the 
king to the challenge was given in 
the form of a fable expressive of the 



AMB 



AMI 



utmost contempt, and contained at 
the same time a severe rebuke to the 
king of Judah for his pride and vain- 
glory. Undeterred, he met the army 
of Israel at Beth-shemesh, in Judaea, 
but his army was completely routed, 
and he was taken prisoner. Jehoash 
then proceeded to break down a sec- 
tion of the city wall six hundred feet 
in length, and marched through the 
breach, plundered the temple of its 
gold and silver vessels, seized the 
king's treasures, and taking such host- 
ages as he pleased returned in triumph 
to Samaria. 2 Kgs. 14. About fifteen 
years after this disgraceful defeat, Ania- 
ziah fled from Jerusalem to Lachish to 
escape a conspiracy ; but he was fol- 
lowed to the place to which he fled 
and put to death, and his body taken 
back to Jerusalem and buried with 
his fathers. His name is omitted in 
the genealogy of Christ. 

2. A Simeonite. 1 Chr. 4: 34. 

3. A Levite. 1 Chr. 6 : 45. 

4. A priest of the golden calf at Beth- 
el who complained against the prophet 
Amos to Jeroboam, king of Israel, and 
tried to effect his banishment. Amos 
7: 10-17. See Amos. 

AMBASSADOR, a person of the 
highest rank, appointed to represent his 
government in the transaction of busi- 
ness with a foreign power. The earliest 
mention in the Bible is in the case of the 
Edomites, Num. 20 : 14, to whom Moses 
sent "messengers," also in the case of 
Moab, the Amorites, the Gibeonites, and 
other tribes. See Num. 21 : 21 ; Josh. 
9:4: Jud. 11:17-19. In the days of 
the kingdoms they are more frequently 
mentioned. An injury upon them was 
an insult to their king. 2 Sam. 10:5. 
Their mission was often pacific or con- 
gratulatory, as in the latter incident. 
Paul calls gospel-preachers the ambas- 
sadors of Christ. 2 Cor. 5 : 20. 

AMBASSAGE. Luke 14: 32. A 
public message. The term may include 
the messenger or ambassador as well as 
his message. 

AMBER. Eze. 1 : 4, 27 ; 8 : 2 (bet- 
ter elect non, or bright gold gum). Fos- 
sil gum, a beautiful bituminous sub- 
stance, susceptible of a fine polish, 
varying in color, but chiefly yellow and 
orange. It is mined in Prussia, and 
also washed ashore by the waves of the 



Baltic Sea. The word here used prob- 
ably denotes electrum, a metal composed 
of gold and silver and held in high es- 
timation among the ancients. In the 
passages cited the allusion is to the 
brightness of the metal, and does not 
necessarily imply that it is indestruc- 
tible by fire. 

AMEN' (literally, tme, firm; met- 
aphorically, faithful), used to denote 
assent or entire acquiescence, impress- 
ing the stamp of absolute truthfulness 
upon the statement. Deut. 27 : 15. It 
was used as the solemn affirmative re- 
sponse to an oath. The word was often 
repeated. It is a matter of tradition 
that in the temple the "Amen" was 
not uttered by the people, but that in- 
stead, at the conclusion of the priest's 
prayers, they responded, " Blessed be 
the name of the glory of His kingdom 
for ever and ever." Of this a trace is 
supposed to remain in the concluding 
sentence of the Lord's Prayer. Comp. 
Rom. 11 : 36. But in the synagogue and 
private houses it was customary for the 
people or members of the family who 
were present to say " Amen " to the 
prayers which were offered by the min- 
ister or master of the house, and the 
custom remained in the early Christian 
Church. Matt. 6 : 13 ; 1 Cor. 14 : 16. 
Doxologies and private prayers were 
appropriately closed with "Amen." It 
is sometimes translated verily, and was 
frequently used by our Saviour when 
he was about to utter some distinct, im- 
portant, and solemn truth. Its repeti- 
tion, " Verily, verily, I say unto you " 
(in John) strengthens the assertion.. 

The promises of God are amen, be- 
cause they are made sure and certain in 
Christ. 2 Cor. 1 : 20. Amen is one of 
the titles of our blessed Saviour, Rev. 3 : 
14, as he is the faithful and true witness. 

AMETHYST. Ex. 39: 12; Rev. 
21 : 20. A precious stone consisting of 
crystallized quartz, of a purple or blu- 
ish-violet color. Oriental amethyst, a 
variety of sapphire, is probably included 
under this latter name. 

A'MI (a builder), one who returned 
with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 57. He is 
termed Amon in Neh. 7:59. 

AMIN'ADAB for AMMINA- 
DAB. Matt. 1:4; Luke 3:33. 

AMIT'TAl (true), the father of Jo- 
nah. 2 Kgs. 14 : 25 ; Jon. 1 : 1. 
45 



AMM 



AMM 



AM'MAH {head, or loaterfall), a 
hill in front of Giah, near Gibeon, to 
which Joab pursued Abner. 2 Sam. 2 : 
24. See also Metheg-ammah. 

AM'MI, explained in the margin 
correctly, "my people." Hos. 2 : 1. 

AMMIEL {people of God). 1. The 
spy from Dan. Num. 13 : 12. 

2. The father of Machir, of Lo-debar. 
2 Sam. 9 : 4, 5 ; 17 : 27. 

3. The father of Bath-sheba, 1 Chr. 3 : 
5 : called Eliam in 2 Sam. 11 : 3. 

4. The sixth son of Obed-edom, and a 
temple-porter. 1 Chr. 28 : 5. 

AMMFHUD {people ofJudah). 1. 
An ancestor of Joshua through Elish- 
ama, the chief of Ephraim in the Wan- 
dering. Num. 1:10; 2:18; 7 : 48, 53 ; 
10:22; 1 Chr. 7 : 26. 

2. A Simeonite. Num. 34:20. 

3. A Naphtalite. Num. 34:28. 

4. Father of Talmai, king of Geshur. 
2 Sam. 13 : 37. 

5. A descendant of Pharez, son of Ju- 
dah. 1 Chr. 9 : 4. 

AMMINADAB {one of the people 
of the prince). 1. The son of Ram or 
Aram, who was the great-grandson of 
Judah, and father of Elisheba, the wife 
of Aaron. He was in the line of Christ's 
ancestors. Ex. 6 : 23 ; Num. 1:7; 2 : 
3; 7:12,17; 10:14; Ruth 4 : 19, 20 ; 
1 Chr. 2 : 10. 

2. A Kohathite, and chief of the 112 
sons of Uzziel. 1 Chr. 15 : 10-12. 

3. Put for Izhar, probably by copyist's 
error, in 1 Chr. 6 : 22. 

AMMISHAD'DAI {one of the peo- 
ple of the Almighty), the father of Ahi- 
ezer, prince of Dan. Num. 1 : 12 ; 2 : 
25; 7:66, 71; 10:25. 

AMMIZABAD {people of the 
Giver, i. e. Jehovah), an officer in Da- 
vid's army. 1 Chr. 27 : 6. 

AM'M'ON, and AMMONITES, 
LAND OF, etc., a mountainous coun- 
try on the east side of the Salt Sea, 
reaching from the river Arnon to the 
Jabbok. Num. 21 : 24 ; Deut. 2 : 19, 20. 
It lay to the north of the land of Moab; 
and "the land," "borders," or "cities" 
of the children of Ammon are noticed 
over 15 times in Old Testament history, 
and frequently with Moab. The precise 
extent of their country cannot be deter- 
mined, as they appear to have led a wan- 
dering, prelatory life similar to that of 
the wild Arab tribes now in that region. 
46 



Gilead was the best portion of their 
land. Among the cities held by them, 
sometimes, apparently, in common with 
Moab, were Heshbon, Rabbah, and Min- 
nith. The land which the king of Am- 
mon claimed in the time of the Judges, 
Jud. 11:13, once belonged to a "king 
of Moab." Num. 21 : 26. 

AMMONITES, or CHIL- 
DREN OF AMMON, Gen. 19 : 38, 



were the descendants of Ben-ammi, a 
| son of Lot. He was born in the neigh- 
j borhood of Zoar, but his posterity spread 
northwardly and occupied the mountain- 
I regions of Gilead, between the rivers 
Arnon and Jabbok. Originally their 
possessions were bounded north by the 
river Jabbok, west by Jordan, south by 
Arnon, and stretched eastwardly into 
Arabia. The Amorites, under Sihon, 
their king, expelled them from the rich- 
est part of their possessions, which lay 
between the two rivers ; but Moses re- 
covered it from the Amorites and di- 
vided it between Reuben and Gad. 
The western boundary of the Ammon- 
ites then became a branch of the river 
! Jabbok (on which their capital city, 
j Rabbah or Rabbath-Ammon, stood), 
and the mountains of Gilead bounded 
| them on the east, while the main stream 
I of the Jabbok continued to be their 
j northern boundary, and the land of 
j Moab the southern. This last is in- 
tended by the kingdom of Ammon as 
used in the sacred history. 

The children of Ammon were gross 
idolaters. Jud. 10: 6. Their chief idol 
was Molech, the same with Milcom, and 
their history is full of the judgments 
which their sins brought upon them, 
though they were spared, by God's ex- 
press command, when Israel passed by 
them from Egypt, because Lot was their 
progenitor. Deut. 2:19: 2 Chr. 20 : 10. 
Three hundred years afterward the king 
of the Ammonites made war upon the 
Israelites, under the pretence that they 
had taken their land, Jud. 11 : 13, and 
after a severe battle the Ammonites 
were routed with great slaughter. In 
the beginning of Saul's reign, 1 Sam. 
11 : 1, the Ammonites, under Nahash, 
their king, attacked Jabesh-gilead, but 
proposed to spare the inhabitants pro- 
vided they would all consent to lose the 
right eye. During the time allowed for 
their answer they collected a sufficient 



AMM 



AMO 



force to meet the Ammonites, and so 
completely routed them that two of 
them were not left together. Fifty or 
sixty years alter this one of the kings 
of the Ammonites died, and David, who 
seems to have been under some obliga- 
tion to him, sent a message of condo- 
lence to his son and successor. This 
friendly act was not received kindly, 
and the messengers of David were 
grossly abused and insulted. See Ha- 
nun. Expecting that David would at- 
tempt to revenge the insult, they ob- 
tained large supplies of men from the 
Syrians; and when David heard of 
their preparation for war, he sent Joab, } 
with a chosen troop from the army of 
Israel, to meet them. The result was 
fatal to the Ammonites. They and their 
allies were subdued, and fled. Rabbah, 
their capital, and all the rest of their 
cities were afterward destroyed by the 
Israelites, the king's crown was taken 
from his head and put on David's head, 
and the people were reduced to a state 
of abject servitude. 2 Sam. 12 : 26-31. 
In this condition they remained till the 
reign of Jehoshaphat, when they united 
with the Moabites and others and made 
war upon Judah, and were miraculous- 
ly cut off. 2 Chr. 20. Jotham fought 
and prevailed against them, and made 
them tributary for several years. Many 
Jews sought refuge among them in the 
time of the Captivity, but they do not 
seem to have decreased their hostile feel- 
ing. The most dreadful judgments were 
threatened against them and their chief 
city because they seized and occupied a 
part of the territory of Israel, Jer. 49 : 
1-6, and again because they insolently 
triumphed over the Israelites in the days 
of their captivity, Eze. 25 : 2-7, 10 ; and 
every threat was executed to the very 
uttermost in due time, as profane his- 
tory abundantly attests. "During the 
time of the Maccabees various battles 
were fought between the Ammonites 
and the Jews; and during the changes 
that ensued, first under the Grecian, then 
under the Roman supremacy, the Am- 
monites lost their independent posi- 
tion, and gradually became amalgama- 
ted with the general Arab population." 
They were a cruel, remorseless, nomadic 
people. To their god Molech they offered 
human sacrifices. See MOLECH. Where 
their capital once stood is now the vil- 



lage of Amman, 20 miles south-east of 
the modern town of es-Salt. 

AM'ltlON-NO. See No. 

AMNON {faithful). 1. The eldest 
son of David, who was guilty of vio- 
lating the chastity of his half-sister, 
Tamar. 2 Sam. 13 ; 1 Chr. 3 : 1. See 
Absalom. 

2. A descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 
4:20. 

A'MOK (deejy), a priest who re- 
turned with Zerubbabel. Neh. 12 : 7, 
20. 

A'MON, OR-A'MEN (the hidden), an 
Egyptian god, one of the eight of the 
first order, and the chief of the Thcban 
triad. Nah. 3 : 8, margin. He is repre- 




Amon. (After Wilkinson.) 

sented as a man clad in a linen tunic, 
gathered about the waist by a belt. In 
one hand he holds the symbol of life, in 
the other the staff of authority, and on 
his head is a cap with two high plumes. 

A'MON" (builder). 1. Governor of 
Samaria under Ahab. 1 Kgs. 22:26; 
2 Chr. 18:25. 

2. The fourteenth king of Judah, son 
and successor of Manasseh. He was 
47 



AMO 



AMR 



twenty-two years old when he began 
to reign, and he reigned two years 
in Jerusalem. 2 Kgs. 21:19. Zepha- 
niah gives a vivid picture of the degra- 
dation of the kingdom under this wicked 
king. He was murdered by his servants 
and succeeded by his son Josiah. 

AM'ORITE (mountaineer), LAND 
OF THE. The mountainous districts 
between the Jordan and the Mediter- 
ranean were the portion of the Amorites 
before Canaan came into the possession 
of the Israelites ; the land of the Ca- 
naanites being the low plain-country. 
The Amorites also extended their terri- 
tory, so that it at one time reached to the 
foot of Hermon and embraced all Gilead 
and Bashan. Deut. 4 : 47-49 ; 3 : 8, 10. 
For the physical features of this land see 
Canaan, Bashan, and Gilead. 

AM ORITES, correctly EM'OR- 
ITES (mountaineers), a Syrian tribe 
descended from Canaan, and among 
the most formidable of the tribes with 
whom the Israelites contended. Gen. 
10 : 16. They were of gigantic stature 
and great courage. Am. 2 : 9. They 
first inhabited the hill-country south 
of Jerusalem, the barren and rocky 
land in which David took refuge ; but 
from there they went into better posses- 
sions, and at the time of the Conquest 
they inhabited one of the most fertile 
districts of the country, being bounded 
on three sides by the rivers Arnon, Jab- 
bok, and Jordan. See Ammonites. The 
Israelites asked permission of their king 
to travel through their territory, prom- 
ising to injure nothing, not even to 
draw water from their wells ; but it was 
refused. The Amorites collected and at- 
tempted to oppose their progress, but 
were defeated, and their territory taken 
and divided between the tribes of Reu- 
ben and Gad. Josh. 13 : 15, 21, 24, 27. 
Nothing more is heard of them in the 
Bible, except occasionally as moving in 
small bands. 

A'MOS (burden), one of the lesser 
prophets, herdsman of Tekoa, a small 
town in the tribe of Judah, about 12 
miles south of Jerusalem. Am. 1:1. He 
lived in the reign of Uzziah, king of 
Judah, and of Jeroboam II., king of 
Israel, about eight hundred years be- 
fore Christ. He was a contemporary 
of Hosea. While employed as a herds- 
man he was divinely appointed to 
48 



prophesy against Israel. This kingdom 
then was in its heyday of prosperity, 
but by reason of its idolatry rife with 
the seeds of ruin. It was Amos's duty 
to speak plain words upon the evils of 
the state. Being driven from Bethel 
upon the false representation made to 
the king by the idolatrous priest Ama- 
ziah, Am. 7 : 10-17, he returned to Te- 
koa. The time and manner of his death 
are uncertain. 

Amos, Prophecy of, is the thirtieth in 
the order of the books of the Old Testa- 
ment, and is full of interest and instruc- 
tion. It may be considered as a sort of 
continuation of Joel's. It is a unit. It 
begins with the declaration of God's 
judgments against Israel's neighbors. 
But in this storm of fury Judah does 
not escape while Israel stands the brunt 
of it. 1-2 : 6. The sins of Israel are 
rebuked. 2: 6-6: 14. The rebukes are 
followed by a series of symbols, which 
are interpreted. 7 : 1-9 : 7. But the 
book closes with the promise of good. 
The " tabernacle of David " is to be re- 
stored. Thus the beauty and perpetuity 
of the Christian Church are foretold. 
It has been remarked as a peculiar fea- 
ture of this prophecy that it abounds 
with illustrations drawn from husband- 
ry and the scenes of rustic life; it cer- 
tainly contains some of the most per- 
fect specimens of sublime thought and 
beautiful expression that are to be found 
in any language. 

A'MOZ (strong), the father of Isaiah. 
2 Kgs. 19:2; Isa. 1:1. Jewish tradi- 
tion makes him the brother of Amaziah, 
king of Judah. 

AMPHIP'OLIS (around the city), 
a chief city of the southern portion of 
Macedonia under the Romans. The 
river Strymon flowed on both sides of 
the city, hence its name. It was 33 
miles south-west of Philippi, and 3 
miles from the sea. Paul and Silas 
passed through it. Acts 17:1. Neo- 
Khorio, or Newtown, a village of about 
100 houses, now occupies a portion of 
the site of Amphipolis. 

AM'PJLIAS, a Christian at Rome 
whom Paul salutes. Rom. 16 : 8. 

AM'RAM (red?), a descendant of 
Seir. 1 Chr. 1:41. 

AM'RAM (people of the exalted). 
1 . A Levite, father of Moses. Ex. 6 : 
18-20. 



AMR 



ANA 



2. One who married a foreign wife. 
Ezr. 10 : 34. 

AM'RAPHEL. Gen. 14:1. The 
Hamite king of Shinar, or Baby- 
lonia, who confederated with other 
kings and made war on Sodom and 
the other cities of the plain, plunder- 
ing them and making prisoners of 
their inhabitants. Among the cap- 
tives was Lot, Abraham's nephew. 
Gen. 14:9-16. See Lor. 

AM'ULET. The superstitious cha- 
racter of the Oriental nations has in all 
periods led them to fear the attacks of 
imaginary foes, and so, in order to pro- 
tect themselves, they wear charms of 
one sort and another. These amulets 
are indirectly and directly referred to 
in the Bible; e. g. when in the form of 




Egyptian Amulets. {In the British Muxeum.) 
1. Gold. 2. Rinsr with the word " health " inserted. 
3. Scnrabaeus. 4. Cornelian serpent's lieud. 5. Porce- 
lain eyes. 6. Gold pendant, iulaid. 

ear-rings. Gen. 35:4; Jud. 8:24; 
Hos. 2:13. But more commonly they 
were worn suspended from a necklace 
as a gem with an inscription or figure 
of a god upon it. Charms consisted 
likewise of words written upon papy- 
rus or parchment rolled up tightly 
4 



and sewed in linen ; perhaps these 
are meant by the " tablets " of Isa. 3 : 
20. Phylacteries, some suppose, de- 
rived their sanction from the danger 
of idolatrous practices to which this 
custom gave rise. 

AM'ZI {strong). 1. A Levite. 
1 Chr. 6 : 4(>. 

2. A priest. Neh. 11 : 12. 

A'lVAB (place of grapes), a place or 
town of the Anakitn, Josh. 11 : 21 ; 15 : 
50 ; now Anab, 10 miles south-south-west 
of Hebron, though Lieutenant Conder 
places it much farther west. 

A'NAH (answering), the father of 
Aholibamah, one of Esau's wives. Gen. 
36 : 2, 14, 24. The discovery of some 
warm springs (although in the A. V. the 
word is translated mules) is attributed 
to him. 

ANAHA'RATH {gorge, or pass), a 
city of Issachar, Josh. 19 : 19, probably 
in the northern part of that territory. 
Meskavah, and also en-Naurah, just east 
of Little Heruion, have been suggested 
as the site of Anaharath. 

ANAI'AH (whom Jehovah answers). 
1. A priest. Neh. 8 : 4. 

2. One of the '* heads " of the peo- 
ple who sealed the covenant. Neh. 
10 : 22. 

AN'AKIM (Anak, sing., neck- 
chain ; Anakitn, plur., long-necked per- 
sons), a race of giants, the descend- 
ants of Arba, who gave the name of 
Kirjath-arba, city of Arba, to the city 
which the Jews called Hebron. The 
name Anak belongs to the race, not to 
an individual. The race was divided 
into three tribes, called in common 
the Anakitn, and remarkable for their 
fierceness and stature. In the time 
of the Conquest they occupied the 
territory between Hebron and Jeru- 
salem. Josh. 11:21, 22. Their gigan- 
tic size had terrified the spies Moses 
sent out, Num. 13:28, but they were 
defeated by the Israelites, who entered 
into their possessions, Hebron becom- 
ing the portion of Caleb. Josh. 14 : 
15. See Giants. 

ANAM'MELECH. See Adbam- 

MELECH. 

A'NAN" (a cloud), one who sealed 
the covenant. Neh. 10 : 26. 

ANA'NI (whom Jehovah covers), a 
descendant of David. 1 Chr. 3: 24. 

ANANI'AH (whom Jehovah covers), 
49 



ANA 



AND 



an ancestor of one who helped to build 
the wall of Jerusalem. Neh. 3 : 23. 

ANANI'AH (whom Jehovah covers), 
one of the towns in which the Benja- 
mites dwelt after the Captivity. Neh. 
11 : 32. The modern village Beit Ha- 
nina, about 3 miles north of Jerusalem, 
corresponds well in name and situation 
to this ancient town. 

AN ANI'AS (the Greek form of Han- 
aniah, whom Jehovah has graciously 
given). 1. One of the professed con- 
verts to the Christian faith under the 
preaching of the apostles. Acts 5:1- 
10. When the disciples had thrown 
their property into a common stock, 
Ananias sold his estate and brought 
a part of the purchase-money, pre- 
tending it was the whole proceeds of 
the sale. Being charged by Peter 
with his sin, he fell down dead upon 
the spot. His wife Sapphira, who was j 
privy to the fraud of her husband, but | 
ignorant of his dreadful end, being j 
asked for how much their estate had ] 
been sold, confirmed the falsehood j 
which Ananias had told, and instant- 
ly met the same doom. 

2. A primitive devout disciple who 
lived at Damascus, and was commis- 
sioned to visit Paul soon after his con- 
version and restore him to sight. Acts 
9 : 10-18 ; 22 : 1 2-1 6. Tradition makes 
him subsequently the bishop of Damas- 
cus, and a martyr. 

3. The son of Nebedseus, appointed 
high priest by Herod, king of Chalcis, 
A. d. 48. Acts 23 : 2. In a. r>. 52 he 
was sent to Rome to answer a charge 
of oppression preferred against him 
by the Samaritans. He was, how- 
ever, acquitted, returned, and resumed 
his office. Paul was tried before biin, 
a. d. 55. He was likewise one of the 
apostle's accusers before Felix and be- 
fore Festus. Acts 24 : 1 ; 25 : 2. - See 
Paul. He was shortly after deposed, 
but retained much power until at the 
breaking out of the Jewish war, when 
the Sicarii set fire to his house and 
compelled him to flee, but followed and 
killed him, a. d. 67 (Josephus, Jewish 

Wars, ii. 17, 9). 

A'NATH (answer), father of Sham- 
gar, one of the Judges. Jud. 3 : 31 ; 5 : 6. 

ANATHEMA (set apart, devoted). 
In its usual acceptation it means the de- 
voting of an animal, person, or place to 
50 



destruction. Lev. 27 : 28 ; Josh. 6 : 17-21. 
Paul uses it in the sense "cut off, ac- 
cursed." Rom. 9:3; Gal. 1 : 8, 9. Hence 
in ecclesiastic language it means " ex- 
communicated, cut off from the church." 

Anathema Maranatha is a Syriac 
exclamation signifying, Let him be ac- 
cursed, The Lord is at hand, a reminder 
that at the coming of the Lord rewards 
and punishments would be meted out. 
1 Cor. 16:22. 

AN'ATHOTH (answers). 1. A 
son of Becher the Benjamite. 1 Chr. 
7:8. 

2. One who sealed the covenant. 
Neh. 10:19. 

AN'ATHOTH (answers, or echoes), 
a Levitical city in Benjamin, Josh. 21: 
.18 ; 1 Chr. 6 : 60 ; the birthplace of Jer- 
emiah, Jer. 1:1; 11:21, 23; 32:7-9; 
on the route of the Assyrians, Isa. 10 : 
30 ; some of its people returned with 
Zerubbabel, Ezr. 2 : 23 ; Neh. 7 : 27 ; 
now a village of about 20 houses, 4 miles 
north-east of Jerusalem, and called Ana- 
ta. Tradition incorrectly locates Ana- 
thoth at Kuriet-el-Enab, near Abu Gosh, 
and between Bamleh and Jerusalem. 

ANCH'OIt. Acts 27 : 29. The an- 
chor was formerly cast from the stern 
of the ship. In the passage cited refer- 
ence may be had to an anchor with four 
flukes or arms, such as are sometimes 
used by boats in shallow water; or it 
may mean four distinct separate anchors. 




4fir 



The above represents a common anchor 
with two flukes or arms. There is a 
strong shank c. at one end of which are 
two arms b b, terminating in flukes a a. 
At the other end of the shank is the 
stock d, supplied with a ring to which a 
cable can be attached. The stock is de- 
signed to give such a direction to the 
falling anchor that one of the flukes shall 
enter itself firmly at the bottom. See 
Ship. 

AN'DREW (manly), one of the 
twelve apostles, John 1 : 40, the son of 



AND 



ANG 



Jonas and brother of Simon Peter, was a 
native of Bethsaida, in Galilee, by trade 
a fisherman, and originally a disciple 
of John the Baptist, whom he left to 
follow our Saviour. When he had found 
the Messiah, he forthwith sought his 
brother Simon and brought him to 
Jesus, and soon after they both attached 
themselves to the little band of his dis- 
ciples and followed him till the close of 
his ministry. The events with which 
Andrew was particularly connected are 
recorded in Matt. 4: 18-20 ; Mark 13 : 3 ; 
and John 1 : 35-40; 6 : 3-13; 12 : 22. 
Tradition says he preached the gospel in 
Scythia, Greece, and Asia Minor, and was 
crucified on a cross of a peculiar shape 
(hence St. Andrew's cross) in Achaia. 

ANDRONICUS (victorious man), 
a Roman Christian whom Paul salutes 
in Rom. 16:7. 

A'XEM [two fountains), a Levitical 
city of Issachar, 1 Chr. 6 : 73 ; probably 
the same as En-gannim of Josh. 19 : 
21 ; 21 : 29. It has been identified with 
the modern Jen in, on the border of the 
plain of Jezreel. See En-Gannim (2). 

A'NER [boy), one of the three Amor- 
ite chiefs who joined Abraham in the 
pursuit of the four invading kings. Gen. 
14:13. 

A'NER {boy), a Levitical city in 
Manasseh, west of the Jordan, 1 Chr. 
6 : 70 : supposed by some to be the same 
as Taanach, Jud. 1 : 27, and Tanach. 
Josh. 21 : 25. 

ANGEL. Gen. 24 : 7. This word, 
both in the Greek and Hebrew lan- 
guages, signifies a messenger, and in 
this sense is often applied to men. 2 
Sam. 2:5; Luke 7 : 24 and 9 : 52. When 
the term is used, as it generally is, to 
designate spiritual beings, it denotes 
the office they sustain as the agents by 
whom God makes known his will and 
executes his government. 

Our knowledge of such beings is de- 
rived wholly from revelation, and that 
rather incidentally. We know, from their 
residence and employment, that they 
must possess knowledge and purity far 
beyond our present conceptions, and 
the titles applied to them denote the 
exalted place they hold among created 
intelligences. Christ did not come to 
the rescue of angels, but of men. 
Comp. Heb. 2: 16. The angels are rep- 
resented as ministering spirits sent 



forth to do service to the heirs of sal- 
vation. Heb. 1:14. They appear at 
every important stage in the history 
of revelation, especially at the birth of 
Christ, Luke 2:9-13, in his agony in 
Gethsemane, Luke 22 ; 43, at his resur- 
rection, Matt. 28:2; Mark 16:5; Luke 

24 : 4, and at the final judgment. 
Matt. 13 : 41 . 

Of their appearance and employment 
we may form some idea from the follow- 
ing passages — viz. Gen. 16 : 7-11. Com- 
pare Gen. 18 : 2 ; 19 : 1 with Hob: 13 : 2 ; 
Jud. 13 : 6 ; Eze. 10 ; Dan. 3 : 28 and 
6 : 22 ; Matt. 4:11; 18 : 10 and 28 : 2-7 ; 
Luke 1 : 19 ; 16 : 22 and 22 : 43 ; Acts 
6 : 15 ; 12 : 7 ; Heb. 1 : 14 ; 2 :16 ; 2 Thess. 
1:7; Rev. 10: I, 2, 6. 

Of their number some idea may be 
inferred from 1 Kgs. 22 : 19 ; Ps. 68 : 
17 ; Dan. 7:10; Matt. 26 : 53 ; Luke 2 : 
9-14; 1 Cor. 4:9; Heb. 12 : 22. 

Of their strength we may judge from 
Ps. 103 : 20 : 2 Pet. 2 : 11; Rev. 5:2; 
18:21 ; 19:17. 

And we learn their inconceivable 
activity from Jud. 13 : 20 ; Isa. 6 : 2-6 ; 
Matt. 13 : 49 : 26 : 53 ; Acts 27 : 23 ; 
Rev. 8:13. 

There is also an order of evil spirits 
ministering to the will of the prince 
of darkness, and both active and pow- 
erful in their opposition to God. Matt. 
25:41. 

It would seem the proper inference 
from Matt. 18:10 that every believer 
had a guardian angel. The same idea 
is suggested in other passages, as Ps. 
91:11, 12; Luke 15: 10; Acts 12: 15. 

They are the companions of the saved. 
Heb. 1*2: 22, 23; Rev. 5: 11, 12. They are 
to sustain an important office in the 
future and final administration of God's 
government on earth. Matt. 13 : 39; 

25 : 31-33 ; 1 Thess. 4 : 16. But they 
are not proper objects of adoration. 
Col. 2:18; Rev. 19:10. 

Anget, of his Presence, Isa. 63 : 9, 
by some is supposed to denote the high- 
est angel in heaven, as Gabriel, who 
stands " in the presence of God," Luke 
1:19; but others believe it refers to the 
incarnate Word. 

Angel of the Lorp, Gen. 16: 7, is 
considered, by some, one of the com- 
mon titles of Christ in the Old Testa- 
ment. Ex. 23:20. Compare Acts 7: 
30-32 and 37, 38. 

51 



ANG 



ANK 



Angel of the Church. Rev. 2 : 1. 
The only true interpretation of this 
phrase is the one which makes the an- 
gels the rulers and teachers of the con- 
gregation, so called because they were 
the ambassadors of God to the churches, 
and on them devolved the pastoral care 
and government. 

Angel of Light. See Devil. 

AN'GER, a strong emotion, which 
is sinful or otherwise according to its 
object and motive. When ascribed to 
holy beings it is used figuratively to 
denote high displeasure at sin. In 
this sense good men may be angry and 
sin not, Bph. 4:26; Neh. 5:6; cf. 2 Pet. 
2:7, 8 ; and even God is said to be 
"angry with the wicked every day." 
Ps. 7:11. Unjustified anger is reck- 
oned among chief sins, and as such is 
severely rebuked. Eph. 4:31; Col. 3 : 8, 
and numerous passages in Proverbs. 

A'NIAM (sighing of the people), a 
Manassite. 1 Chr. 7 : 19. 

A'NIM (fountains), a town in the 
mountains of Judah. Josh. 15 : 50. 
Khirbet el- J if has been suggested as 
the site of Anim, but it is more proba- 
bly at tbe modern village of el-Ghuwein, 
about 10 miles south-west of Hebron. 

AN'IMAL. The Hebrews distin- 
guished between clean and unclean 
animals, allowing the use of some in 
sacrifice for food, and forbidding it 
in the case of others. For the list 
see Lev. 11. 

AN'ISE. Matt. 23:23. Properly 
dill (Anethum graveolens), an annual 
herb bearing small aromatic seeds used 
in medicine and cookery. Ancient 
writers mention it as cultivated in 
Egypt; it grows in the Greek islands, 
and occurs at the present day in Pales- 
tine, both in gardens and wild, or at 
least uncultivated in fields. — Tristram. 
Another plant (Pimjiinella anisum) of 
the same family has been considered, 
with less probability, to be the anise of 
the Bible. 

The tithe of this herb was scrupu- 
lously paid by the Pharisees. A Jewish 
writer says that the seed, the leaves, and 
the stem of dill are subject to tithes. 
See Mint. 

ANKLET. Though this word does 
not occur in the A. V., anklets are re- 
ferred to in Isa. 3 : 16, 18, 20. They 
were worn upon each leg and were as | ^om^mneveh 
52 



&>&- 




Anise. (After Tristram.) 

common as bracelets upon the arms, 
and were made of much the same ma- 




Egyptian Anklets. 5. Modern worn by 
dancing-girls. 6. 7. Assyrian, of iron and bronze. 
A T ow in British Museum.) 



ANN 



ANO 



terials. The musical tinkling and jing- 
ling which they made as the wearers 
walked were no doubt the reasons for 
their use. The ornamental step-chains 
worn by females, according to Gesenius, 
caused the short and mincing walk al- 
luded to by the prophet in verse 16. 
Lane speaks of these ornaments as 
now worn in the East. 

AN'NA {grace), a prophetess, 
daughter of Phanuel, of the tribe of 
Asher. Luke 2 : 36. Her husband hav- 
ing died after she had been married 
seven years, she devoted herself to the 
Lord, and was very constant in her at- 
tendance on the services of the temple. 
She did not, however, live in the temple 
itself. At eighty-four years of age she 
listened to the prophetic blessing which 
Simeon uttered when he held the infant 
Redeemer in his arms, and joined in it 
with great fervor. 

AN'NAS, the son of Seth, and a 
high priest of the Jews. He was ap- 
pointed by Quirinus, governor of Syria, 
A. n. 7, and was removed by Valerius 
Gratius, procurator of Judgea, A. r>. 23. 
The office was originally held for life, 
but in Judaea's degenera'e and depend- 
ent position it was one of the spoils of 
office, to be given to the ruler's favorite, 
and to be taken away upon the loss of 
favor. After his deposition Annas con- 
tinued to hold the title ; and although 
Caiaphas, his son-in-law, was the actual 
high priest, he was the ruling power. 
This explains the reference in Luke 3 : 
2. This power he retained for nearly 
fifty years, having had five sons in suc- 
cession in the high priest's office. Our 
Lord was brought first before Annas on 
the night of his seizure. John 18 : 13- 
24. The guilt of Christ's crucifixion 
rests most upon Annas, since Pilate 
tried to shield him, and Caiaphas was 
but his tool. Annas is mentioned as 
the president of the Sanhedrin, before 
whom Peter and John were brought. 
Acts 4 : 6. 

ANOINT 7 . Gen. 31:13. The first 
biblical instance is in the passage 
cited, and it signifies in that connec- 
tion the pouring of oil upon the stone 
which Jacob had set up for a pillar. 
Gen. 28: IS. 

The anointing of persons, places, 
and things with oil or ointment of a 
particular composition was a mode 



| of consecration prescribed by divine 
authority, and extensively practised 
among the Hebrews. Ex. 28 : 41. The 
ingredients of the ointment, embra- 
i cing the most exquisite perfumes and 
i balsams, are minutely given, Ex. 30 : 
23-33, and the common use of it was 
expressly forbidden. Ex. 30 : 33. 

It was customary at festivals, and on 
other great and joyful occasions, to 
anoint the head with fragrant oils ; hence 
; it became a sign of joy or happiness; 
the omission of anointing was therefore 
a sign of grief. For instances see 
I Ruth 3:3:2 Sam. 14 : 2 ; Ps. 23 : 5 ; 92 : 
I 10; Eccl. 9:8: Matt. 6 : 17. Proph- 
ets, 1 Kgs. 19:16; 1 Chr. 16:22, 
I priests, and kings were solemnly anoint- 
ed, and thus set apart to their respect- 
: ive offices. Of the anointing of the lat- 
ter we have frequent accounts. 2 Sam. 
19:10 ; 1 Kgs. 1 : 39 ; 19 : 15, 16. The 
perfumed oil or ointment was usually 
| poured upon the head of the person. It 
' was sometimes done privately by a proph- 
' et, 1 Sam. 10 : 1 ; 16 : 1-1 3 ; 1* Kgs. 19 : 
| 16 ; 2 Kgs. 9 : 1-6, and was a symbolical 
intimation that the person so anointed 
would at some future day ascend the 
throne. After the monarchy was es- 
tablished the anointing was done by 
the priest, 1 Kgs. 1 : 39, probably in 
some public place, 1 Kgs. 1 : 32-34, 
and, at least on one occasion, in the 
temple, surrounded by the royal guards. 
! 2 Kgs. 11 : 12, 13. David was anointed 
1 three times — privately by Samuel be- 
fore Saul's death, to give him a claim 
to the throne, 1 Sam. 16: 1-13 ; again 
publicly as king over Judah in He- 
bron, 2 Sam. 2:4; and finally, over the 
whole nation. 2 Sam. 5:3. In re- 
i gard to the priest's anointing, at first 
! it was part of the induction into office 
of any priest, Ex. 40:15; Num. 3 : 3, 
but afterward it was a rite practised 
only in the case of the high priest. 
Lev. 8:12; Ps. 133:2. 

It was common to anoint the person, 

or some part of it, as the head, feet, 

hair, etc., for the sake of health or 

cleanliness, or as a token of respect, 

and also in connection with religious 

| observances. Mark 6 : 13; Luke 7 : 

46; John 12 : 3. When practised to 

i show respect, the most expensive ma- 

j terials were used, and the ceremony 

I was performed in such a manner as 

53 



ANT 



ANT 



to denote the most humble and sub- 
missive reverence. 

The anointing of the sick with oil was 
also common. The healing properties 
of oil are well known ; and though the 
cures wrought by the disciples of our 
Lord were obviously miraculous, they 
still employed the ordinary means of 
cure. Mark 6 : 13. The apostolic di- 
rection, Jas. 5 : 14, respecting the anoint- 
ing of the sick shows us that, together 
with prayer, the appropriate means of 
healing should be employed in depend- 
ence upon or in the name of the Lord. 
The ceremony was not in its nature ob- 
ligatory, and surely no sufficient warrant 
for the rite of "extreme unction." 

The bodies of the dead were often 
wrapped in spices and ointments to 
preserve them from corruption. Mark 
14 : 8 ; 16 : 1, and Luke 23 : 56. 

The terms " anoint," " anointed," and 
"anointing" are employed also spirit- 
ually to illustrate the sanctifying influ- 
ences of divine grace upon the soul. 2 
Cor. 1:21; 1 John 2:20,27. 

To anoint the eyes with eye-salve, Rev. 
3 : 18, is a figurative expression for the 
gift of spiritual illumination. 

The Anointed, or Messiah, who is 
constituted our High Priest and Interces- 
sor, was anointed with the Holy Ghost, 
of which anointing that of the priests 
under the Jewish dispensation is sup- 
posed to be typical. Ps. 45 : 7 ; Isa. 
61:1; Dan. 9:24; Luke 4 : 18, 21 ; Acts 
4:27 and 10: 38. See Messiah. 

ANT. Prov. 6 : 6 and 30 : 25. A small 
insect remarkable for industry, econ- 
omy, and architectural skill. These 
creatures are called by an inspired 
Writer "exceeding wise," Prov. 30 : 24, 
and Cicero was so filled with wonder at 
their wisdom that he declared they must 
have mind, reason, and memory. 

The ants were described by the an- 
cients "as ascending the stalks of ce- 
reals and gnawing off the grains, while 
others below detached the seed from the 
chaff and carried it home ; as gnawing 
off the radicle to prevent germination, 
and spreading their stores in the sun 
to dry after wet weather." The pro- 
verb "As provident as an ant" was no 
less common among the people of the 
Mediterranean shores than " As busy as 
a bee" is with us. Hesiod spoke of the 
time — 

54 



" When the provident one [the ant] harvests the 
grain." 

Naturalists and commentators for a long 
time have been accustomed to deny the 
truth of such ideas. It is, however, now 
acknowledged that in such warm cli- 
mates as Palestine these insects are dor- 
mant but a short time during the cooler 
season, and that they do store up large 
quantities of grain and seed, and dry 
them after rain. The writer has often 
seen in Judasa a quart or two of chatt' 
and seeds upon ant-hills. This the ants 
were bringing out to dry in the morn- 
ing, and carrying into their nests as it 
grew damp toward night. 

J. T. Moggridge, P. L. S., advances 
proof to confirm the ancient view, in the 
case of two species common around the 
Mediterranean. He has discovered the 
granai'ies, sometimes excavated in solid 
rock, in which the seeds are stored. He 
has seen the ants in the act of collecting 
seeds, and traced seeds to the granaries; 
he has seen them bring out the grains to 
dry after a rain, and nibble off the rad- 
icle from those which were germinating, 
and feed on the seed so collected. From 
these granaries Mr. M. collected the seeds 
of fifty-four species of plants. In one 
instance the masses of seeds of clover 
and other small plants taken from a sin- 
gle nest weighed, by careful estimate, 
over a pound. That the amount of 
grain gathered by ants was not un- 
worthy of notice appears from the fact 
that the Mishna, or traditionary law 
of the Jews, adjudicates upon the own- 
ership of such stores when found by 
the people. 

Of the 104 species of European ants, 
only two are known to store seeds. But 
these two, called " harvesting-ants," are 
abundant in the Levant; hence the fa- 
miliarity of the ancients with them. 
The prudence of this insect, as well as 
its industry, may therefore properly in- 
struct us. That the ant is in every re- 
spect " exceeding wise " is evident from 
its history and habits, which have been 
investigated by modern naturalists. 
Their habitations are constructed with 
regular stories, sometimes to the num- 
ber of thirty or forty, and have large 
chambers, numerous vaulted ceilings 
covered with a single roof, long galler- 
ies and corridors, with pillars or columns 
of very perfect proportions. 



ANT 



ANT 



The materials of their buildings, such 
as earth, leaves, and the fragments of 
wood, are tempered with rain, and then 
dried in the sun. By this process the 
fabric becomes so linn and compact that 
a piece may be broken out without any 
injury to the surrounding parts; and it 
is so nearly impervious that the longest 
and most violent rains never penetrate 
more than a quarter of an inch. 

They are well sheltered in their cham- 
bers, the largest of which is placed nearly 
in the centre of the building. It is much 
higher than the rest, and all the galleries 
terminate in it. In this apartment they 
spend the night and the cold months, 
during which they are torpid, or nearly 
so, and require not the food which they 
lay up. 

To illustrate their industry and im- 
mense labor, it is said that their edifices 
are more than five hundred times the 
height of the builders, and that if the 
same proportion were preserved between 
human dwellings and those who build 
them, our houses would be four or five 
times higher than the pyramids of 
Egypt, the largest of which is four hun- 
dred and eighty feet in height, and re- 
quires a base of seven hundred feet 
square to support it. The largest of 
one species of ant (the South American) 
does not stand more than a quarter of an 
inch high, while their nests or houses are 
from twelve to twenty feet high, and 
large enough to hold a dozen men. 

AN TICHRIST. This word oc- 
curs only in the Epistles of John. Ety- 
mologically, it may mean either one who 
is opposed to Christ or one who sets 
himself up in the place of Christ. Comp. 
"anti-pope," "rival-king." A compar- 
ison of the four passages in which the 
word is found, 1 John 2 : 18, 22 ; 4:3; 
2 John 7, shows that John meant to 
designate various persons holding heret- 
ical opinions in regard to the incarnation 
of Christ. "Every spirit that confesseth 
not that Jesus Christ is come in the flesh 
is not of God : and this is that spirit of 
antichrist." 1 John 4 : 3. He directs 
his warnings against this spirit as an 
existent evil : " Even now are there many 
antichrists," 1 John 2:18; "Even now 
already is it in the world." 1 John 4 : 3. 
We know that in John's day there were 
in the Church false teachers who denied 
the union of the divine and human in 



Christ and resolved the history of Christ 
into a mere phantom or myth. Such 
were Cerinthus and the early Gnostics 
(who have their followers in the modern 
assailants of the gospel history). 

But this use of the word by the apos- 
tle does not exhaust its meaning. It 
can be also applied to all enemies of 
Christ, and to all those doctrines and in- 
fluences which tend to set up against the 
simplicity of gospel truth the traditions 
or speculations of men, thus weakening 
or destroying the force of the former. 

We should not confound the antichrist 
of John's Epistles with the beasts from 
the abyss, or the antagonistic world- 
powers described in Daniel and in Rev- 
elation. More nearly related to anti- 
christ, and yet distinct, is " the man of 
sin." 2 Thess. 2:3. 

AN'TIOCH (from Antiochus), the 
name of two cities in New Testament 
times. 

1. Antioch in Syria, founded by Se- 
leueus Nicator, about 300 b. c, and 
enlarged and newly walled by Anti- 
ochus Epiphanes. 




Coin of Antiochus Epiphanes. 

Situation. — This city was about 
300 miles north of Jerusalem, on the 
left bank of the river Orontes, 16£ miles 
from the Mediterranean, in a deep 
pass between the Lebanon and the 
Taurus ranges of mountains. It was 
sometimes called "the gate of the 
East," being on the highway from 
the countries on the Mediterranean to 
Mesopotamia and Arabia. 

Biblical History. — Next to Jeru- 
salem, no city is of greater interest or 
importance in apostolic history than 
Antioch in Syria. At this place the 
disciples were first called Christians, 
Acts 11 : 26 ; it was an important cen- 
tre for the spread of the gospel, Acts 
13 ; from it Paul started on his mis- 
sionary journeys, Acts 15 : 36 ; 18 : 23 ; 
important principles of Christian faith 
and practice were raised and settled 



ANT 



ANT 



through the church at Antioch, Acts 
14 : 26, 27 ; 15 : 2-30 ; Gal. 2 : 11-14. 
It was made a " free " city by Pom- 
pey, was beautified by the emperors 
with aqueducts, baths, and public 
buildings ; and in Paul's time it 
ranked third in population, wealth, 



and commercial activity among the 
cities of the Roman empire. Chris- 
tianity gained such strength there, 
that in the time of Chrysostom, who 
was born at Antioch, one-half of 
the 200,000 inhabitants of the city 
were Christians. 




Antioch in Syria. (After Cassas. From Lewin's "Life of St. raul.") 



Present Condition. — Antioch has been 
besieged and plundered 15 times, and 
7 times destroyed by earthquakes, yet 
the remains of its ancient walls as- 
tonish the traveller. They were 50 
feet high and 15 feet thick. The 
old town, which was 5 miles long, is 
now represented by a mean, shrunk- 
en-looking place of about 6000 popu- 
lation, called Antal-ieli. An earth- 
quake in 1872 overthrew nearly one- 
half of the houses; since then almost 
a new town has sprung up, and near 
by is a silk-factory, and on the river 
water-wheels for irrigating the gar- 
dens. Through the Lake of Antioch 
flows the Nahr el-Aswad, or " black 
b ook," the Melanes of classic history, 
which empties into the Orontes 3 or 4 
miles above Antioch. Though the 
modern city is on a beautiful and 
exceeding^ fertile plain between the 
mountains, and watered by the Oron- 
tes, the interior of the town appears 
56 



to consist "of dreary heaps of ruins, 
and unsightly, patched, and dilapida- 
ted houses, interspersed with rubbish 
and garbage." (See Baedeker's Pales- 
tine and Syria, p. 578.) 

2. Antioch in or near Pisidia was 
also founded or rebuilt by Seleucus 
Nicator. It was situated on a ridge — 
Strabo calls it a "height" — near the 
foot of the mountain-range, and by 
the northern shore of Lake Eyerdir. 
Paul preached there, Acts 13 : 1 4 ; 14 : 21, 
and was persecuted by the people, 
2 Tim. 3: 11. It was formerly erro- 
neously located at Ak-sher, but has 
lately been identified with Talob.itch f 
directly east of Ephesus and north- 
west of ancient Tarsus. Ruins of 
walls, theatres, and churches still ex- 
ist there. 

AN'TIPAS (prob. contr. Antipa- 
ter, for, or like, the father), a martyr 
of the church in Pergamos. Rev. 2 : 
13. Tradition makes him its bishop. 



ANT 



APO 



ANTIP'ATRIS (for his father), 

a city built by Herod tbe Great in 
honor of his father, Antipater. It 
was on the road from Jerusalem to 
Caesarea, Acts 23:31, about 26 miles 
south-east of the latter and 16 miles 
nonth-east of Joppa, according to 
ancient authority. Some have located 
it at Kefr Saba, on the plain, 40 miles 
north-west of Jerusalem ; Wilson and 
Conder place it at Kala'at lias el 'Ain, 
ruins between Lydda and Caesarea, 30 
miles south-east of the latter and 11 
miles north-east of Joppa. The old 
Roman road from Jerusalem runs to 
this place, and thence to Caesarea. 
" One of the finest springs in the 
country is near." It did not seem 
probable to Wilson and Conder that 
any large town like Antipatris had 
been at Kefr Saba. 

ANTO'NIA, a castle or fortress 
built by Herod, north-west of the tem- 
ple in Jerusalem, and named by him 
after his friend Antony. It may be 
the " castle " referred to in Acts 21 : 
34. 

ANTOTHI'JAH (answers of Je- 
hovah), a Benjamite. 1 Chr. 8 : 24. 

AN'TOTHITE, THE, a native 
of Anathoth. 1 Chr. 11 : 28 ; 12 : 3. 

A'NUB (confederate), a descend- 
ant of Judah. 1 Chr. 4:8. 

APEL'LES, greeted and com- 
mended by Paul. Rom. 16 : 10. Tra- 
dition makes him afterward bishop of 
Smvrna or Heraclea. 

APES. 1 Kgs. 10:22. Probably a 
generic term for a variety of animals 
of the monkey - tribe. The rude re- 
semblance of these creatures to the 
human race, both in figure and physi- 
cal capacity, is well known. Apes are 
not natives of Palestine or adjacent 
legions, but were among the articles 
of merchandise imported from Ophir 
in Solomon's ships. 

The ape was an object of worship 
among the Egyptians, and is still such 
in many parts of India. We have an 
account of a temple in India, dedi- 
cated to the worship of the ape, sup- 
ported by seven hundred columns not 
inferior to those of the Roman Pan- 
theon. An ape's tooth was found by 
the Portuguese when they pillaged the 
island of Ceylon many years since, 
and so desirons were they to redeem I 



it as an object of devout worship that 
the kings of the country offered near- 
ly seventy-five thousand dollars for it. 

APHAR'SATHCHITES, 
APHAR'SITES, APHAR'SA- 
CHITES, colonists from Assyria to 
Samaria. Ezra, 4 : 9 ; 5 : 6 ; 6:6. 

A'PHEK (strength), the name of 
several towns. 

1. A royal city of the Canaanites 
whose king was slain by Joshua. 
Josh. 12 : 18. It was near Hebron, 
and probably the same as Aphekah. 
Josh. 15 : 53. 

2. A city of Asher, Josh. 19 : 30, in 
the north of Palestine, near Sidon, Josh. 
13 : 4 ; supposed to be the same as Aphik, 
Jud. 1 : 31, and the classical Aphaca, 
noted in later history for its temple of 
Venus ; now Afka, near Lebanon. 

3. A place where the Philistines en- 
camped before the ark was taken, 1 Sam. 
4:1; north-west of Jerusalem and near 
Shocho, now Belled el-Foka. 

4. A place near Jezreel, in Issachar, 
where the Philistines were, before de- 
feating Saul, 1 Sam. 29 : 1, and cannot 
be identified with No. 3, as some have 
suggested. 

5. A walled city in the plains of Syria, 
on the road to Damascus. 1 Kgs. 20 : 
26, 30: 2 Kgs. 13 : 17. It was about 6 
miles east of the Sea of Galilee; now 
called File. 

APHEKAH (strong place), fem- 
inine form of Aphek. Josh. 15 : 53. See 
Aphek (1). 

APHI'AH (refreshed), one of Saul's 
progenitors. 1 Sam. 9: 1. 

A'PHIK. Jud. 1:31. See Aphek 
(2). 

APH'RAH (fawn, or dust), a place 
in the low-country of Judah. Mic. 1: 
10. It has been identified by some with 
Ophrah, but there is evidence that it was 
west or south-west of, and not far from, 
Jerusalem. 

APH'SES (the dispersion), the head 
of the eighteenth of the twenty-four 
courses of priests. 1 Chr. 24:15. 

APOCALYPSE, the Greek word 
for revelation, used of the Revelation 
of John. See Revelatiox. 

APOCRYPHA (hidden), the 
name applied most commonly to the 
uncanonical books that have been 
added to the Old Testament. 

1. Old Testament Apocrypha. — They are 
57 



APO 



APO 



fourteen in number. I. 1 Esdras; II. 2 
Esdras; III. Tobit; IV. Judith; V. The 
rest of the chapters of the book of Esther, 
which are found neither in the Hebrew 
nor in the Chaldee; VI. The Wisdom 
of Solomon; VII. Ecclesiasticus, or the 
Wisdom of Jesus the Son of Sirach; 
VIII. Baruch; IX. The Song of the 
Three Holy Children; X. The History 
of Susanna; XI. The History of the 
Destruction of Bel and the Dragon; 
XII. The Prayer of Manasses, King 
of Judah: XIII. 1 Maccabees; XIV. 
2 Maccabees. They do not exist in He- 
brew, but were written in Greek, mostly 
in Alexandria. Though often quoted by 
the fathers, they were not esteemed as 
highly as the Scriptures. They are of 
great value as conveying historical 
information and containing many in- 
structive sayings and examples. They till 
up the gap between the Old and New 
Testaments. But they are without di- 
vine authority, and cannot be used in 
support of any doctrine or praeti3e. 
They are found in the Septuagint, the 
Vulgate, and all Roman Catholic Bibles, 
since all but the two books of Esdras 
and the Prayer of Manasses were pro- 
nounced by the Council of Trent a part 
of the canonical Scriptures. They were 
likewise printed in Protestant Bibles 
and by the British and Foreign Bible 
Society until 1826, when, after a long 
controvers}', it resolved to omit them 
from all future editions. The American 
Bible Society followed its example. 

2. New Testament Apocrypha. — These 
are various spurious gospels, histories, 
biographies, and epistles. They are never 
printed in Bibles. They are immensely 
inferior to the genuine books. Many of 
them are pious frauds, perpetrated with 
the design of enhancing the glory of 
Christ and his apostles, but by their 
nonsensical stories they not only ut- 
terly fail of their object, but rather 
bring their heroes into contempt. They 
confirm, however, the canonical Gospels, 
as counterfeits presuppose the genuine 
coins. See Canon. 

APOLLO'NIA {belonging to 

Apollo), the name of several places in 
Europe and Asia, of which Apollonia 
in Illyria was the most c -lebrated. 
But the Apollonia through which Paul 
passed, Acts 17 : 1, was a cit}' of Mace- 
donia, about 36 miles east of Thessa- 
58 



lonica, and 30 miles south-west of 
Amphipolis. Lewin locates it at the 
modern Polina. 

APOLLOS {belonging to Apollo), 
born at Alexandria, in Egypt, of Jew- 
ish parents, and described as an elo- 
quent man and mighty in the Scrip- 
tures. Acts 18 : 24. As one of John's 
disciples he had been instructed in the 
elements of the Christian faith, but 
coming to Ephesus, A. D. 54, during the 
temporary absence of Paul, was more 
fully taught the doctrines of the gospel 
by Aquila and Priscilla, who had them- 
selves been favored with the company 
and instruction of Paul at Corinth and 
on a voyage from that city to Ephesus. 
He afterward preiched with abundant 
success in Achaia and at Corinth. Paul 
had already been instrumental in estab- 
lishing a church there, to the care of 
which Apollos succeeded. 1 Cor. 3 : 6. 
The members of it were divided into 
parties, some being particularly partial 
| to Paul, others to Apollos, and others 
j still to Cephas or Peter. The rebuke 
of the apostle, 1 Cor. 1: 12, is directed 
against these partialities, in all which 
the power and grace of God seemed to 
! be overlooked or disregarded. When 
J Paul wrote his Epistle it is likely 
j Apollos was either with him or near 
j him, probably at Ephesus, A. n. 57. 
j From 1 Cor. 16:12 we learn that in 
i consequence of these dissensions Apol- 
los absolutely declined to go to Corinth. 
It has been remarked as an exemplary 
trait of character of these two eminent 
apostles that the contentions of their 
respective friends and admirers had no 
effect on their love and respect for each 
other. Thej r both refrained from visit- 
ing the church while it was distracted 
with such prejudices and partialities, 
though a worldly ambition might- have 
selected it as the field and the season 
of self-aggrandizement. Apollos is last 
mentioned Tit. 3:13, and very affection- 
ately. He was probably a more brilliant 
man than Paul. Some scholars consider 
him to have been the author of the 
Epistle to the Hebrews. But this is 
a mere conjecture; no exact proof can 
be given. 
APOI/L.YON. See Abaddon. 
APOSTLE (one sent forth). 1. 
This term was given originally to the 
twelve chief disciples of our Lord. 



APO 



APP 



Matt. 10:2. Their names were Simon 
Peter, Andrew, James, and John (sons 
of Zebedee) ; Philip, Bartholomew, 
Thomas, Matthew, James, and Lebbeus, 
who is also called Judas or Jude (sons 
of Alpheus); Simon the Canaanaean (or 
Zealot) and Judas Iscariot. Christ's 
charge to them is recorded in Matt. 10 : 
5-42. All the known circumstances of 
their history will be found under their 
respective names. 

Speaking generally, the apostles were 
of the lower, but not the lowest, class of 
the people. They were all laymen. 
Their learning was rather of life than 
of books, and yet it is probable they 
possessed the rudiments of an educa- 
tion. Religious perceptions and piety 
they doubtless possessed. Yet they 
needed much instruction and a miracu- 
lous endowment before they were able 
to do the work of the gospel. The Acts 
of the Apostles tells us of their first in- 
dependent labors. Paul was called as 
an apostle, 7 years after the resurrec- 
tion of Christ, on the way to Damascus. 
He was not of the Twelve, but was of 
equal authority. Gal. 1: 1, 12, 16; 2:9. 

The office and commission of apostles 
were remarkable in the following par- 
ticulars : (1.) They were all required to 
have been eye- and ear- witnesses of what 
they testified, especially of the resurrec- 
tion of Christ. John 15 : 27 ; Acts 1 : 21, 
22 and 22 : 14, 15 ; 1 Cor. 9 : 1 and 15 : 
8; 1 John 1 : 3. (2.) They were all 
called or chosen by our Saviour himself. 
Luke 6:13; Gal. 1:1. Even Matthias 
is not an exception to this remark, as 
the determination of the lot was of God. 
Acts 1 : 24-26. (3.) They were inspired. 
John 16 : 13. (4.) They had the power 
of miracles. Mark 16 : 20 ; Acts 2 : 43 ; 
Heb. 2: 4, -Rom. 15: 18, 19; 2 Cor. 12: 12. 

The word "apostle" is also used in a 
wider sense of Christian heralds of the 
gospel. 2 Cor. 8 : 23 ; Phil. 2 : 25. (A. V. 
in both cases translates " messenger.") 

2. The term apostle is also applied to 
our Saviour, Heb. 3 : 1, and with singu- 
lar propriety, as in the character of 
Messiah he is emphatically the Sent 
of God. 

APOTHECARY. See Perfume. 

AP'PAOI (the nostrils), a descend- 
ant of Judah. 1 Chr. 2:30, 31. 

APPAREL. See Clothes. 

APPEAL'. The right of appeal 



was acknowledged in the Jewish law. 
Deut 17 : 8, 9. For matters of contro- 
versy might be referred for final adjudi- 
cation to ''the priests, the Levites, and 
unto the judge that shall be in those 
days," in the place chosen of God. But 
this is not, properly speaking, such an 
appeal as our law recognizes. Yet we 
find traces of the principle in the days 
of the Judges, Jud. 4 : 5, and of the 
kings. 2 Sam. 15:3. Jehoshaphat es- 
tablished a permanent court before which 
all cases might come. 2 Chr. 19 : 8. 
This court was re-established by Ezra. 
Ezr. 7 : 25. The Sanhedrin in later 
times was the court of final appeal. 
By the Roman law every accused citi- 
zen had a right to carry his cause be- 
fore the emperor at Rome, by appeal 
from the judgment of the magistrate. 
Acts 25:11. 

AP'PHIA, a Christian woman ad- 
dressed by Paul in Phile. 2. From the 
connection in which she stands, preced- 
ing a masculine name and linked so 
closely to Philemon, it has been reason- 
ably conjectured that she was Philemon's 
wife. 

AP'PII FORUM (market-place 
of Appiu8), a place on the famous Ap- 
pian Way, 43 miles south-east of Rome, 
where the disciples met Paul. Acts 28 : 
15. It was at the end of a canal, and 
hence filled with taverns and boatmen. 
Its ruins are still seen near Treponti. 

APPLES, APPLE - TREE 
(Hebrew, breathing forth). Song Sol. 
2:3-5; 7:8; 8:5; Joel 1 : 12. Spoken 
of in the Scriptures as excellent "among 
the trees of the wood," of pleasant 
shadow, with sweet, beautiful, and fra- 
grant fruit. The Hebrew word, by its 
meaning, is thought to emphasize the 
latter property. The apple proper is 
rare in Syria, and its fruit is inferior. 
Writers have urged the citron, orange, 
quince, and apricot as the trees meant. 
The fruit of the latter two alone is spe- 
cially aromatic, and of these the quince 
is not sweet in taste. 

The apricot is everywhere abundant 
in the Holy Land, and of it Tristram 
says: "Many times have we pitched 
' our tents in its shade and spread our 
carpets secure from the rays of the sun." 
"There can scarcely be a more deli- 
ciously-perfumed fruit than the apricot; 
and what fruit can better fit the epithet 
59 



AQU 



AEA 



of Solomon, 'apples of gold in pictures 
of silver/ than this golden fruit as its 
branches bend under the weight in their 
setting of bright, yet pale, foliage ?" 
The expression of Solomon just referred 
to, Prov. 25 : 11, is also supposed to 
compare /nntf in silver baskets, or salvers 
curiously wrought like basket-work, and 
perhaps representing animals or land- 
scapes, to seasonable advice wisely and 
courteously administered. 

Apple op the Eye (Hebrew, little 
man, or pupil of the, eye). Prov. 7:2; 
Zech. 2 : 8. Apple here represents an 
entirely different word from the word of 
the preceding topic, meaning the front 
and most sensitive part of .the organ of 
vision. The same figure is used, Deut. 
32: 10 and Ps. 17 : 8, to denote the most 
complete protection and security. And 
in Lam. 2 : 18 the phrase " apple of thine 
eye" is figuratively used for tears. 

AQ'UIIiA. Acts 18 : 2. A Jew 
born at Pontus, in Asia Minor. Being 
driven from Rome by a decree of the 
government requiring all Jews to leave 
that city, he and his wife, Priscilla, 
came to Corinth, and were dwelling 
there at the time of Paul's first visit to 
that city. Acts 18 : 1. They were of 
like occupation (tent-makers), and Paul 
was received and hospitably entertained 
at Aquila's house; and they also accom- 
panied him from Corinth to Ephesus. 
On some occasion they rendered Paul 
very important service, and a very warm 
friendship existed between them. Rom. 
16 : 3-5. See Apollos. 

AR, and AR OF MO'AB. Num. 
21 : 28. The chief city of Moab, on the 
east of the Salt Sea; called also Aroer, 
Deut. 2 : 36; sometimes used for the 
whole land of Moab, Deut. 2 : 29 ; burn- 
ed by Sihon. Num. 21:26-30. It has 
been placed at Rabbah or Rabbath, but 
good authorities regard it as a different 
city, and fix Ar on the Arnon, 10 or 12 
miles north of Rabbah, at the Wady 
Lejum. See Rabba.h. 

A'RA (lion), head of a branch of the 
house of Asher. 1 Chr. 7 : 38. 

A'RAB (ambush), a town in the 
mountains of Judah, Josh. 15 : 52 ; per- 
haps the home of the Arbite. 2 Sam. 
23 : 35. East of Hebron, at er-Rabiyeh, 
is an ancient site marked by walls, cis- 
terns, and ruins, which Conder regards 
a< the Arab of biblical history. 
60 



AR'ABAH (burnt up), a word of 
frequent use in the Hebrew, though 
found only once in the English, version. 
Josh. 18 : 18. It is the name applied to 
the deep sunken valley which extends 
from Mount Hermon to the Elanitic 
Gulf of the Red Sea. This remarkable 
depression is about 250 miles long, and 
includes the Sea of Galilee and the 
Salt, or Dead, Sea. In some passages 
in Deuteronomy, the plain or "the 
Arabah" refers to the southern portion 
of the valley, between the Salt Sea and 
the Red Sea, Deut. 1:1; 2:8; in other 
passages the word doubtless refers to 
the northern portion of that valley along 
the Jordan, which the Arabs now call 
el-Ghor. See Jordan. Arabah is now 
applied only to that portion of the val- 
ley which stretches from the chalk-cliffs 
below the Dead Sea southward to the 
Gulf of Akabah — Elanitic Gulf. It is 
about 100 miles long and from 4 to 16 
miles wide. The limestone walls on the 
west of the valley are from 1500 to 1800 
feet in height ; the mountain-wall on 
the east side of the valley rises from 
2000 to 2300 in height, and in Mount 
Hor to 5000 feet, and is chiefly composed 
of granitic and basaltic rock. The sur- 
face of the valley is covered with loose 
gravel, blocks of porphyry, and is fur- 
rowed with torrents, with scarcely a 
trace of vegetation. It is oppressively 
hot, is swept with burning winds, the 
Sirocco blowing at some seasons without 
intermission, a region dreary and deso- 
late. The theory that the Jordan once 
ran through this valley into the Red 
Sea is now held to be untenable. Ara- 
bah in Josh. 18 : 18 has also been mis- 
taken for the name of a city, and con- 
founded with Beth-arabah of Josh. 15 : 
61; 18:22; but in v. 18 the word has 
the article before it in the Hebrew, and 
hence refers to the plain, as elsewhere. 
See also Zin, Wilderness of, and Salt 
Sea. 

ARA'BIA (arid, sterile), a large 
peninsula in the south-western part of 
Asia, between the Red Sea, the Indian 
Ocean, and the Persian Gulf. Its ex- 
treme length from north to south is 
about 1300 miles, its greatest breadth 
about 1500 miles, though from the north- 
ern point of the Red Sea to the Persian 
Gulf is only about 900 miles. It has the 
sea on all sides except the north. Its 



ARA 



ARA 



area is estimated at 1,030,000 square 
miles; and of the three ancient divis- 
ions of the country, that known as Ara- 
bia Felix was by far the largest and most 
important, though it is less frequently 
mentioned by the sacred writers than 
either of the smaller and northern divis- 
ions. 




Sketch-Map of Arabia. 

Physical Features — Its main features 
are a coast-range of low mountains or 
table-land, seldom rising over 2000 feet, 
broken on the eastern coast by sandy 
plains; this plateau is backed up by a 
second loftier range of mountains in the 
east and south. The mountains are 
generally barren on their sea side; their 
outlines are rugged and precipitous; 
behind the mountains encircling the 
sea-coast lies a ring of sterile desert, 
broadest in the east and south, where it 
is a waste of burning sand, narrower in 
the west and north, where it is rocky. 
"Within this belt of desert rise table- 
lands broken by fertile valleys. This 
central plateau includes about one-third 
of the Arabian peninsula, the desert an- 
other third, and the coast-ranges the re- 
maining portion. The Sinaitic penin- 
sula is a small triangular region in the 
north-western part, or corner, of Arabia. 
See Sixai. 

Divisions of Arabia. — The ancients 
divided it into Petraaa, Deserta, and 
Felix ; or the Stony, the Desert, and the 
Happy or Fertile. Modern geographers 
divide Arabia into a number of large 
districts, the chief of these being Yemen, 



which is the most fertile, and Hadra 
maut in the south, Oman in the east, 
Shomer and Sinai, or Negeb, in the 
north, Iledjaz, containing the holy 
cities of Mecca and Medina, in the west, 
and Nej'd in the central district. These 
districts are subdivided into upward of 
35 smaller provinces. Some are thickly 
peopled with an agricultural population 
or those living in villages, while others 
are held by tribes of wandering Bed- 
ouins, each governed by the sheik. 

Productions. — The principal animals 
are the horse, famed for its form, 
beauty, and endurance, camels, sheep, 
asses, dogs, the gazelle, tiger, lynx, and 
monkey, quails, peacocks, parrots, os- 
triches, vipers, scorpions, and locusts. 
Of fruits and grains, dates, wheat, millet, 
rice, beans, and pulse are common. It is 
also rich in minerals, especially in lead. 

Biblical History. — Arabia in early 
Israelitish history meant a small tract 
of country south and east of Palestine, 
probably the same as that called Kedem, 
or " the east." Gen. 10 : 30 ; 25 : 6 ; 29 : 
1. Arabia in New Testament times ap- 
pears to have been scarcely more exten- 
sive. Gal. 1:17; 4 : 25. The chief in- 
habitants were known as Ishmaelites, 
Arabians, Idumeans, Horites, and 
Edomites. The allusions in the Scrip- 
ture to the country and its people are 
very numerous. Job is supposed to 
have dwelt in Arabia. The forty years 
of wandering by the Israelites under 
Moses was in this land. See Sinai. 
Solomon received gold from it, 1 Kgs. 
10 : 15; 2 Chr. 9 : 14; Jehoshaphat, 
flocks, 2 Chr. 17 : 11 ; some of its people 
were at Jerusalem at the Pentecost, 
Acts 2:11; Paul visited it, Gal. 1:17; 
the prophecies of Isaiah and Jeremiah 
frequently refer to it. Isa. 21:11-13; 
42 : 11 : 60 : 7 ; Jer. 25 : 24; 49 : 28, 29. 
See Kedar. 

Secular History. — Arabia in earliest 
history was divided into several king- 
doms, of which Yemen was the chief. 
In the fifth centur}' the northern Arabs 
overran Yemen ; later, in A. d. 529, came 
the great Abyssinian invasion ; then the 
era of Mohammed, 622-632, followed by 
the conquests of his followers, who swept 
over Arabia, Palestine, Syria, and the 
whole of Western Asia, Northern Africa, 
and into Europe. In the next century 
their power in Arabia was broken and 
61 



AKA 



ARA 



lost by dissensions. Arabia was disor- 
ganized, but rearranged in 929 ; fur- 
nished rulers for Egypt until 1171, in 
the time of Saladin ; in 1517 the Turkish 
sultan, Selim I., was invested with the 
Mohammedan caliphate, and Arabia be- 
came subject to, and has since continued 
under, the Ottoman rule. 

A'RAD {wild ass), a Benjamite. 
1 Chr. 8 : 15. 

A'RAD. Jud. 1 : 16. A city in the 
southern border of Judaea, whose king 
opposed the passage of the children of 
Israel, and even took some of them 
prisoners, for which the inhabitants 
were accursed and their city destroyed. 

A'RAD (place of fugitives), a Ca- 
naanitish city, Josh. 12 : 14, on a small 
hill now called Tell Arad, about 20 
miles south of Hebron. In Num. 21 : 1 ; 
33 : 40 the translation should be " the 
Canaanite king of Arad." 

A'RAH {wandering). 1. A chief of 
Asher. 1 Chr. 7 : 39. 

2. The man whose descendants re- 
turned from Babylon, and whose grand- 
daughter married Tobiah the Ammon- 
ite. Ezr. 2:5; Neh. 6:18; 7:10. 

A'RAM (high region). 1. A son of 
Shem. Gen. 10 : 22,' 23 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 17. 

2. A descendant of Nahor, Abraham's 
brother. Gen. 22:21. 

3. An Asherite. 1 Chr. 7 : 34. 

4. The son of Esrom, elsewhere called 
Ram. Matt. 1 : 3, 4 ; Luke 3 : 33. 

A'RAM (highlands), the elevated 
region north-east of Palestine, toward 
the Euphrates river. Num. 23 : 7 ; 
1 Chr. 1 : 17 ; 2 : 23. It was nearly 
identical with Syria. Aram-nahara- 
im of Gen. 24:10 is translated Meso- 
potamia in the English version, and re- 
fers to the region between the Euphra- 
tes and Tigris rivers. There were prob- 
ably several petty kingdoms included 
under Aram, as Aram-zobah, Aram 
Beth-rehob, Aram Damascus, Padan- 
aram ; all these were gradually ab- 
sorbed by that of Damascus, which be- 
came the capital of all "Aram," or Syria. 
See Syria, Mesopotamia, and Damas- 
cus. 

A'RAM-NAHARA'IM (highlands 
of the two rivers). Ps. 60, title. See 
Aram. 

ARAM-ZOBAH. Ps. 60, title. 
See Aram. 

A'RAN (ivild goat), a descendant of 
62 



Seir the Horite. Gen. 36 : 28 ; 1 Chr. 
1:42. 

AR'ARAT (holy land, or high land), 
a mountainous region of Asia which bor- 
ders on the plain of the Araxes, and is 
mentioned (1) as the resting-place of 
Noah's ark, Gen. 8 : 4 ; (2) as the ref- 
uge of the sons of Sennacherib, 2 Kgs. 
19 : 37, margin ; Isa. 37 : 38, margin ; 
(3) as a kingdom near to Minni and 
Ashchenaz, Jer. 51:27. 

Ararat was a name unknown to Greek 
and Roman geographers, as it is now to 
the Armenian, but it was known to 
others in b. c. 1750 as the ancient name 
for a portion of Armenia. In Scripture 
it refers to the lofty plateau or moun- 
tain-highlands which overlook the plain 
of the Araxes. Various views have 
prevailed as to the Ararat on which the 
ark rested. Tradition identifies it with 
the mountain known as Ararat to Eu- 
ropeans, called "Steep Mountain" by 
the Turks, and Knh-i-Nuh, or " Noah's 
Mountain," by the Persians. It has 
two peaks, about 7 miles apart; the 
highest is 17,750 feet, the other about 
4000 feet lower. The highest peak is 
covered with perpetual snow, and is a 
volcano, having had at least two violent 
eruptions Avithin a century. The vil- 
lage of Arguri, built on its slopes, is 
said to be on the spot where tradition . 
claims that Noah planted his vineyard. 
The mountains of Ararat, Gen. 8 : 4, more 
properly refer to the entire range of ele- 
vated table-land in that portion of Ar- 
menia, and upon some lower part of this 
range, rather than upon the high peaks 
before mentioned, the ark more probably 
rested. For (1) this plateau or range 
is about 6000 to 7000 feet high; (2) it 
is about equally distant from the Eux- 
ine and the Caspian Seas, and between 
the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean, 
and hence a central point for the dis- 
persion of the race; (3) the region is 
volcanic in its origin; it does not rise 
into sharp crests, but has broad plains 
separated by subordinate ranges of 
mountains : (4) the climate is temper- 
ate, grass and grain are abundant, the 
harvests quick to mature. All these 
facts illustrate the biblical narrative. 
George Smith, however, places Ararat 
in the southern part of the mountains 
east of Assyria (Chaldean Account of 
Genesis, p. 2*89). 



ARA 



ARC 




View of Ararat. (After 

ARAU'NAH (ark ; a large ash or 
pine), or OR'NAN, was a Jebusite who 
lived at Jerusalem and owned a thresh- 
ing-place or floor, where the temple was 
afterward built. 2 Sam. 24:16. Da- 
vid bought it of him because the destroy- 
ing angel sent to desolate the nation, in 
consequence of David's sin of number- 
ing the people, stayed his hand at the 
command of God just as he had reached 
the floor. Araunah refused at first to 
receive anything for it, but offered it to 
him, together with oxen for sacrifices, 
and the timber of the threshing-instru- 
ments for fuel. David refused to receive 
them as a gift, as he would not offer to the 
Lord that which had cost him nothing. 
He therefore bought the oxen for fifty 
shekels of silver, 2 Sam. 24 : 24, and 
the whole place for six hundred shekels 
of gold, 1 Chr. 21 : 25, and offered his 
sacrifices, which were accepted and the 
plague stayed. 2 Sam. 24:23 maybe 
better translated : " The whole, king, 
does Araunah give unto the King." But 
taking the Authorized Version transla- 
tion as it stands, it favors the view of 
some that the expression "Araunah the 
king" implies that he was one of the 
kines of the Jebusites. 

AR'BA. See Hebron. 

AR'BAH. Gen. 35 : 27. See Kir- 
jath-arbah and Hr.BRONT. 

ARBATHITE, THE, ». e. na- 



Pairot. From 1'iehm.) 

five of the Arabah. 2 Sam. 23:31 ; I 
Chr. 11 : 32. 
AR'BEL. Hos. 10 : 14. See Beth- 

ARBET,. 

AR'BITE, THE, i. e. native of 
Arab. Paarai was so called. 2 Sam. 
23 • 35 

ARCHAN'GEL, the prince or 
chief of angels. The word only occurs 
twice in the Bible, 1 Thess. 4:16; 
Jude 9, and it is generally believed that 
a created, though highly-exalted, being 
is denoted bv the term. 

ARCHELA'US {prince of the 
people), a son of Herod the Great 
by a Samaritan woman. He with his 
brother, Antipas, was brought up in 
Rome. On the decease of his father, 
B. c. 4, the same year that Christ was 
born, he succeeded to the government 
of Idumea, Samaria, and Judaea, with 
the title of ethnarch. His character 
was cruel and revengeful. Joseph and 
Mary on their return from Egypt nat- 
urally, therefore, feared to live under 
his government. Matt. 2:22. In the 
tenth year of his reign he was deposed 
by the emperor for cruelty, on charges 
preferred against him by his brothers 
and subjects, and banished to Vienne, 
in Gaul, where he died. 

AR'CHI. Josh. 16 : 2. A place 
near Bethel, perhaps settled by a colony 
from Babylon, and named after Erech 
63 



AEC 



AEC 



in Babylonia. Conder identifies it with 
the village of 'Ain ' Arek, which is in the 
required position. 

ARCHIP'PUS (master of the 
horse), a Christian ' teacher addressed 
by Paul, Phile. 2. Some think he was 
Philemon's son. 

AR'CHITE, THE, the designa- 
tion always coupled, in the Bible, with 
the name of Hushai, David's faithful 
friend, 2 Sam. 15 : 32 ; 16 : 16 ; 17 : 5-14; 
1 Chr. 27 : 33. It is not certain to what 
it refers— perhaps to " the districts of 
Ereeh whicli lay on the frontier of 
Ephraim, buc this is mere conjecture." 

ARCHITECTURE arises out of 
the necessities of human life, and before 
it becomes an art it administers to the 
primary demands of civilization. Cain 
built a small city, Gen. 4:17, and after 
the Flood other cities were built. Gen. 
10 : 10-12 ; 11 : 1-9. Damascus and He- 
bron existed in the days of Abraham. 




Kemains of Arch of Bridge between Zion and 
Moriali, and near the Jews' Wailing- place. 
(From Photograph.) 

The patriarchs, being nomads, lived in 
tents. During their sojourn in Egypt 
the Hebrews became acquainted with 
architecture as an art, and they were 
compelled by force to take part in the 
construction of huge monuments. Ex. 
1 : 11. Hence it was natural that their 
imagination should be deeply impressed 
by Egyptian architecture, and that they 
acquired some knowledge of the science 
on which it was based. But during 
their wanderings in the wilderness they 
had no opportunity to display it, except 
in the construction of the tabernacle ; 
64 



and at the conquest of Canaan they 
found forts and cities prepared by other 
hands. Jud. 1 : 16-26. 

It was not till the "eigns of David 
and Solomon that Hebrew architecture 
suddenly started into existence. The 
influence from Egypt at once made it- 
self felt. David enlarged Jerusalem, 
improved its fortifications, and built a 
palace on Mount Zion, perhaps also the 
original walls of the great mosque at 
Hebron. Solomon built another palace, 
"the house of the forest of Lebanon," 
a palace for his wife, the daughter of 
Pharaoh, gigantic water-works south of 
Bethlehem, still known under the name 
of "Solomon's Pools," and finally the 
greatest, and we may say the only great, 
monument of Hebrew architecture, the 
temple. These buildings were, to a 
large extent, erected by Phoenician 
workmen, 2 Sam. 5 : 6-11, and we may 
easily believe that Phoenician taste has 
made itself felt in many details. But 
so far as it is possible to reconstruct the 
temple after the descriptions given of 
it in the Bible, it must as a whole have 
reminded the spectator of Egypti.n 
architecture. The remains of an arch 
of the bridge between Zion and Moriah, 
and the remnants of the old wall, called 
the " Wailing-place of the Jews," show 
the massiveness of the old Hebrew struc- 
tures ; and from the descriptions it is 
apparent that everywhere in these build- 
ings, the temple as well as the palaces, 
the straight line and the right angle 
were predominant. But massiveness of 
construction and straightness of form 
are two of the most prominent features 
of Egyptian architecture. 

The successors of David and Solomon 
continued to build, and several kings 
of both Israel and Judah are mentioned 
as having encouraged architecture. Nor 
did the nation as a whole forget the art. 
After the return from Babylon the Jews 
were able to fortify Jerusalem and re- 
build their temple themselves. Ezr. 3 : 
8-10: 6:14; Neh. 3 : 6:15. Herod 
the Great was a great builder, and in- 
troduced the Greek and Roman styles 
of architecture. The temple recon- 
structed by him before and during the 
life of our Lord was totally destroyed 
in a. n. 70. For further details see Tem- 
ple ; for details concerning the Jewish 
architecture, see Dwelling. 



ARC 



AEG 



ARCTU'RUS, Job 

38 : 32 ; a star in the con- 
stellation Bootes, but in 
Job it refers to the Ursa 
Major or Great Bear. 

ARD (fugitive t). 1. 
A Benjamite; called in 
Gen. 46 : 21 son, and in 
Num. 26 : 40 grandson, 
of Benjamin; name 
writ f en Addar in 1 Chr. 
8 : 3. His descendants 
are the Ardites. 

AK'DOX (fugitive), 
a son of Caleb, the son 
of Hezron, by his wife 
Azubah. 1 Chr. 2 : 18. 

ARE'LI (hemic), a 
son of Gad ; founder of 
the Arelites. Gen. 46 : 16; 
Num. 26:17. 

AREOP'AGITE,a 
member of the council of 
the Areopagus. Acts 17 : 
34. 

AREOP'AGUS 
(hill of Marx), a rocky- 
hill near the centre of 
the ancient city of Ath- 
ens, and west of the 
Acropolis, from which it 




View of "Mars' Hill," or Areopagus. (From Lewin's "Life of St. 
Paul.") 



s divided by 
a valley. It had its name from the tra- 
dition that Mars (Ares), the god of war, 
was tried here by the other gods on the 
charge of murder. It was celebrated 
as the place where the great, court of 
justice, the most ancient and venerable 
of the Athenian courts, was held, and 
where Paul made his address to the 
Athenians. Acts 17 : 19-34. Near by 
were the temple of Mars, the Parthe- 
non, the colossal statue of Minerva, and 
beneath the hill were the caves of the 
Furies. There are 16 stone steps now to 
be seen, cut into the rock and leading to 
its summit, and above the steps there is 
a bench of stones excavated in the rock, 
forming three sides of a quadrangle and 
facing the south. Here the Areopagites 
sat as judges, in the open air, and from 
here Paul made known to the Athenians 
the " unknown God " and converted one 
of the judges, Dionysius, who is said 
to have been the first bishop of Athens 
and the writer of books on mystical 
Platonic theology and philosophy. 

AR'ETAS. 2 Cor. 11 : 32. The 
king of Arabia Petraea at the time 
5 



the governor of Damascus attempted 
to apprehend Paul. Acts 9 : 24, 25. 
His daughter married Herod Antipas, 
but was afterward divorced to make 
room for Herodias. In consequence 
of this insult, Aretas made war upon 
Antipas and routed him. The emperor 
Tiberius then despatched the governor of 
Syria to the assistance of Antipas, with 
orders to bring the Arabian to Rome 
alive, or if dead to send his head. 
While on the march against him Vi- 
tellius learned that Tiberius was dead, 
A. D. 37. He then dismissed his troops. 
Antipas was soon after banished and 
his kingdom given to Agrippa. It is 
likely that Aretas was restored to the 
good graces of the Romans, and that 
Caligula granted him Damascus, which 
had already formed part of his pred- 
ecessor's kingdom. In this way we 
can account for the fact in Paul's life 
stated above. 

ARGOB (stony), a small dis- 
trict of Bashan, east of the Jordan; 
named only four times in the Bible. 
It is about 30 miles long by 20 miles 
wide, chiefly a field of basalt (black 
65 



AM 



ARK 



rock), elevated about 30 feet above 
tbe surrounding plain, and border- 
ed by a rocky rampart of broken 
cliffs. It once contained 60 strong and 
fortified cities, the ruins of many of 
them being still to be seen. It is now 
called the Lejah. 

History. — Jair took 60 of its cities. 
Deut. 3 : 4, 5, 14. Absalom fled thither. 
2 Sam. 13:38. Solomon placed an of- 
ficer over its 60 great cities with bra- 
zen walls. 1 Kgs. 4 : 13. Porter de- 
scribes this region as " literally crowded 
with towns and large villages ; and 
though a vast majority of them are 
deserted, they are not ruined. I have 
more than once entered a deserted 
city in the evening, taken possession 
of a comfortable house, and spent the 
night in peace. Many of the houses 
in the ancient cities of Bashan are 
perfect as if only finished yesterday. 
The walls are sound, the roofs unbro- 
ken, and even the window-shutters in 
their places. These ancient cities of 
Bashan probably contain the very old- 
est specimens of domestic architec- 
ture in the world." (See Giant Cities 
of Bashan.) But these ruins are now 
ascertained to belong to the Roman pe- 
riod, and after the Christian era. The 
American Palestine Exploration Society 
has explored that East Jordan region, 
and taken photographs of ruins of the- 
atres, palaces, and temples. 

ARID'AI {the strong), the ninth 
son of Hainan. Esth. 9 : 9. 

ARIDATHA (see above), the 
sixth son of Haman. Esth. 9 : 8. 

ARI'EH (lion), a friend of Peka- 
hiah ; killed with him by Pekah. 2 Kgs. 
15 : 25. 

ARIEL (lion of God), one of 
Ezra's chief men who directed the 
caravan which Ezra led from Babylon 
to Jerusalem. Ezr. 8:16. Jerusalem 
being the chief city of Judah, whose 
emblem was a lion, Gen. 49 : 9, the 
word Ariel is applied to that city. 
Isa. 29:1. 

ARIMATHE'A (heights), a town 
in Judaaa, and the home of Joseph, who 
begged the body of Jesus. Matt. 27 : 
57 ; Mark 15 : 43 : Luke 23 : 51 ; John 
19 : 38. An old tradition places it at the 
modern Ramleh, but this is generally 
discredited. Some identify it with 
Ramah ; others, with less probability, 
66 



with Reuthieh, 10 miles east of Joppa. 
See Ramah. 

A'RIOCH (lion-lilce). 1. The king 
of Ellasar, confederate with Chedor- 
laomer. Gen. 14 : 1-9. 

2. The captain of Nebuchadnezzar's 
guard. Dan. 2 : 14, 15, 24, 25. 

ARIS'AI (lion-like), the eighth son 
of Haman. Esth. 9:9. 

ARISTARCHUS (best ruler), 
a Macedonian of Thessalonica wha 
accompanied Paul upon his third mis* 
sionary journey. Acts 20:4: 27:2. 
He was nearly killed in the tumult which 
Demetrius excited in Ephesus, Acts 19 : 
29, and it is said that he was finally be- 
headed in Rome. Paul alludes to him 
both as his fellow-laborer and fellow- 
prisoner. Col. 4:10; Phile. 24. 

ARK. The word indicates three 
structures. 1. Noah's ark, the vessel 
constructed at God's command for the 
preservation of himself and fami 1 ./ and 
a stock of the various animals, etc., 
during the Flood. Gen. 6 : 14. 2. Moses' 
ark of bulrushes. Ex. 2 : 3. 3. And 
usually, the ark of the covenant. 

1. Noah's Ark. — It was four hundred 
and fifty feet long, seventy-five feet in 
breadth, and forty-five in height, and 
was designed, not to sail, but only to 
float when borne up by the waters. 
It had lower, second, and third stories, 
besides what in common vessels is call- 
ed the hold. A door was placed in the 
side, and on the roof a series of win- 
dows or a window-course in which some 
translucent substance may have been 
used. 

The ark was constructed of gopher- 
wood, and covered with bitumen or 
pitch to exclude water. 

It is doubtful where the ark was 
built and as to how long time it took. 
The weight of opinion is that it was 
from one hundred to one hundred and 
twentv years. Compare Gen. 5 : 32 and 
7:6; Gen. 6 : 3 with 1 Pet. 3 : 20. 

The ark is supposed to have been 
a long, square-cornered boat with a flat 
bottom and a sloping roof; and the con- 
struction of it has been the subject of 
much curious, not to say useless, specu- 
lation. The proportions of the ark, as 
those recommended by the experience 
of centuries of ship-building, are of 
themselves a proof of Noah's inspira- 
tion. In regard to the capacity oi' the 



ARK 



AftK 



ark, it was large enough to accommodate 
the eight persons of Noah's family, and 
all the animals to be saved in it. Some 
scholars confine the number of animals 
to the species living in the parts of the 
world then inhabited by men, excepting, 
of course, such as live in the water 
or lie dormant. Traditions of the ark 
and of the Deluge are found among most 
ancient nations. See Flood. 

2. Moses's Ark was made of the bul- 
rush or papyrus, which grows in marshy 
places in Egypt. It was daubed with 
slime, which was probably the mud of 
which their bricks were made, and with 
pitch or bitumen. Ex. 2 : 3. 

3. Ark of the Covenant, Ex. 25 : 
10, a chest constructed by the express 
command of Jehovah, three feet nine 
inches in length, and two feet three 
inches in width and height, made of 
shittim-wood and covered with plates 
of gold within and without. A border 
or crown of gold encircled it near the 
top, and it was surmounted by the 



Supposed form of Ark of the Covenant. 

mercy-seat, which was of solid gold, 
and answered the purpose of a cover 
or lid to the ark. On each end of the 
mercy-seat was placed a golden image 
representing a cherub facing inward 
and bending down over the ark. Two 
rings of gold were attached to the body 
of the ark on each side, through which 
passed the staves or poles, made of the 
same wood and overlaid with gold, that 
were used in carrying it from place to 
place, and these were never taken out. 
This ark contained originally and in 




; design, 1. A golden pot in which the 
J three quarts of manna were preserved. 
j Ex. 16 : 33. 2. Aaron's rod, which at 
j different places miraculously budded 
and blossomed and yielded fruit all at 
! once, Num. 17:8; and, 3. The tables 
of the testimony, or the tables of the 
j ten commandments, written with the 
finger of God and constituting the tes- 
timony or evidence of the covenant be- 
tween God and the people. Deut. 31 : 26 ; 
Heb. 9 : 3, 4. Hence it is sometimes call- 
ed the ark of the testimony, and some- 
times the ark of the covenant. Ex. 25 : 
16 and 40 :21 ; " It is probable that the 
first two were hopelessly lost before the 
reign of Solomon. 1 Kgs. 8:9. On 
the mercy-seat which surmounted the 
ark rested the awful and mysterious 
symbol of the divine presence. Lev. 
16 : 2 ; Num. 7 : 89. When the Israelites 
were journeying through the wilderness, 
the ark was borne in advance of the 
people, and their route was providen- 
tially indicated by "the cloud of the 
Lord." When the ark set forward, 
Moses said, " Rise up, Lord, and let 
thine enemies be scattered : and let 
them that hate thee flee before thee." 
Num. 10 : 33-36. 

After the children of Israel had pass- 
ed the Jordan, whose waters divided at 
the approach of the ark, Josh. 3 : 14- 
17, the tabernacle was set up at Gilgal, 
and this sacred vessel remained in it for 
a season. It was then removed to Shi- 
loh, where it was stationary between 
three and four hundred years, Jer. 7 : 
12-15 ; and being then taken out and 
borne before the army, it fell into the 
hands of the Philistines at the defeat 
of the Israelites near Aphek. 1 Sam. 
4. The Philistines took it to Ashdod 
and placed it by the side of their idol- 
god Dagon, 1 Sam. 5 : but by severe judg- 
ments God avenged his insulted majesty, 
and they were compelled to return the 
ark to the people of Israel, by whom it 
was lodged at Kirjath-jearim. 1 Sara. 
6 and 7. When David had fixed his 
residence at Jerusalem, the ark was re- 
moved thither with sacred ceremonies, 
and kept until the temple was prepared 
to receive it, 2 Sam. 6 ; 1 Chr. 15 : 25-28, 
on which occasion it is supposed the one 
hundred and thirty-second Psalm was 
written. Solomon put it in the temple. 
2 Chr. 5 : 2-10. Manasseh placed a 
67 



AftK 



ASM 



carved image in the house of God, 
probably removing the ark to make 
way for it. Josiah, however, restored 
it. See 2 Chr. 33 : 7 and 35 : 3. 

The second temple did not contain 
the ark : whether it was seized among 
the spoils when the city was sacked, or 
whether it was secreted and afterward 
destroyed, does not appear. The Jews 
think it will be restored when their Mes- 
siah appears. Wherever the Jews dwelt 
or wandered, they always worshipped 
toward the place where the ark of the 
covenant rested. Dan. 6: 10. 

ARK'ITE, THE, a Canaanitish 
family settled in Arka, "a Phoenician 
town at the north-western base of Leb- 
anon, where the worship of Astarfe was 
practised." Gen. 10 : 17 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 15. 

ARMAGEDDON (mount of Me- 
giddo), a name used figuratively in Rev. 
16: 16, and suggested by the great bat- 
tle-field noted in the Old Testament and 
now known as the Plain of Esdraelon. 

ARWL~E''81A( mountains of Minni ?), 
a name in the English version for a 
country called Ararat in the Hebrew. 
2 Kgs. 19 : 37 ; Isa. 37 : 38. Armenia 
is in western Asia, between the Caspian 
and the Black Seas, and the Caucasus 
and Taurus ranges of mountains. 

Physical Features. — It is chiefly an 
elevated plateau, about 7000 feet above 
the level of the sea, the highest peak 
being Ararat, the lower portions of the 
plateau being broken by valleys and 
glens, including the fertile valleys of 
the Euphrates and Tigris rivers. It is 
watered by four large streams, the Aras, 
the Kur, the Euphrates, and the Tigris, 
and also by numerous lakes, one of the 
largest, the salt Lake Van, being over 
5400 feet above the sea. Its three moun- 
tain-ranges abound in volcanic rocks, in 
lead, copper, iron, silver, rock-salt, and 
mineral springs. The climate is cold 
in the highlands, while the heat of sum- 
mer is intense in the valleys. 

History. — Three districts probably 
included in Armenia are mentioned in 
the Bible, Ararat, Minni and Ashchenaz, 
and Togarmah. (1) Ararat was a central 
region near the range of mountains of the 
same name. (2) Minni and Aschenaz, Jer. 
51 : 27, districts in the upper valley of a 
branch of the Euphrates. (3) Togarmah, 
Eze. 27 : 14 ; 38 : 6, was apparently the 
name by which the most, or perhaps the 
68 



whole, of the lnnd was known to the 
Hebrews. Armenian tradition claims 
that Armenia was settled by Haih, a 
grandson of Japhet, about B.C. 2200. The 
land soon became tributary to Assyria, 
and so continued until the eighth cen- 
tury B. c. ; was again independent until 
B. c. 325 ; subject to Macedonia for 130 
years ; again free until b. c. 34 ; since 
then alternately overrun by Romans, 
Persians, Greeks, Kurds, and Turks, and 
divided between Russia, Turkey, and 
Persia. The people have long been nom- 
inally Christian. Religious persecution 
and war have driven great numbers of 
Armenians from their native land into 
Asia Minor and Europe. The present 
number of Armenians is estimated to 
be from 2,500,000 to 3,000 000, of whom 
about 1,000,000 live in Armenia. Its 
chief modern towns are Erzeroum, Eri- 
van, and Van. See Assyria. 

ARMOR. See also War. Weap- 
ons or instruments of defence. These 
were in general the shield or buckler, 
J the target, the coat of mail, the greaves, 
and the helmet. 




Egyptian Shields. {After Rosellini.) 
1. The shield or buckler was probably 
one of the earliest pieces of armor, for al- 
lusion is often made to it by the earliest 
writers. Gen. 15 : 1 ; Ps. 5 : 12 ; 18 : 2 : 
47 : 9. It was of various sizes, and usually 
made of light wood and covered with 
several folds or thicknesses of stout 
hide, which were preserved and polished 
by frequent applications of oil, Isa. 21 : 
5, and often painted with circles of 
various colors or figures. Nah. 2 : 3. 
Sometimes osiers, or reeds woven like 
basket-work, were used to stretch the 
hide upon, and sometimes the shield 
was made either entirely of brass or 
gold, or covered with thick plates of 



ARM 



ARM 



those metals. 1 Kgs. 14:26, 27. It was 
of various forms, but generally circular 
or oblong. The shield was held by the 




2. Assyrian Mail. (Ninereh Marbles.) 3. 
Part of Chain Mail. (From Kadyunjik.) 4. Greek 
Cuirass. (From Temple Collections.) 5. Persian 
Mail. 

left arm. The hand passed through 
under two straps or thongs placed 
thus, x, and grasped with the fingers 
another small strap near the edge of the 
shield, so that it was held with great 
firmness. A single handle of wood or 
leather in the centre was used in 
later times. The outer surface was 
made more or less rounding from 
the centre to the edge, and being 
polished smooth made the arrows or 
darts glance off" or rebound with in- 
creased force ; and the edges were armed 
with plates of iron, not only to strength- 
en them, but to preserve the perishable 
part from the dampness while lyinc 
upon the ground. In times of peace 
the shield was kept in a covering. In 
times of engagement the shields were 
either held above the head or they were 
placed together edge to edge, and thus 
formed a continuous barrier. 

2. The tin-get was a long shield, 
protecting the whole body, larger than 
the bucklers above described. 1 Kgs. 
10:16,17. It is usually mentioned in 
connection with heavy arms, while the 
shield is spoken of with the sword, dart, 
and other light arms. It probably re- 



sembled the great shield of the Romans, 
which in some cases was four feet high 
and two and a half feet broad, and so 
curved as to fit the body of the soldier. 

3. The coat of mail of Goliath, 1 Sam. 
17 : 5, covered the body upon and below 
the breast and back, and was probably 
like a shirt covered with rows of brass 
pieces overlapping one another; and 
this may have been the usual form. 
The habergeon of Neb. 4 : 16 is a differ- 
ent translation of the same word. The 
article so called formed part of the high 
priest's dress, and "is supposed to have 
been of linen, thickly woven or quilted, 
with a binding on the neck, and plated 
on the breast with mail." 

4. Greaves or boots, I Sam. 17 : 6, were 
for the protection of the legs, being made 
of brass and fastened by leather thongs 
over the shins. They are mentioned only 
as a part of the armor of Goliath, and 
probably were not in common use among 
the Hebrews, though they were almost 
universal among the Greeks and Romans. 

5. Helmet. This was a cap, the diverse 
shapes of which are seen in the figures of 
the archers, slinger, bearers of shields. 
In early times skins of the heads of 
animals were used, but afterward it was 
made of thick, tough hide, and some- 
times of plated brass, 1 Sam. 17 : 38, 
and usually crowned with a crest or 
plume as an ornament. 

Armor-bearer. Jud. 9 : 54. An of- 
ficer selected by kings and generals from 
the bravest of their favorites, whose ser- 




Egyptian Battle-axes. (From Eosellini and Chan* 
pollion.) 

vice it was, not only to bear their armor, 
but to stand by them in danger and carry 
their orders, somewhat after the manner 
69 



AKM 



AKM 



of adjutants in modern service. 
16 : 21 and 31 : 4. 

1 



lSi 




1. Egyptian Maces and Clubs. 
Maces. 



Assyrian 



ARMS were weapons or instruments 
of offence. They were the sivord, the 
spear or javelin, dart or lance, the bow 




Assyrian Swords or Daggers. (From Nineveh 
Marbles.) 

and arroio, the sling, the quiver, and the 
battle-axe. 

70 



1. The sword. Gen. 27:40. This was 
a short two-edged instrument resembling 
what we call a dagger. It was carried in 
a sheath or scabbard, Jer. 47 : 6 ; Eze. 
21 : 9, 30, and suspended to the girdle or 
belt. Jud. 3 : 16 : 2 Sam. 20 : 8. 




Assyrian Spears and Shields. (From Nineveh 
Marbles.) 

2. Of the spear there were at least three 
distinct varieties, which differed chiefly 
in length and size. (1.) The spear, par 




Assyrian Archers behind a large Shield. 
Nineveh Marbles.) 



(From 



excellence, was a long wooden staff with 
a stout metal point at one end. The 
Greek spears were sometimes twenty-five 
feet long, and the Arabs now use them 
fifteen feet long. They were required to 
be long enough to reach beyond the front 



ARM 



ARM 



rank when used by those who were in the 
second rank. Goliath's spear was said 
to have a staff "like a weaver's beam." 
1 Sam. 17 : 7. This largest sort of spear 
was used by Saul habitually. It must 
have had a metallic point at its butt 
end, because it was stuck into the 
ground, J Sam. 26 : 7, and Asahel was 
killed " with the hinder end " of Abner's 
spear. 2 Sam. 2:23. It was this kind 
of spear, and net a "javelin," which Saul 
threw at David and Jonathan. 1 Sam. 
18 : 1 1 ; 20 : 33. There was a somewhat 
lighter spear, which was carried on the 
back when not in use. 1 Sam. 17:6. 
(Authorized Version translates target.) 
(2.) The jucelin was a short spear, cast, 
as is supposed, with the hand. Num. 
25:7. (3.) The dart was still smaller 
than the javelin, and used in like man- 
ner. 2 Chron. 32:5. 

3. The arrow was a slender missile 
shot from a bow, as in modern days. 1 
Sam. 20:36. It was used in hunting, 
Gen. 27:3, as well as in combat. Gen. 
48 : 22. Those who used the bow were 
called "archers." Gen. 21:20. Arrows 
were originally made of reeds, and after- 
ward of any light wood. The bows were 
made of flexible wood or steel, Ps. 18 : 
34, and the bowstring of leather, horse- 
hair, or the tendons of animals. Bows 
were the chief dependence in both an 
attack and a defence. The point of the 
arrow was barbed like a fish-hook. Ps. 



kindled upon the combustible baggage 
or armament of the enemy. Ps. 91 : 5 ; 
120 : 4. It is said that the coals of the 




Egyptian Archer. (Rosdhni.) 

88 : 2. Job refers to the use of poisoned 
arrows. Job 6 : 4, and fire was often con- 
veyed by the use of juniper-wood, which 




Assyrian and Egyptian Quivers and Bows. 

juniper-wood retain their heat for a 
long time. The Phoenicians and, in 
later times, the Spaniards have used 
arrows for the like purpose. Arrows 
were used in divination. Eze 21 : 21. 

Arrows were kept in a case or box 
called a quiver, which was slung over 
the shoulder in such a position that the 
soldier could draw out the arrows when 
wanted. The position of the quiver and 
bow is seen in a preceding cut. The 
drawing of the bow was a test of 
strength, and is still so among the 
Arabians. Hence the allusion in Ps. 
18 : 34. 

4. The sling, 1 Sam. 17 : 40, was an 
early weapon of war, by which stones 
were thrown with great force and sur- 
prising accuracy of aim. This skill 
was shown in a remarkable degree by' 
the Benjamites, who could employ 
the left hand in its use with great 
adroitness. Jud. 20 : 16. The slingers 
71 



AKM 



ARO 



ranked next to the archers in efficiency, 
and formed a regular arm of the service. 




Assyrian Slinger. 

5. The battle-axe, Jer. 51 : 20, was ob- 
viously a powerful weapon of war, but 
of its ancient form and manner of use 
we have now no knowledge. 

The term " armor," and the various 
offensive and defensive articles com- 
prised in it, are frequently used fig- 
uratively in the Bible, in Eph. 6 : 11-17, 
where the graces of the Christian cha- 
racter are represented as the armor of 
God, in which he clothes the believer, 
and by which he is enabled to fight the 
good fight of faith with a victorious 
arm. 

ARMY. The armies of the Israel- 
ites embraced the whole male population 
of the country of twenty years and over, 
Num. 1 : 2, 3 ; 26 : 2, and when occasion 
required, the entire body was readily 
mustered. Jud. 20 : 1—11 ; 1 Sam. 11 : 
7, 8. This accounts for the prodigious 
numbers which were often assembled. 
2 Chron. 13:3: 14:9. See War. The 
system was minute. Each tribe consti- 
tuted a division with a separate banner 
and separate position on the march to 
the Holy Land, and as near as possible 
in battle. The army gathered from the 
tribes was divided into thousands and 
hundreds under their respective cap- 
tains. Num. 31 : 14. The kin<rs had 
body-guards. 1 Sam. 13:2: 25:13. 
In later times a standing army was 
maintained, and in war troops were 
sometimes hired. 2 Chr. 25 : 6. But 
72 



ordinarily the soldiers received no 
wages, but were armed and supported. 
1 Kgs. 4 : 27 : 10 : 26. Hence their 
campaigns were short, and generally 
terminated by a single battle. Horses 
were not used, it is supposed, until 
Solomon's time. The manner of de- 
claring war, and the character and 
occupation of exempts, are minutely 
stated. Deut. 20 : 1-14 ; 24 : 5. 

AR'NON {noisy), a stream running 
into the Dead Sea from the east, and 
which divided Moab from the Amorites. 
Num. 21:13; Jud. 11:18. The Arnon 
is about 50 miles long ; 90 feet wide, and 
from 4 to 10 feet deep at its mouth ; full 
in winter, but nearly dry in summer; 
had several fords, Isa. 16 : 2, and " high 
places," Num. 21 : 28 ; Isa, 15 : 2 ; is re- 
ferred to 24 times in the Bible. Its 
modern name is el-Mojib. It runs 
through a deep ravine with precipitous 
limestone clifis on either side, in some 
places over 2000 feet high. Ruins of 
forts, bridges, and buildings abound on 
its banks, and fish in its waters; ole- 
anders and almond trees bloom in its 
valley, and griffons and buzzards may 
be seen hovering over its cliffs. 

A'ROD (a wild ass), a son of Gad, 
founder of the Arodites. Num. 26 : 17. 
He is called Arodi in Gen. 46: 16. 

AR'OER (ruins), the name of sev- 
eral places. 

1. A city on the north side of the 
river Arnon. given to Reuben. . Josh. 
13 : 9, 16. It belonged to Sihon of the 
Amorites, Deut. 2:36; 3:12; 4:48: 
Josh. 12 : 2 ; Jud. 11 : 26 ; taken by 
Syria, 2 Kgs. 10 : 33 ; possessed by 
Moab, Jer. 48 : 19. It is identified with 
ruins on the edge of a steep cliff, 13 
miles west of the Dead Sea, and called 
A ra'ir. 

2. A city before Rabbah, built by 
Gad, Num. 32 : 34; Josh. 13 : 25; it 
was probably not far west of the mod- 
ern town of Amman. 

3. Aroer, in Isa, 17 : 2, if a proper 
name, must refer to a region near 
Damascus. 

4. A town in the south of Judah, 
1 Sam. 30:28; now Ar'arah, en the 
road from Gaza to Petra, and 11 miles 
south-west of Beer-sheba. Four wells 
are found there. 

AR'OERITE, THE. Horhan, 
the father of two of David's "mighty 



ARP 



ASA 



men," was a native of Aroer, but it is \ 
uncertain of which one. 1 Chr. 11:44. 
AR PAD, ou AR'PHAD {strong 

city), a town or region in Syria, near 
Hamath, 2 KgS. 18 : 34 : Isa. 10 : 9 ; 
dependent on Damascus. Jer. 49 : 23. j 
See Arvad. 

ARPHAXAD {stronghold of the 
Chaldees), a son of Shem, ancestor of | 
Eber, and also, according to Josephus, 
of the Chaldaeans. Gen. 10 : 22, 24 ; 11 : 
10-13; 1 Chr. 1: 17, 18, 24. 

ARTAXERX'ES {the great rear- I 
rior), the name of two kings of Persia : 
mentioned in the Bible. 1. Ezr. 4 : 7-24, 
the king who stopped the rebuilding of 
the temple because he listened to the 
malicious report of the enemies of the 
Jews. He is supposed to have been 
Smerdis the Magian, the pretended 
brother of Cambyses, who seized the 
throne b. c. 522, and was murdered af- j 
ter 8 months. 

2. Ezr. 7 : 7 and Neb. 2 : 1 both speak 
of a second Artaxerxes. who is generally 
regarded as the same with Artaxerxes 
Longimanus [i.e. the Long-handed), son 
of Xerxes, who reigned b. c. 464-425. In 
the seventh year of his reign he per- 
mitted Ezra to return into Judaea, with 
such of his countrymen as chose to fol- 
low him ; and fourteen years afterward 
he allowed Xehemiah to return and 
build up Jerusalem. 

AR'TEMAS (contraction of Arte- 
madoi us, the gift of Artemis, i. e. Diana), 
a companion of Paid. Tit. 3:12. 

ARTILLERY. 1 Sam. 20 : 40. 
Any missile weapons, as arrows, lances, 
etc. See Arms. 

ARTS. Acts 19 : 19. Pretended j 
skill in the practice of magic, astrology, 
etc. See Astroi ogy. 

AR'UJBOTH windows, or court), a 
district including Sochoh. 1 Kgs. 4 : 
10. See Sochoh. 

ARUMAH [height), a place near I 
Shechem, where Abimelech lived. Jud. | 
9 : 41. Perhaps el-Armah, 5 miles south- j 
east of Xnh'ouH. 

AR'VAD wandering), a small island i 
2 or 3 miles off the coast of Phoenicia, 
related closely to Tvre. Eze. 27:8, 11. ! 
See also Gen. 10 : 18 ; 1 Chr. 1:16. 
Ruins of a huge wall are still found. 
and Greek inscriptions graven on black 
basaltic columns. The stones are so 
immense as to puzzle the best engineers 



how to move them. The place is now 
called Itnad, and has about 3000 popu- 
lation. It appears to have been a city 
since the time of Arvad, son of Canaan, 
and is probably the same as Arpad and 
Arphad. 

AR'ZA, the steward of King Elah's 
house. 1 Kgs. 16 : 9. 

A'SA ( physician ) was son and succes- 
sor of A bijam on the throne of Judah, B. c. 
955-914. 1 Kgs. 15 : 8. He reigned for- 
ty-one years. Though educated in the 
principles of a false religion, he showed 
from the first his decided opposition to 
idolatry, and even deposed his grand- 
mother, Maaehahj because she had made 
an idol in a grove. The first part of his 
reign was peaceful, and he improved the 
opportunity to purify his kingdom from 
idolatry and to build and fortify sev- 
eral cities ; and when Zerah, an Ethi- 
opian king, invaded his territories with 
an army of a million of men and three 
hundred chariots, Asa met him at 
Mareshah with 580,000 men, and de- 
feated him. This battle was one of 
the most important in Jewish history. 
2 Chr. 14. 

At the suggestion of the prophet 
Azariah, Asa set about the reformation 
of every abuse in his kingdom, and 
appointed a solemn festival of thanks- 
giving to God, at which all the peo- 
ple were assembled, and entered into 
a formal covenant with God. Baasha, 
king of Israel, finding his subjects too 
much disposed to go into Judah and 
dwell there, commenced fortifying Ra- 
in ah. a place near the frontiers of both 
kingdoms, with a view to cut off the 
passage of emigrants to Jerusalem 
and other parts of Judah. Asa, 
though he had so long enjoyed the 
favor and protection of God, was now 
tempted to forsake him. Instead of 
trusting him for deliverance, as he 
had done in years past, he sent to 
Ben-hadad, the king of Syria, and pre- 
vailed on him, even in violation of a 
treaty which existed between Ben-ha- 
dad and Baasha. to come to the help 
of Judah against Israel. The Syrian 
king, won by the presents which Asa 
had sent him, immediately attacked 
and destroyed several important cities 
of Israel. Baasha, finding his king- 
dom thus invaded, abandoned the for- 
tification of Ramah that he might 
73 



ASA 



ASH 



protect the provinces of the interior 
from desolation. Asa seized the op- 
portunity to demolish Ramah and take 
away the stone and timber which were 
collected there and use them in the 
building of his own cities. In the 
mean time, Hanani the prophet was 
sent to rebuke him for forsaking Je- 
hovah, and to announce his punish- 
ment. But Asa was enraged by the 
faithful message, and caused the bearer 
of it to be imprisoned. 2 Chr. 16:10. 
In the latter part of his life Asa had 
a disease of the feet, perhaps the 
gout, but "he sought not to the Lord, 
but to the physicians." We may, how- 
ever, accept his sufferings as an ex- 
tenuating circumstance for his occa- 
sional acts of tyranny. He died b. c. 914, 
in the forty-first year of his reign, and 
was buried with great pomp. 2 Chr. 
16:14. 

2. A Levite who dwelt in one of the 
villages of the Netophathites after 
the Captivity. 1 Chr. 9:16. 

AS'AHEL (whom God made). 1. 
David's nephew, Joab's brother, noted 
for swiftness of foot ; one of David's 
thirty heroes : killed by Abner at the 
battle of Gideon. 2 Sam. 2 : 18 ff. ; 1 
Chr. 11 : 26 ; 27 : 7. 

2. A Levite. 2 Chr. 17 : 8. 

3. Another Levite. 2 Chr. 31 : 13. 

4. The father of one in Ezra's em- 
ploy. Ezr. 10:15. 

ASAHI'AH (ivhom Jehovah made), 
a servant of King Josiah. 2 Kgs. 22: 
12, 14. Called Asaiah, the same name, 
in 2 Chr. 34:20. 

ASAI'AH {whom Jehovah made). 1. 
A Simeonite chief in Hezekiah's time. 
1 Chr. 4:36, 41. 

2. A Levite of David's time, chief of 
the Merari, who assisted in bringing up 
the ark to Jerusalem. 1 Chr. 6 : 30, 31 ; 
15:6,11. 

3. According to 1 Chr. 9 : 5, the first- 
born of the Shilonite; called, in Neh. 11 : 
5, Maaseiah. 

4. 2 Chr. 34:20. See Asahiah. 
A'SAPH {collector). 1. A Levite 

who was a chief leader of the tem- 
ple choir and a poet. 1 Chr. 6 : 39. 
Twelve of the Psalms are attributed to 
him — namely, Ps. 50 and from Ps. 73 
to 83. He is also spoken of as a 
"seer" in connection with David. 2 
Chr. 29:30; Neh. 12:46. "The sons 
74 



of Asaph " were probably a school of 
musicians. 

2. The father of Joah, recorder to 
Hezekiah. 2 Kgs. 18 : 18, 37 ; Isa. 36 : 
3,22. 

3. The keeper of the king's forest 
to Artaxerxes. Neh. 2 : 8. 

4. A Levite, an ancestor of Mattaniah. 
Neh. 11 : 17. Perhaps the same as 1. 

ASAR/EELi (xchom God has bound; 
i. e. by an oath), a descendant of Ju- 
dah. 1 Chr. 4:16. 

AS ARE 'L AH (upright toward 
God), a musician, 1 Chr. 25 : 2 ; called 
Jesharelah in v. 14. 

ASCEN'SION. See Christ. 

AS'ENATH {favorite of NeitJi or 
Isis-Neith) (Neith is the Minerva of 
Egypt), Joseph's wife, the daughter of 
Poti-pherah, priest of On or Heliopolis, 
the religious and literary capital of an- 
cient Egypt, a few miles north of Cairo. 
Gen. 41:45; 46:20. 

A'SER. Luke 2 : 36 ; Rev. 7 : 6. 
Greek form of Asher. 

ASH. Isa. 44:14. Mentioned 
only once. The true ash is not a 
native of Palestine. This tree, the 
wood of which was wrought into the 
images of idolatry, is believed to be 
a pine. 

A'SHAN (smoke), a city in the 
plain of Judah. Josh. 15 : 42 ; 1 Chr. 
6:59. The Ashan assigned to Simeon 
may be another place. Josh. 19 : 7 ; 
1 Chr. 4:32. Conder proposes to place 
one at 'Aseileh, near en-Rimmon, the 
other at Hesheth. 

ASH'BEA (I adjure), a name in the 
genealogical list in 1 Chr. 4 : 21. Prob- 
ably the name of a person ; but if a place, 
it should be Beth-ashbea. 

ASH'BEL (reproof of God), a son 
of Benjamin, ancestor of the Ashbelites. 
Gen. 46 : 21 : Num. 26 : 38 ; 1 Chr. 8 : 1. 

ASHCHENAZ. 1 Chr. 1:6: Jer. 
51:27. See Ashkenaz. 

ASH'DOD {stronghold, castle), one 
of the five confederate cities of the Phil- 
istines, allotted to Judah, Josh. 15 : 46, 
47; the chief seat of Dagon -worship. 1 
Sam. 5. It was 3 miles from the Medi- 
terranean, and midway between Gaza 
and Joppa. The place is called Azotus 
in the New Testament. Acts 8:40. It 
is now a mean village called Esdud ; 
near it are extensive ruins. 

History. — Built by the Anakim; not 



ASH 



ASH 



taken by Joshua, Josh. 11 : 22 : allotted 
to Judah, 15:47: taken by Uzziah, 2 
Chr. 26 : 6 : by Tartan or Sargon, Isa. 
20 : 1 ; besieged by Psammetichus and 
destroyed by the Maccabees ; given to 
Salome after Herod's death ; Philip 
preached there. Acts 8 : 40 ; bishops of 
Azotus or Ashdod are noticed in later 
history ; the city is now occupied by 
Mohammedans. 

ASHDOTH-PIS'GAH (apringa 
of Pisgah), a valley or place near Mount 
Pisgah. Deut. 3: 17; 4:49; Josh. 12: 
3. See Pisgah, Springs of. 

ASH'ER(Aap/>y). 1. The eighth son 
of Jacob. 2. One of the twelve tribes (see 
Tribes). 3. A territory extending from 
Carmel to Lebanon, about 60 miles long 
and 10 to 12 wide, having 22 cities with 
their villages. The Phoenicians held the 
plain by the sea, and Asher the moun- 
tains. Josh. 19 : 24-31 ; Jud. 1 : 31, 32. 

4. A place on the boundary between 
Ephraim and Manasseh. Josh. 17 : 7. 
Some locate it at Yaair, 12 miles north- 
east of Shechem. Drake suggests Asi- 
reh as the more probable location. 

ASH'ERAH {straight). See Ash- 

TAROTH. 

ASH'ES. Gen. 18 : 27. To cover 
the head with ashes, or to sit in ashes, 
betokens self-abhorrence, humiliation, 
extreme grief, or penitence. 2 Sam. 13 : 
19; Esth.4:3; Job 2:8; Jer. 6 : 26 ; 
Lam. 3:16; Jon. 3:6; Matt. 11 : 21. The 
ashes of the altar of burnt-offering on 
the days of the great festivals were suf- 
fered to accumulate, and then taken away 
the next day by a priest chosen by lot to 
this work. There was a sort of lye made 
of the ashes of the heifer sacrificed on 
the great day of expiation, which was 
used for ceremonial purification. Num. 
19:17,18. See Heifer. 

ASH'IMA. 2 Kgs. 17:30. The 
name of the god the Hamathite colonists 
introduced into Samaria; identified with 
the Pan of the Greeks. 

ASH'KELON, and AS'KELON 
{migration), one of the five cities of the 
Philistines ; a seaport-town 10 miles 
north of Gaza; taken by Judah, Jud. 1 : 
18 ; visited by Samson, Jud. 14 : 19; and 
its destruction predicted in Jer. 47 : 5, 7 ; 
.Lm. 1:8; Zech. 9:5; Zeph. 2 : 7. 

History. — Ashkelon was the seat of 
worship of the Philistine goddess As- 
tarte, whose temple was plundered by 



the Scythians, b. c. 625 ; was the birth- 
place of Herod the Great; was taken by 
the Franks, A. D. 1099; partially de- 
stroyed by the Moslems ; rebuilt by 
Richard Coeur de Lion ; destroyed again 
in A. D. 1270. Ruins of walls, columns, 
marble pillars, and inscriptions on stone 
abound there now, though many of the 
good building-stones have been dug up 
and used in Jaffa and Gaza. Sycamores, 
vines, olives, and fruit trees are found 
there, and also 37 wells of sweet water. 
Near the ruins of the old city is J&rah, a 
village of about 300 population. 

ASH'KENAZ (strong, fortified), a 
district probably in Armenia, the home 
of a tribe of the same name. In 1 Chr. 
1:6; Jer. 51 : 27 it is called Ashchenaz. 
See Armenia. 

ASH'KENAZ. Gen. 10:3. Son 
of Gomer, of the family of Japhet, and 
the probable ancestor of those who in- 
habited the country of the same name, 
Jer. 51 : 27, lying along the eastern and 
south-eastern shore of the Black Sea. 
The precise district is unknown. See 
Minni. 

ASH'NAH, the name of two cities 
of Judah. 1. One about 16 miles north- 
west of Jerusalem, Josh. 15 : 33 ; 2, the 
other 16 miles south-west of it. Josh. 
15 : 43. Conder locates it at Idhnah, but 
Ganneau places it at Asalim, near Sai-a. 

ASH'PENAZ (horse-nose ?), the 
master of Nebuchadnezzar's eunuchs, 
who showed much kindness and for- 
bearance toward Daniel and his three 
companions, though at considerable per- 
sonal risk. Dan. 1 : 3. 

ASHRIEL {vow of God). See As- 

RIEL. 

ASH'TAROTH, AS'TA- 
ROTH. 1. A city of Bashan, east of 
the Jordan, Deut. 1:4; Josh. 9 : 10 ; 13 : 
31 ; the same as Beesh-terah, Josh. 21: 
27 ; probably Tell-Ashterah, in Jaulan. 

2. {Ashtoreth, sing. ; Ashtaroth, plur. 
and more usual.) An idol, represented 
in the subjoined cut, Jud. 2 : 13; called 
the goddess of the Sidoni~xis. It was 
much worshipped in Syria and Phoeni- 
cia. Solomon introduced the worship 
of it. 1 Kgs. 11 : 33. The Greeks and 
Romans called it Astarte. The four 
hundred priests of Jezebel, mentioned 1 
Kgs. 18: 19, are supposed to have been 
employed in the service of this idol; 
and we are told that under this name 
75 



ASH 



ASP 




Figure of Astarte. (Eawlinson's "Herodotus.") 



three hundred priests were constantly 
employed in its service at Hierapolis, in 
Syria, many centuries after Jezebel's 
time. The worship of Ashtoreth was 
suppressed by Josiah. It was simply 
licentiousness under the guise of relig- 
ion. The goddess was called the 
"queen of heaven," and the worship 
was said to be paid to the ''host of 
heaven." It is usually mentioned in 
connection with Baal. Baal and Ash- 
toreth are taken by many scholars as 
standing for the sun and the moon re- 
spectively ; by others as representing 
the male and female powers of repro- 
duction. Asherah, which is translated 
in the Authorized Version " grove," was 
an idol-symbol of the goddess, probably 
a wooden pillar. 

ASHTERATHITE, an inhabit- 
ant of Ashtaroth beyond Jordan. 1 
Chr.ll:44. 

ASH'TEROTH KARNAIM 
(Ashteroth of the two horns), a city of 
the giant Rephaim in Bashan, Gen. 
14 : 5 ; perhaps modern Sanamein, 30 
miles south of Damascus, though Porter 
thinks it possibly identical with Kenath 
and modern Kitnawao. Others with 
greater probability, suggest Tell-Ash- 
tdrd, 20 miles east of the Sea of Galilee. 

ASHTORETH, See Ashtaroth. 
76 



ASH'UR (black), the father of 
Tekoa: t. e. the founder of the place. 
1 Chr. 2 : 24 ; 4 : 5. 

ASH'VATH (meaning uncertain), 
an Asherite. 1 Chr. 7:33. 

A'SIA, used only in the New Testa- 
ment. It refers, not to the continent of 
Asia, nor to "Asia Minor" entire, but 
to a small Roman province on the coast, 
in the west of Asia Minor, and included 
the lesser provinces of Mysia, Lydia, 
and Caria; its capital was Ephesus. 
Acts 6:9; 19:10; 27:2; 1 Cor. 16:19; 
1 Pet. 1:1; Rev. 1 : 4. All the " seven 
churches" were in Asia. See Map. 

A'SIEli (created of God), a Simeon- 
ite. 1 Chr. 4:35. 

AS'KELON. Jud.l:18. SeeAsH- 

KELON. 

AS'NAH (thorn-bush), one whose 
descendants returned with Zerubbabel. 
Ezr. 2 : 50. 

ASNAP'PER (swift?), one men- 
tioned in Ezr. 4:10 as "great and 
noble." Who he was is unknown. It 
is perhaps best to regard him as the of- 
ficial employed by Esar-haddon to settle 
the Cuthaaans in Samaria. 

ASP. Deut. 32:33; Rom. 3:13. 
A small but very poisonous serpent, 




Egyptian Cobra. (Naja hage. After Houghton.) 

probably the Egyptian cobra, which 
dwells in holes. The venom of this 
reptile is cruel, because it is so subtle 
and deadly, and requires an immediate 
excision of the wounded part. For an 
infant child to play up. ,t t the hob of 



ASP 



ASS 



such a venomous reptile would seem to 
be most presumptuous, and hence the 
force of the figure used by the prophet, 
Isa. 11 : 8, to represent the security and 
peace of the Messiah's reign. See 
Addrr (2). 

AS'PATHA (meaning uncertain), 
the third son of Hainan. Esth. 9 : 7. 

AS'RIEL [vow of God), the son of 
Gilead. founder of the Asrielites. 
Num. 26 :31 j Josh. 17:2; 1 Chr. 7 : 14. 

ASS. Gen. 22:3. This animal is 
among the most common mentioned in 
Scripture, and constituted a consider- 
able part of the wealth of ancient times. 
Gen. 12: 16 and 30 : 43 ; Job 1:3; 42 : 
12. Asses were sometimes so numerous 
as to require a 
special keeper. 
Gen. 36 : 24; 1 
Chr. 27 : 30. The 
ass and the ox were 
the principal ani- 
mals of burden and 
draught. Ex. 23 : 
12. The domestic- 
ass is indeed a 
most serviceable 
animal, and in 
some respects 
preferable to the 
horse. He subsists 
on very coarse food 
and submits to the 
meanest drudgery. 
His skin is remark- 
ably thick, and is 
used at this day for 
parchment, drum- 
heads, memoran- 
dum-books, etc. 
The usual color of 
asses is red or dark brown, but some- 
times they are of a silver white, and 
these last were usually appropriated to 
persons of dignity. Jud. 5 : 10. So in 
Gen. 49: 11 the allusion to the ass and 
the vine imports dignity and fruitful- 
ness, and the continuance and increase 
of both in the tribe of Judah. There 
was a breed of asses far superior to 
those that were used in labor, and which 
are supposed to be referred to in most 
of the passages above cited. 

The female, or she-ass, was particu- 
larly valuable for the saddle and for her 
milk, which was extensively used for 
food and for medicinal purposes. 



I The ass was used in agricultural labor, 
especially in earing (ploughing) the 

1 ground and tread. ng it to prepare it 
for the seed. Isa. 30:24 and 32:20. 
The prohibition, Deut. 22:10, might 
have been founded in part on the in- 
equality of strength between the ox 
and the ass, and the cruelty of putting 
upon thein the same burden, but was 
intended chiefly to mark the separation 
of the Jews from surrounding nations, 
among whom such a union of different 
beasts was not uncommon. So service- 
able, and indeed essential, to man was 
this animal in ancient times that to 
drive away the ass of the fatherless is 
reckoned among the most atrocious acts 




Tiie Eastern Ass 



. {After Wood. " Animal Kingdom.") 

of oppression and cruelty, Job 24 : 3, as 
depriving an orphan family of their only 
cow would be regarded at the present 
day. The attachment of this'animal to 
its owner is among its remarkable cha- 
racteristics. In this respect it closely 
resembles the dog. Hence the severity 
of the prophet's rebuke. Isa. 1 : 3. 

The fact stated in 2 Kgs. 6 : 25 shows 
that such was the extremity of the fam- 
ine that the people were willing to give 
an exorbitant price for the head of an 
'' unclean " animal. 

The ass, when dead, was thrown into 
an open field, and that part of his flesh 
which was not consumed by beasts and 
77 



ASS 



ASS 



birds was suffered to putrefy and decay. 
Nothing could be more disgraceful than 
to expose a human body in the like 
manner. Jer. 22 : 19 ; 36 : 30. 

Our Saviour's entrance into Jerusalem 
riding upon an ass's colt fulfilled the 
prophecy in Zech. 9:9. It is not con- 
sidered in the East less honorable to 
ride this animal than a horse. But the 
latter is chiefly used for warlike pur- 
poses, as the ass is not. This peaceful 
animal was appropriated to the Prince 
of peace, who came not as other con- 
querors. 

The Arabian ass has a light, quick 
step. In Persia, Syria, and Egypt 
ladies are accustomed to ride on asses, 
and they are particularly valuable in 
mountainous countries, being more sure- 
footed than horses. Their ordinary 
gait is four miles an hour. 

The ass in its wild or natural state is 
a beautiful animal. It is often alluded 
to in the sacred writings. Job 11 : 12 j 
24 : 5 and 39 : 5-8. Asses usually roam- 
ed in herds through barren and desolate 
districts. Isa. 32 : 14; Hos. 8 : 9. One 
was recently taken in a pitfall in Astra- 
chan, and added to the Surrey zoologi- 
cal collection in England. It is de- 
scribed as having a deer-like appear- 
ance, standing high on the legs, very 
active, of a silvery color, with a dark- 
brown streak along the back. 

AS'SHUR. Gen. 10 : 22. The sec- 
ond son of Shem. See Assyria. 

AS'SHUR, a Hebrew form for As- 
syria, and in the prophecies and his- 
torical books refers to that empire. 
See Assyria. 

ASSHU'RIM {steps), descendants 
of Dedan, the grandson of Abraham. 
Gen. 25 : 3. 

AS'SIR {captive). 1. A Levite, the 
son of Korah. Ex. 6 : 24; 1 Chr. 6 : 
22. 

2. A descendant of Korah, and an- 
cestor of Samuel. 1 Chr. 6 : 23, 37. 

3. A descendant of David. 1 Chr. 
3 :17. 

AS'SOS, a Greek city of Mysia in 
"Asia," 19 miles south-east of Troas, 
and on the Mediterranean Sea. Ex- 
tensive ruins of buildings, citadel, 
tombs, and a gateway still exist there. 
Paul visited it. Acts 20 : 13. 

AS'SUR. Ezr. 4:2; Ps. 83:8. 
See Assyria. 
78 



ASSUR'ANCE. 1. Of the Un- 
derstanding, Col. 2 : 2, is a full know- 
ledge of divine things founded on the 
declaration of the Scriptures. 

2. An Assurance op Eaith, Heb. 10 : 
22, is a firm belief in Christ, as God has 
revealed him to us in the Scriptures, 
and an exclusive dependence on him 
for salvation. 

3. Assurance of Hope, Heb. 6 : 11, is 
a firm expectation that God will grant 
us the complete enjoyment of what he 
has promised. 

ASSYR'IA, a great empire of West- 
ern Asia, founded by Asshur, Gen. 10 : 
10, 11, who built Nineveh, Rehoboth (?), 
Calah, and Resen. Assyria proper ap- 
pears to have included about the same 
territory as modern Kurdistan. The 
empire covered at times a far larger 
extent of territory, and in its prosper- 
ity nearly all of western Asia and por- 
tions of Africa were subject to its power. 

Physical Features. — The chief rivers 
of Assyria were the Euphrates and 
Tigris. The country was well watered. 
On the east and north were ranges of 
mountains, the highest covered with 
snow. The central portions were along 
the fertile valleys of the two great rivers. 
There are immense level tracts of the 
country, now almost a wildei-ness, which 
bear marks of having been cultivated 
and thickly populated in early times. 
Among its products, besides the com- 
mon cereals, were dates, olives, cotton, 
mulberries, gum - arabic, madder, and 
castor-oil. Of animals, the bear, deer, 
wolf, lynx, hyena, antelope, lion, tiger, 
beaver, and camel were common. The 
fertility of the country is frequently 
noted by ancient writers. 

Biblical History. — Assyria is among 
the earliest countries mentioned in the 
Bible, Gen. 2 : 14, and is referred to 
about one hundred and twenty times 
in the Old Testament, though only four 
or five of its kings are noticed by name. 
Scripture, tradition, and the monuments 
of the country unite in testifying that 
Assyria was peopled from Babylon. 
Gen. 10 : 10, 11. From the time of 
Nimrod until two centuries after the 
division of the Israelitish kingdom the 
Scriptures make no mention of Assyria. 
During the rule of Menahem, Pul, the 
king of Assyria, invaded Israel and 
levied a heavy tribute upon it, 2 Kgs. 



ASS 



ASS 



15 : 19 ; a few years later, when Pekah 
was king of Israel, and Ahaz king of 
Judab, Tiglatb-pileser, another king of 
Assyria, aided Judah in a war against 
Israel and Syria. 2 Kgs. 16 : 7-9 : 15 : 
29 ; 2 Chr. 28 : 16. In the reign of 
Hoshea the Assyrians under Shalmaneser 
again invaded Israel, and alter besieg- 
ing its capital, Samaria, for three years. 
captured it, destroyed the kingdom, and 
carried the people into captivity, B.C. 
721, ani repeopled the land by colonies 
from Babylon, Cuthah, and Hamath. 2 
Kgs. 17: 1-6,24. Sargon, a usurper and 
great warrior, succeeded Shalmaneser 
as king of Assyria, and perhaps com- 
pleted the conquest of Samaria and of 
Israel undertaken by his predecessor. 
Sargon deposed Merodach Baladan, king 
of Babylon, made an expedition against 
Egypt, when he captured Ashdod, Isa. 
20 : 1—4, conquered Syria, and subdued 
a large portion of western Asia. Un- 
der Sargon. Nineveh, the capital of the 
empire, was repaired and adorned with 
a royal palace and many magnificent 
buildings. See illustration on p. 80. He 
was succeeded by his son, Sennacherib, 
about B. c. 704, who became the most 
celebrated of all the Assyrian kings. 
During his reign of 22 years he crushed 
the revolt of Berodach Baladan, and 
drove him from the country ; car- 
ried his conquests into Egypt, Phi- 
listia, Armenia. Media, and Edom. He 
invaded the kingdom of Judah in the 
reign of Hezekiah, and his army was 
miraculously destroyed, and he returned 
home in shame, and was slain by his 
two sons. 2 Chr. 32:1-21; 2*Kgs. 
19 : 35-37. He was succeeded by Esarhad- 
don. who reigned 13 years, and was suc- 
ceeded by Assur-banipal (Sardanapa- 
lus), a noted warrior and builder, who 
extended the limits of the empire and 
erected a grand palace at Konynnjik. 
After his reign the empire began gradu- 
ally to decline, until in b. c. 625 (some 
say 606) it was subdued by the Medes 
and Babylonians, and the larter became 
the dominant power during the great 
Captivity. 2 Kgs. 24 : 1 : 25 : 1-8 ; 
Dan. 1.1; 3:1: 5:1; Eze. 29 : 18. 
See Nineveh and Babylon. 

Art, Language, and Religion. — The 
artistic skill, genius, and magnificence 
displayed by the Assyrians in archi- 
tecture and in the arts, as shown bv 



I the exhumed remains of their great 
cities, are the admiration of scholars. 
The massive walls and towers which 
surrounded their towns ; the vastness 
and beauty of their ruined palaces at 

, Khorsabad and Konynnjik ; the elab- 

| orate finish and adornments of their 
temples and other edifices at Nimroud 
and Kileh Sherghat ; the sculptures in 
marble, stone, bronze, and clay ; the 
remarkable specimens of transparent 
glass vases : the tables, chairs, and ar- 
ticles of luxury for the home ; their 
chariots and implements of war, — are 
the wonder of explorers of our day. 
Canon Rawlinson declares the much- 
lauded Egyptians to be very decidedly 
the inferiors of the Assyrians, except- 
ing in the one point of the grandeur 
and durability of their architecture. 

; The language of Assyria was Semitic, 
and in style derived, according to Raw- 
linson, from the Chalda^an, but of a less 
archaic type. It was written without 
pictorial representations of objects, and 
in the arrow-headed or wedge-shaped 

I characters, of which over 300 different 

[ signs or characters are now known to 
have been used in the Assyrian alpha- 
bet. " Their language and alphabet are 
confessedly in advance of the Egyp- 
tian." — Rawlinson's Five Ancient Mon- 
archies, 1870, i. p. 247. Of their religion 
the same author says it is " more earn- 
est and less degrading than that of 
Egypt. Idols and idol-worship pre- 
vailed. Of eleven chief gods and an 
equal number of goddesses, the greatest 
was Asshur, one of whose symbols was 
a winged sphere with the figure of a 
man armed with a bow issuing from the 
centre. Among the other gods were 
Bel, Sin the moon-god, Shamas the 

j sun-god, Ishtar, and Xebo. Their idols 
were of stone and clay, and were wor- 
shipped with sacrifices, libations, and 

I offerings, and by fastings of man and 
beast. The tablets testify to the atten- 
tion given to religion by the learned, 
and the records and sculptures indicate 

| the general spirit of worship prevailing 
among the people, while it also shows 
their gross idolatry." 

Modern Discoveries and General His- 
tory. — Concerning the history of the 
Assyrian kingdom and empire, compar- 
atively little was known previous to 
recent discoveries. The researches of 
79 



ASS 



ASS 



Botta, 1842-1850; Layard, 1851-1853 ; 
Sir H. Rawlinson, 1850-1867: Oppert, 
1857-1870 ; Lenormant, 1868-1873 ; 
George Smith, 1872-1877 ; and those of 
Rassam, 1878, — have rescued the an- 
nals of that country from obscurity, and 
furnished the materials for a trust- 
worthy history. These records, to- 
gether with the vast buildings, monu- 
ments, and grand palaces, were buried 
many feet beneath mounds of earth, 
and their existence for hundreds of 
years was wholly unknown to the world. 
By patient excavation the monuments, 



dug up from the mounds, written in 
cuneiform or wedge-shaped characters 
and in the Assyrian tongue. The in- 
scriptions were upon slabs of stone, 
which formed the panels of the palace- 
walls, on obelisks of stone, on clay tab- 
lets, and on cylinders or hexagonal 
prisms of terra cotta two or three feet 
long. These tablets and cylinders were 
undoubtedly a part of the royal library 
in the days of Tiglath-pileser and of 
other noted kings. 

" The Assyrian power was a single 
monarchy from the beginning, and 



gradually grew 
by conquering 
the smaller states 
around it ; and 
there is conse- 
quently a uni- 
formity in its 
records and tra- 
ditions which 
makes them 
easier to follow 
than those of the 
sister kingdom." 
— George Smith, 
Assyrian Discov- 
eries, 1875, p. 447. 
A list of 50 As- 
syrian kings who 
reigned from b. c. 
1850 to b. c. 607 
has been com- 
piled from the 
royal tablets by 
George Smith. 
Of these kings, 
twenty-eight 
reigned previous 
toliglath-pileser 
I., B. c. 1120 j fif- 
temples, palaces, and other evidences of I teen reigned from Tiglath-pileser I. 




Assyrian greatness have been brought 

to light within the past forty years ; I 

even large portions of the vast libraries | 

of her kings have been discovered, the | 

unknown characters in which they were eser IV., Sargon 



to Tiglath-pileser II. , b. c. 7-15; and 
after his time reigned the following 
seven, four of whom are certain'y men- 
tioned in Scripture history : Shalman- 



macherib, Es;ir- 



written have been deciphered, and the haddon, Assur-banipal, Bel-zakir-iskun, 
inscriptions and records translated into 
modern languages, not only giving a 
history of the exploits of this remark- 
able nation, but also throwing much 
light on its customs, religious life, and 
language, and upon the many Scripture 
references to Assyria. 

A vast mass of documents has been 



and Assur-ebil-ili. The first capital of 
Assyria was Asshur, on the Tigris, 
about 60 miles south of Nineveh : its 
second capital, founded or more prob- 
ably rebuilt and enlarged by Shalman- 
eser I., was Calah or Halah. As Assyr- 
ian conquests extended north and east, 
the capital was removed to Nineveh, 
81 



AST 



ATH 



which became a vast city, and accord- 
ing to Layard covered the present site 
of Kutiyunjik, Nimrdd, Khorsabad, and 
Karamles. This space would correspond 
to the measurements of the city given 
by Diodorus. — Layard : Nineveh, 1849, 
vol. ii. pp. 243-247. In his view, Nim- 
rud was the original site of Nineveh, 
whose founder built a new city at Kileh 
Sherghat. In later periods palaces were 
built at Khorsabad, Karamles, and the 
largest of all these structures at Kou- 
yuiijik. About 630 b. c. the Medes 
from the north and the Susianians from 
the south invaded Assyria; after a brief 
contest they conquered it, and the empire 
was divided between the conquerors. 
The kingdom of Assyria extended over 
a period of 1200 years, though the em- 
pire can only at the utmost be consid- 
ered to have lasted six and a half cen- 
turies, and its ascendency in western 
Asia not more than 500 years, b. c. 1125- 
625. Of the importance of the recent 
discoveries it is said, "Every spadeful 
of earth which was removed from those 
vast remains tended to confirm the 
truth of prophecy and to illustrate 
Scripture. But who could have be- 
lieved that records themselves should 
have been found which, as to their mi- 
nuteness of details and the wonderful 
accuracy of their statements, should 
confirm, almost word for word, the very 
text of Scripture ? And remember that 
these were no fabrications of a later 
date, on monuments centuries after the 
deeds which they professed to relate had 
taken place, but records engraved by 
those who had actually taken part in 
the events." — Layard : Address in Lon- 
don on being presented the freedom of the 
city, 1854. See Nineveh and Babylon. 

ASTAROTH. See Ashtaroth. 

ASTROLOGERS. Dan. 2 : 27. 
A class of men who pretended to foretell 
future events by observing the motions 
of the heavenly bodies, which, until a 
comparatively late period, were sup- 
posed actually to influence human life. 
Star-worship prevailed among Eastern 
nations, and its priests were astrologers, 

ASTRONOMY (the laics or science 
of the stars). The Bible gives evidence 
that its writers were students of the 
starry heavens, but the Hebrew religion 
sternly forbids their worship. Some 
of the constellations are mentioned — 
82 



e. g. the Pleiades, Orion, the " Great 
Bear" (Arcturus). Job 9 : 9 ; 38 • 31. The 
Jews do not seem to have divided the 
stars into planets, fixed stars, and com- 
ets. During the Babylonish captivity 
they encountered the astronomy as well 
as the astrology of the far-famed Chal- 
daeans. Indeed, in Chaldaea was the 
birthplace of the science. In the ease 
of the magi, Matt. 2, God used their as- 
trology as a means of grace to lead them 
to Christ. See Star of Bethlehem. 

ASUP'PIM, HOUSE OF (house 
of gatherings). 1 Chr. 26 : 15, 17. It 
refers either to the chambers of the 
temple, perhaps where the elders sat, or 
to some one of the apartments of the 
temple where the stores were kept. 
The word is rendered " thresholds" in 
Neh. 12:25. 

ASYNCRITUS {incomparable), a 
Christian in Rome whom Paul saluted. 
Rom. 16 : 14. 

A'TAD, THRESHING - 
FLOOR OF. Gen. 50:10, 11. Its 
name was changed to Abel-mizraim, 
which see. 

AT'ARAH (a crown), one of the 
wives of Jerahineel. 1 Chr. 2 : 26. 

ATAROTH {crowns). 1. A town 
of Gad, east of the Jordan, Num. 32: 
3, 34, about 7 miles north-west of Dibon ; 
now the ruin Attarus. 

2. A town of Ephraim, Josh. 16:2; 
perhaps the same as Ataroth-adar and 
Ataroth-addar. Josh. 18 : 13. It may 
be the modern At&ra,fi miles north-west 
of Bethel, though Conder suggests that 
it is identical with ruins discovered at 
ed-Darieh. 

3. In 1 Chr. 2 : 54, Ataroth, the house 
of Joab, if a place, may refer to one in 
Judah, which Schwartz would identify 
with Latrum, between Jaffa and Jeru- 
salem. 

ATAROTH-ADDAR {croxons 
of fame). See Ataroth, 2. 

A'TER (shut up). 1. One whose 
children kept the temple-gate. Ezr. 2 : 
42 ; Neh. 7 : 45. 

2. The ancestor of some who came 
back with Zerubbabel, and who signed 
the covenant. Ezr. 2 : 16 ; Neh. 7:21; 
10:17. 

A'THACH (lodging-place), a town 
in the south of Judah ; perhaps the same 
as E her. Josh. 19 : 7 ; 1 Sam. 30 : 30. 

ATHAI'AH (probably same as 



ATH 



ATH 



Asaiah, whom Jehovah made), a de- 
scendant of Judah. Neh. 11 : 4. 

ATHALIAH {afflicted by Jehovah), 
granddaughter of Oinri, daughter of 
Ahab and Jezebel, wife of Jehoram, 
king of Judah, and mother of Aha- 
ziab. 2 Kgs. 11 : 1 ff. She introduced 
Baal-worship into Judah. Her charac- 
ter was extremely bad. She advised 
her own son in his wickedness, and 
after Jehu had slain him (see Aha- 
ziah) she resolved to destroy the chil- 
dren of her husband by his former 
wives, and then take the throne of 
Judah. But Jehosheba, a half-sister 
of Ahaziah, secured Joash, one of the 
children and heir, and secreted him 
and his nurse for six years. In the 
seventh year, everything being pre- 
pared for the purpose, Joash, the 
young prince, was brought out and 
placed on the throne. Attracted by 
the crowd of people who had assem- 
bled to witness the ceremony, and un- 
suspicious of the cause, Athaliah has- 



tened to the temple. When the pop- 
ulace had assembled, and when she 
saw the young king on the throne, 
and heard the shouts of the people, 
and found that all her ambitious de- 
signs were likely to be defeated, she 
rent her clothes and cried out, " Trea- 
son ! Treason !" hoping probably to 
rally a party in favor of her interests. 
But she was too late. The priest com- 
manded her to be removed from the 
temple, and she was slain between the 
temple and the palace. 2 Kgs. 11 : 16. 
See Jehoiada and Joash. 

2. A Benjamite. 1 Chr. 8 : 26. 

3. One whose son, Jeshaiah, returned 
with Ezra in the second caravan from 
Babylon. Ezr. 8 : 7. 

ATH'ENS, the name of several 
places, but chiefly of the capital of 
Greece, the metropolis of ancient phi- 
losophy and art; named from the god- 
dess Minerva or Athene. For sketch- 
map see Greece. 

Situation. — It was situated about 5 

:um. Parthenon. Turkish Tower. 




Modern City. 



Temple of Theseus 



South-western part of Modern City. 



miles north-east of the Saronic Gulf, I west, the north-east, the south-east, and 
in the plain of Attica, the south-east- | south-west, were four noted mounts. 
ern portion of the Grecian peninsula. Within the city were four more noted 
between the little rivers Cephissus and hills — the Acropolis, Areopagus or Mars' 



Dissns. The port. Piraeus, is five miles 
off. and now connected with the city by 
arailroad. About the plain, on the north- 



Hill, the Pnyx, and the Museum. 
The Acropolis is about 150 feet high, 
with a flat top about 1100 feet long by 
83 



ATH 



ATO 



450 feet wide, having a steep ascent on 
all sides. West of the Acropolis is 
Mars' Hill, of irregular form, and on 
which public assemblies and the chief 
courts were held. Upon this hill Paul 
preached. Acts 17 : 19, 22. Beneath it 
are the Caves of the Furies. 

History. — Athens was first settled by 
some chieftain, perhaps Cecrops, B. c. 
1556, who is said to have been succeeded 
by sixteen legendary kings and twelve 
archons. Draco made laws for it, B. c. 
624. Solon, its noted " lawgiver," 
founded a democracy, b. c. 594. The 
city was taken by Xerxes, B. c. 480; 
but soon after his defeat it reached its 
highest prosperity, with a population 
of from 120,000 to 180,000. Under the 
brilliant rule of Pericles, B. c. 444 to 429, 
some of the greatest masters in philos- 
ophy, poetry, and oratory flourished, 
and noted buildings and temples, as 
that of Zeus, the Odeum, the Parthe- 
non, the Propylasa, were projected or 
completed. His rule was followed by 
the Spartan, the Theban, and the 
Macedonian supremacy, the age of 
Demosthenes, Philip, and Alexander the 
Great. In b. c. 140, Athens with Achaia 
became a Roman province, and so con- 
tinued through apostolic times. Since 
then it has been subject to the Byzan- 
tines, Franks, Venetians, and Turks, as 
well as at times independent. Under 
the misrule of the Turks it sunk down 
to a miserable village, and in 1832 there 
was scarcely a house standing. But it 
arose with the new kingdom of Greece, 
and is now again a beautiful capital, 
adorned by new streets and buildings, 
prominent among which are the royal 
palace, the Greek cathedral, the Rus- 
sian chapel, the University, the Library, 
and the Museum. 

At the time of Paul's visit Athens 
was a " free city," under the Roman rule. 
It was given to idolatry, having 30,000 
idols. Petronius said, " It was easier 
to find a god in Athens than to find a 
man." Paul calls them "very religious," 
Acts 17 : 22, not "too superstitious," as 
our version inaccurately reads. But 
Athens never took a prominent place in 
church history. 

ATH'LAI (whom Jehovah afflicts), 
one who had married a foreign wife. 
Ezr. 10 : 28. 

ATONEMENT. Literally, at-one- 
84 



ment, or reconciliation ; theologically, the 
satisfaction or propitiation brought about 
by the death of Christ as the ground of 
the accord or reconciliation between God 
and man. The word occurs often in 
the Old Testament, but only once in the 
New (Rom. 5 : 11, where the Greek means 
" reconciliation," which is the result of 
the atoning death of Christ). The sub- 
ject itself is presented in every variety 
of form both in the Gospels and in the 
Epistles. Rom. 3-8 and Heb. 7-10, in- 
clusive. 

The great atonement made for sin by 
the sacrifice of Christ constitutes the 
grand substantial foundation of the 
Christian faith. The efficacy of it is 
such that the sinner, though by nature 
the child of wrath, by faith in Christ is 
brought into favor with God, is deliv- 
ered from condemnation, and made an 
heir of eternal life and glory. The He- 
brew word rendered " atonement " signi- 
fies " covering," Ps. 32 : 1, and the Greek 
version of this Hebrew word is trans- 
lated "propitiation" in our Bible, and 
may denote either that our offences are 
covered or that we are protected from 
the curse, Christ being made a curse 
for us. Gal. 3:i3. Generally, wher- 
ever the term occurs, a state of contro- 
versy or estrangement is implied ; and 
in relation to the party offended, it im- 
ports something done to propitiate. 
Gen. 32:20; Eze. 16:63. The idea 
of making an atonement is expressed 
by a word which signifies " to make pro- 
pitiation :" and the apostles, in referring 
to the death of Christ, use those very 
terms which in the Septuagint version 
of the Old Testament are applied to 
legal sacrifices and their effect, thus rep- 
resenting the death of Christ not only 
as a real and proper sacrifice, but as the 
truth and substance of all the Levi deal 
types and shadows — the true, efficacious, 
and only atonement for sin, 1 John 2 : 
2 and 4 : 10 ; showing that Christ is not 
only the agent by whom the propitia- 
tion is made, but was himself the pi'o- 
pitiatory sacrifice. 

ATONE MENT, DAY OF. Lev. 
16 ; 23 : 27-32. The only Jewish fast- 
day ; the annual day of humiliation. It 
was kept five days before the Feast of 
Tabernacles, or on the tenth day of Tisri ; 
?. e. in the early part of October. The 
fast lasted from sunset to sunset. It 



ATE 



AUG 



•was kept as a solemn Sabbath. Once 
a year upon this day did the high priest 
alone enter the holy of holies. This 
was the preparation. It was ordained 
that he should bathe himself, and then 
dress in holy white linen. He was then 
to bring forward his sacrifices, which 
must be his purchases — a young bul- 
lock for a sin-offering and a ram for a 
burnt-offering. These he offered for 
himself and family. Besides these, he 
brought forward two goats for a sin-of- 
fering and a ram for a burnt-oft'ering. 
These, being for the benefit of the peo- 
ple, were paid for out of the public 
treasury. The two goats were then led 
up to the entrance of the tabernacle and 
lots cast upon them, one lot marked "For 
Jehovah." the other marked "ForAzazel." 
The latter is a phrase of unusual difficulty. 
But the best modern scholars agree that 
it does not designate the goat, but the 
personal being to whom the goat was 
sent. See Goat, Scape. The high priest 
offered the bullock, carried live coals in 
a censer from the altar, with a handful of 
incense, into the holy of holies. There he 
sprinkled the blood with his finger upon 
the mercy-seat, eastward, and before it 
seven times. He then killed the goat 
"for Jehovah" and sprinkled its blood 
in the same manner. Over the goat 
" for Azazel " the sins of the people 
were confessed bj- the high priest, and 
then it was sent away by " the hand of 
a fit man into the wilderness." The 
ceremony was now over. Accordingly, 
the high priest again bathed, put on his 
usual garments, and offered the two 
rams. 

AT'ROTH (crowns), or "Atroth- 
Shophan," as it should probably be read 
without the comma, "Shophan" being 
added to distinguish it from the "Ata- 
roth " or "Atroth " in the former verse. 
It was a city of Gad, near Dibon. Num. 
32 : 35. 

AT'TAI (opportune). 1. A descend- 
ant of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 35, 36. 

2. A Gadite chief. 1 Chr. 12 : 11. 

3. A son of Kehoboam. 2 Chr. 11: 
20. 

ATTALI'A, a seaport-town of 
Pamphylia, Acts 14 : 25, named from its 
founder, Attalus ; later it was called 
Satalia, and now Adalia. 

AUGUS / TUS(reHe?-o6/e), Caius Ju- 
lius Ceesar Octavianus, b. c. 62-a, d, 14. 



The grand-nephew of Julius Caesar, and 
first emperor of Rome. It was he who 
gave the order for the enrolment which 
was the human occasion of the Bethle- 
hemic birth of 
Christ. Luke 
2:1. He was 
one of the 
°^7 )~^ $$?/ \ifi\ second so- 
called trium- 
virate, with 
Mark Antony 
and Lepidus. 
After the re- 
moval of the 
latter he 
fought a bat- 
tle with Antony at Actium, b. c. 31, 
defeating him. The senate saluted him 
as emperor, and in b. c. 27 conferred on 
him the title of " Augustus." He comes 
into the New Testament in connection 
with Herod, whom he had reinstated in 
his kingdom and greatly honored, al- 
though Herod had espoused the cause 
of Antony. At Herod's death Augus- 
tus divided his kingdom in accordance 




Coin of Augu*ius,Ln Berlin. 




Marble Statue of Augustus, found in 1863 at 
Prima Porta, near Rome. 

with his will, and even educated two 
of his sons, since their relations had 
been very intimate. He reigned for- 
ty-one years, and was succeeded by 
8$ 



AVA 



AZA 



Tiberius Caesar. Luke 3 : 1. See Ce- I 

SAR. 

A'VA (ruin). Rawlinson would iden- 
tify it with Hit, on the Euphrates ; 
probably it is the same as Ahava and 
Ivah. 2 Kgs. 17 : 24. 

A'VEN (nothingness). 1. A plain, 
probably of Lebanon. Am. 1 : 5. 

2. Same as Beth-aven. Hos. 10 : 
5, 8. See Baalbec. 

3. The city of On or Heliopolis, in 
Egypt. Eze. 30:17. 

AVENGE', AVENGER. Luke 
18:8; 1 Thess. 4:6. Vengeance is an 
act of justice; revenge is an act of pas- 
sion. Hence injuries are revenged, I 
crimes are avenged. God is avenged 
of his enemies when he vindicates his 
own law and government and character 
and punishes their transgressions. An 
avenger is the agent or instrument by 
whom the avengement is visited on the 
offending party* 

Aven t ger of Blood was a title given 
to one who pursued a murderer or man- j 
slayer, by virtue of the ancient Jewish j 
law, to avenge the blood of one who had 
been slain. He must be a near relative 
of the murdered man. Deut. 19 : 6. 

A'VOI (ruins), a city of Benjamin, 
Josh. 18 : 23 ; probably near Bethel. 

A'VITH {ruins), 'a city of Edom, 
Gen. 36 : 35 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 46 ; probably in 
the north-eastern part of Mount Seir. 

A'ZALi. Zeeh. 14: 5. As the pas- 
sage reads in the margin, Azal is not a 
proper name ; but if a place at all, it was 
on or near Mount Olivet. 

AZALiI'AH (whom Jehovah re- 
served), the father of Shaphan the 
scribe. 2 Kgs. 22 : 3 ; 2 Chr. 34 : 8. 

AZAXI'AH (ivhom Jehovah hears), 
the father oT Jeshua the Levite. Neh. 
10:9. 

AZAR'AEL (whom God helps), a 
Levite musician. Neh. 12 : 36. 

AZAREEL (whom God helps). 1. 
A Korhite who " came to David to Zik- 
lag." 1 Chr. 12 : 6. 

2. A Levite musician of David's time, 
1 Chr. 25 : 18 ; called Uzziel in v. 4. 

3. A prince of Dan. 1 Chr. 27 : 22. 

4. One who had married a foreign 
wife. Ezr. 10 : 41. 

5. A priest who lived in Jerusalem 
after the Return. Neh. 11 : 13. 

AZARI'A-H (whom Jehovah helps). 
1. The grandson of Zadok ; and the high 



priest during the reign of Solomon. 1 
Kgs. 4:2; 1 Chr. 6 : 9. 

2. A chief officer under Solomon. 1 
Kgs. 4:5. 

3. A king of Judah, 2 Kgs. 14 : 21 ; 
more generally called Uzziah, which see. 

4. A son of Ethan. 1 Chr. 2 : 8. 

5. The son of Jehu, son of Obed. 1 
Chr. 2 : 38, 39. 

6. The son of Johanan, and high 
priest under Abijah and Asa. 1 Chr. 
6:10, 11. 

7. In 1 Chr. 6 : 13 the name is prob- 
ably wrongly inserted. 

8. A Kohathite, and ancestor of Sam- 
uel. 1 Chr. 6 : 36. 

9. A prophet who stirred up Asa to 
abolish idolatry. 2 Chr. 15 : 1. 

10. 11. Sons of Jehoshaphat the king. 
2 Chr. 21 : 2. 

12. In 2 Chr. 22 : 6 by copyist's error 
for Ahaziah. 

13. A captain of Judah who helped 
Jehoiada. 2 Chr. 23 : 1. 

14. The high priest in the reign of 
Uzziah who resisted with eighty priests 
the king's attempt to perform priestly 
functions. 2 Kgs. 14 : 21; 2 Chr. 26 : 
17-20. 

15. An Ephraimite chief in the reign 
of Ahaz. 2 Chr. 28 : 12. 

16. 17. Two Levites in the reign of 
Hezekiah. 2 Chr. 29 : 12. 

18. The high priest in the days of 
Hezekiah. 2 Chr. 31 : 10, 13. 

19. One who helped to repair the wall 
of Jerusalem. Neh. 3 : 23, 24. 

20. A leader in the company of Ze- 
rubbabel. Neh. 7 : 7. 

21. A Levite who helped Ezra in the 
reading of the Law. Neh. 8 : 7. 

22. A priest who sealed the covenant, 
Neh. 10 : 2, and "probably the same 
with the Azariah who assisted in the 
dedication of the city wall." Neh. 12 : 
33. 

23. In Jer. 43 : 2 instead of Jezaniah. 

24. The Hebrew original name of 
Abed-nego. Dan. 1 : 6. etc. 

A'Z AZ (strong), a Reubenite. 1 Chr. 
5:8. 

AZAZI'AH (whom Jehovah strength- 
ens). 1. A Levite musician in the reign 
of David. 1 Chr. 15 : 21. 

2. An Ephraimite chief. 1 Chr. 27: 20. 

3. A Levite who had the oversight 
over the tithes and offerings in the reign 
of Hezekiah. 2 Chr, 31 ; 13. 



AZB 



AZZ 



AZ'BUK (strong devastation), father 
of Neheiniah (not the governor). Neh. 
3:16. 

AZE'KAH. Josh. 10:10, 11; 15: 
35. A city of Judah near Shocoh. 
Schwarz proposed Tell Zakariya, in the 
valley of Elan ; Conder suggested Deir- 
el-Soshek, 8 miles north of Shocoh, also 
in the valley of Elah, as the site of Aze- 
kah. 

A'ZEL (noble), a descendant of Saul. 
1 Chr. 8:37, 38; 9:43, 44. 

A'ZEM (bone), a city in the south of 
Judah, Josh. 15 : 29 ; afterward allotted 
to Simeon, 19 : 3 ; the same as Ezem in 
1 Chr. 4:29. 

AZ'GAD (strong in fortune). 1. One 
whose descendants returned with Zerub- 
babel. Ezr. 2:12: 8: 12; Neh. 7: 17. 

2. One who sealed the covenant. Neh. 
10:15. 

A'ZIELi (whom God consoles), a Le- 
vite porter; shortened form of Jaaziel. 
1 Chr. 15 : 20. 

AZI'ZA (strong), one who had taken 
a foreign wife. Ezr. 10 : 27. 

AZ'MAVETH, probably a place 
in Benjamin, Ezr. 2 : 24; Neh. 12 : 29 ; 
called also Beth-azmaveth, Neh. 7 : 28 ; 
probably modern Hizmeh, north of Ana- 
thoth. 

AZ'MAVETH (strong unto death). 
1. One of David's warriors, 2 Sam. 23 : 
31 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 33. 

2. A descendant of Mephibosheth. 
1 Chr. 8 : 36 ; 9 : 42. 

3. A Benjamite. 1 Chr. 12 : 3. 

4. David's treasurer. 1 Chr. 27 : 25. 
AZ'MON (strong), a place in the 

south-western part of Palestine. Josh. 
15 : 4 : Robinson and Trumbull describe 
" Kasaimeh " or " Qasaymeh," which is 
probably the site of Azmon. 



AZ'NOTH-TA'BOR (ear, or sum. 
mits, of Tabor), a place in Naphtali ; 
probably the eastern slope of Mount 
Tabor. Josh. 19:34. 

A'ZOR (a helper), one of our Lord's 
ancestors. Matt. 1 : 13, 14. 

AZO'TUS. Acts 8 : 40. Greek 
form of Ashdod. See Ashdod. 

AZ'RIEL (whom God helps). 1. A 
man of renown, head of a house of 
Manasseh beyond Jordan. 1 Chr. 5 : 
24. 

2. The father of a chief of Naphtali. 

1 Chr. 27:19. 

3. The father of Seraiah. Jer. 36 : 26. 
AZ'RIKAUl (help against the enemy). 

1. One of David's posterity. 1 Chr. 3 : 
23. 

2. One of Saul's posterity. 1 Chr. 8 : 
38 ; 9 : 44. 

3. A Levite. 1 Chr. 9 : 14; Neh. 11 : 
15. 

4. The prefect of the palace to King 
Ahaz, who was killed by Zichri. 2 Chr. 
28 • 7. 

AZU'BAH (forsaken). 1. The 
mother of Jehoshaphat. 1 Kgs. 22 : 42 ; 

2 Chr. 20 : 31. 

2. A wife of Caleb, son of Hezron. 1 
Chr. 2: 18. 19. 

AZUR (helper). 1. The father of 
Hananiah, the false prophet of Gibeon. 
Jer. 28:1. 

2. The father of one of the princes 
against whom Ezekiel prophesied. Eze. 
11 : 1. 

AZ'ZAH (the strong), same as Gaza. 
Deut. 2 : 23 j 1 Kgs. 4 : 24 ; Jer. 25 : 20. 
See Gaza. 

AZ'ZAN (very strong), a chief of 
Issachar. Num. 34 : 26. 

AZ'ZUR (helper), one who sealed 
the covenant. Neh. 10:17. 

87 



BAA 



BAA 



B. 



BAAL, or BEL, ob BE'LUS 

{lord, or muster), different forms of the 
name of the supreme male divinity of the 
Phoenicians and Canaanites,as Ashtoreth 
was that of their supreme/ew^e divinity. 
1 Kgs. 18 : 21 ; Isa. 46 : 1 ; 1 Sam. 12 : 10 ; 
1 Kgs. 11 : 33. That the divinities were 
derived from astrological fancies there 
is little doubt, but it is a question with 
what pair of the heavenly bodies we are 
to identify them. The common opinion 
is that they represent the sun and moon 
respectively, while other scholars say 
they are Jupiter and Venus. The li- 
cense sanctioned — indeed, demanded — 
by their worship may have given it at- 
tractiveness. At all events, it spread 
among the Jews, being introduced into 
Israel by Jezebel and by her daughter 
into Judaea. Many and severe were the 
judgments required to eradicate it. 




Baal side of an Altar from a temple in Kuna- 
wat (Canatha), east of the Jordan. 

The frequent use of the word Baal in 
the plural form, Baalim, e.g. Jud. 2:11; 
10: 10 ; 1 Kgs. 18 : 18 ; Jer. 9:14; Hos. 
2:13, 17, proves probably that he was 
worshipped under his different modifi- 
cations. Hence several compounds exist. 

1. Ba'al-br'rith (covenant ford), the 
form of Baal worshipped by the Shechem- 
ites after Gideon's death. Jud. 8 : 33 ; 
9:4. 

2. Ba'al-pe'or (lord of the opening, 
an allusion to the character of the 
rites of worship), the form of Baal-wor- 
ship in Moab and Midian shared in by 



the Israelites. Num. 25 : 3, 5, 18 ; Deut. 
4:3; Josh. 22:17; Ps. 106 : 28 ; Hos. 
9:10. 

3. Ba'al-ze'bub (lord of the fly), the 
form of Baal worshipped at Ekron. 2 
Kgs. 1 : 2, 3, 6, 16. 

Human victims were offered to Baal. 
Jer. 19 : 5. Elevated places were se- 
lected for his worship, and his priests 
and prophets were very numerous. 
Sometimes the tops of the houses were 
devoted to this purpose. 2 Kgs. 23 : 
12 ; Jer. 32 : 29. See High Blacks. 

The worship of Baal by the ancient 
Druids was probably general throughout 
the British Islands. One of the Druidic 
yearly festivals and deemed of special 
importance took place in the beginning 
of May, which was the first month of 
their year, and called Be'el-tin, or " fire 
of God." A large fire was kindled on 
some elevated spot in honor of the sun, 
whose returning beneficence they thus 
welcomed after the gloom of winter. Of 
tliis custom a trace remains in " Beltin 
Day" (or Whitsunday) in many of the 
Gaelic-speaking parts of Scotland. In 
the Lowlands the same name was re- 
tained till a comparatively recent date. 

House of Ba'al. 1 Kgs. 16 : 32. Is 
the same with the temple (or place of 
worship) of Baal. See particularly 2 
Kgs. 10:21-28. 

BA'AL (lord). 1. A Reubenite. 
1 Chr. 5 • 5. 

2. A Benjamite, a relative of Saul. 
1 Chr. 8 : 30 ; 9 : 36. 

BA'AL (lord, or master), a city of 
Simeon, 1 Chr. 4:33; called also Bea- 
loth, Baalath-Beer. Knobel and "Wilton 
locate it at Kurnub ; Conder at Umm 
Baghleh. " Baal " is also used as a prefix 
to the names of several places, given 
below. 

BA'ALAH (mistress). 1. Another 
name for Kirjath-jearim, Josh. 15 : 9, 
10, and for Baale of Judah, 2 Sam. 6 : 2, 
and for Kirjath-Baal in Judah. Josh. 
15 : 60 ; 18 ; 14. See Kirjath-jearim. 

2. A place in Judah, Josh. 15 : 29, the 
same as Balah, 19 : 3, and Bilhah, 1 Chr, 
4 : 29 ; now Deir-el-Belah, near Gaza, 



BAA 



BAA 



3. Ba'alah, Mount. Josh. 15 : 11. 
Either the same as No. 1, or possibly 
a mui ntain in the north-western part 
of Judah. 

BA'ALATH, a town in Dan, Josh. 
19 :44 ; probably the same that was for- 
tified by Solomon. 1 Kgs. 9:18; 2 Chr. 
8 : 6. Cornier proposes to identify it 
with the ruin Bel'ahi, in Wady Deir 
Ballot ; Canon Cook suggests it may be 
near Mount Baalah. or modern Yebna. 

BAALATH-BEER (lord of the 
well). Josh. 19 : 8. See Bkaloth. 

BAALBEC, or BAALBEK 
(b'dl'bek), a magnificent city of Coele- 
Syria, and called by the Greeks Heli- 
opolis, or ''city of the Sun." It is 
situated in a plain near the foot of 
the Anti-Libanus range, about 42 miles 
north-west of Damascus and 3800 feet 
above the level of the sea. Its origin 
and early history are unknown. It is 
now famous for its colossal ruins, con- 



sisting chiefly of two magnificent tem- 
ples. The lesser of the two was 225 feet 
in length by 120 feet in breadth ; it 
was surrounded by rows of immense 
columns, 45 feet high, standing about 9 
feet from the temple walls, (he dis- 
tance between the columns being from 
8 to 12 feet. Robinson counted 19 of 
these columns still in place in 1852. 
One of the temples, — that of the Sun, 
was an immense structure, 324 feet long, 
and was surrounded by a peristyle of 
54 vast Corinthian columns, about? feet 
in diameter, and, including capital and 
pedestal, 89 feet high. Over these Cor- 
inthian capitals the temple was border- 
ed with a frieze. The temples were 
constructed of limestone or marble and 
granite. Some of the stones used in them 
are 64 feet long and 12 feet thick. The 
temple of the Sun was built by Antoni- 
nus Pius, about A. D. 150. 

Baalbec has been identified by some 




Columns of Great Temple. 

Ruins of Baalbec. 
with Baal-gad, Josh. 11 : 1 7 ; 12 : 7 ; 13 : 
5 ; by others with Baalath or Baal-ha- 
mon. but these identifications are uncer- 
tain, and the last is verv improbable. 

BA'ALE OF JUDAH, a name 
of Kiriath-iearim. See Baalah. 1. 

BAAL-GAD [troop of Baal), the 
northern limit of Joshua's conquests, 



Temple of the Sun. 
(From Photographs.) 
Josh. 11 : 17 : 12 : 7 ; 13 : 5 : probably the 
modern Banian (Csesarea-Philippi, Matt. 
16 : 13), though some suppose it to be the 
famous Baalbec. 

BA'AL-HA'MON {multitude of 

Baal). Cant. 8:11. The place can only 

be conjectured ; some identify it with 

Baalbec, others with Balamon, in the 

89 



BAA 



BAB 



mountains of Ephraim, north of Sa- 
maria. 

BA'AL-HA'ZOR (Baal's village), 
where Absalom killed Amnon. 2 Sam. 
13 • 23 

BA'AL-HERMON, Jud. 3:3:1 
Chr. 5 : 23 ; one of the three peaks of 
Mt. Hermon, or perhaps Subeibeh. 

BA'ALI (my lord) occurs in Hos. 
2 : 16. The verse retranslated reads: 
"Thou shalt call me My husband, and 
shalt no more call me My Baal." Baali 
is used in a twofold sense : first, My Baal, 
the name of the principal god of the Ca- 
naanites ; and second, My lord, a usual 
name for husband. The idea of the 
verse is that so wholly devoted to Je- 
hovah shall Israel be that she will not 
apply to him even a word which sug- 
the former idolatry. 

BA'AJLIM, the plural form of Baal, 
which see. 

BA'ALIS (son of exaltation), a 
king of the Ammonites. Jer. 40: 14. 

BAAL-ME'OiV, a town built by 
the Reubenites, Num. 32 : 38 ; 1 Chr. 
5:8; "a glory" of the Moabites, Eze. 
25 : 9 ; called also Beth-baal-meon, 
Josh. 13 : 17, Beth-meon, Jer. 48 : 23, 
and perhaps Beon, Num. 32 : 3 .- now 
called Ma'in, 9 miles south-west of Has- 
ban, where extensive ruins are still 
found. 

BAAL-PER'AZIM (lord of de- 
feats), a place in the valley of Rephaim, 
2 Sam. 5:20; 1 Chr. 14:11; same as 
Mount Perazim, near the valley of Gib- 
eon. Isa. 28:21. 

BA'AL-SHALISHA. 2 Kgs. 4: 
42. The English Survey proposed to 
identify it with Sirisia, 13 miles north 
of Lydda. Conder favors Kefr Thilth. 

BA'AL-TA'MAR (lord of palm 
trees), a place near Gibeah, Jud. 20 : 
33 ; possibly the same as the palm tree 
of Deborah, Jud. 4: 5, and known later 
as Beth-tamar. 

BA'AL-ZEPHGN. Ex. 14:2; 
Num. 33 : 7. A place near the head, or 
on the western shore, of the Gulf of Suez 
where the Israelites crossed the Red 
Sea. Dr. Ebers identifies it with Mount 
Atakah, near Suez ; Dr. Brugsch, with 
less probability, proposes Mount Casi- 
us, on the Mediterranean, as the site of 
Baal-zephon. It was south of Migdol 
and west of Suez. 

BA'ANA, or BA'ANAH (son of 
90 



affliction). 1. One of the sons of Rim- 
mon, and an officer in the army of Ish- 
bosheth, Saul's son. In company with 
his brother Rechab, he entered the 
house of Ish-bosheth at noonday and 
stabbed him as he was lying upon the 
bed. Taking the head of their victim 
with them, they fled to David at He- 
bron, supposing that he would reward 
them liberally, but, so far from it, he, 
indignant at their cruel and coward- 
ly conduct, caused them to be slain, 
their hands and feet to be cut off, and 
their bodies to be publicly suspended 
over the pool at Hebron. 2 Sam. 4 : 
2, 5, 6, 9. 

2. The father of one of David's war- 
riors. 2 Sam. 23 : 29 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 30. 

3, 4. Two of Solomon's officers for 
provision. 1 Kgs. 4 : 12, 16. 

5. One of Zerubbabel's company on 
the Return. Ezr. 2:2; Neh. 7 : 7. 

6. The father of a repairer of the 
wall of Jerusalem. Neh. 3: 4. Proba- 
bly also mentioned in 10 : 27 as sealing 
the covenant. 

BAARA (brutish), a wife of Sha- 
haraiin. a Benjainite. 1 Chr. 8:8. 

BAASEIAH (work of Jehovah), 
a Gershonite Levite, and an ancestor 
of the psalmist Asaph. 1 Chr. 6 : 40. 

BA'ASHA (valor), son of Ahijah, 
of the tribe of Issachar, third king of 
Israel, and founder of a dynasty, was 
probably of common birth, 1 Kgs. 16 : 
2, but rose to the throne by his slaugh- 
ter of Nadab, king of Israel, and all 
his family while the king was besieg- 
ing Gibbethon, a city of the Philis- 
tines. 1 Kgs. 15 : 27. By this cruel 
act he undesignedly fulfilled the proph- 
ecy respecting Jeroboam's posterity. 
1 Kgs. 14 : 10. He followed in the 
wicked ways of Jeroboam, and was 
visited with the most fearful judgments 
of God. The warning he received of 
the consequences of his conduct, 1 Kgs. 
16 : 1-5, did not induce him to forsake 
his evil courses. He attempted to for- 
tify Ramah, but was stopped by the 
attack of Ben-hadad at Asa's prompting. 
1 Kgs. 15 : 16-21 ; 2 Chr. 16 : 1-6. He 
reigned twenty-four years, b. c. 953- 
930. His reign was filled with war 
and treachery, and his family and 
relatives were cut off according to 
the prediction. 1 Kgs. 16:3-11. SeeAsA. 

BABEL (confusion), a city found- 



BAB 



BAB 



ed by Nimrod as the beginning of his 
kingdom, Gen. 10:10; built on the 
plain of Shinar. See Babylon. 

BABEL, TOWER OF, named 
only once in the Bible, and then as in- 
complete. Gen. 11 : 4, 5. It was built 
in the plain of Shinar, of burnt bricks, 
with "slime" (probably bitumen) for 




Bus Ximrfld Reconstructed. (After Layard.) 
mortar. Jewish traditions and early 
profane writers say that the tower 
was destroyed. The captive Jews at 
Babylon imagined they recognized it, 
however, in the famous temple of Be- 
lus, which some would identify with 
the temple of Xebo at Borsippa, the 
modern Birs Nimrud. Rawlinson 
thinks that Birs Nim- 
rud cannot be identi- 
cal with either the 
temple of Belus or 
the tower of Babel, 
but concedes that it 
may be used to show 
the probable form of 
the Babel tower. The 
Birs Nimr&d is one 
of the most striking 
ruins on the plain, 
and is 6 miles south- 
west of Hillah, on the 
Euphrates. This im- 
mense mound is about 
2H00 feet in circumfer- 
ence and 2o5 to 250 
feet high, and was 
built of burnt bricks, 
each brick being 12 
inches square and 4 
inches thick. Several 
of them bear an in- 
scription of Nebu- 
chadnezzar. The 
tower is represented 
as in the form of 
a pyramid, built in 
seven receding stories, 



26 feet high, each of the last four being 
15 feet high. On the seventh story 
was a temple or ark, perhaps with a 
statue of the god Belus. 

George Smith, the Assyriologist (and 
the Encyc/opvcdia Britannica, vol. iii. 
p. 155, ninth edition, adopts Smith's 
view), says, "The Birs Nimrftd is most 
probably the tower of Babel of the 
book of Genesis." Mr. Smith describes 
another ruin called Babil or Mvjelliba 
as the one which in his view covers 
the site of the temple of Belus, and 
the great tower of Babylon (not Babel). 
Bin Nimr&d seems to have been a tem- 
ple dedicated to the heavenly bodies, 
and the inscriptions on cylinders found 
there record that Nebuchadnezzar re- 
built the edifice after it had been left 
unfinished by others. Further excava- 
tions may solve these unsettled ques- 
tions. See Rawlinson's Herodotus, and 
George Smith's Assyrian Discoveries, 
1S75. 

BABYLON (Greek form of Babel), 
the noted capital of the Chalda?an and 




Plan of Babylon, 

showing the largest extent, as given by Herodotus, and the smaller, quoted by 

Ctesias, with the ruius according to Oppert. 



each placed j Babylonian empires, situated on both 
upon the south-western side of the one sides of the Euphrates river, about 200 
below, and each of the first three being I miles above its junction with the Tigris, 

91 



BAB 



BAB 



300 miles from the Persian Gulf, and 
about 60 miles south-west from the 
modern city of Bagdad. The valley is 
broad, and the Euphrates is now about 
600 feet wide and 18 feet deep at this 
place. 

Extent of the City. — It was the lar- 
gest known ancient city in extent. 
According to Herodotus, the city was a 
vast square on both sides of the Euphra- 
tes, enclosed by a double line of walls, 
about 56 miles in circuit and including 
about 200 square miles. Ctesias and 
others make the circuit about 42 miles, 
enclosing about 106 square miles. The 
walls, according to Herodotus, were 
about 335 feet high and 75 feet broad. 
Ctesias, quoted by Diodorus, states that 
they were 200 feet high and built by 
2,000,000 men. Later writers, regard- 
ing these measurements as incredible, 
give the circuit of the walls at about 40 
miles, their height at 75 to 190 feet, and 
their width at 32 feet, or wide enough 
to allow two chariots to pass each other 
on the top. M. Oppert and Rawlin- 
son as explorers hold that the ruins 
warrant the statement of Herodotus as to 
the extent of Babylon. Its size — if 200 
square miles — largely exceeded that of 
any modern city. The area of London 
is 122 square miles: Paris, 30: Pekin, 
50; New York (1873), 42; and Phila- I 
delphia, 129 squai-e miles. The wall of 
Babylon was surmounted by 250 towers, 
and it had 100 gates of brass. Jer. 51 : 
58 ; Isa. 45 : 2. 

Streets and Buildings. — Babylon is de- 
scribed as cut into squares — some say 
676 — by straight streets crossing each 
other at right angles, those at the river 
being closed by brazen gates, as the 
banks of the river were fortified by high 
walls ; the river was crossed by draw- 
bridges and lined with quays; the two 
palaces on opposite sides of the river 
were connected by a bridge, and also by 
a tunnel under the river. Among the 
wonderful buildings were, (1.) Nebn- 
shadnezznr's Palace, an immense pile 
of buildings, believed to be nearly 6 
miles in circumference. (2.) The Hang- 
ing- Gardens, one of the Seven Wonders 
of the world, built by Nebuchadnezzar 
to please his queen, Amytis, who longed 
for her native mountains. These gar- 
dens were 75 feet high and covered 3£ 
acres, enclosed in an area of larger ex- 
92 



tent, some say 1000 feet on each side. 
Upon this mountain was soil of depth to 
support the largest trees, and water was 
drawn up from the river by means of a 
screw. (3). The Temple of Belus, a vast 
pyramid or tower, 600 feet square, hav- 
ing eight stages, or stories, and accord- 
ing to Bawliuson 480 feet high, with a 
winding ascent passing around it, and a 
chapel of a god at the top. 

Scripture History. — Babylon is named 
over 250 times in the Bible. It was 
founded by Nimrod, Gen. 10:10; its 
builders dispersed, Gen. 11 : 9. Then, 
except some allusion to Shinar, Gen. 
14 : 1, the Chaldeeans, Job 1 : 17, and the 
Babylonish garment, Josh. 7 : 21, it drops 
out of Scripture history until the era of 
the Captivity. It was often subject to 
Assyria, 2 Chr. 33 : 11, and was the res- 
idence of at least one Assyrian king. 
After the fall of Nineveh, b. c. 625, it 
became an independent kingdom, and 
under Nebuchadnezzar was enlarged, 
beautified, and reached the height of its 
magnificence. See Isa. 13:19; 14:4; 
47 : 5; Jer. 51 : 41, where it is called 
"the glory of kingdoms," "the golden 
city," "the praise of the whole earth," 
etc. It was the home of the chief of the 
captive Jews, Dan. 1 : 1-4, and was taken 
by the army of Cyrus under Darius, Dan. 
5. Its desolation was frequently foretold. 
Isa. 13 : 4-22 ; Jer. 25 : 12 ; 50 : 2, 3 ; 51 ; 
Dan. 2 : 31-38; Hab. 1 : 5-10. It was 
taken by Alexander the Great, who died 
there. It gradually became a complete 
ruin, fulfilling the prophecy, Babylon 
" shall never be inhabited, . . . wild 
beasts of the deserts shall lie there." 

Bui ns. — Though for centuries Babylon 
has been the source of building-material 
for the towns of all the adjacent region, 
yet the ruins are very extensive, cover- 
ing, according to Oppert, 200 square 
miles. Among them are, (1.) The Ba- 
bil or Mujelliba, 600 feet square and 140 
feet high, probably the site of the an- 
cient temple of Belus. The mound is 
mainly built of sun-dried brick and 
faced with burnt brick, the latter bear- 
ing the name of Nebuchadnezzar. 
(2.) The Kasr, or Nebuchadnezzar's 
palace, south of Babil, about 2100 feet 
long by 1800 feet broad, and 70 feet 
high. It is composed of bricks, tiles, 
and fragments of stone. Some of the 
bricks are glazed; others resemble fire- 



BAB 



BAB 




Sculptured Lion over a Prostrate Man. (Dis- 
covered in the ruins of Babylon by Rich.) 

nious hanging - gardens, though more 
probably a palace of the earlier kings. 
See Rawlinson's Five Ancient Monar- 
chies, 1870, ii. 532. (4.) Bire Xinn-ud, 6 
miles south-west of Hillah, ax ancient 
Borsippa, and by many regarded as 
covering the tower of Babel. See 
Babel. 

Many corroborations of Scripture have 



brick, and bear the name of Nebuchad- the hanging-gardens a sculptured lion 
nezzar. (3.) The Amram, a large standing over a man with outstretched 
mound, possibly the ruins of the fa- arms may illustrate the mode of punish- 
ment to which Daniel was condemned. 
Dan. 6: 16. 

George Smith, after a careful explora- 
tion, quite decidedly dissents from his- 
torians and other explorers in ascribing 
so great an extent to Babylon. In his 
opin ion, -there is no ground in the in- 
scriptions or ruins for making Babylon 
over about 8 miles in circuit, or nearly 
the same size as its sister-city. Nineveh. 
He regards its shape as a square with 
one corner cut off. At the north was 
the temple of Belus.now the mound Ba- 
it il ; about the centre of the city were 
the palace and hanging-gardens, both 
now represented, in his view, by the 
mound Knur, as he places the gardens 
between the palace and the river. 
George Smith concludes that the few 
pits and tunnels made in the ruins are 
acknowledged to be insufficient to de- 
cide any of the questions as to sites, 
which can only be done by satisfactory 
excavations, and hence that the " recov- 
ery of Babylon is yet to be accom- 
plished." Assyrian Discoveries, 
1875, pp. 55-59. — The modern town 
of Hillah now occupies a portion of 
the space covered by the ruins of an- 
cient Babylon, and a telegraph con- 
nects it with the city of Bagdad. See 
Chalt»ea. Assyria. 

BABYLON, in Rev. 14 : 8 ; 16 : 
19; 17:5: 18:2, 21, is a symbolical 
name for heathen Rome, which took 
the place of ancient Babylon as a 
persecuting power. This is also the 
sense given to Babylon in 1 Pet. 5: 
13 by the fathers and many commen- 
tators ; but others refer it to Babylon 
in Asia, since it is quite possible that 
Peter labored for a while in that city, 
where there was at that time a large 
Jewish colony : still others maintain 
that Babylon in Egypt, now called 
()hl Cairo, is meant. 

BABYLON, PROVINCE 
OR KINGDOM OF, the country 
of which Babvlon was the capital. 
Dan. 2:49: 3:1. 12, 30 ; 4 : 29. Its 
boundaries and history are involved 
„. in much obscurity. It was originally 

rud. (Alter Plumptre s ■■Biblical Educator. ) . ., ,. , J , . „. , & „ *; 

known as the • land or femnar and. 
been furnished by the Assyrian tablets I the '• land of Nimrod." Gen. 10 : 10 ; Mic. 
deciphered by Oriental scholars. Near | 5 : 6. It was chiefly between the Euphra- 

93 




BAB 



BAB 



tes and Tigris Rivers. Asshur or Assyria 
and Mesopotamia were on the north,Elam 
and Media on the east, Chaldaea on the 
south. As Chaldaea gained in power 
its name was applied to the whole 
country, including Babylon. See Chal- 
daea. The early kingdom of Babylon 
is generally regarded as covering an 
extent of about 27,000 square miles, 
rich of soil and abundant in resources, 
the home of one of the earliest civilized 
nations. After the time of Nimrod, 
Babel or Babylon appears to be dis- 
placed in Scripture history by Chaldaea 
until the time of Joshua, Josh. 7 : 21 ; 
after this both again disappear until 
about the time of the Captivity. At 
the fall of Nineveh, b. c. 625, Babylonia 
speedily extended its sway over most 
of western Asia and Egypt, and under 
Nebuchadnezzar became a vast empire, 
lasting, however, less than a century, 
and fell before the Medians under 
Cyrus and Darius, b. c. 538, and soon 
after dropped out of history as a separate 
country. 

General History. — Berosus gives a list 
of ten mythical kings, including Xisi- 
thrus, who ruled Babylonia before the 
Flood ; while the inscriptions so far dis- 
covered on the tablets and monuments 
give three mythical kings before the 
Flood, and four after it. From the in- 
scriptions, long lists of kings during the 
historical period have also been deci- 
phered. The earliest list of twelve 
kings in this period begins with Izdu- 
bar, who is identified with Nimrod by 
George Smith. To this list he adds 
from the inscriptions the names of six 
viceroys, six kings of Ur, five kings of 
Karrak, six of Erecli and Larsa, five of 
Akkad, and four Elamite kings ; and 
among the latter is Chedorlaomer of 
Gen. 14 : 1-17. Five native kings were 
contemporary with these Elamite kings, 
and twenty other kings ruled successively 
until the accession of an Assyrian dy- 
nasty in B. c. 1271. The last list given 
by George Smith from the inscriptions 
covers the period from B. c. 1150 to 539, 
and includes Sargon, b. c. 710, Mero- 
dach-baladan III., restored B. c. 705, 
Esarhaddon, who rebuilt Babylon, B. c. 
681, Assurbanipal, B. c. 648, Nebuchad- 
nezzar III., the Nebuchadnezzar of 
Scripture, B. c. 605. Amil-maruduk, the 
Evil-merodach of the Bible, b. c. 562, 
94 



and Bel-sar-uzar, the Belshazzar of the 
book of Daniel, and who reigned with 
his father until the fall of the Babylo- 
nian empire, B. c. 538. It is not certain 
how far back the records of Babylonia 
reach, but George Smith regards it as 
certain that they reach to the twenty- 
fourth century before Christ, and some 
scholars would stretch them nearly two 
thousand years beyond that early period. 
The civilization, literature, and govern- 
ment found in Babylonia two thousand 
years before the Christian era could not 
have sprung up in a day, but further 
explorations only can determine its age. 
Among the biblical cities named in the 
earliest inscriptions — those of Izdubar — 
are Babylon, Cuthah, and Erech, thus 
adding new light to the truth of Scrip- 
ture history. See George Smith's Assyr- 
ian Discoveries, 1875, chap. 23. 

The Babylonian Empire. — Upon the 
fall of Nineveh, b. c. 625, the Chaldaeans 
and Babylonians controlled all the 
southern and western portions of the 
former Assyrian empire. This Baby- 
lonian empire extended, therefore, over 
Susiana, Elam, Mesopotamia, Syria 
including Palestine and Phoenicia, Idu- 
maea, northern Arabia, and lower Egypt. 
Among the important cities of the em- 
pire were Babylon, Borsippa, Sippara 
or Sepharvaim, Isa. 36 : 19, Cuthah, 2 
Kgs. 17 : 24, Orchb'e or Erech, in Baby- 
lonia ; and in the provinces, Susa, Car- 
chemish, Harran, Hamath, Damascus, 
Jerusalem, Tyre, Sidon, Ashdod, Aske- 
lon, and Gaza. Of those in the prov- 
inces, Susa was of the first importance, 
and may be regarded as the second city 
of the empire. It had a royal palace, 
where the Babylonian kings spent a 
portion of their time, Dan. 8 : 2, doubt- 
less during the heat of summer. The 
dominant people in the Babylonian em- 
pire were, according to Rawlinson and 
others, a mixed race, mainly descendants 
of the earlier Chaldaeans (who were 
chiefly Cushites), mixed with those of 
the later Assyrians, who were of the 
Semitic type. The Babylonians were 
celebrated for their wisdom and learn- 
ing, Dan. 1:4; Jer. 50 : 35 ; Isa. 47 : 10, 
especially for their knowledge of astron- 
omy. They were also a commercial, 
avaricious, and luxurious people, Bab. 
2:9; Jer. 51 : 13 ; Isa. 47 : 8, though 
they were likewise valorous and war- 



BAB 



BAG 



like. Their princes were proud and I 
boastful. "Is not this great Babylon, 
that I have built ... by the might of 
my power, and for the honor of my 
majesty?" was the boastful speech of its 
greatest king, Nebuchadnezzar. Dan. 
4:30. 

In architecture, sculpture, science, 
philosophy, astronomical and mathe- 
matical knowledge, and in learning the 
Babylonians made original investiga- 
tions and discoveries not surpassed by 
any other ancient people. "To Baby- 
lonia," says G. Rawlinson, "far more 
than to Egypt, we owe the art and 
learning of the Greeks." — Five Ancient 
Monarchies, iii. 76. 

In religion the Babylonians differed 
little from the early Chaldseans. Their 
chief deities were Bel, Merodach, and 
Nebo. The names of these gods fre- 
quently appear in the names of noted 
princes, as Bel-shazzar, Nabo-polassar, 
Merodach - baladan, Evil - merodach, 
Abed-nebo or -nego. Their gods were 
worshipped with great pomp and mag- 
nificence. The temples erected in honor 
of the gods and devoted to their wor- 
ship were celebrated for their vastness, 
and for the massiveness and finish of their 
sculptures. Of the precise mode of their 
worship little is known. It was con- 
ducted by priests, through whom the 
worshippers made offerings, often of 
great value, and sacrifices of oxen and 
goats. Images of the gods were exhib- 
ited, probably on frames or sacred ve- 
hicles, and, as some suppose, were some- 
times set up in a public place, as on the 
plain of Dura, Dan. 3:1; but late in- 
vestigations indicate that the image 
there set up was a statue of Nebuchad- 
nezzar. See on this text Canon Cook's 
Bible Conimenfnri/, 1876. Some of the 
principal temples of their gods noted by 
Rawlinson were that of Bel at Babylon, 
another of the same god at Niffer, one 
of Beltis at Warka or Erech, one of the 
Sun-god at Sippara or Sepharvaim, and 
one of Nebo at Borsippa. 

The empire began with the accession 
of Nabo-polassar, b. c. 625: was in its 
greatest prosperity during the reign of 
Nebuchadnezzar, lasting forty -four! 
years, to b. c. 561. See Nrbtchadxf.z- 
zar. Under the less able rulers who : 
followed, the power of the empire de- 
clined, and it fell a comparatively easy I 



prey to the Medo-Persians under Cyrus, 
b. c. 538. See Chaldjea, Assyria, and 
Media. For sketch-map see Assyria, 
and also map at the end of this volume. 

BABYLONIANS. See Babylon. 

BABYLONISH CAPTIV'- 
ITY. See Captivity. 

BABYLONISH GARMENT, 
THE (literally, "garment of Shi- 
nar " ), which Achan stole at the destruc- 
tion of Jericho, JosL. 7 : 21, is described 
by Josephus as "a royal mantle all 
woven with gold." But no accurate 
description is possible. Babylon was 
famous for the products of the loom. 

BA'CA {weeping). The margin reads 
" mulberry trees." Ps. 84 : 6. It is gen- 
erally supposed to refer to a valley near 
Jerusalem, though some later writers, 
as Robinson and Hackett, are inclined 
to regard it as not a proper name, but 
a figurative " valley of weeping." 

BACHRITES, the family of 
Becher the Ephraimite. Num. 26 : 
35. 

BADGERS' SKINS. Ex. 25 : 5 ; 
Eze. 16:10. The true badger is rare, 
if known, in Arabia. It is believed 
that the skins meant were those of such 
marine animals as the dolphin, dugong, 
and seal. Dr. Robinson writes : "The 
superior" (of the convent of Mount 
Sinai) "procured for me a pair of the 
sandals usually worn by the Bedouin of 
the peninsula, made of the thick skin 
of a fish which is caught in the Red 
Sea. . . . The skin is clumsy and coarse, 
and might answer very well for the ex- 
ternal covering of the tabernacle which 
was constructed at Sinai, but would 
seem hardly a fitting material for the 
ornamental sandals belonging to the 
costly attire of high-born dames in 
Palestine described by the prophet 
Ezekiel." Tristram adds: "As the 
fachash (badger) probably included also 
the seal, the sandals of the Jewish 
women may have been of that material, 
and so also may have been the covering 
of the tabernacle." 

BAG, the English translation of 
several quite different words. When 
used in connection with money, it means 
the long cone-like receptacles in which 
coin was packed. 2 Kgs. 12 : 10. These 
were made of various sizes, each to con- 
tain a precise amount of money. We 
read that the workmen on the temple 
95 



BAH 



BAL 



were paid in bags, which were probably 
delivered to them sealed. At this day 
in Eastern nations money passes in 
bags from hand to hand under the seal 
of a banker or other public officer, and 
without counting, as it is paid by one 




Egyptian Money-bags. (After Wilkinson.) 
to another. If the seal is genuine and 
unbroken, the exact value of each bag 
is known at sight. The shepherd's 
"bag" which David had was probably 
one in which the young lambs unable 
to walk were carried. The "bag" of 
Judas was probably a little box. John 
12:6: 13:29. 

BAHU'RI3f {warriors), a place 
not far from Jerusalem, 2 Sam. 3:16; 
16:5: 17:18; 1 Kgs. 2 : 8 ; probably 
east of Olivet, toward the Jordan. 

BA'JITH {home). In Isa. 15 : 2 
the Hebrew reads "the bajith" or "the 
temple ;" probably the temple of Che- 
mosh. 

BAKBAKKAR {destruction of the 
mountain), a Levite. 1 Chr. 9: 15. 

BARBUK {a bottle). Among the 
Nethinim who returned with Zerubabbel 
are mentioned the children of Bakbuk. 
Ezr. 2 : 51 : Neh. 7 : 53. 

BAKBUKI'AH {destruction from 
Jehovah), a Levite, Neh. 11 : 17 ; 12 : 9, 25. 




Arabian Bant -oven. (After JSiebuhr.) 
BAKE. The business of baking 
in early times was principally, if not 



exclusivel3 r , the work of women. Lev. 
26 : 26 ; 1 Sam. 8 : 13 ; 2 Sam. 13 : 8 ; 
Jer. 7 : 18. In Rome, as Pliny tells 
us, there was no such thing as a pub- 
lic baker for 580 years. It seems 
probable from Jer. 37 : 21 and Hos. 
7:4-7 that public bakers were known 
in their day, and inhabited a partic- 
ular section of the city of Jerusalem. 
See Bread, Oven. 

BA'LAAM {glutton) was the son 
of Beor or Bosor, and a native of Pe- 
thor, a village of Mesopotamia. Num. 
22 : 5. He had a great reputation as 
a prophet or soothsayer, and appears 
to have been a worshipper of the 
one God, coming from the country 
of Abraham, where it is in every way 
probable that remnants of the prim- 
itive monotheism existed to his day. 
His history is given in Num. 22, 
23, 24, and 31. So great was his 
fame that Balak, king of Moab, sent 
for him to curse Israel when they were 
encamped upon the plains of Moab ; 
but he consulted God during the night, 
and the next morning refused, declar- 
ing the Lord had not given him leave. 
But Balak sent again, and Balaam at 
length obtained the desired permission 
to go, and went. It was on this jour- 
ney that his ass spake. Num. 22 : 
28. Arriving, he ordered Balak to 
build seven altars, and to offer a bullock 
and a ram on each. Then, proclaiming 
his intention of speaking only what 
God showed unto him, he twice went 
aside to watch for an augury. God 
met him each time and told him what 
to say, and on his return he uttered a 
blessing instead of the expected curse. 
The third time the sacrifices were of- 
fered, but Balaam saw that it pleased 
the Lord to bless Israel; so, without 
seeking an augury, he uttered these 
magnificent prophecies, in which Is- 
rael's complete supremacy is announced: 

" How goodly are thy tents, O Jacob, 

Thy tabernacles. O Israel ! 

Aw'valleys are they spread forth, 

As gardens by the river side. 

As lign aloes which the Lord hath planted, 

As cedar trees beside the waters. 

He shall flow with water from his buckets, 

Ami his seed shall be in many waters, 

And his kin? shall he higher than Agag, 

And his kingdom shall tie exalted. 

Ood. he hrmsreth him forth out of Egypt ; 

He hath as it «vre the strength of a buffalo; 

He shall e.it up the nations his adversaries, 

And shall break their bones in pieces, 



BAL 



BAL 



And smile them through with his arrows. 
He couched, he lay down as a lion. 
And us a lioness, who shall stir him up? 
Blessed is he that blesseth thee, 
And cursed is he that curseth thee." 

Num. 24:5-9. 
And again 

"There shall come forth a Star out of Jacob, 
And a Sceptre shall rise out of Isiael, 
And shall smite through the coiners of Moab, 
And break down all the sons of tumult." 

Num. 24: 17. 

The prophecies of Balaam are justly 
regarded as some of the most remark- 
able in Scripture. But having won the 
anger of Balak by his course, and feel- 
ing himself cast out from the people 
of God by reason of his sinfulness, he 
became desperate, and endeavored to do 
as much immediate harm to Israel as 
he could, since he could in no wise in- 
jure her future. He therefore suggest- 
ed that the Moabites destro} 7 the purity 
of Israel by seducing the people into 
fornication while taking part in the 
worship of Baal. Num. 31:16: cf. 
25:1-5. They did so; and the conse- 
quence was, a plague broke out among 
the Israelites and killed 24,000 of 
them. Num. 25 : 9. In a battle fought 
by Israel with the Midianites, Ba- 
laam was slain. Num. 31 : 8. The 
phrase "the doctrine of Balaam," used 
in Rev. 2 : 14, refers to the above-men- 
tioned sin. 

BAL'ADAN (the name is part of a 

sentence meaning " sent the son," 

the name of the god to be substituted), 
the father of Merodach-baladan, king 
ofBabvlon. 2 Kgs. 20:12; Isa, 39:1. 

BA'LAH. Josh. 19 : 3. A shorter 
form of Baal ah. 

BA'LAK [spoiler), the king of Moab 
who hired Balaam to curse Israel. Num. 
22-24: Josh. 24:9; Jud. 11:25 j Mic. 
6:5: Rev. 2:14. 

BALANCES. Lev. 19 : 36. In 
the early periods of the world gold and 
silver were paid by weight, so that per- 
sons employed in traffic of any kind car- 
ried with them a pair of scales or bal- 
ances and different weights (generally 
stones of different sizes) in a pouch or 
bag. Dishonest men would carry two 
sorts of weights, the lighter to sell with, 
and the other to buy with. This explains 
the allusions Mic. 6: II: Hos. 12 : 7. 

In pictures on monuments is repre- 
sented a balance in which the scales are 
simply a pair of weights. There are 
7 



two bags of money which are to be 
equalized, one of which is a standard. 




Egyptian Balancer weighing Rings of Gold. 
(After Wilkinson.) 

The scribe stands by to register the re- 
sult. 

BALD'NESS, when voluntary, was 
a token of mourning and great distress, 
Isa. 3 : 24; Eze. 7 : 18, or else showed 
the conclusion of a Nazarite's vow. 
Num. 6 : 9. Natural baldness seems to 
have been uncommon. "Bald head" 
was a cry of contempt, 2 Kgs. 2 : 23, be- 
cause it was generally caused by lep- 
rosy. Lev. 13 : 40-43. The people, and 
especially the priests, were forbidden to 
make themselves bald, since this was a 
heathen custom. Lev. 21 : 5 ; Deut. 14 : 
1; Eze. 44:20. 

BALM. Gen. 37 : 25. One of the 
articles of merchandise which the Ish- 
maelites (to whom Joseph was sold) 
were carrying from Gilead to Egypt. 
It is worthy of remark that the par- 
ticulars of this trading company or car- 
avan, their character, course of travel 
and freight, though referring to a peri- 
od 1700 years before the Christian era, 
correspond with wonderful accuracy to 
those of similar commercial expeditions 
across the desert at the present day. 

The balm is supposed to be the pro- 
duction of the balm-of-Gilead tree (Bnl- 
aamodendron Gileadevue), which grows 
about 12 or 14 feet high, with diverging 
branches. The resin which it produces 
is exceedingly odoriferous, and greatly 
esteemed in the East for its healing 
properties. 

It was once an important article of 
merchandise among the Eastern nations. 
Eze. 27 : 17. Nothing can exceed the 
eloquence and tenderness of the lan- 
guage employed by the prophet Jere- 
miah to express his grief and disap- 
97 



BAM 



BAN 



pointment that the chosen people of 
God (the daughter of Zion) should re- 
main spiritually wounded and diseased, 
when there was a healing Balm of un- 
failing virtue and a Physician of divine 
skill to administer it, and both within 




Balm. 
(Balsamodendron Gileadense. 
Br. Birdwood.) 



After 



their reach. Jer. 8 : 22 ; 46 : 11 and 
51:8. 

BA'MAH (high place), the name ap- 
plied to idolatrous places of worship. 
Eze. 20:29. 

BA'MOTH (heights). See Bamoth- 

BAAL. 

BA'MOTH-BA'AL (heights of 

Baal), a place in Moab given to Reu- 
ben, Josh. 13 : 17. Conder suggests el 
Masl&biyeh, 5 miles south of ^ebo, 
98 



BAND. A band of Roman soldiers 
consisted of the tenth part of a legion, 
called a " cohort;" it varied, accord- 
ing to the size of the legion, from 400 
to 600 soldiers. Matt. 27:27; Acts 21: 
31, and elsewhere. 

BA'NI (6«i7*). 1. A 
Gadite, one of David's 
warriors. 2 Sam. 23 : 36. 

2. AJudite. lChr.9: 
4. 

3. The names of seven 
others, mostly Levites. 
IChr. 6:46; Ezr. 2:10; 
10: 29, 34, 38; Neh. 3 : 
17; 8:7; 9:4; 10:14; 
11 : 22. 

BANISHMENT. 
See Punishment. 

BANK. See Money- 
changer. 

BANNER, EN- 
SIGN, STANDARD 
are translations of words 
used indiscriminately by 
the sacred writers. A 
standard pertained to 
each of the four grand 
divisions of the host of 
Israel, Num. 1 : 52, 
distinguished from the 
others by colors and by 
an emblematic device. 
Thus, according to the 
rabbins, the device of 
Judah was a lion ; that 
of Reuben was a man ; 
that of Ephraim, an ox; 
of Dan, an eagle. An- 
other standard for sub- 
divisions, denoted by an- 
other word, was probably 
nothing more than a 
common spear richly 
burnished or orna- 

(M S^SST" mented - The E syp tian 

princes used a standard 
like this, surmounted with a ball of gold. 
There was another standard in use among 
the Jews, which is called a beacon. Isa. 
30 : 17. It was stationary, erected on 
lofty mountains, and used as a rallying- 
token. Comp. Isa. 18 : 3 ; 62 : 10 : Jer. 
4 : 6. 21 : 6 : 1 ; 51 : 12, 27. None of 
these standards were flags. 

Some writers have supposed that the 
ancient Jewish ensign was a long pole, 
on the top of which was a grate not un- 



Balm. 



BAN 



BAP 



like a chaffing-dish, made of iron bars 
and supplied with fire, the size, height, 
and shape of which denoted the party or 
company to whom it belonged. This 
seems rather to describe the night- 
torches of Eastern encampments. The 
shape, etc., of the Roman standards are 
seen under the article Abomination. 

BANQUET. See Feast. 

BAP'TISM, an ordinance or re- 
ligious rite which was in use before 
Christ's ministry began, but which he 
recognized, and which was continued by 
his disciples as a Christian ordinance. 
Matt. 28 : 19. 20 ; Mark 16 : 16. On 
the due administration of this rite, the 
use of water in the name of the Holy 
Trinity becomes the sign or emblem of 
inward purification from sin and un- 
cleanness, while the subject of the rite 
is introduced into a peculiar relation 
to Christ and his Church. Baptism is 
in the N. T. what circumcision was in 
the Old — a sign and seal of the cove- 
nant of grace whereby God promises 
forgiveness of sin and salvation, and 
man vows obedience and devotion to 
his service. See Acts 2 : 41 : Roni. 6 : 3, 
4; Gal. 3 : 27: 1 Pet. 3 : 21. It was 
first administered on the day of Pente- 
cost. Christ himself did not baptize, 
John 4:2, and the apostles received 
instead the baptism of fire and the 
Holy Ghost, Acts 2. In the case of 
Cornelius regeneration preceded water- 
baptism, Acts 10 : 44-48; while, on the 
other hand, in the case of Simon Ma- 
gus, water-baptism was not accompa- 
nied or followed bv regeneration. Acts 
8 : 13, 21-23. Nevertheless, God is 
true though men should abuse his gifts 
ni'l turn his blessing ir.to a curse. 
The controversy between Baptists and 
Paedobaptists refers to the subjects and 
to the mode of baptism. The former 
hold that adult believers only are to 
be baptized, and that immersion is the 
only valid "mode of baptism; the lat- 
ter maintain that children of believing 
parents may and ought to be baptized, 
and that baptism may be administered 
by sprinkling and pouring as well as 
by immersion. 

Baptism with the Holy GnosT and 
with Fire. Matt. 3:11: Luke 3: 16.— 
The phrase is figurative, and refers to 
the outpouring of the Holy Spirit 
upon believers, as on the day of Pen- 



tecost especially, but often since in 
the history of the Church. 

Baptism of John the Baptist. — 
John was a preacher of righteousness : 
his baptism was significant of the in- 
ward cleansing which followed repent- 
ance, and was introductory to the high- 
er baptism instituted by Christ. John 
said to his disciples, " I indeed bap- 
tize you with water unto repentance: 

\ but he thatcometh after me is mightier 
than I, whose shoes I am not worthy 
to bear: he shall baptize you with the 
Holy Ghost, and with fire." Matt. 3 : 
11. He demanded faith in the Mes- 
siah, sorrow for sin, and trust in God, 
as prerequisites for the administration 
of the rite, which, however, differed 
from Christian baptism in that it im- 
plied no belief in the Trinity, nor was 
it followed by the gift of the Hoty 

j Ghost. Those who had received John's 
baptism were rebaptized. See Acts 19 : 
1-6 ;' cf. Matt. 3 ; Acts 18 : 25, 26. 

Baptism for the Dead. — There is 
only one allusion to this practice in the 
N. T., in 1 Cor. 15 : 29 : " What shall 

' they do which are baptized for the 
dead, if the dead rise not at all? 
why are they then baptized for the 
dead?" Paul evidently speaks of a 
well-known ceremony. Various inter- 
pretations "have been put upon the 
phrase. It is simplest to say with 
Meyer, Paul refers to the belief that 
a living Christian could be baptized 
for a dead Christian who was unbap- 
tized, and the latter would in conse- 
quence be accounted baptized and have 
part in the eternal joys. This custom, 
abandoned by the Church — a proof 
that it was condemned by the leaders — 
was kept up among heretics, such as 
the Cerinthians and Marcionites, and 
is practised at the present day by the 
Mormons in Utah. Chrysostom tells 
us that when an unbaptized catechu- 
men died, a living man was put under 
the bed on which the dead body lay. 
The priest then asked the dead man 
if he desired baptism. The living 
man answered in the affirmative, and 
was baptized in place of the dead. 
The practice, of course, was supersti- 
tious, and Paul merely uses it in ar- 
gument, but does not approve of it. 
Indeed, his use of the third person 
shows that the notion of the para- 
99 



BAR 



BAR 



mount importance of baptism which, 
led to the custom was condemned by 
him. 

Other interpretations of the phrase 
have been given. Thus, " If the dead 
rise not, then baptism could have no 
authority and no use, because then 
Christ did not rise." Again, " Bap- 
tized when death is close at hand." 
" Over the graves of the martyrs." " If 
there be no resurrection, why art thou 
then baptized for the dead — i. e. for the 
dead bodies ? For in this faith thou 
art baptized, believing in the resur- 
rection of the dead." 

BARAB'BAS (son of Abba), a 
noted criminal at Jerusalem who was 
in confinement for sedition and mur- 
der when Christ was condemned. Matt. 
27: 16. It was the custom of the Ro- 
mans to release some one prisoner at 
the time of the Jewish Passover. The 
Jews were permitted to name any one 
whose release they desired ; and when 
the choice lay between Barabbas and 
Christ, they chose the robber. Matt. 
27 : 21 : Mark 15 : 6-1 1 ; Luke 23 : 18 ; 
John 18:40; Acts 3:14. Pilate was 
anxious to save Christ, but at last 
released Barabbas. 

The custom is said to have prevailed 
among the Venetians as lately as the 
close of the eighfeenth century to 
release a prisoner at the annual com- 
memoration of our Saviour's resurrec- 
tion. 

BARACHEL (whom God hath 
blessed), the father of Elihu. Job 
32:2. 6. 

BARACHIAH (whom Jehovah 
hath blessed), in the N. T. form, Ba- 
rachaias. Zech. 1 : 7 ; Matt. 23 : 35. See 
Berrchtah. 

BA'RAK (lightning) was the son 
of Abinoam, and was distinguished for 
his share in the conquest of Sisera and 
the deliverance of Israel from long and 
severe oppression. A history of the 
transaction and a copy of their sub- 
lime triumphal song are given in Jud. 
4 and 5. Barak's date cannot be de- 
termined, but probably he was a con- 
temporarv of Shamgar. See Dkborah. 

BARBARIAN. This term is used 
to denote any one who was not a Greek. 
In its scriptural use it does not import 
any rudeness or savageness of nature or 
manners. Acts 28 : 2, 4 and Rom. 1 : 14, 
100 



BARHU'MITE. 2 Sam. 23 : 31. 

See Bahurim. 

BARIAH (fugitive), one of Da- 
vid's posterity. 1 Chr. 3 : 22. 

BAR-JE'SUS was a magician who 
resided with Sergius Paulus at Paphos, 
on the isle of Cyprus, when Paul and 
Barnabas were there. Acts 13 : 6. He 
is also known by his Arabic designa- 
tion Elymas the Sage. Sergius Pau- 
lus was an officer of high rank under 
the Roman government, and was anx- 
ious to receive religious instruction 
from the two missionaries. But Bar- 
jesus, seeing that his occupation and 
influence would cease wherever the 
light of the gospel should come, op- 
posed himself to Paul and Barnabas, 
and tried to dissuade Paulus from giv- 
ing heed to their preaching. Paul 
gave him a most severe reproof, im- 
mediately after which the wicked man 
was struck with temporary blindness 
as a rebuke from God. See Sergius 
Paulus. 

BAR- JO'NA. Matt. 16 : 17. See 
Peter. 

BAR'KOS (painter), the father of 
some of the returning Nethinim. Ezr. 
2 : 53 : Neh. 7 : 55. 

BARLEY. Ex. 9:31. A well- 
known species of grain used for bread, 
Jud. 7:13; John 6:9-13, and also as 
food for horses and dromedaries. 1 
Kgs. 4 : 28. Barley-harvest, Ruth 1 : 22, 
usually comes in April — earlier at Jeri- 
cho, later on the hills. It precedes 
wheat-harvest about three weeks in 
Palestine and a month in Egypt. As 
human food barley was held in low 
estimation, which adds significance to 
the connection between Gideon and 
the barlev-eake in the dream which 
the man told " his fellow." Jud. 7:13. 
"If the Midianites were accustomed 
in their extemporaneous songs to call 
Gideon and his band 'eaters of barley 
bread,' as their successors, the haughty 
Bedouins, often do to ridicule their ene- 
mies, the application would be all the 
more natural." — Thomson. The same 
fact adds force to Eze. 13 : 19, and elu- 
cidates Hos. 3 • 2 and Num. 5:15. 

BAR'NABAS (son of consolation), 
a Levite of the island of Cyprus, and 
an early convert to the Christian faith. 
Acts 4 : 36. His original name was 
Joses, but he derived his usual title 



BAR 



BAS 



from his remarkable powers of exhort- 
ing the people and ministering conso- 
lation to the afflicted. Barnabas was 
one of those who gave up all their 
worldly substance and all their strength 
and influence to the support and spread 
of the gospel. He introduced Paul to 
the disciples on the latter' s visit to Je- 
rusalem, three years after his conver- 
sion. Acts 9 : 27. Afterward he brought 
Paul from Tarsus to Antioch, and they 
labored for two years together with 
great success. Acts 11 : 25, 26. They at- 
tended together the council of Jerusalem. 
Actsl5:22; Gal. 2:1. Afterward they 
separated, and Barnabas went on an in- 
dependent missionary-tour with Mark. 
Acts 15. Some ascribe to him the Epis- 
tle to the Hebrews. We have under his 
name an epistle, which, however, is of 
doubtful genuineness. 

BAR'SABAS (son of Saba), the 
name of two men. 

1. Joseph Barsabas, surnamed Jus- 
tus, was one of the two candidates for 
the vacancy in the apostleship occa- 
sioned by the apostasy of Judas. Acts 
1 : 23. Some identify him with Joses 
Barnabas, the companion of Paul. See 
preceding article. 

2. Judas Barsabas. Acts 15 : 22. He 
was appointed to accompany Paul and 
Barnabas from Jerusalem to Antioch on 
an important embassj T . He is called 
one of "the chief among the brethren," 
but is otherwise unknown. Some com- 
mentators infer from the surname that 
he was a brother of Joseph Barsabas. 

BARTHOLOMEW (son of Tol- 
mai) is supposed to be the same person 
who is elsewhere called Nathanael. This 
conjecture rests in part upon the fact 
that Philip and Nathanael are associ- 
ated together by John, and in the par- 
allel passages of the other evangelists 
Philip and Bartholomew are associated ; 
and further, that Bartholomew is not 
mentioned in John's list of the twelve, 
nor is Nathanael in the list of the other 
evangelists. It is therefore in even- 
way likely that he bore two names, as 
so many others did. We know nothing 
of his history save the fact of his con- 
version, John 1 : 45-51, and his presence 
on the Lake of Tiberias when the risen 
Lord appeared to him and other disci- 
ples. John 21 : 2. 

BARTIMEUS (son of Timeus), a 



son of Timeus, who was instantly cured 
of blindness by our Saviour in the vi- 
cinitv of Jericho. Mark 10:46. 

BA'RUCH (blessed). 1. The sec- 
retary of the prophet Jeremiah, was of 
! a distinguished Jewish family. Jer. 
j 32 : 12. His friendship for Jeremiah 
i was strong and constant. At his dic- 
j tation Baruch wrote his prophecies. 
| These he read before the princes, who 
J rehearsed them to Jehoiakim, the king, 
having previously deposited the writing 
in one of the offices of the temple. The 
king ordered the writing to be read in 
his presence, and he became so much 
exasperated that he destroyed the manu- 
scripts and gave orders to arrest both 
the prophet and his secretary, but they 
had concealed themselves. Jehovah, 
however, repeated the prophecies to 
Jeremiah, with some additions, and a 
second time did Baruch write them 
down. Baruch was falsely accused of 
influencing Jeremiah in favor of the 
Chaldaeans, and they wei'e both impris- 
oned until the capture of Jerusalem, 
B. c. 586. They were afterward forced 
to go down to Egypt. Jer. 43 : 6, 7. 

2. The name of three other persons, 
otherwise unknown. Neh. 3:20; 10 : 6 ; 
11 : 5. 

BARUCH, BOOK OF. One of 
the Apocrypha of the 0. T., of uncertain 
date and authorship. See Jeremie, 
Epistle of. 

BARZIL/LAI (of Iron, i.e. strong) 
was a wealthy Gileadite. and a fast 
friend of David when he was in exile on 
account of Absalom's revolt. 2 Sam. 17 : 
27. After the rebellion had been sup- 
pressed, Barzillai, on account of age, and 
probably also from natural and proper 
pride, declined David's offer to be a resi- 
dent of the court, but proposed his son 
Chimham should go instead. 2 Sam. 19 : 
31-40. David, in his final charge to Solo- 
mon, enjoined it upon him to show kind- 
ness to Barzillai's family, and even to 
make them members of the royal house- 
hold. lKgs. 2:7. 

2. The Meholathite, father-in-law of 
Michal, Saul's daughter. 2 Sam. 21:8. 

3. The husband of a daughter of 
Barzillai the Gileadite, whose descend- 
ants returned from Babylon, but in 
vain Bought admittance to the priest- 
hood. Ezr. 2:61; Neh. 7 : 63, 64. 

BA'SHAN (light soil), a district 
101 



BAS 



BAS 



reaching from Hermon to Gilead at the 
river Arnon, and from the Jordan val- 
ley eastward to Salcah. It is referred 
to about 60 times in the Bible. 

Physical Features. — There are two 
ranges of mountains, one along the 
Jordan valley, about 3000 feet high, 
another irregular range on the east side 
of Bashan ; between them are plains 
or undulating table-land watered by 
springs. The rock of basalt on the 
west is broken into deep chasms and 
jagged projections ; the hills are covered 
with oak-forests, as in former times. 
Isa. 2:13; Eze. 27 : 6 ; Zech. 11 : 2. 
The plain of the Jaulan (Golan of 
Scripture) is a vast field of powdered 
lava and basalt, a fertile pasture to this 
day. The north-eastern portion of 
Bashan, including the Argob of Scrip- 
ture, is a wild mass of basaltic rock, 22 
miles long by 14 wide, resembling a 
" cyclopean wall in ruins." Fissures 
and chasms cut it like a network and it 
abounds in caves, yet has much fertile 
land. The centre of Bashan was mostly 
a fertile plain, and was regarded as the 
richest in Syria. 

History. — Its early people were the 
giants Rephaim. Gen. 14 : 5. Og, its 
king, was defeated and slain by Israel, 
Num. 21 : 33 ; 32 : 33, and the country 
divided ; its pastures, cattle, sheep, oaks, 
and forests were famous. Deut. 32 : II ; 
Ps.22:12; Isa. 2: 13; Jer. 50 : 19; Eze. 
39 : 18. After the Captivity it was divi- 
ded into four provinces : (1) Gaulanitis, 
or modern Jaulan ; (2) Argob, or Trach- 
onitis, now Lejah ; (3) Auranitis, now 
Haurau ;. (4) Batansea. Ituraea was not 
strictly a part of Bashan, though taken 
by Israel. Under the Roman rule the 
division was but slightly changed. The 
country is now nominally under Turk- 
ish rule, but is really held by tribes of 
Arabs, dangerous, warlike, and unsub- 
dued. 

Ruins. — Bashan is almost literally 
crowded with cities and villages, now 
deserted and in ruins, corroborating 
the account in Scripture. Josh. 13 : 30. 
There are four classes of dwellings : (1) 
the natural cavern fitted up for resi- 
dence. (2) Lon'j^ tunnels descending 
obliquely, sometimes 150 feet, at the bot- 
tom of which run out a number of pas- 
sages or underground streets, 16 to 23 
feet wide, lined on either side by sub- 
102 



terranean dwellings furnished with air- 
holes in the ceilings, each generally 
having only one outlet, and that in a 
rocky, precipitous slope. (3) Dwellings 
cut in the rock and covered over with 
stone vaulting; not all of these, however, 
belong to early biblical times. Deut. 
3 : 4-13. (4) The villages in the Hau- 
ran consist chiefly of dwellings built 
of handsome well-hewn stone, closely 
jointed without cement. Wood was no- 
where used. The gates, doors, and 
! window-shutters are of stone, turning 
on stone hinges ; the roofs are also of 
stone, resting on supports and arches of 
the same material. Some of the gate- 
ways are ornamented with sculptured 
vines and bear numerous inscriptions 
yet undeciphered, while within are stone 
cupboards, benches, and candlesticks. 
Many of these dwellings belong to an 
age since the beginning of the Chris- 
tian era, but, though deserted for cen- 
turies, seem almost as if the occu- 
pants had gone out only for a few 
hours. Porter's views on their antiqui- 
ty are not accepted. Among its cities 
mentioned in Scripture are Golan, Ash- 

TEROTH KARNAIM, EDREI, SaLCAH, KeR- 

ioth, and Bozrah. See these titles, and 
Porter's Giant Cities (1865-6), Merrill's 
East of Jordan (1881), and Baedeker's 
Handbook of Syria and Palestine (1876). 

BASHAN - HA'VOTH- JA'IR 
(Bashan of the villages of Jair), the 
country of Argob, in Bashan, Deut. 3 : 
14, containing 60 great cities, and called 
Havoth-iair. Num. 32: 41. 

BASHEMATH (pleasing), one 
of Esau's wives. Gen. 26 : 34 : 36 : 3, 
10, 13, 17. 




Assyrian Basins. (British Museum.) 

BA'SIN. It is impossible at this day 



BAS 



BAT 



to tell wherein the basins, bowls, and 
cups so often mentioned together ex- 
actly differed, but the basins were 
probably small. "The 'basin' from 
which Jesus washed his disciples' feet 
was probably larger and deeper than 
the hand-basin for sprinkling." John 
13 : 5. 

BASKET. The word is the uni- 
form term by which several pictur- 
esque Hebrew terms are translated. 
The context will generally enable us to 
decide not only on the probable size of 
the " basket," but also on its material. 
Thus, that mentioned in Jud. 6:19 must 
have been of metal, while that in which 
Paul was let down from the wall at 
Damascus was of rope. 2 Cor. 11 : 33. 
Wicker was, however, probably the 
usual material. They were of all shapes, 
sizes, and for all purposes. The fact is 
unfortunately concealed in our version 




Egyptian Baskets. {After WilJcinson.) 
that the word for " basket" in the ac- 
count of the miracle of feeding the five 
thousand, Matt. 14 : 20 ; 16 : 9 ; Mark 6 : 
43 : Luke 9:17: John 6 : 13, is entirely 
different from that similarly translated 
in the miracle of feeding the four thou- 
sand. Matt. 15:37; Mark 8 : 8— an in- 
direct but striking proof that there were 
turn miracles. It is not, however, possi- 
ble to tell wherein the difference con- 
sisted. 

BAS'MATH {pleasing), same name 
as Basheinath. A daughter of Solo- 
mon, and wife of Ahimaaz, one of his 
officers. 1 Kscs. 4: 15. 

BASTARD. Deut. 23 : 2 forbids 
for ever the entrance of a bastard into 
the congregation — ?". e. "from intermar- 
rying with pure Hebrews." But since 
concubinage was tolerated, the term 
evidently does not apply to one born 
out of wedlock. "The Rabhins. there- 
fore, are probably right when they in- 
terpret the word as denoting only those 
born of incest or adultery." See Co.\- 

C1TB1NR. 

BAT. Lev. 11 : 19. An unclean beast 
whose resting-places are caves, old ruins, 



and filthy and desolate places. Hence 
the allusion Isa. 2 : 20. It has no resem- 
blance to a bird except that it can fly, 
but the organs it uses for this purpose 
are altogether different from those of a 
bird. 

BATH. See Measures. 

BATH, BATHING. In Eastern 
lands bathing is a necessity as well as a 
luxury. It is characteristic of the Mo- 
saic cultus that it enjoins such frequent 
washings ; e. g. Lev. 14 : 8 : 15 : 5 : 17 : 
15. The high priest on the day of 
atonement must pay particular atten- 
tion to this regulation. 16 : 4, 24. The 
Jews bathed in running water or in 
pools in courts. It was not until their 
subjection to Greece and Borne that 
public baths were known. Then came 
in also the luxurious bathing-customs 
of those peoples. 

BATH'-KOL (daughter, voice). 
See Prophecy. 
BATH'-RAB'BIM 

(daughter of many), a gate of 
Heshbon, near which were pools. 
Song Sol. 7:4. 

BATH-SHEBA (daugh- 
ter of the oath), the daughter of 
Eliam, 2 Sam. 11 : 3, otherwise 
called Ammiel, 1 Chr. 3 : 5, Ahithophel's 
son, 2 Sam. 23 : 34. She became the wife 
of Uriah, an officer in David's army. Her 
beauty proved a snare to David, for he 
not only committed adultery with her, 
but treacherously procured the death of 
her injured husband. 2 Sam. 11. The 
child of this intercourse died. When the 
days of mourning were accomplished, 
David married her, and she afterward 
bore him three sons besides Solomon. 
When Adonijah attempted to seize the 
throne, Bath-sheba told the king at the 
instigation of Nathan. IKgs. 1:15. 
It was to her as queen-mother that 
Adonijah went with the request for the 
hand of Abishag. 1 Kgs. 2 : 13-22. See 
Adonijah. 

BATH'-SHU'A (daughter of an 
oath), a variant of Bath-sheba ; used in 1 
Chr. 3:5. 

BAT'TERING-RAM. Eze. 4: 
2 and 21 : 22. This was a long beam of 
strong wood, usually oak, sometimes 
connected with a carriage or framework 
of heavy timber. One end was shaped 
like a ram's head, which when driven re- 
peatedly and with great force against 
103 



BAT 



BEA 



the wall of a city or fortification either 
pierced it or battered it down. In the 
tower of the structure in which the bat- 
tering-ram was hung were often posted 




Aiicient Battering-ram. 

archers and slingers, who fired at the 
defenders upon the walls while their 
comrades were pushing the ram along or 
working it against the walls. See War. 

BATTLE-AXE. See Armor. 

BATTLEMENr. Deut. 22 : 8. 
A wall, parapet, or other structure 
around the flat roofs of Eastern houses, 
designed as a partition from an adjoin- 
ing building or to prevent persons from 
falling off. The law required a battle- 
ment to be built upon every house. It 
is sometimes used in a more extensive 
sense to denote the fortifications of a 
city. Jer. 5:10. A traveller says that 
at Aleppo, where the houses join each 
other, the battlements are so low that 
he could walk over the tops of a dozen 
houses without interruption. See Dwell- 
ing. 

BAV'AI, one who helped rebuild 
the wall. Neh. 3:18. 

BAY TREE. Pp. 37 : 35. "It 
may be questioned whether any partic- 
ular tree is intended by the Psalmist ; 
but if so, it must have been an evergreen, 
and may possibly be the sweet bay 
(Lawns nobilis), which is a native of 
Palestine. It is not very common, but 
may be found in most of the wooded 
104 



dells of northern and western Pales- 
tine." — Tristram. The leaves of the bay 
are much like those of the American moun- 
tain-laurel, but are fragrant when crush- 
ed, and often come to our 
market packed with figs. 
BAZ'LITH,BAZ'- 
L.UTH (a stripping), one 
whose descendants were 
among the Nethinirn who 
returned with ZerubbabeL 
Ezr. 2 : 52 : Neh. 7 : 54. 

BDELLIUM. Gen. 
2:12. After much discus- 
sion, it is still impossible 
to say whether bdellium is 
a mineral, an animal pro- 
duction (pearl), or a vege- 
table exudation. It is 
probably the latter. 
There is a gum produced 
in the East Indies which 
has the same name and is 
thought by many to be the 
same substance. It re- 
sembles myrrh in color, 
and is of a bitter taste. 
Num. 11 : 7. 
BEACON. Isa. 30: 17. A mark 
or signal erected in some conspicuous 
place for direction or for security against 
danger. See Banners. 

BEALI'AH {Jehovah is Baal i. e. 
lord), a Benjamite who joined David at 
Ziklag. 1 Chr. 12: 5. 

BE ALO TH {mistresses ; plur. fem- 
inine form of Baal), a town in the extreme 
south of Judah, Josh. 15:24; probably 
the same as Baalath-beer, 19 : 8, the 
modern Knrnnb. 

BEANS. Eze. 4:9. The Eastern 
plant ordinarily thus known ( Vicia 
faba ) is quite unlike the garden or field 
bean of the United States. It is of the 
same family, but is an erect annual icith 
a stout stem, is one of the coramonesi 
field-crops of Europe and the Orient, 
and bears in its pods large coarse seeds 
which are fed to animals and much eaten 
by the poorer classes. Kidney-beans 
are now sometimes cultivated in Pales- 
tine. 

BEAR. Prov. 17:12. The Syrian 
bear seems but a variety of the brown 
bear of Europe and Asia, though it is 
much lighter in color. Its food is seeds, 
fruits, and roots, to which it occasionally 
adds a goat or sheep. " I never but 



BEA 



BEA 



once saw the Syrian bear south of Her- 
mon ; this was in winter, in a rugged 
ravine near the Lake of Gennesaret. 




Syrian Bear. (After Tristram.) 

When we visited Hermon, before the 
snow had melted from the top, we found 
the snow-ridges trodden in all directions 
by the tracks of bears, which were well 
known, but not much feared, by the 
shepherds : and we also saw their trace 
in the snow on Lebanon. They descend 
both sides of Hermon and do considerable 
damage to the crops, especially the len- 
tiles, of which they are very fond." — 
Tristram. The attachment of the fe- 
male bear to her young is very great, 
and nothing enrages her so much as 
to see her cubs hurt or taken from 
her. Hence the allusions 2 Sam. 17 : 8 : 
Hos. 13 : 8, and also the passage above 
cited. 

BEARD. Among the Jews much 
attention was paid to the beard. To 
show any contempt toward it by 




Fro. 1. Egyptian Beards. (After Wilkinson.) 
Fig. 2. Beards of Assyrian, and other Nations. 
(After Rosellini and Layard.) 

plucking it or touching it, except 
from respect or courtesy, was esteemed 
a gross insult, while to kiss it respect- 
fully and affectionately was regarded as 



a signal mark of friendship. Tearing 
out the beard, cutting it entirely off, 
and neglecting to trim and dress it 
were all expressions of deep mourn- 
ing. Ezr. 9:3; Isa. 15 : 2 ; Jer. 41 : 5 
and 48 : 37. 

The Arabs and Orientals generally 
at this day cherish great respect for 
the beard. They solemnly swear by 
it; and their most significant and 
comprehensive phrase to express their 
good wishes for a friend is, " May God 
preserve your blessed beard !" We are 
told of an Arab who was wounded in 
the jaw, and chose to hazard his life 
rather than to have his beard cut off 
that the surgeon might examine the 
wound. Hence the keenness of the insult 
offered to David's ambassadors. 2 Sam. 
10 : 4, 5. The Egyptians were accustom- 
ed to shave except when mourning, the 
direct opposite to the Jewish custom, 
but they wore false beards, made of 
plaited hair and graduated according 
to rank. The prohibition, Lev. 19:27, 
against marring the "corners of the 
beard " refers probably to the Arabian 
custom of shaving off that portion of 
the beard upon the cheeks on a line 
with the ears. 

BEAST. Gen. 2:19. This word 
is generally used to distinguish all ani- 
mals from man, as in Ps. 36 : 6. Some- 
times quadrupeds only are denoted by 
it, as Lev. 11 : 2 ; and in Gen. 1 : 24, 25, 
it is supposed to refer to creatures that 
roam at large. Beasts were created on 
the sixth day, and were named by 
Adam. Paul describes some of his op- 
posers as wild beasts, so furious and 
brutal was their treatment of him. 1 
Cor. 15:32. A similar application will 
be found in Ps. 22 : 12-16 ; Eccl. 3:18; 
Isa. 11:6-8, and in 2 Pet. 2:12 and 
Jude 10, to denote a class of wicked 
men. "Wild beasts of the islands" 
Jer. 50 : 39, etc., seem to be jackals 
(literally, "the howlers," as in Ara- 
bic these animals are called " the sons 
of howling"). "Wild beasts of the 
desert" probably denote such crea- 
tures as the hyena. 

Under the ancient dispensation the 
beasts were sometimes made to partici- 
pate externally in the observance of 
religious ceremonies, Jon. 3 : 7, 8, and 
suffered, with men, the judgment of 
God. Ex. 9:6 and 13: 15; Ps. 135:8; 
105 



BEA 



BEE 



Jer. 7 : 20 and 21 : 6 ; Eze. 32 : 13 ; 38 : 
20 • Hos. 4 : 3. See Clean and Un- 
clean. 

BEATEN OIL. See Olive. 

BEA TEN WORK. Ex. 25 : 18. 
Not cast, but wrought. 

BEB'AI (paternal), the ancestor of 
some who came back with Zerubbabel. 
Ezr. 2:11; Neh. 7 : 16. Later on some 
more returned with Ezra. Ezr. 8:11. 
Four of these came up for censure as the 
husbands of foreign wives, 10 : 28 ; but 
the cognomen was attached to the cove- 
nant. Neh. 10 : 15. 

BE'CHER [youth). 1. One of Ben- 
jamin's sons. Gen. 46 : 21 ; 1 Chr. 7 : 6, 8. 

2. A descendant of Ephraim, Num. 
26 : 35 ; called Bered in 1 Chr. 7 : 20. 

BECHO'RATH {first bom), one 
of Saul's ancestors. 1 Sam. 9 : 1. 

BED. Gen. 47:31. The floors of 
the better sort of Eastern houses were 
of tile or plaster, and were covered with 
mats or carpets ; and as shoes were not 
worn on them and the feet were washed, 
their floors seldom required sweeping or 
scrubbing. Matt. 12 : 44= ; Luke 15 : 8. 
Thick, coarse mattresses were thrown 
down at night to sleep upon. The 
poorer people used skins for the same 
purpose. Such beds were easily moved. 
Matt. 9:6. On two or three sides of the 
room was a bench, generally a foot high 
and three feet broad, covered with a 
stuffed cushion. This bench, called the 



j 



iV'jT 



j^l 






Asiatic Beds. (From Fellows's "Asia Minor.") 

divan, was used for both lying and sit- 
ting upon ; but at one end of the room 
it was more elevated, and this was the 
usual place of sleeping. 2 Kgs. 1:4; 
20 : 2 ; Ps. 132 : 3 ; Am. 3 : 12. But 
besides the divan, we find mention of 
bedsteads made of wood, ivory, Am. 
106 



6:4, or other materials. Deut. 3:11. 
This knowledge of the construction of 
Eastern beds relieves of difficulty such 
passages as Ex. 8:3; 2 Sam. 4 : 5-7; 
Ps. 6 : 6 ; Mark 4 : 21. 

Some part of the day-clothing usually 
served for bedclothes. Ex. 22 : 26, 27 ; 
Deut. 24: 12, 13. The Orientals do not 
generally undress before lying down foi 
the night, but are content to take off the 
upper part of their clothing and un- 
loose their girdle. 

Bedsteads were used by the ancient 
Egyptians, as we know from the monu- 
ments. They also used wooden pil- 
lows of the same style as are now in 
use in Japan. 

The pillow of the Hebrews was proba- 
bly a goat-skin stuffed with some soft sub- 
stance, since one of this sort is common 
to-day in Palestine. The pillow meant 
in Mark 4 : 38 was a rower's cushion. It 
has been conjectured that Saul and Eli- 
jah may have used their skin water- 
bottles, " a cruse of water," for the pur- 
pose of a bolster. 1 Sam. 26 : 12 ; 1 Kgs. 
19 : 6, margin. 

BE 'DAD (part), the father of 
Hadad, king of Edom. Gen. 36 : 35 ; 1 
Chr. 1 : 46. 

BEDAN (servile). 1. In 1 Sam. 
12 : 11 the name of this judge stands 
between Jerubbael, or Gideon, and 
Jephthah, but probably it is a copyist's 
error for Barak, as several of the ver- 
sions give it. The difference in Hebrew 
is not great. 

2. A Manassite. 1 Chr. 7:17. 

BEDEFAH (servant of Jehovah), 
one who had married a foreign wife. 
Ezr. 10 : 35. 

BEE. Deut. 1 : 44. The honey- 
bee is probably the only species alluded 
to in the Bible. They must have been 
very numerous in Canaan, as honey was 
a common article of food, 1 Kgs. 14 : 3 ; 
Ps. 81:16; Song Sol. 5:1; Isa. 7 : 15, 
and commerce. Eze. 27 : 17. 

The disposition of bees to take ven- 
geance on any one who disturbs their 
hive is alluded to in Ps. 118 : 12. 

Isa. 7:18 doubtless finds its explana- 
tion "in the custom of the people in the 
East of attracting the attention of any 
one by a significant hiss, or rather hist." 
Zeeh. 10:8. 

We read. Jud. 14 : 8, that "after a 
time," probably many days, Samson re- 



BEE 



BEE 



turned to the carcass of the Hon he had 
slain, and saw bees and honey therein. 
" If any one here represents to himself 
a corrupt and putrid carcass, the occur- 
rence ceases to have any true similitude, 
for it is well known that in these coun- 
tries, at certain seasons of the year, the 
heat will in the course of twenty-four 
hours so completely dry up the moist- 
ure of dead camels, and that, without 
their undergoing decomposition, their 
bodies long remain like mummies, un- 
altered and entirely free from offensive 
odor." — (Ed in <i tut. 

Wild bees often deposited their honey 
in hollow trees or the clefts of rocks. Ps. 
81 : 16; 1 Sam. 14 : 25-27. See Honey. 

BEELIADA {Baal knows), a son 
of David, 1 Chr. 14 : 7 : called Eliada in 



2 Sam. 5: 16; 1 Chr. 3 

BEEL'ZE- 
BUB. The name 
properly should be 
Beelaebitl in all the 
N. T. passages. 
Matt. 10 : 25; 12 : , 
24, 27 ; Mark 3 : 22 ; 
Luke 11:15, 18, 19. \ 
But this is, some say, 
merely because to the 
Greek tongue the lat- 
ter form was easier. 
This name was in 
common use among ^ 
the Jews in Christ's * 
day as a title of Sa- 
tan as the "prince 
of the demons." It 
means "lord of the 
house." Those who 
regard Beelzebul as a - 
corruption of Baal- 
zebub [lord of flies), 
the god of the Ekron- 



8. 



BE'ER-E'LIM (well of heroes). 
Isa. 15: 8. See Beer, 1. 

BEE'RI (the well-man). 1. The 
father of Judith, one of Esau's wives. 
Gen. 26:34. 

2. The father of Hosea the prophet. 
Hos. 1:1. 

BE'ER-L AHAF-ROI (< retfo/^e 
living), a fountain in the wilderness, 
south-west of Beer-sheba, Gen. 16 : 7, 
14 ; 24 : 62 ; 25 : 1 1 ; perhaps Mnweileh; 
not the same as that in Gen. 21 : 19. 

BEE'ROTH (wells), one of four 
Hivite cities, Josh. 9:17; now el-Bireh, 
10 miles north of Jerusalem. See Beer, 2. 

BEE'ROTH OF THE CHIL- 
DREN OF JAAKAIV. Deut. 10 : 6. 
Same as Bene-jaakan, Num. 33:31; 
possibly el-Mayin, 60 miles west of 
Mount Hor. 




Well at Beer-sheba. (From Palmer's 



ites, 2 Kgs. 1 : 3, worshipped as the 
patron deity of medicine, interpret it 
"lord of dung" or "filth," and explain 
the change in the name by the contempt 
of the Jews. 

BE'ER (well). 1. Near the Arnon, 
Num. 21:16,18: probably Beer-elim. 

2. A town in Judah, Jud. 9:21; proba- 
bly el-Bireh, 10 miles north of Jerusalem. 

BEE'RA (a ice!/.), an Asherite. 1 
Chr. 7:37. 

BEE'RAH (a well), a Reubcnitish 
prince taken captive by Tiglath-pileser. 
1 Chr. 5:6. 



glttoJE. 

Desert of the Exodus.") 

BEER-SHEBA, or BEER'- 

SHEBA (irefl of seven, or of oath), a 
city on the southern border of Canaan, 
25 miles south-west of Hebron, on a line 
between the uplands and the desert. It 
is named 33 times in the Bible; only 
in the 0. T. 

Bistort/. — It was first named by Abra- 
ham, Gen. 21 : 31-33, who lived there, 
22 : 19; was re-named by Isaac, Gen. 26 : 
33, and was then a city; visited by Ja- 
cob. 28 : 10; 46 : 1; given to Judah, 
Josh. 15:28; afterward to Simeon, 19 : 
2; 1 Chr. 4:28; a place where judges 
107 



BEE 



BEH 



held court, 1 Sam. 8:2; often noted as 
the southern limit of Canaan, as Dan 
was the northern — " Dan even to Beer- 
sheba," Jud. 20 : 1 ; 1 Sam. 3 : 20 ; 2 Sam. 
3:10; 17 : 11 ; 1 Kgs. 4 : 25 ; 1 Chr. 21 : 
2, etc. ; a place of idolatrous worship, 
Am. 5:5; 8 : 14 ; was peopled after 
the Captivity, Neh. 11 : 30 ; was a city in 
Jerome's time ; now in ruins, but retains 
its ancient name, Bir-es-seba. 

Wells and Ruins. — There are two large 
wells 300 feet apart, and five smaller 
ones some distance down the valley. 
The larger of the two chief wells is 
12£ feet in diameter and 38 to 45 feet 
deep to the water, 16 feet of the lower 
portion being dug into solid rock, and 
the portion above this rock walled up 
with square hewn stones, hard as mar- 
ble. The ropes of water-drawers for 
4000 years have worn over 140 furrows 
in the face of the stones, some of them 

4 inches deep. The second well is 
smaller, being only about 

5 feet in diameter and 42 
feet deep. Around the 
wells are 10 or 12 stone 
troughs, of oblong and ir- 
regular shape, for the use 
of cattle. All day long 
Arab herdsmen and wo- 
men are drawing water in 
skins to fill the troughs. 
as in the days of Abraham 
and Isaac. 

BEESH'-TERAH 
{house of Astarte), a citv 
of Bashan, Josh. 21 : 27: 
same as Ashtaroth, 1 Chr. 
6:71. 

BEETLE. Lev. 11. 
21, 22. Beetles have not 
"legs above their feet to 
leap withal upon the 
earth," neither are they 
ever eaten by man. From the connec- 
tion, the word probably indicates an in- 
sect of the Locust family, which see. 
The Egyptians worshipped the beetle 
(scarabseus) as a symbol of fertility and 
immortality. 

BEEVES. Lev. 22: 19. As.usedin 
the Bible, this word is synonymous with 
"cattle," in its modern use. As they di- 
vide the hoof, and also chew the cud, they 
were reckoned amon» clean animals. 

BEGGAR, BEGGING. The 
poor among the Hebrews were much fa- 
108 



vored. They were allowed to glean in 
the fields, and to gather whatever the 
land produced in the year in which it 
was not tilled. Lev. 19 : 10; 25 : 5, 6; 
Deut. 24 : 19. They were also invited to 
feasts. Deut. 14 : 29 and 26 : 12. The Is- 
raelite could not be an absolute pauper. 
His land was inalienable, except for a 
certain term, when it reverted to him 
or his posterity. And if this resource 
were insufficient, he could pledge the 
services of himself and family for a 
valuable sum. Those who were indi- 
gent through bodily infirmities were 
usually taken care of by their kindred. 
A beggar was sometimes seen, however, 
and was regarded and abhorred as a 
vagabond. Ps. 109 : 10. In later 
times they were accustomed, it would 
seem, to have a fixed place at the 
corners of the streets, Mark 10 : 46, or 
at the gates of the temple, Acts 3 : 2, or 
of private houses. Luke 16 : 20. 




Hippopotamus. (After Wood. "Animal Kingdom.") 



BEHEMOTH. Job 40 : 15-24. 
The word elsewhere translated beasts — 
i. e. great beasts — is here given in its 
Hebrew form. Evidently this is right, 
for Job plainly refers to a beast pre- 
eminently great. The animal described 
as the behemoth in the passage above 
cited was of prodigious size and 
strength, and corresponds better with 
the river-horse of Africa (Hippopota- 
mus amph'bins), than with any other 
known animal. It is very probable 
that this creature, though not now 



BEK 



BEL 



found in Palestine, may once have in- 
habited the rivers of Western Asia. 

The average length of the male hip- 
popotamus (including a tail about 1 foot 
long) is 14 feet. His girth is nearly the 
same, and his height at the shoulder is 
5 or 6 feet. The huge, uncouth body of 
the animal is supported by short, stout 
limbs with four toes, each of which toes 
has a small hoof. The aperture of his 
mouth is 2 feet broad, and his tusks 
are more than a foot long. Cutting- 
teeth, which retain their sharpness by 
the same wonderful provision seen in 
the squirrel, enable him to mow as 
with a scythe the coarse, tough plants, 
aquatic roots, and grasses which are 
his food. A stomach capable of con- 
taining 5 or 6 bushels of vegetable mat- 
ter prepares him to devour enormous 
quantities of herbage along river-mar- 
gins and prove sadly destructive to 
neighboring crops. 

Though clumsy on the land, in the 
water the movements of the hippo- 
potamus are often graceful and rap- 
id. For the most part, he loves to 
lie "in the covert of the reeds and 
fens," or float in the water with only 
his nostrils visible. By way of exer- 
cise, he walks at the bottom of the 
river or climbs the neighboring hill- 
sides ("mountains" of the Bible). 

" The old commentators have made 
all sorts of conjectures on the behe- 
moth. Some have maintained it was 
the elephant, others the wild buffalo, 
others the mammoth or some extinct 
pachyderm, others that it is a poet- 
ical description of these large crea- 
tures generally. But it appears clear 
that the description suits the hippo- 
potamus exactly, and it alone: and 
this description has been adopted by 
Bochart and most modern critics. We 
know from the Egyptian monuments 
that this huge animal was hunted 
with spears : and noting its place 
in the description of the marvels of 
creation in Job, just be f ore the levia- 
than or crocodile, the sequence seems 
to be that, powerful and terrible as is 
the hippopotamus, yet it may some- 
times be taken with spears : 'But what 
canst thou do with the crfleodile? Will 
spears and barbs avail against him ?' " — 
Triafrnm. 

BE'KAH. See Measures. 



BEL. See Baal. 

BE'LA (a swallowing up, or destruc- 
tion). 1. A king of Edom, eight gen- 
erations before Saul. Gen. 36 : 32, 33 ; 
1 Chr. 1 : 43, 44. 

2. Benjamin's eldest son. Num. 26 : 
38-40 ; 1 Chr. 7 : 6, 7 ; 8 : 1-3. In Gen. 
46:21 called Belah. 

3. A Reubenite. 1 Chr. 5 : 8. 

BE 'Li A (swallowing, or destruction). 
Gen. 14:2, 8. See Zoar. 

BE'LAITES. The descendants 
of Bela are so called in Num. 26 : 38. 

BE'LIAL (worthlessness). This 
word is applied by the sacred writers to 
such lewd, profligate, and vile persons 
as seem to regard neither God nor man. 
Deut. 13:13; Jud. 19:22, and 1 Sam. 
2:12. Hence the question of the apos- 
tle, 2 Cor. 6:15, to the citizens of Cor- 
inth, which was remarkable for its lewd- 
ness and profligacy, has great force : 
" What concord hath Christ with Be- 
lial," the prince of licentiousness and 
corruption ? 

BELIEVE'. See Faith. 

BELL. Bells were attached to the 
bottom of the high priest's robe, that 
he might be heard when he went into or 
came out of the holy place. Ex. 28 : 33, 
35. Many of the Eastern kings and 
nobles wear bells in the same manner at 
this day, not only for ornament, but to 
give notice of their approach. The 
Arabian ladies in the roj'al presence 
have little gold bells fastened to their 
legs, necks, and elbows, which make an 
agreeable sound when they dance. The 
"bells of the horses" mentioned in 
Zech. 14 : 20 were concave or flat pieces 
of brass, still used in the East as orna- 
ments upon animals. 

BELLOWS. The word occurs 
once only in the Authorized Version, 
Jer. 6 : 29, but the article must have 
been known before Moses's day, since 
without them smelting ores would be 
impossible. It is probable that the 
Jews had bellows of the same general 
appearance as the Egyptians', which 
are thus described by Wilkinson : " They 
consisted of a leather bag secured and 
fitted into a frame, from which a long 
pipe extended for carrying the wind to 
the fire. They were worked by the feet, 
the operator standing upon them, with 
one under each foot, and pressing them 
alternately while he pulled up each ex- 
109 



BEL 



BEN 



hausted skin with a string he held in 
his hand." The modern Palestinian 
bellows are even simpler, being a mere 
skin bag having a pipe fastened at one 




Egyptian Bellows. (After Cailliard.) 

end : it is pressed between two boards, 
and thus the air expelled. 

BELSHAZZAR (Bel's prince, ox 
may Bel protect the king !) was the son or 
grandson of Nebuchadnezzar, and the 
last king of Babylon. Dan. 5: 1,18. Dur- 
ing the siege of the city of Babylon he 
gave a sumptuous entertainment to his 
courtiers, and impiously made use of 
the temple-furniture (of which Nebu- 
chadnezzar had plundered the temple at 
Jerusalem) as drinking-vessels. In the 
midst of the festivities, to the terror of 
the king, a hand miraculously appeared 
to be writing upon the wall : Mene, 
Mene, Tekel, Upharsin. Daniel was 
called in to explain the mystery, which, 
thus interpreted, proved to be a proph- 
ecy of the king's death and the king- 
dom's overthrow, which took place in 
the course of the succeeding night, when 
Darius the Median captured the city. 
Dan. 5:25-31. 

BELTESHAZ'ZAR(ffeZ'*/>riHce, 
or Bel protect his life !), the name given 
to the prophet Daniel at the court of 
Nebuchadnezzar. Dan. 1 : 7. See Dan- 
iel. 

BEN (son), a poi-ter, a Levite, in 
David's time. 1 Chr. 15: 18. 

BENA IAH {whom Jehovah hath 
built up). 1. Son of Jehoiada, the chief 
priest, and distinguished for his enter- 
prise and bravery on several occasions. 
2 Sam. 23 : 20-23. He was an adherent 
of Solomon against the pretensions of 
Adonijah, 1 Kgs. 1 : 36, and after put- 
ting Joab to death succeeded to the com- 
mand of the army. 1 Kgs. 2 : 29-35. 
110 



2. One of David's warriors. 2 Sam. 
23 : 30 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 31 ; 27 : 14. 

3. A Simeonite chief. 1 Chr. 4: 36. 

4. A musical Levite in David's day. 
1 Chr. 15 : 18, 20 ; 16 : 5. 

5. A priest in David's reign. 1 Chr. 
15:24: 16:6. 

6. A Levite. 2 Chr. 20 : 14. 

7. A Levite in Hezekiah's day. 2 Chr. 
31:13. 

8. 9, 10, 11. Four persons who had 
foreign wives. Ezr. 10 : 25, 30, 35, 43. 

12. The father of Pelatiah. Eze. 11 : 
1, 13. 

BEN-AM'MI (son of my people), 
the son of Lot by his youngest daughter, 
and the progenitor of the Ammonites. 
Gen. 19 : 38. 

BEN'E-BE'RAK (son of light- 
ning), a city of Dan, Josh. 19 : 45, prob- 
ably lb n Ibrak, near el- Yehudizeh. 

BENEFACTORS was a title 
given to several rulers, particularly 
to two of the Egyptian Ptolemies, who 
are called accordingly in the Greek form 
Euergetes. Hence our Lord's remark, 
Luke 22 : 25. It is analogous to our 
title " Excellency." 

BENE-JAAKAN (children of 
Jaakan), a tribe probably descended 
from a grandson of Seir the Horite, and 
which gave a name to wells where Is- 
rael encamped, Num. 33:31,32; same 
as Beeroth, and as the wells at el- 
Mayin, 60 miles west of Mount Hor. 

BEN-HA'DAD (son, i. e. worship- 
per, of Hadad). 1. King of Damas- 
cus in the time of Asa, king of Judah, 
with whom he formed an alliance 
against Baasha, king of Israel. 1 Kgs. 
15 : 18. See Asa, Baasha. 

2. King of Damascus, and a son of 
the preceding. 1 Kgs. 20 : 1. He was 
engaged in numerous wars with Israel, 
and once was taken prisoner. 1 Kgs. 
20. See Ahab. Afterward he declared 
war against Jehoram, king of Israel, 
but the prophet Elisha disclosed his 
plans so accurately that Jehoram was 
able to defeat them. 2 Kgs. 6 : 8-33. 
It was Ben-hadad who sent Naaman to 
Elisha. 2 Kgs. 5. See Elisha. 

In the siege of Samaria, which sub- 
sequently took place, that city was 
reduced to "the greatest extremity. 
The Syrian army, under Ben-hadad, 
was lying around the walls, when in 
the course of the night they were led to 



BEN 



BEE 



conceive that they heard the noise of an 
immense army in motion. Supposing 
that the city had been succored by 
supplies of men and provisions from 
abroad, and terrified with the fancied 
tumult of their approach, the Syrians 
just at daybreak fled for their lives, 
leaving their camp, with all their horses, 
asses, provisions, utensils, etc., just as 
they were, and their garments and ves- 
sels scattered all along the road by 
which they had fled. The citizens of 
Samaria were thus unexpectedly relieved 
and supplied with an abundance of 
food. 

The next year, Ben-hadad, being sick, 
sent Hazael to inquire of the prophet 
Elisha whether he would recover ; and 
he received for answer that the king 
might certainly recover, and yet would 
surely die. Hazael also was informed 
by the prophet that he would be ele- 
vated to the throne of Syria, and would 
be guilty of enormous wickedness. The 
very next day Ben-hadad was murdered, 
and Hazael became king of Syria. 2 
Kgs. 8:15. See Hazael. 

Various successful campaigns against 
Ben-hadad II. are mentioned upon the 
tablets of the Assyrian king, Shalma- 
neser II., b. c. 858-823. Ben-hadad, who 
is called Ben-hadar, was in league with 
Ahab when the first campaign took 
place, as the Bible says. 1 Kgs. 20: 34. 

3. Another person of the same name, 
and son of Hazael. 2 Kgs. 13:3. He 
suffered several defeats from the hand 
of Jehoash, king of Israel, and was 
compelled to relinquish all the land of 
Israel which his father, Hazael, had 
obtained in conquest. 2 Kgs. 13 : 25. 

BEN'-HA'IL (son of the host, i. e. 
warrior), one of the "princes" whom 
Jehoshaphat sent to teach the people 
the law. 2 Chr. 17 : 7. 

BEN'-HANAN (son of one gra- 
cious), a Judite. 1 Chr. 4:20. 

BEN'INU (our son), a Levite who 
sealed the covenant. Neh. 10 : 13. 

BEN'- JAMIN (son of the right hand, 
i. e. of fortune). 1. The youngest son of 
Jacob and Rachel. His mother died im- 
mediately after his birth, which took 
place near Bethlehem when the family 
were on their journey from Padan-aram 
to Canaan. With her dying breath she 
called him Ben-oni (the son of my sor- 
row), but his father gave him the name 



he bore. Gen. 35 : 16-18. The relation 
between him and Jacoli was ever most 
tender, particularly after Joseph's sup- 
posed death. We know, however, noth- 
ing about him personally. The tribe 
J formed from his descendants exhibited 
I the traits of courage, cunning, and am- 
1 bition foretold by the dying Jacob. Gen. 
49 : 27. It had its portion of the 
Promised Land adjoining Judah ; and 
when ten of the tribes revolted, Benja- 
min continued steadfast in its attach- 
ment to Judah, and formed a part of 
that kingdom. 1 Kgs. 12 : 17, 23. Saul, 
the first king, and Paul were descendants 
of this tribe. 1 Sam. 10 : 21 ; Phil. 3 : 5. 

2. A Benjamite chief. 1 Chr. 7:10. 

3. One who had a foreign wife. Ezr. 
I 10 : 32. 

BEN' JAMIN (son of the rig ht hand), 
EAND OF, the portion of Canaan 
between Ephraim, the Jordan, Judah, 
and Pan, containing 26 cities, including 
Jerusalem and the famous passes of 
! Michmash and Beth-horon. See Josh. 
18 : 11-28. It was about 25 miles long 
by 12 wide. 

Physical Features. — This territory 
i was a hilly country, its general level be- 
ing about 2000 feet above the Mediter- 
ranean and 3000 feet above the Jordan 
valley. It includes mountains broken 
by deep ravines. For productions, etc., 
see Canaan, Palestine, and Judah. 

Some of the most important events 
in Scripture history took place in this 
territory, which will be noticed under 
the kings of Judah. 

BE'NO (his son), a Levite. 1 Chr. 
24:26, 27. 

BEN-O'NI. See Benjamin. 

BEN-ZO'HETH {son of Zoheth), 
a descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 4:20. 

BE'ON. Num. 32 : 3. See Baal- 
• Meox. 

BE'OR (torch). 1. The father of 
Bela, king of Edom. Gen. 36 : 32 ; 1 
Chr. 1 : 43. 

2. The father of Balaam, Num. 22 : 
5, etc. ; called Bosor in 2 Pet. 2 : 15. 

BE'RA (son of evil ), king of 
Sodom. Gen. 14:2. 

BER'ACHAH (blessing), a Ben- 
jamite leader who joined David. 1 
Chr. 12 : 3. 

BER'ACHAH, (blessing), VAL- 
LEY OF, where Jehoshaphat cele- 
brated the victory over the Moabites, 
111 



BEE 



BES 



2 Chr. 20 : 26 ; now Wady Breiktit, 
west of Tekua (Tekoa), and about 8 
miles south-west of Bethlehem. 

BERACHI'AH {whom Jehovah 
hath blessed), the father of Asaph. 1 
Chr. 6 : 39. 

BERAl'AH (wJtom Jehovah cre- 
ated), a Benjamite chief. 1 Chr. 8 : 21. 

BERE'A, a city of Macedonia, 
Acts 17 : 10-13, on the eastern side of 
the Olympian Mountains ; now Verria, 
with a population of about 6000, though 
some incorrectly give 20,000. 

BERECHI'AH (whom Jehovah 
hath blessed). 1. One of David's pos- 
terity. 1 Chr. 3 : 20. 

2. A Levite. 1 Chr. 9 : 16. 

3. The father of Asaph, also called 
Berachiah. 1 Chr. 15 : 17. 

4. A doorkeeper for the ark. 1 Chr. 

15 : 23. 

5. An Ephraimite in the days of 
Ahaz. 2 Chr. 28:12. 

6. The father of a builder of the wall. 
Neh. 3:4, 30; 6:18. 

7. The father of Zechariah. Zech. 
1 : 1, 7. 

BE'RED (hail), a place in southern 
Palestine, near the well Lahai-roi. Gen. 

16 : 14. Grove suggests El-Khulasah, 
12 miles south of Beer-sheba; Conder 
proposes Bereid. 

BERENFCE. See Bernice. 

BE'RI (well), an Asherite chieftain. 
1 Chr. 7:36. 

BERI'AH (in evil, or a gift). 1. 
A son of Asher. Gen. 46 : 17 ; Num. 
26 : 44, 45 ; 1 Chr. 7 : 30, 31. 

2. A son of Ephraim. 1 Chr. 7 : 23. 

3. A Benjamite chief. 1 Chr. 8 : 13, 16. 

4. A Levite. 1 Chr. 23:10, 11. 
BERI'ITES, the descendants of 

Beriah, 1. Num. 26:44. 

BE RITES, THE (the people of 
the wells), a family mentioned in 2 Sam. 
20 : 14, but it is not known who they 



BE'RITH (a covenant). Jud. 9 : 46. 
See Baal-berith. 
BERNICE, or BERENICE 

(victorious), was the eldest daughter 
of Agrippa, surnamed the Great, and 
sister to the younger Agrippa, kings of 
the Jews. Acts 25 : 13, 23 ; 26 : 30. 
Her first husband was her uncle Her- 
od, the king of Chalcis. She appears 
in the Acts in connection with her 
brother, Agrippa II., with whom she 
112 



lived in incestuous intercourse after 
Herod's death, a. d. 48. To put an 
end to the scandal she married Po- 
lemo, king of Cilicia, whom she per- 
suaded to be 
circumcised. 
The bond was 
soon dis- 
solved, and 
she returned 
to her broth- 
er. Subse- 
quently, so 
remark able 
were her pow- 




lernice. (On a Coin of Po- 

lemo II.) 
Sernice married PolemoII., king 



ers of attrac- 
tion, and so 
well pre- 



of a part of Cilicia. The coin was served her 
struck in 52 a.d., about the time , , ,1 , 

when Paul was at Corinth with Deauty, tnat 
Aquila and Priscilla. sne became 

mistress to both Vespasian and his son 
Titus. 
BERO'DACH-BAE'ADAN. 

2 Kgs. 20 : 12. See Merodach-bala- 

DAN. 

BEROTHAH, and BER'O- 

THAI (my wells), one in the north 
of Palestine, Eze. 47 : 16, the other in 
the same region, 2 Sam. 8:8. The two 
may be the same, and possibly modern 
Beirut, but more probably farther east, 
at Brithen or Bretdn, about 6 miles 
south-west of Baalbec. 

BERYL. Ex. 28 : 20. By the 
Hebrew word " tarshish " modern yel- 
low topaz is supposed to be meant. 
This designation seems to indicate 
the place from which it was brought. 
Beryl, in the N. T., Rev. 21 : 20, is 
probably a different stone, and very like- 
ly the mineral now so called, which is 
found in Palestine, but was less abun- 
dant and more precious in ancient 
times than in modern. It is usually 
of a light-green color and considerably 
opaque. 

BE'SAI (sword, or conqueror), an 
ancestor to some of the Nethinim. Ezr. 
2:49; Neh. 7:52. 

BESODE'IAH (in the secret of 
Jehovah), the father of a repairer of 
the wall. Neh. 3 : 6. 

BESOM. Isa. 14:23. A broom 
made of twigs. 

BE'SOR. 1 Sam. 30 : 9-21. A tor- 
rent-bed in the south of Judah ; proba- 
bly Wady Sheriah, south of Gaza. 



BET 



BET 



BE'TAH (confidence). 2 Sam. 8 : 
S. Called Tibhath. I Uhr. 18: 8: possi- 
bly Tibhuth, between Aleppo and Eu- 
phrates. 

BE'TEN. Josh. 19 : 25. A town of 
Asher, east of Ptoleinais ; now el Baneh. 

BETH -ABABA {house of the 
ford). 9 place beyond Jordan. John 1 : 
28. Some of the best manuscripts read j 
Bethany same as Beth-abara ; possi- 
bly at Beth-nimrah, or Nimrin; or, as 
Conder thinks, at 'Abarak: a leading 
ford of the Jordan on the road to Gil- 
ead. 

BETH'-A'NATH (house of an- 
swer), a place in Naphtali, Josh. 19 : 38 ; 



Jnd. 1:33; possibly at Hariin, near 
Diblathaim; or at 'Ainatha. 
BETH-ANOTH (house of 

echo), a city of Judah, Josh. 15:59; 
perhaps Beit 'Ainun, 3 miles north- 
east of Hebron. 

BETH' ANY (house of dates, or 
of misery). 1. A village on the eastern 
slope of Mount Olivet, about 1£ to 2 
miles ("'15 furlongs") east of Jerusa- 
lem, John 11:18, toward Jericho; the 
home of Alary and Martha, whither 
Jesus often went. Matt. 21:17; Mark 
11:11. 12. It was the home of Simon, 
Mark 14 : 3 ; the place where Lazarus 
was raised from the dead. John 11:18- 




Bethany. (After Photographs.) 



44; and near it Jesus ascended to 
heaven. Luke 24 : 50 ; named only in 
the Gospels, and there elev-n times. 

Pretext Appearance. — Three paths 
lead from Jerusalem to Bethany — the 
first over Olivet, north of its summit: 
the third branches from the first, below 
Gethsemane, over the southern slope of 
Olivet: the second lies between these 
two. " The name, which signifies ' house 
of poverty.' was probably suggested by 
its solitary and remote situation, bor- 
dering on the desert, or by the fact that 
lepers, who are popularly called the 
'poor,' once sought an asylum here." 
Mark 14 : 3. — Baf.df.kf.k's Handbook. 



haml't of about 20 rude stone houses 
inhabited by Moslems. The water is 
good, and olive, fig. almond, and carob 
trees abound. The reputed sites of 
Simon's house and that of Mary, 
also "the tower" and the tomb of Laz- 
arus, are still pointed out. A church 
stands over the tomb. Bethany is now 
called el-Az<rii/eh, " place of Lazarus." 
See Schaff's Bible Lands, p. 276. 

2. Some manuscripts read Bethany 
for Bethabara in John 1 : 28. See Bimi- 

BETH-AR'ABAH (house of 

the plain), a city of Judah in the wil- 
derness. Josh. 15 : 6, 61 ; counted as a 



The town is now a poor mountain- | city of Benjamin, Josh. 18 : 22 : called 
8 113 



BET 



BET 



Arabah in Josh. 18 : 18, in the valley 
of the Jordan near the Dead Sea. 

BETH-ARAM {house of height), 
a town of Gad in the valley, Josh. 13 : 
27 ; perhaps same as Beth-haran. 
Num. 32 : 36; Merrill locates it at er- 
Eamn, on the Shittim plain. 

BETH-AR'BEL {house of God's 
court, or ambush), probably Arbela or 
Irbid, between Tiberias and Sepphoris. 
Hos. 10:14. 

BE fH-ATEN {house of naught, 
or idols), east of Bethel, Josh. 7:2; 

18 : 12 : 1 Sam. 13 : 5 ; 14 : 23 ; used as 
a name for Bethel, " house of God ;" 
changed to Beth-aven, " house of idols." 
Hos.4:15; 5:8; 10:5. 

BETH- AZ'MAVETH, a town 
in Benjamin : called Azmaveth, Neh. 7 : 
28 ; 12 : 29 ; Ezr. 2 : 21; perhaps Hiz- 
meh, south-east of Jeba. 

BETH-BA'AL-ME'ON. Josh. 
13 : 17. See Baal-meox. 

BETH - BA'RAH. Jud. 7 : 24. 
See Beth-abara. 

BETH'-BIR'EI (house of my cre- 
ation), a town of Simeon, 1 Chr. 4 : 31 ; 
probably same as Beth-lebaoth and Le- 
baoth, Josh. 19 : 6 ; 15 : 32, in the south 
of Palestine; probably Bireh. 

BETH'- CAR (house of lambs), a 
place west of Mizpeh. 1 Sam. 7 : 1. Con- 
der locates it at 'A in Kdrim. 

BETH-DA'GON(Ao««eo/Z%on). 
1. A town in Judah, near Philistia. 
Josh. 15:41. Perhaps at Beit Dejan. 

2. A place in Asher. Josh. 19 : 27. 
Ganneau locates it at Deijun, south- 
west of Ekron ; Conder, at Tell D'auk. 

BETH-DIBLATHATI (house 
of fig-cakes), a town of Moab ; same as 
Almon-diblathaim. Jer. 48 : 22 ; Num. 
33 : 16. 

BETHEL (house of God). 1. A 
town about 12 miles north of Jerusalem. 

History. — Visited by Abraham, Gen. 
12 : 8 ; 13 : 3 ; marked by Jacob after his 
vision of the ladder, Gen. 28 : 11-19; 
31 : 13 ; dwelling-place of Jacob, Gen. 
35 : 1-8 ; name applied to Luz, Jud. 1 : 
22, 23 ; before this the city and the altai - - 
site appear to have had different names, 
see Josh. 16 : 2 : Jud. 1 : 22, 23 : Gen. 28 : 

19 ; Samuel judged there, 1 Sam. 7:16; 
a place of calf-worship, 1 Kgs. 12 : 29; 
2 Kgs. 10 : 29 ; called Beth-aven— i. e. 
"house of idols," Hos. 10 : 5, 8 : taken 
by Judah, 2 Chr. 13 : 19 ; home of 

114 



prophets, 2 Kgs. 2 : 2, 3 ; of priests, 2 
Kgs. 17:28; 23:15-17; was desolate, 
Am. 3 : 14; 5 : 5, 6 ; settled by Benja- 
mites after the Captivity, Neh. 11 : 31 ; 
named about seventy times in the 0. T. ; 
not noticed in the N. T. ; now called 
Beitin (9 miles south of Shiloh), a vil- 
lage of about 25 Moslem hovels, stand- 
ing amid ruins which cover about 4 
aci'es. Among the ruins is a Greek 
church, which appears to have been 
built out of the ruins of an older, and 
probably a Jewish, edifice. There are 
also the remains of a tower and a very 
large cistern. From the top of this 
ruined tower the Mount of Olives is 
distinctly visible, and Jewish tradition 
asserts, no doubt truthfully, that from 
the rival temple of Jeroboam idol- 
priests could look down upon the tem- 
ple of Solomon at Jerusalem. The spot 
is hallowed by Jacob's dream of a lad- 
der which reached from earth to hea- 
ven, and caused him to exclaim, " How 
dreadful is this place ! this is none other 
but the house of God, and this is the 
gate of heaven." Gen. 28 : 17. 

2. A town in the south of Judah ; 
same as Chesil, Bethul, and Bethuel. 
Josh. 12:16; 15 : 30 ; 19:4; 1 Chr. 4 : 
BO. Either Beit Aula, or El-Khulasah. 

3. Mount Bethel, Josh. 16 : 1 ; 1 Sam. 
13 : 2, a hilly district near Bethel. 

BETH-EMEK (house of the val- 
ley), a town of Asher, Josh. 19 : 27 : pos- 
sibly A mkah, 8 miles north-east of Akka. 

BE'THER, THE MOUN- 
TAINS OF. Song Sol. 2 : 17. Prob- 
ablv near the Lebanon range. 

BE T HE S DA (house of mercy, or 
flowing water), a pool in Jerusalem near 
the sheep-gate or market, John 5: 2-9; 
tradition identifies it with the modern 
pool Birket-Israil, 360 feet long, 120 
feet wide, and 80 feet deep, half filled 
with rubbish. Capt. Warren found an 
aqueduct leading from it, probably into 
the Kedron. Robinson, with more prob- 
ability, regards Bethesda as identical 
with the intermittent Pool of the Vir- 
gin, outside of the city, above the Pool 
of Siloara. 

BETH-E'ZEL (home of firm root). 
Mic. 1:11. Speaker's Commentary iden- 
tifies it with Azal, near Jerusalem. 

BETH-GA'DER (house of the 
ioall), possibly a place in Judah. 1 Chr. 
11 : 51; now Jedur. See Geder. 



BET 



BET 




Traditional Pool of Bethesda. (Birket- Isruil. After a Photograph by Bonfils.) 



BETH-GA'JIUL. {house of camel). 
a town of Moab, Jer. 48 : 23: perhaps 
Um-el-Jemal, near Bozrah, an unwalled 
town, having some of the most remark- 
able ruins in that country, houses, streets, 
walls, and gates deserted, but in perfect 
preservation. See Jer. 48 : 21-25. 
Grove, however, thinks Jemul too far 
north-east to be Gamut. 

BETH-GILGAL. Neb. 12 : 29. 
Same as Gilgal. near Bethel. 

BETH-HAC'CEREM {house of 
th<- vine), a place near Tekoa, Jer. 6:1; 
Neh. 3 : 14: probably the Frank Moun- 
tain. 4 miles south-east of Bethlehem. 

BETH-HARAN. See Beth- 

ARAM. 

BETH-HOG'LA, on HOG'- 
LAH ( pnrtridge-houne), a town of Ben- 
jamin, Josh. 15 : 6j 18 : 19, 21 ; now 
'A >'» Hajla, between Jericho and the 
Jordan. 

BETH-HO'RON {house of the 
ran-), the name of two places, the " Up- 
per" and "Nether" Betb-horon, Josh. 
16 : •">, 5, about 3 miles apart, on the 
opposite sides of a ravine or steep pass 
— the Thermopylae of Palestine — on the 
road from Jerusalem to the seacoast. 
The "Nether" or lower town was the 
most important: now Beit Ur et-Tahta. 
The Upper Beth-horon is now Beit Ur 

BETH-JES'IMOTH, and 



JESHIMOTH {house of wastes), a 
town of Moab. Num. 33 : 49 ; Josh. 12 : 
3 : 13 : 20 ; Eze. 25 : 9. Schwarz places 
it at Beth-Jisimuth, north-east of the Dead 
Sea; Merrill, at Ain Suweimeh ; Tris- 
tram, at er- Rama, 5 miles north-east from 
the mouth of the Jordan. 

BETH-LEB'AOTH {house of 
lionesses). See Beth-birei. 

BETHLEHEM {house of bread). 
1. A town in the " hill-country," about 6 
miles south of Jerusalem, situated on a 
narrow ridge running eastward, which 
breaks down in abrupt terraced slopes 
to the deep valleys below. The town is 
2527 feet above the sea. It is one of 
the oldest in Palestine. 

History. — It was Rachel's burial-place 
(still marked by a white mosque near the 
town), and called Ephrath. Gen. 35 : 19; 
the home of Naomi, Boaz, and Ruth, 
Ruth 1:19; birthplace of David, 1 Sam. 
17 : 12; burial-place of Joab's family, 2 
Sam. 2:32: taken by the Philistines, 
and had a noted well, 2 Sam. 23:14,15; 
fortified by Rehoboam, 2 Chr. 11:6; 
foretold as the birthplace of Christ, Mic. 
5 : 2 ; the birthplace of Jesus, Matt. 2:1; 
was visited by the shepherds, Luke 2: 
15-17, and by'the magi, Matt. 2. It is 
noticed over 40 times in the Bible. 

It has existed as a town for over 4000 
years. It was a small place until after 
the time of Christ; was improved and 
115 



BET 



BET 



its walls rebuilt by Justinian ; had a 
famous church in A. D. 600 ; was de- 
stroyed by the Arabs, rebuilt by the 
Franks, again twice destroyed, A. d. 
1244 and in 1489 ; rebuilt within the 
last two centuries; now has about 5000 
inhabitants, nearly all nominally Chris- 
tians, mostly of the Greek Church. The 
women of Bethlehem, as also those of 
Nazareth (the two homes of Christ), 
are exceptionally beautiful, and demon- 
strate the superiority of Christian women 
over Moslem women. It is now called 



Beit-Lahm; is surrounded by nicely- 
kept terraces covered with vine, olive, 
and fig trees. The church of the Na- 
tivity, the oldest in Christendom, built 
in a. d. 330 by the empress Helena, 
stands over the grotto reputed to be 
the place of our Lord's birth, and is 
the joint property of the Greeks, Latins, 
and Armenians, who have separate con- 
vents adjoining it. The "plain of the 
Shepherds" is about a mile from the 
town. The so-called David's well is 
pointed out near the city. A massive col- 




Bethlehem. (From Original Photograph by Bonfils.) 

el, containing two small recesses. In the 
northernmost of these is a marble slab, on 
which a silver star marks the supposed 
spot of the Nativity. Hepworth Dixon 
( The Holy Land, 1865, ch. xiv.) not only 
accepts this cave as the birthplace of 
Jesus, but also tries to prove that it be- 
longed to Boaz and was the home of 
David. The tradition that Jesus was 
born in this cave is very old, and is 
first mentioned by Justin Martyr 
(about a. r>. 140), who was a native 
of Palestine. The precise place of 



umn stands upon the reputed spot where 
monkish legends say 20,000 martyred 
innocents were buried. The claim of 
these places as the true localities where 
the biblical events occurred rests wholly 
upon traditions covered with the accu- 
mulated rubbish of superstition, which 
render the identifications of small value. 
The chapel beneath the church, how- 
ever, was the study of St. Jerome, where 
he spent thirty years on his great work, 
the Latin version of the Bible, called 
the Vulgate, and which is still the stand- 
ard version in the Roman Church. The 



our Saviour's birth, as that of his 



"holy crypt," the reputed birthplace crucifixion, has been left in obscur 



of our Lord, is a cave in the solid rock, 
twenty feet beneath the great choir of 
the church. At the entrance of a long 
winding passage cut out of the lime- 
stone rock is an irregular-shaped chap- 
116 



ty by a wise Providence. The greet- 
ing of Boaz to the reapers may still 
be heard in the fields of Bethlehem. 
The farmer now salutes his laborers 
with " The Lord be with you !" and 



BET 



BET 



they reply, as in the days of Ruth, " The 
Lord bless thee !" Ruth 2 : 4. 

2. A town in Zebulon, Josh. 19 : 15 ; 
now a poor village, Beit-Lahm, 6 miles 
west of Nazareth. 

BETH-MA'ACHAH. 2 Sam. 
20 : 14. 15. Same as Abel-beth-maa- 
chah, Abel-maim, and Abel; now Abel 
el-Kamh, a village north-west of Lake 
Merom. Grove supposes Maaehah 
was a petty Syrian kingdom north of 
Palestine. 

BETH-MAR'CABOTH {house 
of chariots), a town in the south of 
judah. Josh. 19 : 5: 1 Chr. 4 : 13. 
Rowland identifies it with el-Murtabeh, 
10 miles south-west of Beer-sheba. 

BETH- ME ON. See Baal- 

MEON. 

BETH-NIM'RAH (house of leop- 
ards), a fenced city east of the Jor- 
dan, Josh. 13 : 27 : Xuni. 32 : 3, 36 ; same 
as Nimrah, and the modern Nimrin, 
on the Jordan, above Jericho. Some 
would identify it also with Beth-abara. 

BETH-PA'LET {house of flight), 
a town in the south of Judah; same as 
Beth-phelet, Josh. 15 : 27 : Neh. 11 : 26 ; 
either modern el-Kuseifeh, near Mola- 
dah, or el -Horn. 

BETH-PAZ'ZEZ (house of dis- 
persion), in Issachar, Josh. 19: 21, west 
of the Sea of Galilee; possibly, but 
not probably, modern Beit-Jenu. 

BETH-PE'OR (temple of Peor), 
a place on Pisgah. Dent. 3 : 29 ; 4: 46 ; 
34 : fi : Josh. 13 : 20. See Pisgah. 

BETHPHAGE (hotise of green 
figs), a place near BeMianv. Matt. 21 : 
1 : Mark 11 : 1 : Luke 19 : 29, and possi- 
blv west of that place. 

BETH-PHELET. See Beth- 
pa 1. ft. 

BETH-RE'HOB (house of Re- 
hob), called Rehob. Num. 13 : 21 : 2 
Sam. 10 : 6, S; was near Laish, Jud. 18 : 
28; possibly Hunin, on the mountain 
west of the plain of Dan, and about 
1U00 feet above it. 

BETHSAIDA (house of fishing), 
a citv of Galilee, near Capernaum. 
John 12 : 21 ; Matt. 11 : 21. Many re- 
cent writers urge that there were two 
Bethsaidas. since the desert-place where 
the 5000 were fed belonged to " the city 
called Bethsaida." Luke 9:10. while 
after the miracle the disciples were 
to go before him unto the other side 



to Bethsaida, Mark 6 : 45, which it is 
said could not refer to the same 
I town. 

1. If there were two towns of this 
name, the first one, in Galilee, was on 
the west side of the lake. Robin- 
son, Grove, Porter, and others place 
it at Ain et-Tabighah, north of Khan 
Minyeh, others at Khan Minyeh. 

2. Bethsaida Julias, in Gaulanitis, on 
the eastern bank of the Jordan, near its 
entrance into the lake. 

But it seems quite unlikely that two 
cities in such close neighborhood should 
have borne the same name. Hence Dr. 
W. M. Thomson supposes that there was 
but one Bethsaida, which was built on 
both. sides of the Jordan, and places the 
site at A bu-Zany, where the Jordan emp- 
ties into the Lake of Galilee. The 
Sinaitic manuscript omits " belonging 
to a city called Bethsaida" in Luke 9 : 
10 ; hence, Wilson also holds that there 
; is no necessity for two Bethsaidas ; and 
this seems the more probable view. 
1 The eastern part was beautified by 
I Philip the tetrarch, and called Beth- 
i saida Julias (in honor of a daughter 
j of the emperor Augustus), to distin- 
i guish it from the western Bethsaida, in 
Galilee. — Schaff : Through Bible Lands, 
! p. 353. See Capernaum. 

BETH-SHEAN (house of quiet), 
BETHSAN, or BETH'SHAN, 
a city 5 miles west of the Jordan, first 
in Issachar, but later in Manasseh. 
Josh. 17 : 11 : 1 Chr. 7 : 29. Saul's body 
was fastened to its walls, 1 Sam. 31 : 
10, 12; after the Captivity it was call- 
ed Scythopolis, and was a chief city 
of Decapolis; now Beisan, having 
ruins of temples, colonnades, hippo- 
drome, theatre, and citv walls. 

BETH-SHEMESH (house of 
the sun). 1. A city on the north of 
Judah belonging to the priests, Josh. 
15:10: 21:16; perhaps Ir-shemesh 
and Mount Heres, Josh. 19:41: Jud. 
1:35; noted as the place to which the 
ark was returned. 1 Sam. 6:9-20; now 
a heap of ruins near 'Ain Shews, about 
14 miles west of Jerusalem. 

2. A fenced city of Naphtali. Josh. 
19 : 38. Conder proposes 'Ain esh Shem- 
siyeh. 

3. A city on the border of Issachar, 
Josh. 19 : 22 ; perhaps the same as 

: No. 2. 

117 



BET 



BIB 



4. A place in Egypt, Jer. 43 : 13 ; same 
as Heliopolis, or On. See On. 

BETH-SHITTAH (house of 

acacia), now perhaps the village of 
Shattah, east of Jezreel. Jud. 7 : 22. 

BETH-TAPTUAH (house of 
apples), a town of Judah near Hebron, 
Josh. 15 : 53 ; now Tuffuh, 5 miles west 
of Hebron, and noted for olive-groves 
and vineyards. Traces of the ancient 
terraces still remain. 

BETHU'EL (man of God), the 
son of Nahor, nephew of Abraham, 
and father of Laban and Rebekah. 
Gen. 22:22, 23; 24: 15, 24, 47 ; 28:2. 
His sun Laban plays the prominent 
part in the narrative. 

BE'THUEL, and BE'THUL. 
See Chesil and Bethel. 

BETHZUR (house of rock), in 
the mountains of Judah ; built by Re- 
hoboam : its ruler helped to repair Jeru- 
salem, 2 Chr. 11 : 7; Neh. 3 : 16; now 
Beit Sur, 4 miles north of Hebron. 

BET'ONIM, a town in Gad. Josh. 
13:26. 

BETROTH'. Deut. 28 : 30. A 
man and woman were betrothed or es- 
poused each to the other when they 
were engaged to be married. It is giv- 
ing one's troth — i. e. faith or promise — 
to marry at a future time. 

Among the Jews this relation was 
usually determined by the parents or 
brothers, without consulting the par- 
ties until they came to be betrothed. 
The engagement took place very early, 
though it was not consummated by ac- 
tual marriage until the spouse was at 
least twelve years of age. 

The betrothing was performed a 
twelvemonth or more before the mar- 
riage, either in writing or by a piece 
of silver given to the espoused before 
witnesses. During the interval, how- 
ever, from the time of espousals to the 
marriage, the woman was considered as 
the lawful wife of the man to whom she 
was betrothed ; nor could the engage- 
ment be ended by the man without a 
bill of divorce ; nor could she be un- 
faithful without being considered an 
adulteress. See Marriage. 

BEU'LAH (married), a word used 
by Isaiah, Isa. 62 : 4, to set forth the 
intimate relation of the Jewish Church 
to God. 

BE'ZAI (conqueror), father of some 
118 



who returned. Ezr. 2:17; Neh. 7: 
23: 10:18. 

BEZAI/EEL (in the shadow of 
God). A famous artificer who received 
wisdom and instruction directly from 
God to qualify him for the work of 
building the tabernacle and preparing 

| its various furniture. Ex. 31 : 2. 

2. One who had married a foreign 

1 wife. Ezr. 10 : 30. 

BE'ZEK (lightning). 1. In the 
mountains of Judah, Jud. 1 : 3-5; prob-, 

{ ably Bezek, near Jerusalem. 

2. Possibly a district. 1 Sam. 11 : 8, 
9. Schwartz places it at Bezik or Ab- 
sik ; Conder at Ibzik, north of Tir- 

j zah. 

BE'ZER (ore), an Asherite. 1 
Chr. 7 : 37. 

BE'ZER IN THE WILDER- 
NESS, a city of refuge east of the 

I Jordan, Deut. 4 : 43 ; Josh. 20 : 8 ; 21 : 

I 36; 1 Chr. 6:78; possibly Burazin, 12 
miles north-east of Heshbon. 

BE'ZETHA, and BE'ZETH, a 
hill in Jerusalem north of Acra and Mo- 
riah. See Jerusalem. 

BIB LE. " The Holy Bible " is the 
name given to the collection of books 
which contains the revelation of God in 
the creation, redemption, and sanctifica- 
tion of the world ; a history of the past 
dealing of God with his people ; a proph- 
ecy of coming events till the final con- 
summation : and a living exhibition of 
saving truth in doctrine, precept, and 
example for all men and all time. The 
name is from the Greek (to. /3i0Ai'a, " the 
books "), and means the Book of books, 
the best of all books (so used since the 
fifth century in distinction from heret- 
ical and all uninspired writings). The 
collection is likewise spoken of as the 
" Scriptures," " the word of God." The 
Bible embraces the work of about forty 
authors from all classes of society, from 
the shepherd to the king, living during 
an interval of sixteen hundred years, 
but all of the Hebrew extraction, with 
the single exception of Luke, whose 
Gospel, however, came from Jewish 
sources, and whose fame from his as- 
sociation with Paul. All forms of 
literary composition unite to give the 
Bible its unique interest, aside from 
its religious importance. These books, 
though differing in age, contents, and 
style, represent one and the same sys- 



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BIB 



teni of truth as revealed by God in 
its various aspects and adaptations to 
the existing wants and progressive un- 
derstanding of his people. The Bible 
is not a book simply; it is an insti- 
tution. It never grows old ; it renews 
its youth with every age of humanity, 
and increases in interest and importance 
as history advances. It is to the Chris- 
tian the only infallible source and rule 
of his faith and conduct; it is his daily 
bread of life, his faithful guide in holy 
living and dying, his best friend and 
companion — far more precious than all 
other books combined. It is now more 
extensively studied than ever, and its 
readers will continue to multiply from 
day to day to all parts of the earth and 
to the end of time. Let us add some 
testimonies to its importance. 

The eloquent F. W. Robertson says: 
"This collection of books has been to 
the world what no other book has ever 
been to a nation. States have been 
founded on its principles; kings rule by 
a compact based on it; men hold it in 
their hands when they give solemn evi- 
dence affecting death or property ; the 
sick man is almost afraid to die unless 
the Book be within reach of his hands ; 
the battle-ship goes into action with one 
on board whose office is to expound it; 
its prayers, its psalms, are the language 
we use when we speak to God ; eighteen 
centuries have found no holier, no di- 
viner language. The very translation 
of it has fixed language and settled the 
idioms of speech. It has made the most 
illiterate peasant more familiar with the 
history, customs, and geography of an- 
cient Palestine than with the localities 
of his own country. . . . The orator 
holds a thousand men for half an hour 
breathless, a thousand men as one listen- 
ing to his single word. But this word 
of God has held a thousand nations for 
thrice a thousand years spell-bound — 
held them by an abiding power, even 
the universality of its truth ; and we feel 
it to be no more a collection of books, 
but the Book." The translators of the 
A. V., in their Address unto the Reader 
(reprinted in the Cambridge Paragraph 
Bible), say of the Bible: "And what 
marvel ? — the original thereof being from 
heaven, not from earth ; the author be- 
ing God, not man : the inditer, the Holy 
Spirit, not the wit of the apostles or 



prophets ; the penmen, such as were 
sanctified from the womb and endued 
with a principal portion of God's Spirit; 
the matter, verity, piety, purity, upright- 
ness ; the form, God's word, God's tes- 
timony, God's oracles, the word of truth, 
the word of salvation, etc. ; the effects, 
light of understanding, stableness of 
persuasion, repentance from dead works, 
newness of life, holiness, peace, joy in the 
Holy Ghost; lastly, the end and reward 
of the study thereof, fellowship with the 
saints, participation of the heavenly na- 
ture, fruition of an inheritance immortal, 
undefiled. and that shall never fadeaway. 
Happy is the man that delighteth in the 
Scripture, and thrice happy that nredi- 
tateth in it day and night I" 

The Bible is ordinarily divided into 
two parts, called the Old and New Testa- 
ments. But it would be more accurate 
to say " the Old and New Covenants," in- 
asmuch as " testament" implies the idea 
of a will and the death of the testator. 

In the present article the general ques- 
tions in regard to the Bible will be dis- 
cussed. The matters relating to the 
formation of the collection will be 
found under Canon, and the particulars 
of the different books under their re- 
spective names. 

I. The Original Languages op the 
Bible. 
1. The 0. T. is written in Hebrew, a 
Shemitic tongue, differing in most re- 
spects very widely from the Japhetic or 
Aryan languages, to which family ours 
belongs. The difference is not simply 
in vocabulary, but in grammatical struc- 
ture, and also in the manner of writing, 
which is from right to left, giving rise 
to the common saying that Hebrew books 
begin at the last page. It is triliteral — 

\ i. e. its words are built up according to 
certain rules from roots formed of three 

I consonants. The verb has only two 
tenses, the perfect and the imperfect. 

j There is no proper declension of nouns, 
and only two genders, masculine and 
feminine. There are three numbers, 
singular, dual, and plural. There are 
no compounds, in our sense of the 
term; the article, conjunction, and 
preposition, expressed each by a single 

i consonant, are attached directly to the 
word. Pronouns undergo a similar 

I treatment, " whether they are the sub- 
119 



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ject or object of verbs or dependent 
upon other forms of speech. Thus the 
Hebrew ' and from his land' is written 
as one word, though it embraces a con- 
junction, preposition, noun, and pro- 
noun; but this is a mere aggregate, in 
which each element retains its separate 
force unchanged, not a compound, in 
which the several constituents combine 
in the expression of one idea." — Prof. W. 
H. Green. Hebrew is highly figurative — 
pre-eminently fitted for devotion, but 
by lack of precision singularly unfitted 
for philosophy. It was therefore just 
the requisite medium for an introduc- 
tory revelation. The 0. T. does not 
argue against or analyze or defend any 
religion in set phrase, but it fills the 
mind with the knowledge of the true 
God and inspires the heart in his ser- 
vice. 

2. The N. T. was written in Greek, 
which had, since the Macedonian con- 
quest of Alexander the Great, supplanted 
Hebrew in common use among the Jews 
who dwelt in the Roman provinces, and 
was the medium of communication be- 
tween all parts of the civilized world. 
The ancient Greek literature is a peren- 
nial source of inspiration and know- 
ledge. The language is at once vigorous 
and flexible, profound and clear, remark- 
ably well suited to express every variety 
of thought. It is equally adapted to the 
concise, the critical, and the common- 
place. In short, every order of mind 
can use it appropriately. It was in that 
day a better channel than the Hebrew 
for a divine revelation, and that of the 
highest kind. Hebrew no longer met 
the wants of culture. By nature it was 
hampered. It was the language of mon- 
otheism, but not of developed trinita- 
rianism. 

The N. T. Greek is the Macedonian, 
and more particularly the Hellenis- 
tic, dialect, more or less mixed with 
Hebraisms, arising from the fact that 
the writers were Jews. In some books 
this tinge is very strong, especially in 
Matthew, Mark, and Revelation. On 
the contrary, the Greek of James and 
Luke, particularly in the preface of 
Luke's Gospel and in the latter part of 
the Acts, is good and forcible. Paul has 
a style of his own ; broken and involved, 
interminable at times, as his sentences 
are, they are bold, pregnant, and lively. 
120 



But whether with classical finish or 
unadorned simplicity, in this language 
the apostles addressed their own coun- 
trymen and the Gentiles upon the mo- 
mentous truths and facts of the ever- 
lasting gospel. 

II. The Text op the Bible. 

The Bible, like the Saviour whom it 
presents, is divine-human in its cha- 
racter. The written word became flesh, 
as well as the personal Word. The eter- 
nal truth of God passed through the men- 
tal faculties of the prophets and apostles, 
and uttered itself in human speech. Its 
contents were first in the mind, and then 
written out, either directly by the in- 
spired man or at his dictation. The 
autographs have perished. We possess 
at best but copies of other copies. These, 
although made with reverent care, are 
not free from the imperfections of hu- 
man writings. Errors would be per- 
petuated and new ones constantly made. 
This was pre-eminently the case with 
the N. T. The number of textual vari- 
ations in the Greek N. T. or " different 
readings," as they are called, amounts 
to 150,000. And yet we may claim that 
a special Providence has watched over 
the purity and integrity of the text of 
Holy Scripture, since only about 400 of 
these are of any consequence, the rest 
being trifles of spelling, etc., and none 
of these 400 affect a doctrine or precept. 

1. The Hebrew Bible of to-day is a 
reprint of the so-called Masoretic text 
— i. e. the text punctuated and vocalized 
by a body of Jewish scholars who lived 
at Tiberias, and at Sora in the Euphrates 
valley, from the sixth to the twelfth 
century, and who committed to writing 
the mass of traditional notes of all 
kinds called the Masora — i. e. tradi- 
tion. Up to the beginning of that 
period the Hebrew text was written 
without " points," as the vowel-points 
are called. These were added, and thus 
the pronunciation was fixed. By means 
of other marks punctuation and the 
tone-syllables were indicated. The sep- 
aration of the text into verses by means 
of two dots arranged like a colon and 
the assortment of the books in a fixed 
order had been previously effected. It 
is stated that after the Masoretes had 
finished their labors all the manuscripts 
which had not this text were con- 



BIB 



BIB 



demned as " profane and illegitimate," 
which caused most of these rejected 
copies to perish. Thus the facts that 
there are very few old Hebrew manu- 
scripts — the oldest dating from the 
tenth century — and that the same text 
is found in each, are accounted for. But 
happily for the scholars of Hebrew, the 
Masoretes marked their corrections 
upon the margin instead of inserting 
them in the text, and therefore they 
are at liberty to reject or use them. 

The Hebrew character has changed 
from an irregular to a square form. The 
Rabbins, however, in their books em- 
ployed still another form, which is more 
cramped. The manuscripts whose use 
is obligatory in the synagogues to-day 
are written without punctuation-marks 
upon rolls, and are very carefully writ- 
ten and preserved. 

The whole Hebrew Bible was first 
printed in 14S8 ; a second edition ap- 
peared in 1494. This was the one used 
by Luther. All subsequent Hebrew 
Bibles have been little more than re- 
productions of these two editions. 

2. The Greek New Testament. — It is 
quite in keeping with the character of 
Christianity, which is free, active, bold, 
and progressive, that the little book 
upon which it rests for its initial his- 
tory, its theology, and, to a certain ex- 
tent, for its polity, should exhibit such 
diverse elements at work upon it, and 
likewise that the book itself should ex- 
ist in so many more or less variant 
texts. Superstition, which secured the 
Jew a verbatim copy, as far as possible, 
of his sacred Scriptures, did not oper- 
ate to anything like the same extent in 
the case of the Christians. They es- 
teemed it a great privilege to have the 
Gospels and Epistles, but as copies 
multiply in the Church we find the 
thoughts of the inspired writer are 
better preserved than his exact words. 
At all events, the " various readings" 
increased. A very fruitful source of 
variation was the habit of writing at 
dictation, for a word incorrectly heard 
would be of course incorrectly written. 
Then, too, the use of " ligatures," or 
combinations of letters, to save time, 
the arbitrary signs employed, and the 
marks of correction or doubt gradually 
worked into the text from the margin, 
each and all' contributed to destroy the 



correctness of the copy. Superfluous 
words, filling out one sentence by piec- 
i ing to it a part of another (e. y. Kom. 
8:1 compared with 8:4 shows conclu- 
sively that the latter clause of ver. 1 is 
repeated by inadvertence from ver. 4), 
marginal glosses which at last crept 
into the text, — these are some of the 
unintentional faults of all copies. But 
these variations evince the lively inter- 
est which all classes took in the book, 
and therefore are an indirect proof of 
its divinity. They multiply the means 
for ascertaining the original reading 
and supersede the necessity of conjec- 
ture, to which we must often resort in 
the case of the ancient classics. So 
far from being alarmed at this state 
of things, we see in it the hand of God, 
who does not want his Church to be 
bound to the letter, but to be free in the 
Spirit, and to exercise all its powers of 
research upon his holy word. 

In the case of the N. T. the number 
of manuscripts is very large, consider- 
ing the labor and expense of transcrib- 
ing. They are divided into two classes : 
The uncials, which are written through- 
out in capitals, and with no division of 
words or of sentences, and with very few 
and simple marks of punctuation. The 
writing is in columns of uniform width, 
from one to four on a page, the letters 
filling out the page irrespective of the 
completion of a word. The material 
was parchment in book-form. The 
uncials go down to the tenth century. 
The most important uncial manuscripts 
are the Sinaitic of the fourth cen- 
tury (discovered by Prof. Tischendorf 
in the convent of St. Catherine, on 
Mount Sinai, 1859, and published in 
fac-siinile, 1862), the Vatican of the 
same age (in the Vatican Library at 
Rome), and the somewhat later Alex- 
andrian (in the British Museum, Lon- 
don). The second kind of manuscripts, 
the cursives, are so called because written 
in rwtniug-hand. The uncial form was, 
however, retained for some time after 
this in church copies. From about the 
eleventh century paper made from cot- 
ton or linen superseded parchment. 
The style of penmanship and other 
peculiarities in writing enable " diplo- 
matists,'' as such experts are called, to 
tell the century to which any given man- 
uscript belongs. The later manuscripts 
121 



BIB 



BIB 



are of little or no critical account since 
the discovery of the older or uncial man- 
uscripts. 

The N. T. in Greek was first printed 
as part of the Complutensian Polyglot, 
which Cardinal Ximenes patronized, at 
Alcala, the modern name for the Spanish 
town Complutum, in 1514, but the Poly- 
glot was not published till 1522. The 
editors, probably in their ignorance, pre- 
tended to have relied for the text upon 
very ancient manuscripts received from 
Rome ; but as a matter of fact, the 
manuscripts were comparatively recent 
and very inaccurate. The first Greek 
Testament published was that of Eras- 
mus, which appeared in 1516. The so- 
called " Textus Receptus," or received 
text, is derived from the second edition 
of Elzevir, published at Leyden, 1633. 
It is in the main a copy of Beza's (1565- 
1589). The typographical beauty of 
the Elzevir edition and its handy shape, 
and not its critical merit, determined 
its acceptance. In England the text 
of Stephens (1550), which is substan- 
tially the same with the text of Elzevir, 
has often been reprinted and taken as 
the basis of critical editions from Mills 
down to Tregelles, although Bentley 
suggested a new basis from the oldest 
sources. The text of the N. T. has 
been brought into its present satisfac- 
tory condition after long-continued and 
patient study, and every Bible student 
should thank God for the scholars he 
has raised up to do this work. • All 
honor to the immortal names of Gries- 
bach (1754-1812), Lachmann (1793— 
1851), Tischendorf (1815-1874), Tre- 
gelles (1813-1875), Westcott, and Hort, 
for to them are we indebted for the 
oldest and purest text of the Greek 
Testament which can be attained at 
the present day, and which makes a 
revision of our English version at once 
desirable and safe. 

III. The Order of the Books and the 
Names op their Divisions. 
1. Tie Old Testament. — The Jew- 
ish arrangement differs widely from 
ours. The N. T. recognizes a division 
of the 0. into " the Law and the 
Prophets," Matt. 11:13; 22:40; Acts 
13 : 15, etc., which phrase was doubtless 
a popular way of speaking of the whole 
book. We also find a longer phrase, 
122 



"the Law, the Prophets, and the 
Psalms," Luke 24 : 44. The Jews 
divided their sacred Scriptures into 
(a) the Law — i. e. the five books of 
Moses, commonly known as the Pen- 
tateuch, the five-fold book; (b) the 
Prophets, divided into the earlier, in- 
cluding Joshua, Judges, First and Second 
Samuel, First and Second Kings, and 
later, which are subdivided into the 
greater — Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Eze- 
kiel — and the twelve so-called minor 
prophets; (c) The Holy Writings, or 
Hagiographa, as they are usually denom- 
inated, comprising the Psalms, Prov- 
erbs, Job, Canticles, Ruth, Lamentations, 
Ecclesiastes, Esther, Daniel, Ezra, 
Nehemiah, First and Second Chronicles. 
In this probably chronological order 
the books are arranged in the Hebrew 
Bibles. 

The Christian division into historical, 
poetical, and prophetical books is topi- 
cal and more appropriate. It is not 
necessary to enumerate the books, as 
a full list is appended to almost every 
copy of the Bible. 

2. The New Testament is divided into 
the Gospels, Acts of the Apostles, the 
Epistles, both Pauline and Catholic (the 
latter — those of James, Peter, John, and 
Jude — so called because not addressed 
to particular churches or individuals, 
but of universal import), and the Reve- 
lation ; or more briefly into the histori- 
cal, the doctrinal, and the prophetical 
books. The oldest manuscripts vary 
in their arrangement. Many put the 
Catholic Epistles immediately after the 
Acts, while the Sinaitic puts the Pauline 
Epistles before the Acts. 

IV. The Division op the Text into 
Chapters and Verses. 

The ancient mode of writing was con- 
tinuous; no stops of any kind were 
made, nor were words separated. See 
article Book. As soon as any break is 
made we get the germs of a system of 
division, for these breaks will indicate 
punctuation, and thus serve the second- 
ary purpose of facilitating reference 
and remembrance. We find that the 
division of the sacred text into sections 
was early made as a matter of neces- 
sity, but that chapters and verses were 
of much later origin. 

1. The Old Testament.— The Rabbinic 



Specimens of existing MSS. of the Scriptures. 

toth ceycesei^c 
MycTHf/oNoce 

4th Cent. Codex Sinaiticus.— 1 Tun iii. 16. 
to T7)<; evo-e/3eias | /xvcrrrjpioi' [0e late COrr.J OS e. 

Mor€M h c&c'ivf 

4th Cent. Codex Sinaiticus.— John i. 18. 
voyevr]<; 0[eo]<; [o uv Corr.J cis tov. 

s CTA.qjtcfc^idYASNloy 
T ^€NGinoN&<poaoYN 



t 



4th Cent. Codex Vaticanus. — Mark xvi. 8. 
<rrao~i; icai ovSevi ov | Sev einov e<}>ofiovv | to yap: 



^ v_J N a fx* 11 h n dxqroCKAioAo racM 
\ -n poCTO m eNUA i e c hno\o ro c « 

5th Cent. Codex Alexandrinus.— John i. 1. 
Ev apxi T\v o Ao-yo? *cat o Aoyos tjv \ npoq top Q\j.o\v *cai 6[eo] s tjv o Aoyo* 








10th Cent. Codex Basiliensis, known to Erasmus, but little used by him. 
-Luke i. 1-2 nearly, as in all Greek Testaments. 



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division is very elaborate. It origina- 
ted in the liturgical use in worship ; and 
so, the more the books were used, the 
more complete was the notation. The 
N. T. quotations from the 0. T. for the 
most part are cited with no more specific 
reference than to the book from which 
they come, but sometimes in other ways : 
thus, " the bush " quoted from in Mark 
12:26 and Luke 20: 37 was a familiar 
section of our present Exodus, and 
was only one of similar terms for other 
parts. In like manner, the existence 
of a cycle of lessons is indicated by 
Luke 4 : 17 : Acts 13 : 15 ; 15 : 21 : 2 Cor. 
3:14, and this, whether identical or not 
with the later Rabbinic cycle, must 
have involved an analogous arrange- 
ment to that subsequently adopted. 
Prof. Plumptre, in Smith's Dictionary 
of the Bible says : " The Law was 
divided first, much later the Prophets ; 
the former into fifty-four sections, to 
correspond with the number of Sab- 
baths in the Jewish intercalary year. 
But these sections were subdivided to 
fit them for reading by different persons 
in the synagogue service. The Prophets 
were not so uniformly nor so impera- 
tively divided. Yet in intention these 
sections corresponded to the sections of 
the Law, so that they together consti- 
tute a 'table of lessons' for Sabbath 
public use. Some time in the ninth 
century A. D. the sections were divided 
into verses." 

2. The New Testament. — The Gospels 
were divided first about the middle of 
the third century (a. d. 220), by Am- 
monius of Alexandria, into short chap- 
ters, " constructed to facilitate the com- 
parison of corresponding passages of 
the several Gospels." Later on the 
Acts, the Pauline and the Catholic 
Epistles, and finally, about a.d. 500, the 
Revelation, were thrown into chapters. 

Our present division of or/? the books 
in the Bible into chapters is much later, 
dating from Cardinal Hugo de St. Cher 
(died 1263), whose Concordance to the 
Vulgate popularized the use of verses 
likewise. This division was introduced 
into the Latin Bible, and afterward into 
the Greek 0. T. 

The present system of verses was pre- 
pared and introduced by Robert Ste- 
phens in his Greek Testament. 1551. 

While both' these divisions are on the 
124 



I whole well made, there are numerous 
' places where correction is loudly de- 
manded : chapters begin in wrong 
1 places, and verses end in the midst 
I of a sentence. These divisions are at 
best necessary evils. The reading of 
the Bible is interrupted by them, ow- 
ing to the practice of ending with a 
j chapter. Paragraph Bibles are to be 
commended, because in them the sec- 
tions are arranged according to the 
writer's thought, irrespective of the 
chapters, and the verses are merely 
indicated by numbers on the margin. 
No verses are marked in Tyndale, Cov- 
erdale, or the Great Bible. 

V. The Translations of the Bible. 
1. Ancient Translations. 
(or) Into Chaldee. — Since the Jews, 
during the Captivity, had lost command 
I over Hebrew, it became necessary to 
j translate the sacred books into their ver- 
nacular, the Chaldee. We find a refer- 
ence to this state of things in Neh. 8 : 8. 
These Chaldee translations and para- 
phrases are called Targums (the word 
means interpretation), but there is no 
! one which comprises the whole O. T. 

{b) Into Greek. — The best known is 
! called the Septuagint, and is commonly 
| represented in scholarly books by the 
j Roman numerals LXX. It was made 
! direct from the Hebrew by a company 
of learned Alexandrian Jews in that 
city under the patronage of Ptolemy 
Philadelphus, and begun B. c. 285. It 
' is not of equal fidelity throughout. 
I The name Septuagint — i. e. seventy, 
a round number for the more exact 
I seventy-two — arose from a tradition 
j that the work was executed in sev- 
| enty-two days by seventy -two Jew- 
' ish scholars. The version was made 
from Egyptian Hebrew manuscripts, 
I and probably at different times, 
which may account for the inequal- 
ity. As it now stands, it includes 
| the Apocrypha, but did not at the 
beginning. Those books were gradually 
added. The LXX. has exerted great 
influence, was claimed by the Jews to 
be inspired, was in universal use 
among them in Christ's day, is con- 
tinually quoted by the N. T. writers 
and by the Greek Fathers, was trans- 
lated instead of the Hebrew into 
Latin, and is the authority in the 



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Greek Church to-day. When the 
Christians in debate quoted it against 
their Jewish adversaries, the latter 
awoke to the fact that their own re- 
gard for it was excessive, and there- 
fore abandoned it and returned to the 
study and use of the original Hebrew. 
Though not literal, and perhaps inten- 
tionally so, it is very valuable in ex- 
plaining tin Hebrew text. Other Greek 
translations were made by Aquila, 
Theodotion, and Symmachus, but they 
exist only in fragments. 

(c) Into Syriac. — A translation into 
this language, made by Christians, di- I 
rectfrom the Hebrew, called the Peshito j 
(simple, because it was literal, and not 
paraphrastic), was in common use in the 
fourth century, but probably dates from 
the latter part of the second. It is the j 
earliest of these direct versions. 

(d) Into Latin. — The one called the ; 
Itala, made from the Septuagint, existed 
very early in the Latin Church. But the 
one which is now the " authorized ver- 
sion " in the Church of Rome was made 
by Jerome, the most learned Christian I 
of his day. directly from the Hebrew, | 
A. n. 3S5-405. It is called the Vulgate, j 
and was declared by the Council of Trent 
(156:5) to be of equal authority with the 
original Bible. All Roman Catholic ver- 
sions must be conformed to it. 

It was very natural that the first 
book printed was the Bible. Gutenberg, 
the inventor of the art of printing, turned 
his skill unto the service of God( 1450-55). 
Before discussing other versions, we quote 
a few lines upon pre-Reformation Bibles : 
"The earliest printed Bibles in the mod- 
ern European languages were the first 
and second German Bibles by Mentelin 
and Eggesteyn of Strasburg, of rather 
uncertain date, but certainly not later 
than 1466. In 1471 appeared at Venice 
two translations into Italian — the one by 
Malermi, printed by Vindelin de Spira, 
and the other by Nicolas Jenson. In 1477 
was printed the first N. T. in French, by 
Buyer, at Lyons, and the same year ap- 
peared the first edition of the 0. T. in 
Dutch, printed at Delft by Jacob Jacobs 
zoen and Mauritius Yemants zoen. In 
14S0 was published the splendid Bible 
in the Saxon or Low German language, 
from the press of Heinrich Quental, of 
Cologne, followed by a second edition in 
1491, and a third in 1494. The Psalms, 



in Dutch, first came out in 1480, in small 
octavo, and in Greek and Latin in 1481, 
while the first Hebrew Pentateuch ap- 
peared in L482. The entire Bible, done 
into French paraphrase, was published 
by Guyard de Moulins in 1487. A full 
translation appeared in the Bohemian 
language, printed at Prague in 1488. 
The same year appeared the entire 0. 
T. in Hebrew from the press of Abra- 
ham ben Chayim de' Tintori, at Son- 
cino. This chronological arrangement 
shows us also many noteworthy points, 
such as that nearly all the earliest Bi- 
bles were huge folios ; that the first 
Bibles printed at Rome and Venice ap- 
peared in 1471, and that the sixth Ger- 
man Bible, by G. Zainer, in 1475, at 
Augsburg, was the first with the leaves 
folioed or numbered; that the first quarto 
Bible appeared in 1475, priuted by John 
Peter de Ferratis at Placentia, which also 
was the first book printed at Placentia; 
that the first of Coburger's celebrated 
Bibles appeared in Nuremberg in 1475, 
and that by the end of the century no 
less than thirteen large folio Bibles had 
come from this house alone; that the four 
splendid Bibles printed in 1476 all bear 
the printers' signatures, though it is dif- 
ficult to say with certainty which was the 
first; that the first Bible with a. distinct 
title-page was printed at Venice, by 
George de Ravabenis, in 1487, in smail 
quarto, and that the first Bible in small 
octavo — or the poor man's Bible — was 
the earliest, or among the earliest books, 
from the press of Johann Froben, of Basle, 
in 1491. 

" Prior to the discovery of America 
no less than twelve grand patriarchal 
editions of the entire Bible, being of 
several different translations, appeared 
from time to time in the German lan- 
guage ; to which add the two editions 
by the Otmars of Augsburg of 1507 and 
1518, and we have the total number of 
no less than fourteen distinct large fo- 
lio pre-Reformation or ante-Lutheran 
Bibles. No other language except the 
Latin can boast of anything like this 
number." — Henry Stevens: Bibles in 
the Caxton Exhibition, pp. 27, 28. 

Thus, prior to the Reformation, there 
were translations of the entire Bible in- 
to the principal languages. Still, their 
unwieldy size and great cost kept them 
from popular use, although, more than 
125 



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is commonly supposed, they carried a 
knowledge of the Word unto the com- 
mon people, and thus prepared the way 
for better things. These several transla- 
tions were from the Vulgate; those now 
to be very briefly mentioned were made 
after the Reformation, and from the 
original tongues. 

2. Modem Translations. 

(a) Into German. — We have already 
seen that there were fourteen editions of 
the entire Bible printed and circulated 
in Germany before Luther (1483-1546) 
nailed his theses upon the church-door 
at AVittenberg, Oct. 31, 1517. But to 
the great Reformer is due the credit of 
translating the entire Bible, together 
with the Apocrypha, out of the original 
tongues. He conceived the idea, and 
carried it out by translating the N. T. 
while in friendly captivity in the Wart- 
burg during 1521. He published the 
work in the fall of 1522. Then he be- 
gan at the 0. T., and published the 
translation in sections as he advanced. 
The first edition of the entire Bible ap- 
peared in 1534. Ten editions of the 
original version were printed. In 1541 
he issued an edition in which the first 
had been faithfully revised by his col- 
leagues and himself. This translation 
is that used in Germany to-day. It has 
often been remarked that it fixed the 
German language and at the same time 
established Protestantism. 

(b) Into French. — A French version 
by Le Fevre was published at Antwerp 
in 1530. But there is no national 
French version ; that which comes near- 
est to it is Olivetan's, which, however, is 
sadly defective, though improved by 
Calvin, his cousin. This version ap- 
peared in 1535 in the village of Serri- 
eres, near Neufchatel, at the expense of 
the Walrlenses. Of existing versions, 
Segond's (1880) is by far the best. 

(c) Into Dutch. — The States-general's 
translation, ordered by the Synod of 
Dort (1619), is reputed the most accu- 
rate of all present modern versions. 

(d) Into Ent/h'.sh.—The story of the 
English Bible begins before the Ref- 
ormation. 

(1.) John dk Wvcliffe (about 1324- 

84), aided by Hereford, was the first to 

translate the entire Bible into English. 

The greater part of the translation of 

126 



the N. T. was made by him; this ap- 
peared in 1381. The 0. T. was princi- 
pally the work of Nicholas de Hereford, 
but Wycliffe finished it. Manuscript cop- 
ies were multiplied. Many poor priests 
went through the country preaching 
from this version. The first true text 
was not brought out in print before 1 850, 
in the edition of Forshall and Madden, 
in 4 vols. (The earliest printed editions 
of the N. T. by Baber and in Bagster's 
English Herapla are not the version of 
Wycliffe, but of one of his followers). 

Wycliffe simply translated from the 
Vulgate, and hence there was need of a 
new and independent version. Besides, 
the change in the language required it. 
The invention of printing rendered it 
possible to give the Bible in the vernac- 
ular to the masses, but the Roman 
Church has never been favorable to 
this, knowing full well that Bible study 
means independent research and protest 
against unscriptural traditions. It was 
not until the gathering storm of the 
Reformation burst upon the deformed 
and diseased Roman communion that 
the English people received a transla- 
tion from the original languages of the 
entire Bible. 

(2.) For doing this the credit belongs 
to William Tvnbale (born 1484), who 
was burnt at the stake, a martyr to the 
cause of religious liberty, Oct. 6, 1536; 
but not before he had by his work won 
an imperishable fame. Filled with the 
one wish, which he lived to realize — to 
give every one who could read English 
the opportunity of reading for himself 
God's holy word — he endured the con- 
tradiction of sinners against himself. 
Understanding, as he says, " that there 
was no place to translate the N. T. in 
all England," he went to Europe in 
1524, and carried on his work amid 
every sort of difficulty and danger. The 
N. T. appeared at Worms in the latter 
part of 1525. and arrived in England the 
early part of 1526, where it was exten- 
sively circulated. Tyndale revised it, 
and published in this enforced and 
stealthy way several editions under his 
personal supervision. He also issued at 
intervals various books of the O. T., and 
the manuscript translation of other parts 
was just before his death transmitted to 
Thomas Poynitz of Antwerp, who finally 
delivered them to John Rogers {alias 



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Thomas Matthew), who subsequently 
edited them. 

(3.) Miles Coverdale (1488-1569) is 
the next name upon the list. He differed 
greatly from his predecessor, Tyndale, 
lacking his independence and devotion 
and his knowledge of the original lan- 
guages, yet on the whole he deserves 
well of posterity. His translation of 
the entire Bible appeared Oct. 4, 1535, 
prefaced by a fulsome dedication to the 
king, Henry VIII. In order to render 
the volume more attractive, it was illus- 
trated with several wood-cuts. It was 
avowedly not made from the original 
tongues, but from three Latin and two 
German translations (viz. the Vulgate, 
Erasmus, Pagninus, Luther, and Leo 
Jud'a). The 0. T. was based chiefly on 
the Swiss-German (Ziirich) Bible, and 
the N. T. on Tyndale, although with 
many variations. It was printed in 
Antwerp at the expense of Jacob van 
Meteren,* but published in London. 
This translation had but little influence 
upon the so-called A. V. 

(4.) The "Thomas Matthew" Bible 
was a compilation, although not a me- 
chanical one, under this assumed name, 
made by John Rogers (1505-55), Tyn- 
dale's friend, who is famous as the first 
Marian martyr, burnt at Smithfield, Feb. 
4, 1555, from the above-mentioned trans- 
lations of Tyndale and Coverdale. It 
was published in London, 1537, but 
probably printed by Jacob van Meteren 
in Antwerp. f The publishers, Messrs. 
Grafton & Whitechurch, in some way 
interested Archbishop Cranmer in this 
edition, who through Crumwell pro- 
cured a royal license for it, and this 
Bible became the first authorized ver- 
sion. And so it came about that this 
edition of the Bible, which was two- 
thirds Tyndale's translation, "that had 
been again and again publicly stigma- 
tized and condemned by authority of 
this same king, Henry VIII., and even 
actually prohibited seven years before, 
was now 'set forth with the king's most 
gracious license,' this authorization being 
printed in red ink in each separate vol- 
ume." Appended to the chapters are 
notes; upon this part the editor laid 
out his strength. 

(5.) Richard Taverner (1505-1575) 

*Vide Hfsrt Steve>"3 : Bibles in Carton Exhibi- 
tion, pp. 38, seq. t Stevens, p. 75. 



I issued a revised edition of the Matthew 

j Bible in 1539, but it never was widely 

j used. Its sale may have been stopped 

by the publication of the so-called Great 

Bible. 

(6.) The "Great Bible," sometimes 
called Whitechurch's, after one of the 
printers' names, or oftener " Cranmer's 
Bible," from the mistaken idea that he 
was the editor of it s was published in 
London, 1539. Its name came from its 
size ; its pages are fully 15 inches in 
length and over 9 in breadth. Its text is 
Matthew's, revised by Coverdale, who 
in his singular humility thus revised 
his own work. To Crumwell's Protes- 
tant zeal and triumphant energy do we 
owe the volume. It was devoid of 
i notes. It was the first edition which 
printed in a different type the words not 
found in the original. It also derives 
interest from the fact that the Scripture 
sentences in the English Prayer-book 
in the Communion Service, in the Hom- 
ilies, and the entire Psalter are taken 
from it. In 1540 appeared the Cran- 
mer Bible, so called from the arch- 
bishop's prologue, but in fact only a 
new revised edition of the Great Bible 
of the previous year. 

(7.) The Geneva Version (1560), 
made by the refugees from the Marian 
persecution, principally by William 
Whittingham (1524-89), whose wife was 
j Calvin's sister. But the Genevan Bible 
' must not be confounded with the New 
Testament which appeared there in June, 
1557, the fruit of the editorial labors 
of Whittingham. The Genevan Bible 
! was begun the January following. The 
| N. T. had for the first time the division 
of verses (following the Greek of 
Stephens, 1551), with the numbers pre- 
fixed. It had also characteristic mar- 
ginal notes, and marks by italics the 
words supplied. The Genevan Bible, 
having been begun, was carried reso- 
lutely through. It is not known how 
many were engaged upon it, but a large 
share of the work fell upon Whitting- 
ham, who tarried in Geneva along with 
Gilby and Sampson a year and a half 
after Queen Elizabeth's accession in 
order to complete the work begun dur- 
ing the dark days of " Bloody Mary." 
The Bible finally appeared April, 1560, 
with a dedication to the queen. The 
translation is careful and scholarly 
127 • 



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work, based chiefly upon Tyndale and 
Craniner, with many proofs of the 
influence of Beza. It is really the 
first complete direct English trans- 
lation from the original Hebrew and 
Greek Scriptures. It at once became 
widely popular. " It was printed in 
Roman characters, with division into 
chapters and verses. It was not a 
heavy, unhandy folio like the editions 
of Coverdale, Rogers, or the Great 
Bible, but a moderate and manageable 
quarto. Its marginal notes were a 
kind of running comment, vigorous and 
lucid, dogmatic and practical. ... It 
became at once the people's book in 
England and Scotland, and it held its 
place not only during the time of the 
Bishops' Bible, but even against the 
present A. V. for at least thirty years. 
It was the first Bible ever printed in 
Scotland (1576-79), and it was the 
cherished volume in all Covenanting 
and Puritan households." — Eadie : The 
English Bible, vol. ii. p. 15. 

(8.) The Bishops' Bible. — In the early 
part of Queen Elizabeth's reign the 
Great Bible was allowed to be read in 
the churches as the authorized version, 
but the Genevan edition was a formi- 
dable rival, greatly excelling it in popu- 
larity and, besides, in accuracy. Thus 
it came about that a revision was de- 
manded, and this Archbishop Parker 
(1504-75) was anxious to make. He 
began it about 1563-64, having dis- 
tributed the work to 15 scholars, 8 
of whom were bishops, and therefore 
the Bible was called " The Bishops' 
Bible," and the book was published in 
1568. It contained no word of flattery, 
nor even a dedication, but was ornament- 
ed with 143 copper-plate engravings of 
maps, portraits, coats of arms, etc.; it also 
had notes, brief but valuable, generally on 
matters of interpretation, but occasion- 
ally dogmatic. It was a revision of 
the Great Bible, which in turn was 
based on " Matthew's " recension of 
Tyndale. An effort was made to secure 
for the Bishops' Bible the royal sanc- 
tion, but ineffectually. Convocation, 
however, passed a decree in 1571 "that 
every archbishop and bishop should 
have at his house a copy of the Holy 
Bible of the largest volume as lately 
printed in London, and that it should 
be placed in "the hall or large dining- 
128 



room, that it might be useful to their 
servants or to strangers." The order 
applied to each cathedral, and, " so far 
as could be conveniently done, to all 
the churches." The Bishops' Bible 
supplanted the Great Bible, but could 
not the Genevan, because that was 
wide-spread among the people. The 
most important fact in its history is 
that it was made the basis for the 
recension which resulted in our pres- 
ent A. V. 

(9.) Roman Catholic Translations. — 
The Roman Church has never been 
friendly to vernacular translations of 
the Scriptures. Hence we should not 
expect it would spontaneously make 
one ; but when the Genevan version 
became so popular in England, it 
seemed desirable that, since English 
Roman Catholics were sure to fall in 
with it, they should be given a correc- 
tive in the shape of a translation by 
some of the faithful. The N. T. ap- 
peared at Rheims, in France, in 1582, 
and the 0. T. at Douai (1609-10), al- 
though it had been prepared before the 
appearance of the N. T., but delayed for 
lack of means. The first complete edi- 
tion of the entire Bible according to this 
recension was published at Rouen (1633- 
35). Its translators were good scholars, 
but were obliged to take the Latin Vul- 
gate as the basis, and to adhere very 
closely to it. They accompanied the 
translation with polemical notes. On 
the whole, the work is inferior to our 
version, and disfigured by unintelligi- 
ble Latinisms. No effort was made to 
give this translation any circulation. 
It was issued in an expensive form, 
and none of the Church dignitaries 
concerned themselves with it. Cardi- 
nal Wiseman {Essays, vol. i. pp. 73-75) 
says : " To call the Roman Catholic ver- 
sion now in use the version of Rheims 
and Douai is an abuse of terms. It has 
been altered and modified till scarcely 
any verse remains as it was originally 
published; and so far as simplicity 
and energy of style are concerned, the 
changes are in general for the worse." 
The revision was chiefly made by Dr. 
Challoner (1750) and by Dr. Troy (1791). 
The Catholic version has retained from 
the Vulgate some of the oldest and best 
readings and a large number of Latin- 
isms, some good (as advent, victim, alle- 



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BIB 



gory, prevarication, altercation, fallacy), 
others which have never gone into pub- 
lic use (as azymen, corbaua, jjarasceve, 
consubstantial, coinquination, scenope- 
f/ia). It has contributed some improve- 
ments to King James's revisers. See ex- 
amples in Moulton's History of tin Eng- 
lish Bible, p. 187 (London, 1878). " Noth- 
ing is easier," says Dr. Moulton, " than 
to accumulate instances of the eccentri- 
city of this revision, of its obscure and in- 
flated renderings ; but only minute study 
can do justice to its faithfulness and to 
the care with which the translators exe- 
cuted their work." 

(10.) The King James's Version 
(1611). — The final outcome of this series 
of original translations and revisions of 
translations of the Scriptures was the so- 
called A. V., which for 250 years has been 
the channel whereby God's truth has 
flowed into Anglo-Saxon minds. But 
it has been even an instructor in other 
things than those of religion, for from 
it the language has drawn its stability. 
Its style is regarded with admiration 
by natives and foreigners alike. It is 
the first of English classics. Even se- 
ceders to Rome admit this, as the sweet 
and fervent hymnist, Dr. F. William 
Faber, whose remarkable judgment (of- 
ten falsely attributed to Dr. John Henry 
Newman) is well worth quoting in full: 
11 Who will say that the uncommon beau- 
ty and marvellous English of the Protest- 
ant Bible is not one of the great strong- 
holds of heresy in this country ? It lives 
on the ear like a music that can never be 
forgotten, like the sound of church-bells, 
which the convert hardly knows how he 
can forego. Its felicities often seem to 
be almost things rather than mere words. 
It is part of the national mind and the 
anchor of national seriousness. Nay, it 
is worshipped with a positive idolatry, 
in extenuation of whose grotesque fa- 
naticism its intrinsic beauty pleads 
availingly with the man of letters 
and the scholar. The memory of the 
dead passes into it. The potent tradi- 
tions of childhood are stereotyped in 
its verses. The power of all the griefs 
and trials of a man is hidden beneath 
its words. It is the representative of 
his best moments: and all that there 
has been about him of soft, and gentle, 
and pure, and penitent, and good speaks 
to him for ever out of his English Bi- 
9 



I ble. It is his sacred thing, which 
I doubt has never dimmed, and contro- 
j versy never soiled. It has been to 
him all along as the silent — but oh 
how intelligible ! — voice of his guar- 
dian angel, and in the length and 
breadth of the land there is not a 
Protestant, with one spark of religious- 
i ness about him, whose spiritual biogra- 
phy is not in his Saxon Bible. And all 
1 this is an unhallowed power !" 

The A. V. is a monument to the 
memory of King James I. of England, 
i but he had no more to do with it 
[ than to appoint the commission, and 
did not contribute a penny for its exe- 
cution. It was abruptly proposed in 
the Hampton Court Conference (Jan., 
! 1604) by a learned Puritan divine, 
I the Rev. Dr. Reynolds (1549-1607), 
president of Corpus Christi College, 
; Oxford, who suggested to His Majesty 
I " that there might be a new transla- 
tion of the Bible, because those which 
I were allowed in the reign of King 
: Henry VIII. and Edward VI. were 
j corrupt and not answerable to the 
| truth of the original." Bishop Ban- 
I croft opposed the motion as imperti- 
' nent, but the vain king, who thought 
I himself as wise as Solomon, unexpect- 
edly and at once agreed to it, and dis- 
i played his biblical erudition by criti- 
i cising the previous translations, espe- 
i cially that of Geneva, which he hated on 
' account of its marginal notes. He in- 
vited a number of distinguished schol- 
ars to do the work (June 30, 1604), but 
without any expense to himself. Pro- 
fessing his own poverty, he held out 
before the revisers the hope of Church 
preferment, giving orders to the bish- 
ops to that effect, and for their immedi- 
ate expenses he called upon the bishops 
and chapters to contribute toward the 
requisite amount. 

Revision had no attractions for the 
clergy nor for the people. The Bish- 
ops' and Geneva Bibles already in their 
hands seemed to answer every purpose. 
Accordingly, as far as can be deter- 
mined, no one responded to the king's 
call for money ; yet since the whole 
amount was only about £700, the pro- 
portion from each diocese was really 
small. " King James's version never 
cost King James a farthing." At the 
chancellor's suggestion, the revisers met 
129 



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at the universities, where they received 
board and lodging free of cost ; and 
" at the final revision the 6 or 12 re- 
visers received each, according to one 
statement, 30 shillings a week from the 
Company of Stationers." The work 
of revision thus arranged in the sum- 
mer of 1604 was not really begun in 
earnest till the spring of 1607, and then 
occupied about 2 years and 9 months. 
Dr. Reynolds, who had proposed the 
work, and who was well qualified to 
carry it on, died in that year, just as 
his wish was to be gratified. The origi- 
nal number of revisers appointed by 
the king at the suggestion of some one 
unknown, but probably Richard Ban- 
croft (1544-1610), then the bishop of 
London, soon afterward the archbishop 
of Canterbury, was 54, but owing to 
death, declinature, and other causes 
there were only 47 actually engaged. 
These 47 formed themselves into 6 com- 
panies, two meeting at Westminster, 
Cambridge, and Oxford respectively. 

The following are the rules which 
were composed to govern them in their 
labors : 

"(1.) The ordinary Bible read in the 
Church, commonly called 'The Bishops' 
Bible,' to be followed, and as little altered 
as the truth of the original will permit. 

"(2.) The names of the prophets and the 
holy writers, with the other names of the 
text, to be retained as nigh as may be, ac- 
cordingly as they were vulgarly used. 

"(3.) The old ecclesiastical words to be 
kept ; viz. : the word church not to be trans- 
lated congregation, etc. 

" (4.) When a word hath divers significa- 
tions, that to be kept which hath been most 
commonly used by the most ancient fathers, 
being agreeable to the propriety of the 
place and the analogy of the faith. 

" (5.) The division of the chapters to be 
altered either not at all or as little as may 
je, if necessity so require. 

" (6.) No marginal notes at all to be affix- 
ed, but only for the explanation of the He- 
brew or Greek words which cannot, with- 
out some circumlocution, so briefly and 
fitly be preserved-in the text. 

"(7.) Such quotations of places to be or- 
iginally set down as shall serve for the fit 
reference of one Scripture to another. 

"(8.) Every particular man of each com- 
pany to take the same chapter or chapters; 
and having translated or amended them 
severally by himself where he thinketh 
good, all to meet together, confer what they 
have done, and agree for their parts what 
shall stand. 

"(9.) As any one company hath des- 
patched any one book in this manner, they 
130 



shall send to the rest to be considered of 
seriously and judiciously; for His Majesty 
is very careful in this point. 

"(10.) If any company, upon the review 
of the book so sent, doubt or differ upon 
any place, to send them word thereof, note 
the place, and withal send the reasons ; to 
which if they consent not, the difference 
to be compounded at the general meeting, 
which is to be of the chief persons of 
each company at the end of the work. 

"(11.) When any place of special obscur- 
ity is doubted of, letters to be directed by 
authority to send to any learned man in 
the land for his judgment of such a place. 

"(12.) Letters to be sent from every 
bishop to the rest of his clergy, admonish- 
ing them of this translation in hand, and 
to move and charge as many as being skil- 
ful in the tongues, and having taken pains 
in that kind, to send his particular obser- 
vations to the company either at West- 
minster, Cambridge, or Oxford. 

"(13.) The directors in each company to 
be the deans of Westminster and Chester 
for that place, and the king's professors 
of Hebrew and Greek in either univer- 
sity. 

"(14) These translations to be used 
when they agree better with the text than 
the Bishops' Bible: Tindale's, Matthew's 
[Rogers'], Coverdale's, Whitchurch's [Cran- 
mer's], Geneva. 

"(15.) Besides the said directors before 
mentioned, three or four of the most an- 
cient and grave divines in either of the 
universities, not employed in translating, 
to be assigned by the vice-chancellor, upon 
conference with the rest of the heads, to 
be overseers of the translations, as well 
Hebrew as Greek, for the better observa- 
tion of the fourth rule above specified." 

How closely these rules were followed 
it is impossible to say. The secrets of 
their sessions have been inviolably kept; 
for although the translators were en- 
gaged for 3 years, of the incidents of 
their labor little can be gathered from 
contemporaneous history, and little was 
probably known beyond the circle of 
the translators. A passing remark of 
Selden furnishes nearly all that can 
now be known of what may be termed 
the private history of our English Bible : 
" The translation in King James's time 
took an excellent way. That part of the 
Bible was given to him who was most 
excellent in such a tongue, and then 
they met together, and one read the 
translation, the rest holding in their 
hands some Bible, either of the learned 
tongues, or French, Spanish, Italian, 
etc. If they found any fault, they 
spoke ; if not, he read on." — Table Talk. 
When the revision was completed, 



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three copies of the whole Bible were 
sent [to London] — one from Cambridge, 
a second from Oxford, and a third from 
Westminster — where they were commit- 
ted to six persons, two from each com- 
pany, who reviewed the whole. This 
final revision lasted 9 months. The 
work was at last given up to the printer, 
Robert Barker ; the proofs were read 
by Dr. Thomas Bilson, bishop of Win- 
chester, and Dr. Myles Smith (appoint- 
ed bishop of Gloucester in 1612). 

The first edition of the A. V., includ- 
ing the Apocrypha, appeared, bearing 
date 1611, in handsome folio, in black 
letter, with a beautiful frontispiece en- 
graved by C. Boel of Richmont. Be- 
sides the translation, there were given 
a Calendar, a Table of Lessons, and 
elaborate Tables of Genealogies. The 
dedication was fulsome in its praise 
of James. The preface, entitled " The 
Translators to the Reader," written by 
Dr. Myles Smith, is pedantic, according 
to our notions, but written in excellent 
English,. and important as a clear state- 
ment of the principles upon which the 
revision was made. The title-page con- 
tained the words " Appointed to be read 
in the churches " — i. e. of England. 
But there is no evidence that this ap- 
pointment was ever made by convoca- 
tion or Parliament, privy council or the 
king. The version "gained currency 
partly by the weight of the king's name, 
partly by the personal authority of the 
prelates and scholars who had been en- 
gaged upon it, but still more by its own 
intrinsic superiority over its rivals." — 
Westcott. The printing of the so-called 
A. V. at once stopped the printing of 
the Bishops' Bible, though it did not 
that of the Genevan Bible, which con- 
tinued to be used, especially in New 
England, until about the middle of the 
seventeenth century, when King James's 
version was on all hands accepted as the 
English Bible. 

'' When all critical helps and sources 
of influence have been taken into ac- 
count, the student whose analysis [of the 
A. V.] has been most complete will find 
most to admire in the work that the 
translation or revision of 1607-11 has 
given us. The praise he will award to 
the revisers will not be indiscriminate 
eulogy. He will discover that very 
much that they have transmitted to us 



was inherited by them from others ; the 
execution of different parts of the work 
will prove to be unequal, the Epistles, 
for example, standing far below the 
Pentateuch in accuracy and felicity of 
rendering ; many flaws and inconsisten- 
cies will reveal themselves ; occasionally 
it will be found that better renderings 
have been deliberately laid aside, and 
worse preferred ; but, notwithstanding, 
almost every paragraph will bear testi- 
mony to the tact, care, diligence, and 
faithfulness of the men to whom, in 
God's providence, we owe the version of 
the Scriptures which has come down to 
us consecrated by the associations of 250 
years." — Moulton : History of the Eng- 
lish Bible, pp. 207-8. 

The modern edition of the English 
Bible is a great improvement upon that 
of 1611. In that year there were two 
issues, both incorrectly printed, and 
both containing errors which were not 
typographical. Much care has been 
taken since that date to make the ver- 
j sion, in grammatical and typographical 
correctness, as nearly perfect as possible. 
Three editions of the A. V. deserve par- 
ticular mention: (1.) Bishop Lloyd's 
(London, 1701), containing, for the first 
time, marginal dates, derived princi- 
pally from Archbishop Ussher ; (2.) the 
Cambridge Bible of 1762, edited by Dr. 
Paris; (3.) the Oxford edition of 1769, 
edited by Dr. Blayney. " These editors 
sought to apply with greater consistency 
the principle' of denoting additions to 
the original text by italic type, substi- 
tuted ordinary forms of words for such as 
had, in their opinion, become obsolete, 
and made very large additions to the 
number of marginal references, which 
in our present Bible are said to be seven 
times as numerous as in the edition of 

1611 [But] as late as 1830, Bibles 

were often printed with serious want of 
accuracy. The last forty years have 
witnessed a considerable improvement, 
and recent editions have left little to be 
desired. The Cambridge Paragraph 
Bible, edited by Dr. Scrivener, is the 
j classic edition of the A. V., and is a 
! monument of minute accuracy and un- 
sparing labor." — Moultox : History of 
the English Bible, pp. 209-11. 

In the Jubilee Memorial of the Amer- 
ican Bible Society, prepared by Rev. 
Isaac Ferris, D. D., LL.D. (New" York, 
131 



BIB 



BIB 



1867), it is stated (p. 25) that the Amer- 
ican Bible Society's Version Committee 
in 1847 undertook a "most careful re- 
vision of our English text in order to 
secure its conformity to the British, so 
as to make what should be a standard 
edition." Their final report was made 
in 1851. But inasmuch as their changes 
were many and important, there was a 
constitutional objection to the Society's 
adopting this revision, and then, more- 
over, there was a deep prejudice or re- 
luctance to any alteration ; and there- 
fore the revision was rejected in 1852. 
A new committee was appointed, and the 
Bible, as it came from their hands, with 
some fruits of the labors of the previous 
committee, is now (since 1860) the stand- 
ard of the American Bible Society. 

VI. The Anglo-American Revision op 
the Authorized Version. 
The reasons for desiring a revision 
may be thus stated : (1.) During the 268 
years since our version was finished the 
English language has undergone some 
changes ; some words have become ob- 
solete, and others have changed their 
signification. In this way sentences 
which conveyed a clear and correct 
meaning to our ancestors mislead or 
mystify us. It will be sufficient to in- 
stance such examples as : to ear for to 
plough; to prevent for to go before, to pre- 
cede ; to let for to hinder; carriage for 
baggage. (2.) Immense strides have 
been made in all biblical studies. The 
geography and archaeology of the Holy 
Land, the Hebrew and Greek languages, 
both in grammar and dictionary, are far 
better known now than they could be in 
King James's time. The A. V. is very 
careless and inconsistent in the use of the 
article, the tenses and modes of verbs. 
(3.) The text of the Bible is now in a very 
satisfactory state — much nearer the ipsis- 
sima verba of the inspired writers than 
that known in 1611. " The number of 
the various readings," says Prof. Ezra 
Abbot, " which have been collected from 
more than 500 manuscripts, more than 
a dozen ancient versions, and from the 
quotations in the writings of more than 
a hundred Christian fathers, only attests 
the exuberance of our critical resources, 
which enable us now to settle the true 
text of the N. T. with a confidence and 
precision which are wholly unattainable 
132 



in the case of any Greek or Latin clas- 
sical author : [but] in the time of our 
translators of 1611 only a small fraction 
of our present critical helps was avail- 
able." We are able to appreciate this 
remark when we remember that the best 
texts rely on manuscripts of the fourth 
and fifth centuries, while of our Greek 
and Latin classics many (e. g. iEschylus 
and Sophocles) are transcriptions from 
only one ancient manuscript, and that 
not earlier than the tenth century. 

The Anglo-American Bible revision 
movement originated in the Convoca- 
tion of Canterbury, May 6, 1870, by 
the appointment of a committee of 
eminent biblical scholars and dignita- 
ries of the Church of England to under- 
take the revision in association with 
scholars from other denominations. 
The English committee was divided into 
two companies, one for each Testa- 
ment, who held monthly meetings in 
the Jerusalem Chamber and the Chap- 
ter Library at the deanery of West- 
minster, London. The American com- 
mittee was organized in 1871, on invi- 
tation of the British committee, to 
co-operate with it. It was similarly 
composed of representative scholars of 
different denominations, and met for 
several days of each month in the Bible 
House, New York. The two commit- 
tees embraced about 80 active members 
(exclusive of about 20 more who died 
or resigned after the work began), and 
were in constant correspondence. They 
submitted to each other portions of 
their work as it advanced, and issued one 
and the same revision. The variations of 
the American committee were embodied 
in an appendix. Some American editions 
embody these variations in the text. 

The object set before them was to bring 
King James's version up to the present 
state of the English language without 
changing the idiom and vocabulary, 
and to the present standard of biblical 
j scholarship. It was not the intention to 
i furnish a new version, but merely a con- 
i servative revision of the received version, 
' so deservedly esteemed in all churches. 
And so slight a- e most of the changes 
that the mass of readers and hearers will 
scarcely mark them, while a careful com- 
parison will reveal improvements in 
every chapter and almost every verse. 
The object was to remove acknowledged 



BIB 



BIB 



errors, obscurities, and inconsistencies, I 
to make a good and faithful version bet- 
ter and more faithful, and thus to bring 
the old Bible nearer the understanding 
and make it dearer to the heart of Eng- 
lish-speaking Christendom. 

The general principles followed by 
both committees are as follows : 

" (1.) To introduce as few alterations as 
possible in the text of the A. V. consistent- 
ly with faithfulness. 

To limit, as far as possible, the ex- 
pression of such alterations to the language 
of the Authorized and earlier English ver- 
sions. 

"(3.) Each company to go twice over the 
portion to be revised — once provisionally, 
the second time finally, and on principles 
of voting as hereinafter is provided. 

" (4.) That the text to be adopted be that 
for which t lie evidence is decidedly pre- 
ponderating; and that when the text so 
adopted differs from that from which the 
A. V. was made, the alteration be indicated 
in the margin. 

" (5.) To make or retain no change in 
the text on the second final revision by 
each company except two-thirds of those 
present approve of the same, but on the 
first revision to decide by simple majori- 
ties. 

"(6.) In every ease of proposed altera- 
tion that may have given rise to discus- 
sion, to deter the voting thereupon till the 
next meeting whensoever the same shall 
be required by one-third of those present 
at the meeting, such intended vote to be 
announced in the notice for the next 
meeting. 

" (7.) To revise the headings of chapters, 
pages, paragraphs, italics, and punctuation. 

"(8.) To refer, on the part of each com- 
pany, when considered desirable, to di- 
vines, scholars, and literary men, whether 
at home or abroad, for their opinions." 

The revised New Testament appeared 
in England May 17, and in America 
May 20, 1881. Several million copies 
were sold in a few months. In the 
United States there were, almost at once, 
upwards of twenty reprints. The New 
Testament for the first time in history 
supplanted the newspaper in popular 
interest. It was sold upon news-stands, 
hawked through the streets, and read on 
all public conveyances. It was the liter- 
ary event of the century. The revised 
Old Testament was completed in 1884, 
and published by the University presses 
in May, 1885. It will now be for 
the churches to decide, through their 
ecclesiastical authorities, whether the 
Anglo-American revision shall supersede 



King James's Version. If the verdict 
be favorable, the British and Foreign 
and the American Bible Societies can 
amend their constitutions so as to allow 
them to publish the revised version. 

VII. Other Versions, and the Dis- 
tribution of the Bible. 
The Bible is now printed in 226 dif- 
ferent languages or dialects. More than 
four-fifths of these versions are the 
product of missionary scholarship and 
zeal. In many cases the very language 
needed to be reduced to a written form 
and permeated with Christian thought 
before a translation could be made. 
The chief agencies in giving the Scrip- 
tures this world-wide distribution are: 

(1.) The British (uul Foreign Bible 
Society, founded March 7, 1801. Its 
predecessors, the most prominent of 
which were the " Society for Promoting 
Christian Knowledge," 1698, and the 
" Society for Propagating the Gospel 
in Foreign Parts," 1 701, had cultivated 
a much narrower field. The honor of 
suggesting a society to send Bibles all 
through the world has been assigned to 
Rev. Joseph Hughes, a Baptist and 
one of the secretaries of the London 
Religious Tract Society. Lord Teign- 
mouth was the first president. Up to 
1878 this society had issued 82,407,062 
copies of the Scriptures. 

(2.) The American Bible Society, 
founded May 8, 1816. The need of a 
national society had been felt for some 
time, but the obstacles in the way pre- 
vented its formation. Hon. Elias Bou- 
dinot, LL.D., was the first president. 
The society had, up to Jan. 1, 1879, is- 
sued .'55,621,262 copies of the Scriptures. 
Twice as many copies of the Bible 
have been circulated in the present cen- 
tury in heathen lands as were issued 
between the first printed Bible (1450- 
] 15.") — no date) and the era of Bible so- 
cieties, in 1804. One hundred and forty- 
nine million copies of Bibles, Testaments, 
and portions have been distributed by 
! the various Bible societies in this and 
j other countries since 1804. And thou- 
sands of copies have been privately 
printed. " The demand for the printed 
Bible has always been great. It is sup- 
posed that within three years after the 
publication of the Great Bible in 1539, 
no less than 21,000 copies were printed. 
133 



BIC 



BIB 



Between 1524 and 1611, 278 editions of 
Bibles and Testaments in English were 
printed. In 1611, 1612, 1613, five edi- 
tions of King James's Version were pub- 
lished, besides separate editions of the 
New Testament." — Manual of the Amer- 
ican Bible Society, 1876, p. 34. 

The enormous demand for the Bible 
still continues, and it is a most healthy 
sign. The entrance of God's Word 
giveth light. It is a veritable miracle 
how rapidly its use dissipates moral 
and spiritual darkness. As Chancellor 
Kent once said : " The general distri- 
bution of the Bible is the most effectual 
way to civilize and humanize mankind ; 
to purify and exalt the general system 
of public morals ; to give efficacy to the 
just precepts of international and mu- 
nicipal law ; to enforce the observance 
of prudence, temperance, justice, and 
fortitude, and to improve all the rela- 
tions of social and domestic life." 

BICH'RI {youthful), a progenitor 
of Sheba. 2 Sam. 20 : 1. 

BID'KAR (son of stabbing, i.e. stab- 
ber), a " captain " of Jehu who had rid- 
den in the chariot with Ahab as an up- 
per officer. 2 Kgs. 9 : 25. 

BIER. Luke 7 : 14. The bed or 
frame on which the dead body is con- 
veyed to the grave. Probably it was 
made (as coffins are in modern times) 
more or less expensive in shape and or- 
nament according to the circumstances 
and rank of the deceased. 2 Chr. 16 : 
14. See Burial. 

BIGTHA (gift of God), one of the 
" chamberlains " or eunuchs in the ha- 
rem of King Ahasuerus. Esth. 1:10. 

BIG'THAN, or BIG'THAM 
(gift of God), a chamberlain or eunuch 
who, with Teresh, a fellow-eunuch, 
sought to lay hand on King Ahasuerus. 
Esth. 2:21; 6:2. 

BIG'VAI (happy?). 1. "Children 
of Bigvai" returned with Zerubbabel, 
Ezr. 2:14; Neh. 7:19, and others with 
Ezra. Ezr. 8 : 14. 

2. One of this name was prominent 
under Zerubbabel, and afterward sign- 
ed the covenant. Ezr. 2:2; Neh. 7 : 
7: 10:16. 

BIL'DAD (.son of strife), one of 
Job's three friends who visited him in 
his affliction, and whose arguments in 
justification of God's dealings occupy 
shaps. 8, 18, and 25 of the book of Job. 
134 



Job 2:11. See Job. The name Shu- 
hite is probably derived from the coun- 
try in which he lived, or from Shuah, 
son of Abraham and Keturah, whose 
descendant he may have been. 

BII/EAM (foreigners), a place in 
Manasseh, 1 Chr. 6:70; same as Ibleam 
and Gath-rimmon. Josh. 17 : 17 ; 21: 
25. Porter would locate it near Megiddo, 
on the plain of Esdraelon ; Drake, be- 
hind Jenin, on the same plain, and at 
the ruin Belameh. 

BIL'GAH (cheerfulness). 1. The 
head, in the time of David, of the fif- 
teenth course of the priests. 1 Chr. 
24 : 14. 

2. A priest who returned under Zerub- 
babel. Neh. 12 : 5, 18. 

BII/GAI (cheerfulness), probably 
the same with Bilgah, 2. A priest who 
sealed the covenant. Neh. 10 : 8. 

BII/HAH (timid, modest), the 
handmaid of Rachel, and, by Jacob, 
the mother of Dan and Naphtali. Gen. 
29:29; 35:25. 

BII/HAH. See Balah. 

BII/HAN (modest). 1. A Horite 
chief. Gen. 36 : 27 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 42. 

2. A Benjamite chief. 1 Chr. 7:10. 

BII/SHAN (son of the tongue, i. e. 
eloquent), a companion of Zerubbabel 
on the Return. Ezr. 2:2; Neh. 7 : 7. 

BIM'HAL (son of circumcision, i. e. 
circumcised), an Asherite. 1 Chr. 7 : 
33. 

BIN'EA ( fountain), a descendant 
of Saul. IChr. 8:37; 9:43. 

BINNU'I (a building). 1. A Levite. 
Ezr. 8:23. 

2. 3. Two who had foreign wives. 
Ezr. 10 : 30, 38. 

4. A Levite, a builder of the wall. 
Neh. 3 : 24. 

5. The father of some who returned 
with Zerubbabel, Neh. 7 : 15 ; called 
Bani in Ezr. 2:10. 

BIRDS are mentioned as articles of 
food in Deut. 14 : 11, and lists of birds 
not to be eaten are given. Lev. 11 : 13- 
19; Deut. 14 : 12-19. In general, the 
ravenous kinds feeding on flesh are for- 
bidden. From Job 6:6: Luke 11 : 12 
we learn that the eggs of birds were also 
eaten. In the cleansing of the leper 
birds were used in a peculiar way. Lev. 
14 : 4-7. 

There was a humane law in the Jew- 
I ish code which forbade the taking a 



BIR 



BIS 



mother-bird, though her young might 
be taken. The common mode of tak- 
ing birds was with a snare. Ps. 124 : 7 ; 
Prov. 7 : 23 ; Am. 3 : 5. A speckled bird, 
Jer. 12 : 9, probably means a vulture 
(in Hebrew), which, as is well known, 
other birds are accustomed to pursue and 
attack. Some authors find etymological 
reasons for reading " hyena" instead of 
" speckled birds " in Jer. 12 : 9. Many 
of the birds of Palestine are similar to 
our own, but, strictly speaking, there is 
but one species common to both coun- 
tries. The house-sparrow (Passer do- 
mesticus), which we have received from 
England, is found in the towns along 
the coast. Of 322 kinds obtained by 
Mr. Tristram in the Holy Land, 172 are 
also found in England, 260 in Europe, 
and 26 are peculiar to Palestine. 

BIR'SHA (son of godlessness), a 
king of Gomorrah. Gen. 14 : 2. 

BIRTH. See Children. 

BIRTHDAYS. The custom of 
making a feast in anniversary of a birth 
is very ancient. We find reference to 
it in Gen. 40 : 20. In regard to the cus- 
tom in Egypt, Wilkinson tells us : " The 
birthdays of the kings were celebra- 
ted with great pomp. They were look- 
ed upon as holy, no business was done 
upon them, and all classes indulged in 
the festivities suitable to the occasion. 
Every Egyptian attached much import- 
ance to the day, even to the hour, of 
his birth." But the Jews, probably on 
this very account, ''regarded their ob- 
servance as an idolatrous custom." 
" The day of our king," spoken of in 
Hos. 7:5, was probably his birthday. 
It was upon Herod's birthday that John 
Baptist was beheaded. Matt. 14 : 6-10. 
The fact that the Herodian family 
observed birthdays would be an addi- 
tional grievance on the part of the 

BIRTHRIGHT. Gen. 25 : 31. 
The first-born son among the Jews 
enjoyed special privileges above his 
brethren, and these privileges were hence 
•ailed his birthright, or his right by 
birth. Among these privileges were, 
•onsecration to the Lord, Ex. 22 : 29 
■•lu consequence of this fact — that God 
bad taken the Levites from among the 
children of Israel, instead of all the 
first-born, to serve him as priests — 
the first-born of the other tribes were 



to be redeemed at a valuation made 
! by the priest, not exceeding five she- 
1 kels, from serving God in that capa- 
| city. Num. 18 : 15, 16; comp. Luke 2 : 
i 22 ff." — Home's Introduction); great 
dignity, Gen. 49 : 3 ; a double por- 
tion of his father's estate, Deut. 21: 17; 
[ and (in the royal families) succession to 
the kingdom. 2 Chr. 21 : 3. Though this 
was not invariably the case. Solomon 
| was a younger son ; so was Jehoahaz, 
| 2 Kgs. 23:31, 36; and so was Abijah. 
2 Chr. 11 : 18-22. The eldest son seems 
to have been regarded, in the father's 
absence, as in some respects his rep- 
resentative. 

The paternal blessing was also in a 
I peculiar sense the right of the first-born, 
though the right itself and all the bless- 
ings of it might be forfeited or trans- 
ferred, as in the case of Jacob and 
Esau, Gen. 25 : 33, Reuben and Jo- 
seph. 1 Chr. 5:1. But whoever enjoy- 
ed it was regarded as invested with 
great dignity and superiority. The 
Jews attached a sacred import to the 
! title " first born." 

Hence the peculiar force and appro- 
priateness of the titles " first born," 
" first begotten," given to the divine 
Redeemer. Rom. 8 : 29 ; Col. 1 : 18 ; 
Heb. 1 : 2, 4, 6. 

BIRZAVITH (olive-source), an 
Asherite. 1 Chr. 7 : 31. 

BISH'LAM (son of pence), a Per- 
sian officer in Palestine at the time of 
the Return who wrote a letter against 
j Jerusalem to Artaxerxes. Ezr. 4 : 7. 

BISHOP. 1 Tim. 3 : 2. The 
: original Greek word means " overseer," 
as Joseph was in Potiphar's house, Gen. 
39 : 4, or as the three thousand six hun- 
i dred men were in Solomon's temple, 2 
; Chr. 2:18, or as Uzzi was of the Le- 
vites. Neh. 11 : 22. In the N. T. the 
I term is synonymous with presbyter or 
: elder, with this difference — that bishop is 
! borrowed from the Greek and signifies 
; the function, presbyter is derived from 
| an office in the synagogue and signifies 
the dignity of the same office. Comp. 
j Acts 20:17, 28; Phil. 1:1: 1 Tim. 3 : 
| Iff".; Tit. 1 : off. These presbyters or 
bishops of the apostolic period were 
the regular teachers and pastors, preach- 
ers and leaders, of the congregations. We 
may imagine, however, that among them- 
selves there would be a division made 
135 



BIS 



BLE 



according to individual fitness. See 
Elder. 

BISH'OPRIC. Acts 1: 20 ; 1 Tim. 
3 : 1. The jurisdiction, charge, or office 
of a bishop. 

BITHI / AH (daughter, i. e. wor- 
shipper, of Jehovah), a daughter of 
Pharaoh and wife of Mered. 1 Chr. 
4:18. 

BITH'RON {ravine), a defile or 
tract of country east of the Jordan, 
toward Mahanaim. 2 Sam. 2 : 29. 

BITHYN'IA, a rich Roman prov- 
ince of Asia Minor, on the Black Sea ; 
named only twice in Scripture. Acts 
16:7; 1 Pet. 1:1. 

BITS. See Harness. 

BIT'TER HERBS. Ex. 12:8. 
The Jews were commanded to eat the 
Passover with a salad of bitter herbs ; 
and the Rabbins tell us that such plants 
as wild lettuce, endives, and chicory 
were employed for that purpose, as they 
still are by the Arabs in those regions. 
The use of them on that occasion was 
intended to call to their remembrance 
the severe and cruel bondage from which 
God delivered them when they were 
brought out of Egypt. 

BIT'TERN. Isa. 34:11. Doubt- 
less a correct translation. The bitterns 
belong to the heron tribe, and the Ori- 
ental species differ but slightly from the 
American. A solitary bird, its strange 
booming note is often heard during 
the stillness of the night in fens and 
marshes. The language of prophecy, 
Isa. 14 : 23 and 34 : 11 ; Zeph. 2 : 14, 
imports the utmost solitude and deso- 
lation. 

BITU'MEN. See Slime. 

BIZJOTH'JAH {contempt of Je- 
hovah), in the south of Judah, Josh. 15 : 
28 ; perhaps same as Baalah and mod- 
ern Deir-el-Beldh. 

BIZ'THA {eunuch), one of the 
seven "chamberlains" or eunuchs of 
Ahasuerus. Esth. 1:10. 

BLAINS. Ex. 9 : 9. Burning pus- 
tules or ulcers, which broke out upon 
the Egyptians and all their beasts, and 
constituted the sixth plague. " It seems 
to have been the black leprosy, a fear- 
ful kind of elephantiasis." — Smith. 
Perhaps reference is made to this plague 
in Deut. 28 : 27. 

BLASPHEMY. Col. 3 : 8. The 
word, in its original use, denotes all 
136 



manner of detraction or calumny, such 
as is expressed by the terms rail, revile, 
speak evil, etc. ; but in the restricted 
sense of the Scriptures and of common 
use, it denotes reproachful, irreverent, 
or insulting language concerning God 
or any of his names or attributes. Lev. 
24: 10-16. Whoever thinks of the cha- 
racter of God as infinitely holy, just, and 
good will not be surprised that this of- 
fence was regarded as very heinous, and 
was punished by stoning. There is no 
reason to suppose that the sin of pro- 
fane swearing, so common at this day, 
is less odious and offensive to God than 
it was in the time of Moses. 

Blasphemy against the Holy Ghost, 
Matt. 12 : 32, such as the Pharisees were 
guilty of, or were in danger of commit- 
ting, when they ascribed the miracle of 
curing the blind and dumb man (who 
was also possessed with a demon) to the 
agency of Beelzebub or Satan, is de- 
clared to be unpardonable. 

It is far worse than " grieving the 
Spirit." Some persons are apprehen- 
sive that they have committed this sin 
and give themselves up to despair, but 
such fears prove that they are still open 
to recovery and pardon. The sin against 
the Holy Ghost implies a state of final 
and hopeless impenitence, and is com- 
mitted by those who have again and 
again wilfully resisted the influences 
and warnings of the Holy Ghost, and 
have made themselves incapable of 
repentance, and consequently of par- 
don. 

BLAS'TUS {sprout), the chamber- 
lain of Herod Agrippa I. Acts 12 : 20. 

BLEM'ISH. For a list of cere- 
monial blemishes see Lev. 21 : 18-20 ; 
22 : 20-24. 

BLESS, BLESSED, BLESS'- 
ING. Gen. 12:2: 22:17, 18. These 
words are of frequent occurrence in the 
sacred writings, and their particular 
force may generally be determined by 
the connection. Men are said to bless 
God when they ascribe to him the praise 
and glory which are due to him. Ps. 134. 
God blesses men in bestowing upon them 
continually mercies, spiritual and tempo- 
ral. Job 42: 12; Ps. 45: 2. And men 
are said to bless their fellow-creatures 
when, as in ancient times, in the spirit 
of prophecy they predicted blessings to 
come upon them. This was the kind 



BLE 



BOA 



of blessing which the patriarchs pro- 
nounced. Gen. 49. So Moses blessed 
Israel. Deut. 33. The form of bless- 
ing prescribed by the Jewish ritual, 
Num. 6 : 23-27, is admirably simple and 
sublime. It was pronounced standing. 
with a loud voice, and with the hands 
raised toward heaven. Luke 24 : 50. 
National blessings and cursings were 
sometimes pronounced. Deut. 27 and 
28 ; Isa. 19 : 25. 

The Cup of Blessing, 1 Cor. 10:16, 
and Cup of Salvation, Ps. 116 : 13, are 
"expressions derived from a custom prev- 
alent among the Jews at their feasts. 
The master of the feast took a cup of 
wine in his hand, and solemnly blessed 
God for it and for all the mercies which 
were then acknowledged. It was then 
passed to all the guests, each of whom 
drank of it in his turn. The aptness 
and force of the figures employed in the 
above passages are thus made obvious. 

BLESSING, VALLEY OF. 
See Berachah, Valley of. 

BLIND'NESS is extremely com- 
mon in the East, as all travellers in 
those lands observe. In Egypt espe- 
cially ophthalmia prevails extensively 
among children and adults. The in- 
fliction of blindness was in old times 
a common as well as barbarous punish- 
ment or penalty of resistance to a vic- 
torious enemy. Jud. 16 : 21 ; 1 Sam. 
11 : 2 ; 2 Kgs/25 : 7. There are several 
recorded occasions, when, as translated 
in A. V., God miraculously sent blind- 
ness. Gen. 19 : 11 ; 2 Kgs. 6 : 18 ; Acts 
9:8; 13: 11. In these incidents there was 
not so much an actual, though tran- 
sient, loss of vision as a confusion of 
sight — perhaps really a mental confu- 
sion, which gave all the uncertainty 
of actual blindness, as in Luke 24:16. 
The word " blindness " is likewise em- 
ployed in a spiritual sen<e as meaning 
the sinner's inability to recognize di- 
vine truth : e. g. Horn] 11 : 25 ; Eph. 4:18. 

BLOOD is the fluid of life in the 
animal body. Ex. 29 : 12. Its use was 
expressly prohibited to Noah when 
everything else was freely given him. 
(ion. 9:4. By the Jewish law also it 
was expressly and solemnly forbidden. 
Lev. 17 : 10, etc. The reason of this in- 
terdiction is probably because blood was 
sacredly appropriated. Lev. 17: 11. The 
Jewish ritual abounds with the use of 



blood, Heb. 9 : 22 ; and the manner of 
employing it is stated with minuteness 
in Heb. 9 and 10, where also its use 
and effects are shown in striking con- 
trast with the blood shed upon the cross. 
See also Acts 20 : 28 ; Rom. 5:9; Eph. 
1:7; Col. 1:14; Heb. 7 : 27 ; 1 John 1 : 7. 

The prohibition of eating blood or 
animals that are strangled has been al- 
ways rigidly observed by the Jews. In 
the Christian Church the custom of re- 
fraining from things strangled and from 
blood continued for a long time. In the 
council of the apostles held at Jerusalem, 
Acts 15, it was declared that converts from 
paganism should not be subject to the le- 
gal ceremonies, but that they should re- 
frain from idolatry, from fornication, 
from eating blood, and from such ani- 
mals as were strangled and their blood 
thereby retained in their bodies: which 
precept was observed for many ages by 
the Church. Acts 15 : 20-29. 

The notion that the blood of the vic- 
tims was peculiarly sacred to the gods 
is impressed on all ancient pagan myth- 
ology. See Christ. 

Blood, Avenger of. See Avenge, 
Cities of Refuge. 

BLUE. See Colors. 

BOANERGES [sow of thunder), 
the name Christ gave to James and 
John, probably because of their fiery 
zeal; for proof of which, see Luke 9 : 
54 ; Mark 9:38; comp. Matt. 20 : 20. 

BOAR. Ps.80:13. This is the origi- 
nal stock of the common hog, and when 
hard pressed is a very furious and for- 
midable animal. The wild boar is found 
throughout Europe and the neighboring 




Wild Boar. {After Tristram.) 
parts of Africa and Asia. Travellers tell 
us that it is found in great numbers on 
the banks of the Jordan, among the reeds 
137 



BOA 



BOO 



of the Sea of Tiberias, and generally 
among the thickets of the Holy Land. 
In some districts wild boars are so de- 
structive to the vineyards and crops that 
it is necessary at times to keep nightly 
watch against them. — Hartley : Re- 
searches in Greece, p. 234. 

BO'AZ, OR BO'OZ {lovely), was 
a descendant of Judah, Ruth 2 : 1, and 
through him is traced the regular suc- 
cession of Jewish kings. Matt. 1 : 5. 
Boaz was a man of wealth and of great 
respectability. He married Ruth and 
begat Obed, the father of Jesse, the 
father of David. See Ruth. 

BO'AZ (lively), one of the brazen 
pillars erected by Solomon before the 
portico of the temple. Its companion 
was Jachin. They were named for 
their givers or makers, or else had a 
symbolical meaning. 1 Kgs. 7 : 21 ; 2 
Chr. 3 : 17; Jer. 52 : 21. 

BOCH'ERU (youth), the son of 
Azel. 1 Chr. 8 : 38;' 9 : 44. 

BO'CHIM (weepers), so named 
from the weeping of Israel. Jud. 2 : 
1-5. It was west of the Jordan, above 
Gilgal. 

BO 'HAN (thumb), a Reubenite. 
Josh. 15 : 6 : 18 : 17. 

BOHAN (thumb), STONE OF, 
in the valley of Achor, between Judah 
and Benjamin. Josh. 15 : 6 ; 18 : 17. The 
"stone of the finger," in Wady Daber, 
may be on its site. 

BOIL. See Medicine. 

BOILED. Ex. 9 : 31. The ex- 
pression flax teas boiled means that it 
was podded or nearly in a state to be 
gathered, and of course the loss of it was 
much more severe than it would have 
been at an earlier stage of its growth. 

BOLSTER. See Bed. 

BOND, BONDAGE, BOND'- 
MAN, BONDWOMAN, BOND'- 
MAID. See Servant. 

BONNETS. See Clothes, Mitre. 

BOOK. What we call books were 
unknown to the ancient Jews, at least 
in their present convenient form. Let- 
ters were engraved on stone, brick, met- 
al (as lead and copper), or wood, and 
written on cloth and skins, and at a 

INTHEBEGI WORDWASG 

NNINGWAST ODTHKSAMR 

HEWORDAN WASIXTHER 

DTHEWORD EGINNINGW 

WASWITHG ITHGODALI, 

ODANDTHE THINGSWER 

138 



later period on parchment. Ex. 17:14; 
2 Tim. 4 : 13. Tablets of lead and brass 
or copper of great antiquity have been 
discovered in modern times. 

The earliest mode of preserving in- 
scriptions was by engraving on a rock. 
Comp. Job 19 : 24. The Sinaitic penin- 
sula, especially the Wady Mukatteb (the 
"Sculptured Valley"), and the neigh- 
borhood of Mount Serbal and Mount 
Sinai, are full of rock-inscriptions (call- 
ed the Sinaitic Inscriptions). 

The writing-table mentioned Luke 1 : 
63 was probably a tablet covered with 
wax or otherwise prepared to be written 
upon. Deut. 27 : 2, 3. Such tablets 
were used in England as late as the year 
1300. 

Leaves and the bark of trees were also 
used, and were often prepared with much 
skill. The people of Ceylon write with 
a bodkin on broad and thick leaves cut 
into narrow slips ; and these leaves, be- 
ing fastened together, make books which 
they call ollas. The missionaries often 
prepared tracts in this form before paper 
and printing were introduced upon the 
island. In Sumatra and among the 
Indians of North America bark is still 
used for making letters and pictures. 

Leather and linen or cotton cloth were 
also used. These were prepared in the 
form of long rolls, 12 or 14 inches wide, 
and fastened at each end to sticks (like 
the rollers to which maps are attached), 
and which were rolled together till they 
met midway. Sometimes these leaves 
were connected in the form of modern 
books, and opened in the same way. In 
this case the sheets were fastened to rods, 
and these rods passed through rings, and 
thus formed the back of the book. 

The writing was generally in capital 
letters and without punctuation or di- 
vision of words ; and when used, the 
reader unrolled the manuscript as far as 
the place which he wished to find, and 
kept before him just so much as he would 
read. 

The pages resembled the following in 
their general appearance, though they 
were of course wider and longer than 
these, and were read from right to left : 



EMADEBVHI 

MANDWITHO 

UTHIMWASX 

OTANYTHIN 

GMADKTHA 

TWASMADE 



INHIMWASLI 
FEAXDTHELI 
FEWASTHELI 
GHTOFMENA 
NDTHELIGHT 
SHINETHIND 

John 1:1-5. 



BOO 



BOO 



These columns could be divided from 
one another and used separately, as we 
may cut the columns of a newspaper 
which is printed on one side only, and 
arrange the extracts as we like. Some- 
times the reading was what is called 
furrow-wise. The first line was from 
right to left, and the second from left 
to right, and so on alternately, like 
ploughing a field. The roll or book 
of curses which Ezekiel saw was 30 
feet long and 20 wide. The writing 
was usually on one side, but not al- 
ways. Eze. 2 : 10. 

When the roll was done with, it was 
carefully deposited in a case. The cut 
on the next page shows the book of the 
Law rolled upon two cylinders, with the 
seal at one side. 

There were other forms of the scroll, 
and also collections of sheets in the shape 
of a modern book, secured with rings and 
rods. 

A very good idea may be formed of 
an ancient roll by supposing a common 
newspaper to have rods or rollers at the 
right and left sides. The reader takes 
hold of the rods and unrolls the sheet 
until he comes to the desired column. 
Thus, in Luke 4:17 the phrase " opened 
the book " would properly read " unrolled 
the scroll," and in v. 20 for " closed the 
book " read " rolled up the volume " or 
"scroll." This shows the force of the 
figure, Isa. 34 : 4, where the heavens are 
represented as rolled together as sud- 
denly as the opposite ends of an un- 
rolled scroll fly to meet each other when 
the hand of the reader is withdrawn 
from it. 

A kind of paper was made from the 
stalk of an Egyptian vegetable called 
papyrus, or paper-reed, which is still 
found in various parts of India. See 
Bulrush. The stalk was. slit with a 
needle into plates or layers as broad and 
thin as possible. Some of them were 10 
or 15 inches broad. These strips were 
laid side by side upon a flat horizontal 
surface, and then immersed in the water 
of the Nile, which not only served as a 
kind of sizing, but also caused the edges 
of the strips to adhere together as if 
glued. The sheets thus formed were 
dried in the sun and then covered with 
a fine wash, which made them smooth 
and flexible. They were finally beaten 
with hammers and polished. Twenty 



or more of these sheets were sometimes 
connected in one roll. 

The pen or style*" was made of some 
hard substance, perhaps not unlike the 
instruments used by glaziers to cut 
glass. Jer. 17 : 1. Upon tablets of wax 
an instrument was used, one end of 
which was pointed, to mark the letters, 
and the other broad and flat, to make 
erasures. Pens or styles of copper are 
now used by the Ceylonese. On a soft 
substance like linen or papyrus, the 
marks were painted with a fine hair- 
pencil, as is practised among the Chi- 
nese to this day. 

Most of the Eastern nations now use 
the reed-pen, which is split with an in- 
strument used as we use the penknife. 
Jer. 36 : 23. The pith is removed, and 
the bark or rind, being split like a quill, 
retains and properly sheds the ink. It 
is not hard or stiff enough to be used 
long without mending. See Pen. 

Ink was prepared from a variety of 
substances (see Ink), and those who 
were skilful in writing wore an ink- 
horn fastened to the girdle, Eze. 9 : 
2, which is the present mode among 
the Persians and the Moors of Bar- 
bary. See Inkhorn. 

As tables were unknown, the paper or 
other substance written upon was laid 
upon the knees or held firmly with the 
left hand. 

A sealed book was a roll fastened 
together by a band or string, and a seal 
affixed to the knot, Isa. 29 : 11, as seen 
in the cut. 

Book of the Generation, Gen. 5:1; 
Matt. 1 : 1, signifies the genealogical his- 
tory or records of a family or nation. 

Book op the Living, Ps. 69 : 28, and 
the kindred phrase, Book of Life, Rev. 
21 : 27, are supposed to allude to the 
genealogical lists or registers kept by 
the Jews, from which the names of the 
dead were erased. Isa. 4 : 3. The apt- 
ness and force of the figurative use 
of the terms are sufficiently obvious. 

Books of Judgment. Dan. 7:10. The 
allusion here is probably either to the 
practice of opening books of account 
to settle with servants or laborers, or 
to the custom of the Persian kings to 
have a book in which a daily record is 
made of special services performed by 

* Hence the word style, sienirying one's man- 
ner ot writing— easy style, elegant style, etc. 
139 



BOO 



BOT 



any of their subjects, and of the re- 
wards which were given to the indi- 
viduals. Esth. 6 : 1-3. 

Book of the Wars of the Lord, Num. 
21 : 14, Book of Jasher, or the Right- 




Book of the Law closed. 
eous, Josh. 10 : 13 and 2 Sam. 1 : 18, 
and Book of the Chronicles (or an- 
nals) of the kings of Judah and Is- 
rael, 1 Kgs. 14 : 19, 29, are the names 
of ancient writings known to the Jews, 
but not preserved in the sacred canon. 

BOOTH. See Feast of Taber- 
nacles. 

BOOTY. Moses laid down the 
law upon this subject in Num. 31 : 26- 
30. In regard to the army, David 
made the additional rule that those 
who " tarried by the stuff" — the bag- 
140 



gage-guard — should share equally with 
those who fought. 1 Sam. 30 : 24. No 
booty could be taken from the Canaan- 
ites, as they were all, with all they had, 
devoted to destruction. But in wars 
outside of Palestine the practice was 
allowable. Metallic articles were kept 
for holy use. Josh. 6 : 17-19 ; cf. Deut. 
20:12-18. 

BOOZ, for BOAZ. Matt.l:5; 
Luke 3 : 32. 

BORDER. See Clothes. 

BORROW. See Loan. 

BOSCATH. 2 Kgs. 22 : 1. See 
Bozkath. 

BOSOM. The dress of the Jews 
was such as allowed them to carry with- 
in a fold in the bosom of the robe what 
could not be carried in the hand. Isa. 
40 : 11 ; Luke 6 : 38. It was also used 
to denote a place of rest and security. 
Hence the term Abraham's bosom is fig- 
uratively spoken of as the abode of Laz- 
arus, and means the same as paradise. 
Luke 16 : 23 ; coinp. 23 : 43. To lean 
on the bosom implied great intimacy. 
John 13 : 23. The position of John, 
leaning on the bosom of the Saviour, 
was easy and natural, since the com- 
pany were reclining at table upon 
couches, and the back of his head came 
near the bosom of Jesus, who was on his 
left. The use of this term, John 1 : 18, 
imports the perfect unity of the Father 
and Son. 

BO'SOR, in 2 Pet. 2 : 15, Greek 
form of Beor. 

BOS'SES, the prominent or pro- 
jecting parts of the buckler, and of 
coui'se the thickest and strongest. Job 
15:26. 

BOTCH, probably the black lep- 
rosy, or elephantiasis. Deut. 28 : 27, 35. 
See Leprosy. 

BOT'TLE. Gen. 21 : 14. Ancient 
bottles were made of the skins of ani- 
mals, which were properly dressed for 
the purpose. The openings of the skin 
were closed except at the neck, through 
which the liquor was to be received and 
discharged, and which was fastened by 
a string, like a bag. They were, of 
course, of different sizes and shapes, as 
the skins of kids, goats, or oxen might 
be used. Bruce describes particularly a 
bottle which he saw in Arabia, made in 
this manner, of an ox-skin, which would 
hold 60 gallons. 



BOW 



BOZ 



Christian missionaries in Eastern 
countries frequently speak of the goat- 
skins and leathern bottles in which 
they carry water in their journeys. 




Skin-Bottles. (Ayre.) 

"Where the travelling is rough and the 
vessels likely to strike against each i 
other, they are made of the strongest 
material that can be found. The skins 
or bottles used for new wine were of 
the freshest and most flexible kind, 
in order that they might the better 
endure the process of fermentation. 
Matt. 9:17. 

The effect of smoke on a skin-bottle 
would be to blacken and shrivel it. 
Ps. 119 : 83. Water or wine put into 
such a bottle would all run out. Nearly 




Arab W.iter-Cnrrier. 

all the drinking-water now used in Egypt 
is brought from the river Nile in skin- 
bottles, by Arab water-carriers, as shown 
in the picture. 

BOW. See Armor. 

BOW, a posture. Gen. 37: 10. To 
bow down one's self is expres-dve of 
great reverence and humility. Gen. 24 : 



26, 48 ; 1 Kgs. 1 : 53 and 2:19. It was 
a common mode of salutation in the 
East to kneel upon one knee and bow 
the head until it touched the ground. 

It is still the custom in many Eastern 
nations for subjects to kneel before the 
throne of the king and bow their heads 
slowly till they touch the earth. 

BOWELS. As we use the terms 
heart, breast, bosom, so this term is used 
by the sacred writers, evidently in a figu- 
rative sense, for affections or emotions of 
the heart. Col. 3:12; 1 John 3 : 17. 

BOX TREE. Isa. 41 : 19. A 
small evergreen tree, either the same 
with or closely resembling the shrubby 
box of our gardens. One species ( Buxus 
longifolia) is found on Lebanon, and 
may once have been common in Pales- 
tine. It is believed that the Phoenicians 
imported the wood of other species from 
Chittim, and used it with ivory for in- 
laid work. The perfect proportions of 
this tree, its perennial beauty of foliage, 
and its utility illustrate the prosperity 
and grace which God will bestow on 
Zion. Isa, 60:13. 

B()'ZEZ,one of two sharp rocks be- 
tween Geba and Michmash. 1 Sam. 14: 
4. 5. Robinson traced them out in Wady 
Suweineit, but Stanley could not make 
them out. Conder suggests El Hosn. 

BOZ'KATH, and BOSCATH 
(stony heir/ht), a place on the plains of 
Judah. Josh. 15 : 39 ; 2 Kgs. 22 : 1. 
Warren proposes Beshit as its site. 

BOZ'RAH {fortress), two cities. 
1. Bozrah in Edom. Isa. 34 : 6 ; 63:1, 
which was to become a perpetual waste, 
Jer.49:13: Am. 1:12; Mic. 2:12; mod- 
ern Bitseireh, in the mountains of Petra, 
20 miles south-east of the Dead Sea. 

2. Bozrah in Moab. Jer. 48 : 24. 
Judgment has surely fallen upon it. 
Porter thinks it the same as modern 
BuzraJi, where are the ruins of a mag- 
nificent city nearly 5 miles in circuit, 
once having 1 00,000 inhabitants, but 
now only 20 families. It is near the 
Hauran, 60 miles south of Damascus. 
Portions of its massive walls and towers, 
theatre, temples, stone doors and roofs, 
some of the ruins of the work of the early 
inhabitants, perhaps the giants Rephaim, 
and more of the work of later Roman 
builders, are still to be seen in good state 
of preservation. Bozrah at one time had 
17 bishops under its archbishop. 
141 



BBA 



BEE 



BRACE LET. An ornament 
(chain or clasp) worn on the arm by 




Bracelets. (British Museum. Frovi Ayre.) 

1. Gold Egyptian Bracelets. 2. Silver Bracelet. 

3. Bronze, with Bell attached, taken from Mummy of 

a Girl. 4. Iron, with Coruelian Setting. 5. Bracelet 

of Cowries. 

both sexes. Gen. 24:30. Among East- 
ern princesses it is a badge of royalty, 
and was probably regarded as such in 
the time of David. 2 Sam. 1:10. The 
royal bracelet was of much richer ma- 
terials, and was worn above the elbow; 



M^SS^^v^StTfcdp 







Assyrian Bracelets. (From Nineveh Marbles. 
Ayre.) 

the common bracelet was worn on the 
wrist. Eze. 16:11. 

BRAMBLE. See Thorns. 

BRANCH. This word is often fig- 
uratively used by the sacred writers. 
Ps. 80:15; John 15: 5, 6. It is also 
one of the titles of the Messiah. Isa. 
11 : 1 comp. with Isa. 53 : 2 ; Zech. 
3 : 8 and 6 : 12. The family of Jesse is 
represented under the figure of the stock 
of a tree firmly rooted, and the coming 
of Christ from the seed of David is 
represented as the shooting forth of a 
branch, which is here called, by way 
142 



of distinction and eminence, " THE 
BKANCH;" for Christ, even in his 
common nature, far surpassed all the 
house of David in the dignity, power, 
and glory of both his person and office. 
BRASS. This compound metal was 
probably unknown in ancient times, but 
bronze, a mixture of tin and copper, 
may sometimes be referred to under 
this name. That which is called brass 
in most passages of the sacred writ- 
ings was doubtless what we call cop- 
per. Gen. 4 : 22 ; Deut. 8 : 9. It was 
used for a variety of purposes about the 
temple, and also for fetters, Jud. 16 : 21 ; 
2 Kgs. 25 : 7 ; armor, 1 Sam. 17 : 5, 6 ; 
and musical instruments. 1 Chr. 15 : 19 ; 
1 Cor. 13 : 1. The words brass, brazen, 
etc., occurring under the words Armor, 
Altar, Book, etc., are used in conform- 
ity with the common English translation 
of the Bible, and not with technical ac- 
curacy. 

BRAZEN SEA. See Laver. 
BRAZEN SERPENT. See 
Serpent. 

BREAD. The bread of the Jews 
was generally made of wheat. Barley 
and other grains were sometimes used. 
Jud. 7:13. 

The materials were prepared as in 
modern days. See Mill, Sieve. The 
kneading of the dough was performed 
in kneading-troughs, Gen. 18 : 6 ; Ex. 12 : 
34 ; Jer. 7:18, or wooden bowls such as 
the Arabians use at this day for a like 
| purpose, although some suppose that the 
kneading was done upon a circular piece 
of leather such as is now used in Per- 
1 sia, and which would be more proper- 
\ ly called a kneading-bag, as it draws 
I up like a knapsack. Either of the 
j utensils would be easily transported. 
j Very simple leaven was used in the 
j dough. The loaves were shaped like 
; a plate, and when leavened were ordi- 
; narily of the thickness of one's little 
finger. See Table. These cakes were 
generally baked in either public or pri- 
vate ovens. The fuel was wood or 
dried flower-stalks or grass. Other 
modes of baking were, however, used ; 
as by spreading the dough upon heated 
stones or throwing it into the embers 
of the fire. A pan likewise seems to 
have been used at other times. 2 Sam. 
13 : 9. The unleavened bread was very 
thin, and was broken, not cut. Lam. 4 : 



BRE 



BRI 



BRICK, Gen. 11 : 3, was a building- 
material among the Jews, but the size of 
their bricks was much 
larger than that of 
ours. Bricks found 
among the ruins of 
Babylon are a foot 
square, and resemble 
tile rather than brick. 
They were usually 
hardened by the heat 
of the sun, although 
kilns were not un- 
known. 2 Sam. 12 : 
Egyptian Brick qi . y 40 . q . tu^v. 
stamped with the **■ > «Jei. 4<S . y , JNah. 
oval of Thothmes 3 : 14. In lower 
[. (British Mu- Egypt many pictures 
on the walls represent 




Ayre.) 



the Jews making bricks under the lash 
of the Egyptian taskmasters, in confir- 



4 ; Matt. 26 : 26 ; Mark 14 : 22 ; Luke 
22 : 19. The term bread is often used 
for food or provisions in general. 

Bread-corn, Isa. 28:28, is used for 
wheat, barley, or any other grain from 
which bread was made. 

The figurative expressions bread of 
sorrows, Ps. 127 : 2, and bread of tears, 
Ps. 80 : 5, may denote that the suffering 
of sorrow and the shedding of tears 
had become as much a part of the por- 
tion of every day as one's daily bread. 
So the bread of wickedness, Prov. 4: 17, 
and bread of deceit, Prov. 20:17, de- 
note not only a living or estate obtained 
by fraud and sin, but that to do wick- 
edly is as much the portion of a wicked 
man's life as to eat his daily bread. 

BREAKFAST. See Meals. 

BREASTPLATE. 1. A part of 
the official dress of the Jewish high priest. 
Ex. 28 : 15. It was a piece of embroi- 
dered work, about 10 inches square and 
made double, with a front and lining, 
so as to answer for a pouch or bag. It 
was adorned with twelve precious stones. 
See High Priest. 

The two upper corners were fastened 
to the ephod, from which it was not to 
be loosed, Ex. 28 : 28, and the two lower 
corners to the girdle. The rings, chains, 
and other fastenings were of gold or rich 
lace. It was called the memorial, Ex. 
28 : 12, 29, inasmuch as it reminded the 
priest of his representative character in 
relation to the twelve tribes ; and it is 
also called the breastplate of 
judgment, Ex. 28 :15, per- 
haps because it was worn by 
him who was instrumentally 
the fountain of justice and 
judgment to the Jewish 
Church. Others think it is 
because the Urim and Thum- 
mim were annexed to it. See 
Urim and Thimmim. 

2. The breastplate was also 
that article of ancient armor 
which protected the breast. 
Eph.6:14. See Armor. Its 
figurative use in the passage 
above cited, and also in Isa. 
59 : 17. is sufficiently obvious. 

BREECHES, a kind Jewa and Ca P tlve8 makin i Bricks in Egypt. 

of drawers, reaching from the loins to the I BRIDE, BRIDE' GROOM, 
thighs, worn by the priests. Ex. 28 : 42. BRIDE-CHAMBER. See Mar- 

BRETH'REN OF THE riage. 
LORD. See Brother. BRI'DLE. See Harness. 

143 




Assyrian Brick from Nimroud, inscribed with 
Shalmaneser's Name and Title. {Ayre.) 

mation of the account in the book of 
Exodus, 1:11; 5 : 7-14. 




BKI 



BUL 



BRIERS. See Thistle. 

BRIG'ANDINE. Supposed to be 
the same with the habergeon and coat 
of mail. Jer. 46 : 4. See Armor. 

BRIMSTONE. Ps. 11 : 6. Sul- 
phur, a well-known mineral substance, 
exceedingly inflammable, and which 
when burning emits a suffocating smell. 
We are told that the cities of the plain 
were destroyed by a rain of fire and 
brimstone. There is nothing incredi- 
ble in this, even if we suppose only 
natural agencies were employed. Like 
many other travellers, the writer has 
pieces of pure sulphur and of asphalt 
or mineral pitch, both found in that 
vicinity in abundance and highly in- 
flammable. Volcanic action might 
easily have filled the air with inflam- 
mable substances, falling down in 
streams of liquid fire upon those de- 
voted cities. 

This word is often figuratively em- 
ployed. Job 18 : 15 ; Isa. 34 : 9 ; Rev. 21 : 
8. Whether the word is used literally or 
not in the passages which describe the 
future sufferings of the wicked, we may 
be sure that it expresses terrible pun- 
ishment. 

BROTHER, BRETHREN, 
a term Avhich properly denotes the near- 
est consanguinity — that is, male children 
of the same parents, as in Gen. 4 : 2 and 
42:13, but sometimes persons of more 
remote kindred or of the same nation, 
Gen. 13 : 8 : Esth. 10 : 3 ; Acts 7 : 25, 37 
and 13 : 26, or even those who are close- 
ly united in affection. 2 Sam. 1 : 26. In 
the N. T. the term is more frequently 
applied to the spiritual relationship 
which the true followers of Christ sus- 
tain to him and to each other. Matt. 12 : 
50 ; Rom. 14 : 1 ; 2 Thess. 2 : 13. 

" The Brethren op the Lord." — 
The N. T. repeatedly speaks of brethren 
(and also of sisters) of Jesus, and names 
four of them — James, Joseph, Simon, and 
Judas. There are three theories about the 
degree of this relationship. 1. The sim- 
plest explanation is that they were the 
full brothers of Jesus, or younger children 
of Joseph and Mary. This is the natural 
deduction from the context, Matt. 1:25; 
13 : 55. But the feeling of reverence 
for the virgin mother, the value placed 
upon celibacy in the early Church, 
the instinctive shrinking from regard- 
ing Mary as an ordinary woman, bear- 
144 



ing children in sorrow, and that, too, 
after the Holy Ghost had overshadowed 
her and she had given birth to the Mes- 
siah, — have suggested to the Roman and 
Greek Churches and to many Protestants 
two other theories. 2. That they were 
the children of Joseph by a former 
marriage. So taught Epiphanius and 
the ancient Greek Church. 3. That 
they were the children of Mary, the 
wife of Alpheus, the supposed sister of 
the Virgin Mary, and hence that they 
were Christ's cousins, and among the 
apostles. So St. Jerome and the Ro- 
man Church. Lange has modified this 
view by supposing that Alpheus was 
the brother of Joseph, and that be- 
cause he died early they were adopt- 
ed by Joseph into his family, which 
is extremely improbable. The strong- 
est objection to 1 is that Jesus com- 
mended his mother to John. John 19 : 
| 26. 2 is not open to any grave objec- 
j tion. 3 is beset with difficulties: (1.) 
: It does violence to the natural and 
! usual meaning of the word " brother," 
while the N. T. has a special term for 
"cousins." Col. 4:10; Lukel:36. (2.) 
It assumes that two sisters had the same 
name, Mary. (3.) It fails to explain 
! how these brethren could also be apos- 
I ties, while we are told that they did not 
believe in Jesus before the resurrection 
and treated him rather disrespectfully. 
John 7 : 5. (4.) It is probable that 
Salome, and not Mary, was the sister of 
our Lord's mother. John 19 : 25. The 
natural view furnishes an argument in 
favor of the historical character of the 
Gospels. 
BUCK'LER. See Armor. 
BUILDINGS. See Dwellings. 
BUK'Kl (wasting). 1. The Danite 
chief chosen of the Lord to represent 
his tribe in the division of the Land 
of Promise. Num. 34 : 22. 

2. One of the high-priestly line. 1 Chr. 
6 : 5, 51 ; Ezr. 7 : 4. Probably he was 
never the high priest. 

BUKKIAH (wasting from Jeho- 
vah), the chief of the sixth division of 
singers. 1 Chr. 25:4, 13. 
BUL. See Month. 
BULLS. Cattle, being often left to 
roam for years at pleasure, became half 
wild. In the rich pastures of Bashan 
the bulls were strong and ferocious. Ps. 
22 : 12. In Deut. 14 : 5 and Isa. 51 : 20 



BUL 



BUR 



there is a Hebrew word translated " wild 
bull" which is believed to mean the oryx 
( Oryx leucoryx), a large and powerful an- 
telope still found on the borders of Pal- 
estine. Its chief means of defence are 
its sharp horns, often more than 3 feet 
in length, which gracefully curve over 
its back, but which in conflict, by bend- 
ing the neck, are thrown forward. When 
entangled "in a net" these horns would 
be a great disadvantage. 

BULRUSH, RUSH, a large 
sedge (Cyperua papyruv) still found upon 
Lake Merom and the northern shores of 
the Sea of Galilee. It was formerly abun- 
dant in Egypt, but has now disappeared. 
Upon the upper Nile it is still found, and 
it is used by the modern Abyssinians 
for constructing boats. Ex. 2:3-5; Isa. 
18:2. 

The bulrush grows in shallow water 
or mire. Job 8:11. It has an unbranch- 
ing straight, trian- 
gular culm, termi- 
nating in a large 
head (umbel) of 
small and somewhat 
drooping stems, as 
shown in the cut, 
bearing the chaffy 
fruit on their ex- 
tremities. The 
stalk is usually 
about 10 feet high 
and 2 or 3 inches in 
diameter at the 
base. An area of 
papyrus sur- 
mounted by its 
beautiful tufted 
plumes is a fine 
sight. 

From this plant 
paper was first 
made and derived 
its name. See 
Book. 

BULWARK. 
See War. 

BU'NAH {dis- 
cretion), one of Ju- 
dah's descendants. 
1 Chr. 2:25. 

BUN'NI (6ui70 
9:4. 

2. One who sealed the covenant. Neh 
10:15. 

3. A Levite. Neh. 11 : 15. 

10 




ulrush. 
1. A Levite. Xeh. 



Bunni is said to have been the Jewish 
name of Nicodemus. — Ewuld. 

BURDEN. This word, when it is 
used in connection with some city or 
nation (as the burden of Moab, the 
burden of Nineveh, etc.), expresses the 
disastrous and calamitous import of 
the prophecy. The burden of the des- 
ert of the sea (Babylon), the burden of 
the valley of vision (Jerusalem), and 
similar expressions, are explained by 
their subject or connection. The phrase 
is frequently used by Isaiah. Isa. 13 : 1 ; 
15:1, etc. 

BURIAL, BURY. Gen. 23:4; 
Matt. 26 : 12. It was customary among 
the Jews, and ancients generally, for 
the children or near kindred to close 
the eyes of the dying. Gen. 46 : 4. 
A loud and general wailing followed 
the decease, John 11 : 19, 31, 33, and 
continued many days after burial. The 
body of the deceased was washed and 
laid out. Acts 9 : 37. It was wrapped 
in folds of linen cloth, and the head 
bound around with a napkin. It is 
said that Lazarus was bound " hand 
and foot with grave clothes," John 
11 : 44, and it is supposed by many 
that each limb had its separate wrap- 
per, as it was customary in Egypt to 
wrap even each finger in a separate 
cloth or band, so that hundreds of 
yards of cloth are often unwound from 
one of their mummies. When thus 
bound around, it was placed on a bier, 
in readiness to be borne to the grave. 
See Bier, Embalm. 

The climate, and the uncleanness 
which was contracted, under the law, 
from contact with a dead body, or even 
by coming into the same apartment 
with it, would naturally lead to the cus- 
tom of early interments. In Persia, we 
are told, it is not customary to keep the 
dead over two or three hours, and the 
European Jews universally bury their 
dead early. There were many excep- 
tions in this respect, however. The 
practice of embalming was not general 
among the Jews, though spices, etc., 
were used in their burials. 2 Chr. 16 : 
14; John 19:40. Jacob and Joseph, 
whose bodies were embalmed, both died 
in Egypt, where the art of embalming 
was very skilfully practised. In Jacob's 
case we are told that Joseph commanded 
his servants the physicians to embalm 
145 



BUB 



BUR 



his father, and then he was placed in a 
coffin in Egypt, and thence his body was 
carried to Machpelah, in Canaan, and 
buried. Gen. 50 : 2, 7, 13. Coffins were 
used in Egypt and Babylon, but are un- 
known in the East even at the present 
day, except when a body is to be con- 
veyed to a distant place. See Embalm. 

All civilized nations have agreed in at- 
tending with some solemnity to the bur- 
ial of their dead. Among the Jews the 
bier was followed to the grave by the near- 
est relations and other friends. 2 Sam. 3 : 
31 ; Luke 7 : 12. Other persons attend- 
ed, and sometimes mourners (or rather 
wallers by profession) were employed to 
attend the body. Jer. 9 : 17 ; Eze. 24 : 
17; Am. 5:16; Matt. 9:23. This is 
the custom now in many Eastern na- 
tions. 

Certain places were appropriated by 
the Jews to the purpose of burying the 
dead, and they were both public and 
private. Gen. 23 : 4 : 50 : 13 ; Jud. 8 : 32 ; 
16 : 31 ; 2 Sam. 2 : 32 : 21 : 14 ; 2 Kgs. 
23 : 6 ; Jer. 26 : 23. They were usually 
selected in gardens, 2 Kgs. 21 : 18, 26 ; 
John 19 : 41 ; or fields, Gen. 23 : 11 ; or 
caves in the sides of the mountains, 
2 Kgs. 23 : 16, 17 ; or in rocks, Isa. 22 : 

16 ; and to be unburied was regarded as 
exceedingly disgraceful. 1 Sam. 17 : 44— 
46 ; 2 Kgs. 9:10; Ps. 141 : 7 ; Jer. 8 : 2 
and 22 : 19. The grave was called the 
house or home of the dead. Job 
30 : 23 ; Eccl. 12 : 5. The burial- 
places were usually in retired 
situations, and hence were the 
resort of demoniacs, Matt. 8 : 28, 
and were usually without the city 
walls. Kings and prophets alone, 
it would seem, were buried with- 
in the walls. Josh. 24 : 30, 33 : 1 
Sam.25:l; 28:3: 2 Kgs. 21:18 ; 
2 Chr. 16 : 14; 24: 16; 33:20; 
Neh. 3 : 16. Though solitary, 
they were selected with reference 
to shade, prospect, etc. Gen. 23 : 

17 ; 35 : 8 : 1 Sam. 31 : 13. 
The desire to be buried with 

one's kindred was very strong, 2 
Sam. 19 : 37; and it is remark- 
able that the Jews, as a people, 
in all their dispersions and suf- 
ferings, retain an ardent desire to be 
buried in their own land, especially 
around Jerusalem. 

It was not unusual for a single family 
146 



to haA r e near their dwelling-house a 
small building without door or window, 
built of stone or other durable mate- 
rial, which was called the sepulchral 
house or family mansion for the dead. 

The following description of the tombs 
of the Judges is taken from Baedeker's 
Palestine and Syria, p. 238 : On the 
western side of the rock there is a small 
fore-court, leading to a vestibule, from 
which is entered the tomb-chamber. 
The portal was once capable of being 
closed from within. On the left side 
of the chamber are 7 shaft-tombs, 
above which, at irregular distances, 
are 3 vaulted niche-tombs, and at the 
back of these again there are several 
shaft-tombs. In the western wall is a 
niche. Adjoining this first chamber 
on the east and south are 2 others, 
on about the same level, and 2 on a 
lower level. They have tombs on three 
sides. A passage with 3 tombs de- 
scends from the first to the north-east- 
ern chamber, which contains 13 tombs. 
The other side-chamber contains no 
tomb. 

The sepulchres of the Jews were 
sometimes expensively built and adorn- 
ed or garnished, and were whitened at 
short intervals, so as to make them 
conspicuous, that they might be avoid- 
ed, as contact with them occasioned 
ceremonial uncleanness. Hence the 




Plan of Tombs of the Jud 



force of our Lord's reproof. Matt. 23 : 
27. Sometimes titles or inscriptions 
were placed on them. 2 Kgs. 23 : 17. 
To build a sepulchre for a man was an 



BUR 



BYT 



expression of respect and honor. Matt. 
23 : 29 ; Luke 11 : 48. 

The most famous sepulchres in Pales- 
tine are the Machpelah, the burial-place 
of the patriarchs, under the great 
mosque of Hebron, to which, however, 
no stranger is admitted ; the sepulchre 
of Joseph, near Jacob's well, in Sa- 




Tomb of the Judges. (From Photograph by Good.) 



maria ; the tombs of the kings and the 
tombs of the Judges, near Jerusalem : 
and the supposed sepulchre of Christ, in 
the church of the Holy Sepulchre, in 
Jerusalem. 

BURNING BUSH. See Moses 
and >niTTiM-\voon. 

BURNT- OFFERING. See 
Sacrifice. 

BUSH. Mark 12: 26; Luke 20: 37. 
In these passages reference is made to 
that section of Scripture in which the 
account of the burning bush is to be 
found, and not to the bush itself. 

BUSHEL. See Measures. 

BUT'LER, an honorable officer 
of the king's household, called "cup- 
bearer "' Nen. 1 : 11, it being his duty to 
fill and bear the cup or drinking-vessel 
to the king. The chief butler had the 
charge and oversight of the rest. Gen. 
40 : 1-13. 

BUTTER. As this word is used 
in the Scriptures, it probably means 
sour or coagulated milk, which, when 
mingled with water, is still regarded 
as a very agreeable and refreshing 
beverage by Eastern nations. Gen. 
18 : 8. Their butter, such as it was. 
might have been sometimes clarified 



and preserved in jars, as at the present 
day in Asia, and when poured out re- 
sembles rich oil. 

The figurative expression in Job 29 : 
6, " I washed my steps with butter," 
denotes primarily the abundance with 
which the patriarch was blessed; but 
it is also supposed by some to refer to 
the great quantities of cream which 
his herds produced, and which were 
trodden into butter. This fanciful in- 
terpretation aside, the passage seems 
to be self-explanatory, the figurative 
allusion to butter having the same 
force and effect as that to oil. 

The place of butter as a general ar- 
ticle of food in the East was supplied 
in some measure by the vegetable oil 
which was so abundant. 

Butter was made by pouring the milk 
into a goat-skin, and then shaking or 
treading it to and fro in a uniform di- 
rection until the separation of the but- 
ter took place. The butter mentioned 
in Jud. 5 : 25 was probably cream, or a 
preparation of which cream was a com- 
ponent part. It is not improbable that 
the bottle of milk in the passage cited 
was no other than a skin which had 
been used as a churn, and that the re- 
freshment was butter-milk, presented 
in the richest vessel that was at hand. 
Butter-milk is still esteemed a most re- 
freshing beverage by the Arabs. 

Butter and honey were used together, 
and were esteemed among the choicest 
productions of the land. And travel- 
lers tell us that the Arabs now use 
cream or new butter mixed with honey 
as a principal delicacy. 

BUZ {contempt), a territory: per- 
haps named from Buz, and probably 
in northern Arabia. Jer. 25 : 23 ; Gen. 
22:21. 

BUZ (contempt). 1. A son of Abra- 
ham's brother Nahor. Gen. 22 : 21. 

2. A Gadite. 1 Chr. 5 : 14. 

BU'ZI (contempt), the father of Eze- 
kiel the prophet. Eze. 1 : 3. 

BUZ'ITE, THE. Elihu is so 
called, Job 32:2,6; probably because 
he was the descendant of Buz. Gen. 
22:21. 

BYTHINIA. See Bithvma. 
147 



CAB 



CLE 



o. 



CAB. See Measures. 

CAB'BOIV, a place in Judah. Josh. 
15 : 40. Three places have been suggest- 
ed as its site — el-Kufeir, 10 miles south- 
east of Ashkelon : el-Kubeibeh, near Beit 
Jibrin ; and Abu Knbiis. 

CABINS, Jer. 37 : 16, or CELLS, 
were probably niches or apartments 
•within the dungeon, for the separate 
confinement of prisoners. The idea 
conveyed is, that the prophet suffered 
the most severe and loathsome impris- 
onment. 

CA'BULt 1. A place in Asher, Josh. 
19:27; now Kabul, 10 miles south-east 
of Accho. 

2. A name of the land containing 20 
cities given by Solomon to Hiram, 1 Kgs. 
9 : 10-13, in a region of Galilee east of 
Accho. The word has no special mean- 
ing in Hebrew. 

CESAR, the official title of the 
Roman emperors. It is borrowed from 
the famous Julius Caasar. It occurs 
about 30 times in the N. T., and is ap- 
plied to Augustus, Luke 2:1; Tiberius, 
Luke 3:1; Claudius, Acts 11 : 2S ; and 
Nero, Acts 25 : 8. Such Jews as were 
Roman citizens had the right of appeal 
to Caesar, Acts 25 : 11. who was their 
ruler. See separate names. 

CJESARAUGUSTUS. See Au- 
gustus. 

C.E'SAR,CLAU'DIUS. See 
Claudius. 

CESARE'A, the chief Roman city 
of Palestine in Xew Testament times. ' 
It was on the Mediterranean, about 41 
miles south of Acre, and 47 miles in a j 
direct line north-west of Jerusalem, j 
It had a harbor protected by an arti- 
ficial wall or breakwater. 

History. — Originally it was called 
"Strato's Tower." Herod the Great 
built a city there, B. c. 10, and named 
it in honor of Augustus Caesar. Herod 
Agrippa I. died there. Acts 12: 19-23. 
Philip the evangelist lived there, 8 :40 ; 
21 : 8, 16, and Cornelius, 10 : 1-24. Paul 
frequently visited it, 9 : 30 : 18 : 22 : 21 : 
8 ; 23 : 33 ; was in bonds there two years. 
24:27; it was the official residence of 
148 



Festus and of Felix. Vespasian was 
declared emperor there. It had a learn- 
ed school and an episcopal see; was the 
birthplace of Procopius ; the residence 
for a time of Origen ; of Eusebius, the 
historian, who was bishop of Cassarea ; 
was a noted city in the time of the 
Crusades ; was twice rebuilt by the 
Christians ; fell into decay i and is 
now in ruins. It is called Kaisari- 
eh. Large quantities of the building- 
stones have been carried to other towns 
and used for building. Stanley calls it 
the most desolate site in Palestine, with 
no signs of human life, and the nearest 
road passes at a distance from the ex- 
tensive ruins. 

CESAREA-PHILIP PI, the 
Greek Paneas, now called Banias by 
the Arabs, is a town at the base of Mount 
Hermon, about 20 miles north of the Sea 
of Galilee and 45 miles south-west of Da- 
mascus. It was the northern limit of our 
Lord's journeys, Matt. 16 : 13 ; Mark 
8 : 27, and was probably Baal-gad of 
Old Testament history. It was here 
that Peter, in the name of all the other 
apostles, made that fundamental con- 
fession of faith in Christ as the Son of 
God and the Saviour, and that Christ 
uttered the prophecy concerning the 
indestructible character of his Church. 
Matt. 16 : 16 ff. The gushing waters of 
the sources of the Jordan and the im- 
movable rocks of Mount Hermon were 
in full view when our Lord spoke those 
words, and served to illustrate their 
meaning. The landscape is one of the 
most beautiful in Palestine, and has 
been called the Syrian Tivoli. 

History. — The town is remarkable for 
its physical and historical associations. 
It was near two important sources of 
the Jordan ; its ancient classical name 
was Paneion, in commemoration of the 
sanctuary of the god Pan : it was en- 
larged by Philip the Tetrarch, and 
named Csesarea-Philippi to distinguish 
it from the other Caesarea, on the Med- 
iterranean ; later on it was called Nero- 
nias by Herod Agrippa II.; it became 
the seat of a bishopric; it was repeatedly 




Csesarea-Philippi, or Banias. {After Photographs of Frith and Good.) 




Sources of the Jordan near Banias. (After Photographs of Frith and Good.) 



c^: 



CAL 



taken during the Crusades. It is now 
called Banias, and has about 50 houses, 
many ruins of columns, towers, temples, 
a bridge, and of a remarkable castle. 
The place is now noted for one of 
the chief sources of the Jordan, which 
rushes in clear crystal springs from be- 
neath the rocks of Mount Hermon, and 
flows rapidly towards Dan, uniting with 
another source below that town. 

CESAR'S HOUSE' HOLD, 
Phil. 4 : 22, was Paul's phrase for the ser- 
vants and dependents in the palace of the 
Roman emperor, some of whom were con- 
verts. It is unlikely that any members 
of the imperial family are meant, al- 
though the expression (as Lightfoot re- 
marks) " might include equally the high- 
est functionaries and the lowest menials." 

CA'IAPHAS {depression) was the 
high priest of the Jews, A. n. 27-36, and 
therefore at the time of our Saviour's trial. 
John 11 : 49, 51. The office was formerly 
held for life, but at this time it was filled 
and vacated at the pleasure of the Roman 
government. The raising of Lazarus 
roused the Sanhedrin to action, and 
Caiaphas turned their thoughts toward 
the execution of the hated and feared 
Prophet by deliberately advising his 
death on the score of expediency. His 
language was unconsciously prophetic. 
John ll : 49-52. 

After Christ's arrest he was arraigned 
before Caiaphas. A vain effort having 
been made to secure false testimony 
sufficient for his condemnation, Cai- 
aphas at last adjured him to declare 
whether he was indeed the Christ, the 
Son of God. On Jesus's answering af- 
firmatively, Caiaphas pretended to be 
so shocked at his supposed blasphemy 
that he declared all further witness was 
unnecessary to convict him, and the 
council unanimously condemned him to 
death. Matt. 26 : 65-68. 

As Caiaphas had no power to inflict 
the punishment of death, Christ was 
taken from him to Pilate, the Roman 
governor, John 18 : 28, that his execu- 
tion might be duly ordered. See An- 
nas. Before Caiaphas, Peter and John 
were brought for trial. Acts 4 : 6. 

CAIN {possession), the first-born of 
Adam and Eve. Gen. 4:1. Welcomed 
as the promised deliverer, he disap- 
pointed his parents' dearest hopes and 
proved to be of a bad heart, for out of 
150 



envy because his brother's sacrifice had 
been accepted and his own rejected, he 
slew his brother. See Abel. 

For this crime he was banished from 
his home. But God, remembering mer- 
cy in the midst of wrath, gave him 
some sign or mark whereby he would 
have protection from attacks likely to 
be made upon him as the accursed of 
God. He then went to the land of Nod, 
to the east of Eden : after the birth of 
his son Enoch (and perhaps other chil- 
dren), he began to build a city — t. e. a 
village of rude huts, as distinguished 
from the movable tents of the nomads. 
Gen. 4:16, 17. See Nod. 

CAIN (lance), in the mountains of 
Judah, Josh. 15 : 57 ; perhaps modern 
Yakin, south-east of Hebron. 

CAI'NAN (possession, or a smith). 
1. The son of Enos. Gen. 5 : 9-14 ; Luke 
3 : 37. He is called Kenan, which is the 
correct form, in 1 Chr. 1 : 2. He lived 
910 years. 

2. A son of Arphaxad, Luke 3 : 36 ; 
but as the name is not found in the He- 
brew, it is probably an unwarranted 
interpolation into the Septuagint, and 
thence copied b} r Luke into his Gospel. 

CAKE. See Bread. 

CA'LAH (old age), one of the old- 
est of Assyrian towns : founded by 
Nimrod, Gen. 10 : 11, and probably for 
a time the capital of the Assyrian king- 
dom. Layard, Porter, and Kalisch lo- 
cate it at Kileh-Sherghat, on the Tigris, 
40 miles below Nimroud, where there is 
a vast ruin 3 miles in circuit. The 
Rawlinsons, Geo. Smith, and others, 
place it at Nimroud, where are ruins cov- 
ering about 1000 acres. They indicate 
a town in the form of an irregular quad- 
rangle, surrounded by a wall, flanked 
with towers, and pierced with gates. 
The remains of palaces, temples, and a 
famous tower or pyramid form a mound 
of ruins, 600 yards long, with a cone 
140 feet high. See Assyria and Ar- 
menia. 

CALAMUS, Song Sol. 4: U : Eze. 
27 : 19, or SWEET CALAMUS, 
Ex. 30: 23, or SWEET CANE, Isa. 
43 : 24 : Jer. 6 : 20. All probably names 
for the same plant. It seems to have been 
an aromatic reed brought "from a far 
country." Lemon-grass (Andropogon) 
is "a plant of remarkable fragrance 
and a native of Central India, where it 



CAL 



CAL 




{Schuff's "Popu- 
lar Commentary.") 



is used to mix with ointments, on ac- 
count of the delicacy of its odor." Cal- 
amus may have 
been a species of 
this. 

CAL'COL 
(tHwtenance), a Ju- 
dite. 1 Chr. 2:6; 
probably same 
with Chalcol. 1 
Kgs. 4 : 31. He 
was one of the 
four sages whom 
Solomon excelled 
in wisdom. 

CALDRON, 
a vessel for boiling 
flesh for any use. 
ceremonial or do- 
mestic. 1 Sam. 2: 
14; 2 Chr. 35:13; 
Job 41:20; M ; - Eeeds - 
3:3. 

CALEB (capable). 1. The son of 
Hezron, of the tribe of Judah, and 
father of Hur. 1 Chr. 2:9 (where he is 
called Chelubai), 18, 19, 42, 46, 48. 

2. One of the twelve spies sent by 
Moses into Canaan. Num. 13 : 6. He 
and Joshua were the only adults born 
in Egypt who entered the land as con- 
querors, because they brought a truth- 
ful report, while the other ten were 
frightened, told exaggerated stories of 
the native population, and spread dis- 
content and despair. Caleb and Joshua 
assured the people that they might eas- 
ily gain possession of Canaan. In return 
for these assurances, the people proposed 
to stone them. A plague from the Lord 
broke out. and the lyin^ spies were all 
killed. Num. 13 and 14. Forty-five 
years afterward, when the conquest 
was completed and the land apportion- 
ed among the tribes, Caleb, being then 
eighty-five years of age. applied to 
Joshua for his share, reminding him of 
the promise of God. by which he and 
Joshua were excepted from the general 
curse of the people, and proposed to 
take, as his share of the land. Kirjath- 
arba, the stronghold of the giants and 
the centre of their fortifications. His 
request was granted, and he accordingly 
attacked and subdued Kirjath-arba. and 
thence proceeded to Kirjath-sepher, 
another stronghold, afterward called 
Debir. Here he proposed to give his 



i daughter Achsah in marriage to the 
man who should capture the city. His 
nephew, Othniel, undertook the enter- 
prise and succeeded, and received the 
promised reward. Caleb's possessions 
were called bv his name. Josh. 14 and 
15 : 1 Sam. 30 : 14. 

3. A Caleb, the son of Hur, is men- 
tioned in 1 Chr. 2 : 50. He may be 
identical with the spy. 

CALEB (a dog), the district in 
Judah, between Hebron and Carmel. 
assigned to Caleb. 1 Sam. 30:14. 

CALF. Gen. 18 : 7. A fatted calf 
was regarded by the Jews as the choicest 
animal food. l*Sam. 28 : 24 : Am. 6:4; 
Luke 15 : 23. The allusion in Jer. 34 : 
IS is to an ancient custom of ratifying 
a contract or covenant in the observance 
of which an animal was slain and divi- 
ded, and the parties passed between the 
parts, signifying their willingness to be 
so divided themselves if the}- failed to 
perform their covenant. Gen. 15 : 9, 
10, 17. 

Calf, Molten, Ex. 32 : 4, was an idol- 
god prepared by Aaron in compliance 
with the request of the children of Is- 
rael, who had become impatient at the 
absence of Moses and desired some visi- 
ble image or representation of the Deity. 
See Aarox. It was probably made of 
wood and thickly overlaid with gold. 

The golden calves of Jeroboam, 1 Kgs. 
12 : 28, were objects of worship set up by 
that king in the land of Israel to prevent 
the ten tribes from resorting to Jerusa- 
lem to worship, and so more effectually 




Bronze Figure of Apis. {Wilkinson.) 
to separate them from the house of Da- 
vid. One of the idols was in Dan and 
151 



CAL 



CAM 



the other in Bethel, the two extremes 
of his kingdom. It is supposed this 
wicked king had become acquainted 
with the forms and objects of idola- 
trous worship while he dwelt in Egypt. 
1 Kgs. 11 :40. His sin is almost always 
mentioned whenever his name is used. 
See Jeroboam. 

Calves op our Lips, Hos. 14 : 2, is 
a figurative expression signifying the 
fruits of our lips, or our offerings of 
praise to God. Calves were used in 
sacrifices, and we are to render praises 
and thanksgivings to God as the offer- 
ing of our lips. Heb. 13 : 15. 

CAL'JVEH {fortified place?), a city 
of Chaldsea founded by Nimrod. Gen. 
10 : 10 ; Am. 6:2; probably the same 
as Calno, Isa. 10 : 9, and Canneh, Eze. 
27 : 23. Some have proposed to locate 
Calneh at Ctesiphon, or Kileh-Sherghat, 
on the Tigris, 40 miles below Nimroud. 
Rawlinson and others, however, place 
ancient Asshur at Kileh-Sherghat, and 
identify Calneh with Niffer. The ruins 
at Niffer are 60 miles north-west of War- 
ha, and on the east side of the Eu- 
phrates, but 30 miles from the present 
course of the river. They are conceded 
to be of very great antiquity, and are 
divided into nearly equal groups by a 
deep ravine or channel, 120 feet wide, 
apparently the dry bed of a river which 
once ran through the town. Inscriptions 
found in the mounds indicate that the 
ancient name of the city was Nipur, 
probably the Nopher of the Talmud, 
and hence the Calneh of Genesis. 

CALVARY {skull), the place 
where our Lord was crucified, so call- 
ed from its conical shape. There is 
no Scripture warrant for the popu- 
lar phrase "Mount Calvary." It was 
simply an elevation. Tradition places 
the site at the modern church of the 
Holy Sepulchre, within the present 
walls of Jerusalem. This view is stout- 
ly maintained by George Williams, Rit- 
ter, Krafft, Raumer, Rosen, De Saul- 
cy, Sepp, Tischendorf, and several of 
the members of the British Palestine 
Survey. It is as stoutly disputed by 
Robinson, Tobler, John Wilson, Bar- 
clay, Thomson, Bonar, Meyer, Ewald, 
S. J. Andrews, and others. 

The arguments turn chiefly on the 
course of the second wall of Josephus 
— whether it ran so as to include or 
152 



to exclude the present church of the Holy 
Sepulchre. The evangelists place Calva- 
rv distinctly outside of the citv in Matt. 
28 : 32 : Heb. 13 : 12 ; John 19 : 20, 41. 
The church of the Holy Sepulchre is 
inside the present city, which is much 
smaller now than in the time of Christ. 
If it was the site of Calvary, it was 
outside the second wall, which recent 
discoveries render improbable. Mr. 
Schick and Bishop Gobat of Jerusalem 
locate Calvary near the Grotto of Jere- 
miah, north-west of the Damascus gate ; 
Fisher Howe and Conder, on the Grotto 
of Jeremiah ; Barclay suggests a place 
near Gethsemane. As in the case of 
Moses, so in that of Jesus, it may be best 
that the exact place of his crucifixion and 
burial remain unknown and out of the 
reach of profanation and idolatry. 

CAM'EL, a well-known and highly 
useful animal in Eastern countries, and 
justly called "the ship of the desert." 
It is by the law of Moses unclean. Lev. 
11 : 4. The camel is usually about 6 feet 
in height to the saddle. Though he 
makes loud complaints when caused to 
kneel or receive a load, he is still docile, 
and marches on as under a painful sense 
of duty. He varies in color from white to 
black, but is ordinarily tawny. In the 
Bible lands the Arabian or one-hump- 
ed camel ( Camelus dromedarius) is found. 
Two-humped camels (C. Bactrianus) are 
rarely used except in Central Asia. 

The feet of this animal are provided 
with a tough, elastic sole, which prevents 
them from sinking in the sand. His 
hump serves as a cushion for loads, Isa. 
30 : 6, and a store-house of food against 
times of scarcity. There is a large cal- 
lus on his breast and three pairs of cal- 
luses on his legs, which protect him 
from laceration when kneeling upon 
sharp stones. His nostrils are adapted 
for breathing with safety in a sand- 
storm. A horny mouth with divided 
upper lip is fitted for the harsh and 
thorny shrubs of the desert, which he 
seems to prefer to more tender herbage. 
The second stomach of the camel, which 
is a ruminant animal, is divided into 
hexagonal cells, and receives and re- 
tains for gradual use the water which is 
drunk. On a full supply he can live 
even 20 or 30 days. As the camel never 
sensibly perspires, there is no loss in this 
direction. These qualities all combine to 



CAM 



CAM 



adapt the animal to the countries he in- 
habits and to the services required of him. 
He is, perhaps, more sure-footed than t lie 
ass, more easily supported, and capable 
of an incomparably greater burden. He 
can carry a load of 600 or 800 pounds 




at the rate of 30 miles a day, and, on 
short journeys, 1000 to 1200 pounds. 
His usual speed is two and a half miles 
an hour, but the breed of fast camels 
called distinctively dromedaries, Jer. 2 : 
23. will travel 100 miles a day. 

Like a docile colt, this animal is driven 
or led by a rude halter. Crescent-shaped 
ornaments of cloth and cowrie-shells, or 
even of silver, are often hung to the cam- 
el's neck Jud. 8 : 21, 26. The flesh and 
milk are used for food (except bj T Jews) ; 
the skin and hair are employed for gar- 
ments ; the bones are cut into various 
articles ; and sometimes the dung is 
needed for fuel. 

The ordinary life of the camel is from 
30 to 50 years. Camels were formerly, 
and are still, in the East, among the 
chief possessions of the wealthy. Gen. 
12 : 16 ; 30 : 43 : 37 : 25 ; Jud. 6 : 5 and 
7:12; 1 Sam. 30:17; 1 Kgs. 10:2: 1 
Chr. 5 : 21 : 2 Chr. 14 : 15 ; Job 1 : 3 and 
42: 12; Isa. 30:6. 153 

The expression in Matt. 19 : 24 is usu- 
ally considered figurative, denoting some- 
thing beyond human power. The same 
form of expression is used among the 
Arabs and by the Rabbins in respect to 
the elephant. Some believe that the 
expression refers to the small door 
within the large and heavy door of 
the Oriental gate, for this is called in 
Arabic "the needle's eye." Rolla Flovd 
(a well-known Syrian dragoman) told 
the writer that till recently it was the 
custom to close the gates of Jerusalem 
from 12 till 2 on Fridays during Moham- 
medan worship, but this small door 



might then be used. On one such oc- 
casion, Mr. F. was waiting outside the 
Jafl'a gate for some travellers, when a 
train of camels arrived. He saw them 
enter the city by unloading each ani- 
mal and taking it separately through 
"the needle's eye." 

Another figurative expression occurs 
Matt. 23 :24, in which the inconsistency 
of the scribes and Pharisees (who at- 
tended to the most unimportant cere- 
monies of their religion, while they 
were unjust, unmerciful, and faithless) 
is compared to one who should very 
carefully strain out (not at) a gnat or 
other small insect from the liquor he 
was about to drink, and yet swallow 
an animal as large as a camel. See 
Drink. 

Travellers sometimes throw over the 
camel, upon the top of his burden, a pair 
of panniers, in which they ride, one on 
either side. Two boxes like small car- 
riage-bodies are often hung upon the 
animal in the same manner, and in these 
females may ride and be sheltered from 
the heat. Gen. 24:64. It is easy to see 
how Rachel might have concealed her 
father's idols. Gen. 31 : 34. The camel 
is said to choose ruinous and desolate 
places for his habitations, and hence the 
force of the prophetic language respect- 
ing Rabbah, Eze. 25 : 5 : though the 
prophecy would be abundantly verified 
if the place should merely become a 
stopping-place for caravans. 

Camel's Hair, Matt. 3 : 4, was made 
into cloth. 2 Kgs. 1:8; Zech. 13 : 4. 
Sometimes the fabric was wrought of 
the finest and softest part of the hair, 
and was then a very rich and luxurious 
article of dress. A coarser kind was 
used for the covering of tents and for 
the upper garments of shepherds and 
camel-drivers. Travellers tell us that 
modern dervishes wear cloth of this 
kind, and also leathern girdles. The 
raiment of John the Baptist, Matt. 11 : 8, 
was probably of this kind, for it is put 
in opposition to soft raiment; but some 
think it was of prepared camel's hide. 

CAME'LEON. See Chameleon. 

CAMON (stalks, or grain?), where 
Jair was buried, Jud. 10 : 5 ; east of Jor- 
dan, in Gilead. 

CAMP. This term is frequently 
used in reference to the movements of 
the children of Israel, and many pas- 
153' 



CAM 



CAM 



sages of the Levitical law relate to 
things that are to be done within or 
without the camp. 

The form of encamping, Ex. 16 : 13, 
is particularly prescribed in Num. 2. 
The tabernacle occupied the centre, and 
nearest to this were the tents of the Le- 
vites, who were intrusted with the prin- 
cipal care of it. Num. 3. The whole 
body of the people, embracing upward 



of 600,000 fighting-men, besides women 
and children, were formed in four di- 
visions, three tribes constituting a di- 
vision, so that the tabernacle was en' 
closed in a hollow square. Each of 
these divisions had a standard, as well 
as each tribe and each of the large fam- 
ily associations of which the tribes were 
composed. Each tribe had its captain or 
commander assigned by God's direction. 



NORTH. FOURTH DIVISION. CAMP OF DAN, 157,600. 



DAN, 

62,700. 

ASHER, AND NAPHTALI, 

41,500. 53,400. 



32 



i-i o 
< o Q 

a o ■< 



So 





MBRARITES, 






3200. 




m 

S o 

O CO 

K 5S 




> 
a m 


COURT 
OF THE 


02 <M 


TABERNACLE. 


CO 






KOHATHITES, 






2750. 





s 5 

o > 

• a 



a ©a 



N 

o tr 1 



REUBEN, 

46,500. 

SIMEON, AND GAD, 

59,300. 45,650. 



SOUTH. SECOND DIVISION. CAMP OF REUBEN, 151,450. 



The view of such a mass of people, 
maintaining the most perfect order and 
subordination, might well excite the 
admiration of the beholder. Num. 24 : 
2-5. It is not difficult to imagine the 
emotions which such a view would 
awaken in one who, from the summit 
of Mount Peor, looked down upon the 
vast congregation of the Lord's people 
gathered around the sacred symbols of 
his presence. 

" How beautiful are thy tents, O Jacob ! 
And thy tabernacles, O Israel ! 
As the valleys are they spread forth ; 
As gardens by the river's side ; 
As lisn-aloes which Jehovah hath planted, 
As cedars beside the waters." 

Num. 24:5,6. 
154 



" Outside of the camp " must all de- 
filement and all defiled persons be put. 
Consequently, lepers, those defiled by 
contact with the dead, captives taken 
in war, were kept out for a greater or 
less period, and the ashes of the sacri- 
fice and all that was not burnt on the 
altar were carried out. The dead were 
there buried, and there executions and 
the burning of the young bullock for 
the sin-offering took place. See refer- 
ences in order : Lev. 13 : 46 ; 14 : 3 ; 
Num. 12 : 14, 15 ; 31 : 19 : Josh. 6 : 23 ; 
Deut. 23:10,12; Lev. 6 : 11 ; 8:17: 
10 : 4, 5 ; 24 : 14 ; 4 : 12. We are not to 
picture an enormous camp lying four- 
square, containing regular streets, like 



CAM 



CAN 



a modern military camp, because in 
that case these regulations evidently 
could not be carried out without a great 
expenditure of time. But the Israelites 
traversed a country broken up into in- 
Dtimerable little valleys, and oftentimes 
the host must have stretched aloug for 
miles, but so closely hemmed in between 
mountain-sides that to go without the 
camp would be but a few steps. 

In later times, when Israel was set- 
tled in the Promised Land, we find 
scattered references to camps. They 
appear to have been generally pitched 
upon high ground. Jud. 7 : 1, 8 ; 1 Sam. 
17 : 4 ; 28 : 4. They were sometimes 
intrenched; at other times a barrier 
was formed of the baggage-wagons. 
Jehoshaphat established permanent 
camps. 2 Chr. 17 : 2. 

CAMPHIRE. Song Sol. 4: 13. A 
shrub, sometimes 10 feet high, growing 
in Egypt and other Eastern countries, 
and called henna (Laweonia alba). 

The white-and-yellow flowers grow 
in clusters, like the lilac, and are very 
fragrant. From the leaves, when dried 




Camphire. (Lawsonia alba.) 

and pulverized, is made an orange or 
reddish dye, with which females stain 
their hands and feet. Sonnini says that 
Eastern women "are fond of decorating 
themselves with the flowers of the hen- 
na-plant : that they take them in their 



| hands and perfume their bosoms with 
[ them." What we call camphor is an 
entirely different substance. It is re- 
markable that camphire is still found 
growing only at one place in Palestine, 
and thatEn-gedi. Song Sol. 1:14. 

CANAAN {low, humbled), the fourth 
; son of Ham, Gen. 10:6; 1 Chr. 1:8, 
and the progenitor of those peoples who 
inhabited the country on the west of the 
Jordan. Noah, his grandfather, cursed 
| him on awaking from his drunken sleep 
| because of the conduct of Ham, his 
I father. Gen. 9 : 20-25. The difficulty is 
i easiest solved if we trust a Jewish tra- 
dition that Canaan was the one who first 
saw his grandfather's shame, and that, 
instead of decorously concealing it, he 
told his father. His descendants bore 
the curse. The Israelites carried on a 
war of extermination against them, and 
they became, in great measure, servants 
or slaves. 

CANAAN, LAND OF. Gen. 
12 : 5. The country inhabited by the 
posterity of Canaan, who were hence 
called Canaanites, and which was <:iven 
by God to the children of Israel, the 
posterity of Abraham, as their posses- 
sion. Ex. 6:4: Lev. 25 : 38. 

The original boundaries were Mount 
Lebanon on the north, the wilderness 
of Arabia on the south, and the Arabian 
desert on the east. On the west their 
possessions extended at some points to 
the margin of the Mediterranean. Their 
i boundaries on this side were partially 
restricted by the Philistines, who held 
the low lands and strong cities along 
J the shore. Gen. 10 : 19. Besides the 
possessions of the Israelites, the land 
of Canaan embraced Phoenicia on the 
north and Philistia on the south-west. 
Zeph. 2 : 5. The land of Canaan was 
called the land of Israel, 1 Sam. 13 : 19, 
because it was occupied by the descend- 
ants of Jacob or Israel ; the holy loud, 
Zech. 2 : 12 ; the land of promise, Heb. 
11 : 9, because it was promised to Abra- 
ham and his posterity as their posses- 
sion ; the land of Judah, Jer. 39 : 10, 
because Judah was the leading tribe; 
the hoid of the Hebrews, Gen. 40 : 15, or 
the descendants of Eber, an ancestor of 
Abraham. The modern name of Pal- 
; estine, or the land of the Philistines, 
was originally applied to the region ly- 
ing along the coast of the Mediter- 
155 



CAN 



CAN 



ranean, south-west of the Land of Prom- 
ise, but in its present usage denotes the 
whole country bounded by the Jordan 
on the east, the Mediterranean on the 
west, Arabia on the south, and Lebanon 
on the north. For physical features, 
see Palestine. 




ZonyiliuU East 



Sketch-Map of Canaan before the Conquest. 

History. — Previous to its conquest by 
Joshua, Canaan was peopled by several 
tribes, as Hittites, Jebusites, Amorites, 
Girgasites, Hivites, Perizzites, and four 
others, all early known as Canaanites. 
Gen. 10 : 15-19. Later, "Canaanites" 
appears to designate a separate tribe, and 
156 



the land was inhabited by them and six 
other tribes. Canaan was the country for 
which Terah started, Gen. 11 : 31 ; A brain 
dwelt in it ; it was promised to him for 
a possession, Gen. 12 : 5, 8, etc. ; Isaac, 
Jacob, and the patriarchs made their 
home there. Gen. 26-35. It was left 
by Jacob because of the 
famine ; searched by the 
twelve spies, Num. 13 : 2 ; 
viewed by Moses, Deut. 
32:49; conquered by 
Joshua, Josh. 11:23; di- 
vided by lot among the 
twelve tribes, Josh. 13 : 7 ; 
a king of the country was 
slain by Deborah and Ba- 
rak. Jud. 4:24. See Map. 
In the temple at Kar- 
nak, in Egypt, a triple list 
of 118 or 119 towns of Ca- 
naan has lately been dis- 
covered, which is believed 
to be a record of an Egyp- 
tian conquest of the land 
by Thothmes III. previous 
to that by Joshua. Seethe 
list of these towns in Con- 
der's Tent- Work in Pales- 
tine, vol. ii. 344-346. It 
is the oldest known record 
of Canaanite cities before 
the time of Joshua. For 
later history see Judah, 
Kingdomof; Israel, King- 
dom op ; and Palestine. 

CANAANITES, 
THE. See preceding 
article. 

CA'NA OF GALF- 
LiEE, a town noted as 
the scene of Christ's first 
miracle, John 2 : 1-11, and 
of another miracle, 4 : 46, 
and as the home of Na- 
thanael. 21:2. Tradition 
places it at Kefr-Kenna, 
about four English miles 
north-east of Nazareth, 
and the traveller is now 
shown an earthen jar, 
which is claimed to be one of the 
water-jars used at the wedding. Rob- 
inson and others, with less probabil- 
ity, identify Cana with Kana-el-Jelil, 
about 9 miles north of Nazareth. It 
has a fine situation, and the ruins indi- 
cate the existence in former times of a. 



CAN 



CAN 



considerable village. Conder suggests 
a new location, and proposes to place 
Cana at Reineh, north-east of Nazareth, 
and only one and a half miles distant. — 
Condek : Tent-Work in Palestine, 1878, 
i. p. 154. This lacks confirmation. 

CAN'DACE (sovereign of slaves f). 
The name is a title of Ethiopian queens. 
Acts 8 : 27. Her chamberlain or treas- 
urer, a eunuch, was met by Philip the 
evangelist on the road between Jerusa- 
lem and Gaza, and converted. See 
Philip. 

CANDLE. Job 18 : 6. Often used 
figuratively to denote light generally. 
See Lamp. 

CANDLESTICK, GOLD- 
EN — a misnomer, as* it held only 
lamps — Ex. 25 : 31. It was a splendid 
article of the tabernacle furniture, made 
of fine gold, not moulded, but " of beat- 
en work," and computed by some to 
have been worth, at the modern value 
of gold, $30,000. It consisted of a 
shaft or stem, supposed to have been 5 
feet high, with six branches. The 




Golden Candlestick. (From the Arch of Titus.) 

branches came out from the shaft at 
three points, two at each point, as in 
the accompanying cut. and the width 
of the whole candlestick across the top 
was about three feet and a half. It was 
richly adorned with raised work repre- 
senting flowers, and also knops or knobs, 
and little bowls resembling half an 
almond-shell. At the extremity of 



each branch there was a socket for 
the lamp, and also at the top of the 
main shaft, making seven in all. Tongs 
to remove the snuff and dishes to receive 
it, as well as oil-vessels, were articles 
of furniture belonging to the can- 
dlestick, and were all made of gold. 
The lights were trimmed and supplied 
daily with the purest olive-oil. They 
were lighted at night and extinguished 
in the morning, though some suppose 
that a part of them at least were kept 
burning through the day. The candle- 
stick was so situated as to throw the 
light on the altar of incense and on the 
table of shew-bread, occupying the 
same apartment, and from which the 
natural light was excluded. 

In Solomon's temple there were 10 
golden candlesticks. 1 Kgs. 7:49; 2 
Chr. 4 : 7. They were taken to Baby- 
lon. Jer. 52 : 19. In Zerubbabel's tem- 
ple there was only one candlestick. 
This was removed from Herod's temple 
by Titus, and carried immediately before 
him in his triumphal entry into Rome. 
It is sculptured upon the Arch of Titus, 
in Rome. Its after-history is curious. 
Titus deposited it in the Temple of 
Peace : it was carried to Carthage by 
Genseric, A. D. 455; recovered by Beli- 
sarius ; brought to Constantinople, and 
then " respectfully deposited in the 
Christian church of Jerusalem," a. d. 
533. Nothing further is known of it. 

CANE. See Calamus. 

CANKER-WORM. Joel 1:4; 
Nah. 3 : 15, 16. This was one of the 
army of destroying insects by which 
the land of Judsea was laid waste. It 
is thought that the original word means 
rather the locust in its larva or cater- 
pillar state, when it is even more de- 
structive than after it acquires wings 
and is about to fly away. Of this Na- 
hum's words are very expressive : it 
"spoileth and fleeth away." 

CANNEH. See Calneh. 

CAN'ON (literally, a cane, then a 
rod of measurement) means the collec- 
tion of books of the 0. and N. T. which 
form the original and authoritative 
written rule of faith and practice in the 
Christian Church. 

I. The O. T. Canon.— Our Bible is a 

growth of many generations. Moses put 

the " book of the law " in the side of the 

ark. Deut. 31 : 26. This book, which 

157 



CAN 



CAN 



contained not alone direct precepts, Ex. 
24 : 7, but also general exhortations, 
Deut. 28 : 61, and historical narratives, 
Ex. 17 : 14, was further increased by the 
records of Joshua, Josh. 24 : 26, and 
probably by other writings. 1 Sam. 10 : 
25. At a subsequent time collections of 
psalms and proverbs were made. The 
later prophets, especially Jeremiah, were 
familiar with the writings of their pred- 
ecessors. But although book was added 
to book, there probably was no collec- 
tion made containing them all until the 
Captivity. According to Jewish tradi- 
tion, the formation of the canon of the 
0. T. in its present form was due to Ezra 
and the men of the " great synagogue." 
The division of the 0. T. into three 
parts — the Law, the Prophets, and the 
Hagiographa — i. e. the remaining sa- 
cred writings — (see Bible) was not ar- 
bitrary or accidental, but was a reflec- 
tion of the true historical order of their 
composition. The Law is the founda- 
tion of the Jewish state; the Prophets 
relate the story of the struggles of the 
Jews against internal and external dan- 
gers, and likewise the revelation of the 
divine Mind toward them and their 
neighbors ; the Hagiographa contain 
additional information, and, above all, 
the outpourings of the nation's heart 
and the expression of their wisdom. 
According to Josephus, there were only 
22 books in the sacred canon, corre- 
sponding to the number of letters in the 
Hebrew alphabet. But this short list 
was made by combining several books 
which we properly separate. Thus, the 
two books of Samuel, of Kings, of 
Chronicles, formed but one book respect- 
ively ; Judges and Ruth, Ezra and Ne- 
herniah, Jeremiah and Lamentations, 
were similarly combined; and finally, 
the twelve minor prophets were reck- 
oned as one book. And although other 
lists, slightly different, are given, still 
the main fact is testified to that the Jews 
had a certain fixed and uniform amount 
of writing to which they gave a divine 
character and paid peculiar regard. 
This list does not include the Apocry- 
pha of the Septuagint, which, accord- 
ingly, has been excluded from the 
Protestant 0. T., though often printed 
between the Testaments. The Roman 
Catholic Church, however, receives them 
as authentic. The British and Foreign 
158 



Bible Society ceased to print them after 
1826. The American Bible Society like- 
wise omits them. 

We may therefore say that the 0. T., 
as we have it to-day, existed shortly 
after the Captivity, and that the present 
number and arrangement of the books 
do not affect its age, since nothing has 
been added or omitted which had any 
right to be in the canon or the individ- 
ual books. 

The canon as we have it existed in our 
Lord's day, as is evident from the quo- 
tations in the N. T. by him and his dis- 
ciples. There are in all 275 quotations 
from different books, but, with the ex- 
ception of the words of Enoch in Jude, 
no book out of the canon is used for this 
purpose. We may therefore feel cer- 
tain that we have a canon endorsed by 
the highest conceivable authority. It 
should, however, be borne in mind that 
the Septuagint version is generally 
quoted, even when it differs from the 
Hebrew. The apostles were no slaves 
of the letter, but used the Scriptures in 
the freedom of the Spirit. 

II. The N. T. Canon.— The history 
of the collection and authoritative de- 
termination of the N. T. canon may be 
divided into three periods. 

1. Down to A. D. 170. — Paul claimed 
for his Epistles " a public use and an 
authoritative power." 1 Thess. 5:27; 2 
Thess. 3:6; Col. 4 : 16; 1 Tim. 4 : 6. 
John solemnly warns against any addi- 
tions to or deductions from the book of 
Revelation. Rev. 22: 18, 19. Peter sig- 
nificantly puts Paul's Epistles side by 
side with " the other Scriptures." 2 Pet. 
3 : 16. Nothing is more striking than the 
great difference in contents and expres- 
sion between the N. T. and the Chris- 
tian writings of the following centuries. 
This difference is a subsidiary but con- 
vincing proof of the inspiration of the 
former. We see in the Apostolic Fath- 
ers (a. r>. 70-120) evidence of acquaint- 
ance with at least the majority of our 
present N. T. 

The period from A. D. 120-170 has 
been termed the age of the apologists. 
These efforts to defend the Christian 
faith led to a new use of the facts of 
Christ's life, and it then became mani- 
fest how greatly superior the four Gos- 
pels were to all other accounts ; and 
accordingly, they were separated and 



CAN 



CAP 



assigned to a place of honor and abso- 
lute authority. At the close of the pe- 
riod was composed the Muratorian 
canon in the West, while about the 
same time appeared the Syriac transla- 
tion of the N. T. called the Peshito, and 
the first Latin versions called Itala. 

2. From A. D. 170 to A. D. 80S.— As 
the result of the investigations in the 
patristic writings of this period, West- 
cott declares that the four Gospels, the 
Acts, 1 Peter, 1 John, 13 Epistles of 
Paul, and the Apocalypse (the Revela- 
tion) were accepted by the Church, and, 
with the exception of the Apocalypse, 
have never been questioned since until 
modern times. Speaking generally, we 
may say that of the so-called "dis- 
puted " books of the N. T. the Apoca- 
lypse was universally received by all 
the Christian writers, while the Epistle 
to the Hebrews found acceptance in the 
Oriental, but not in the Occidental, 
Church. Judging from the writings, 
" the Epistles of James and Jude and the 
second and third of John were little 
used, and the second of Peter was bare- 
ly known." 

3. From A. D. SOS to A. D. S97.— At 
the close of this period the third Coun- 
cil of Carthage, A. D. 397, took place, 
memorable as that by which the present 
canon of the N. T., with its 27 books, 
was ratified. Since that time it has 
remained unchanged. Luther revived 
doubts concerning some of the 7 books 
which Eusebius calls "disputed," es- 
pecially the Epistle of James (which he 
could not harmonize with Paul's doc- 
trine of justification by faith); but 
these were private opinions, and were 
not adopted by the Lutheran Church. 
All the Protestant Churches agree with 
the Greek and the Roman Churches as 
regards the extent of the canon of the 
N. T. And this little book contains the 
chief wisdom of the world, and will con- 
tinue to guide mankind in the way of 
salvation to the end of time. 

CANTICLES. See Song of Sol- 
omon. 

CAPERNAUM {town ofNahum), a 
city of great interest as the home of Jesus 
after he left Nazareth. Though it fills a 
large place in the gospel narrative, it is 
not once mentioned in 0. T. history, nor in 
any portion of the Bible except the four 
Gospels. It is called Christ's " own city," 



Matt. 9:1, and it was the scene of some of 
his most remarkable miracles, labors, and 
discourses. Matt. 8 : 5-U ; 9 : 2 ; 17 : 24 ; 

■ John 6 : 17-^ ; 4 : 46, etc. Much explo- 
ration, study, and discussion have been 
given to determine its true site, but the 
question is still unsettled. 

The gospel narrative throws some 
general, though not very definite, light 
upon the location of this lost city. It 
was (1) a city of Galilee, Luke 4 : 31 ; 
(2) by the lake-coast, Matt. 4:13; John 
6 : 17, 24 ; (3) with collectors of customs, 
and probably a custom-house, Matt. 17 : 
24 ; Mark 2:1,14; Luke 5 : 27 compared 
with Matt. 9 :1,9; (4) it had a noted syn- 
nagogue, built by a Roman centurion, 
Matt. 8:5; Mark 1 : 21 ; Luke 7:1,5; 
(5) it was joined with Chorazin and Beth- 
saida in the woes pronounced upon them 
by Christ, and its complete destruction 
was predicted, Matt. 11:20-23; Luke 
10 : 13-15; (6) it has been inferred also 
from the Scriptures that Capernaum was 
in the land of Gennesaret, but this is not 
certain. Comp. Matt. 14 : 34 with John 
6 : 16, 17, 24, 25. These indicate that the 
city was on the west side of the Sea of 
Galilee, and near its northern end. 

Two places have been mainly urged 
as marking the site of ancient Caper- 

! naum : (1) Khan Minyeh, supported by 
Robinson (1852), Macgregor (1864), 

j Porter (1875), Kiepert, Sepp, and by 

| members of the recent British and Amer- 
ican Palestine Exploration Societies 
(Kitchener and Merrill) ; (2) Tell Hum, 

j maintained by Dr. Wilson, Major Wil- 

! son, W. M. Thomson, Stanley, Hep- 
worth Dixon, Ritter, Baedeker, De- 
litzsch, Plumptre, Schaff, and others. 

Tell Hum is a ruin near the Sea of 
Galilee, about two miles south-west of 
where the river Jordan enters the sea. 
K1ku\ Minyeh is a Saracen inn on the 
northern extremity of the plain of 
Gennesaret (el-Ghliweir), about 5 miles 
south-w r est of the mouth of the Jordan 
and 1\ to 3 miles below Tell Hum. and 
situated near the lake. 

Several other places have been sug- 
gested : as 'Ain Mudawarah, once urged, 

| but afterward abandoned, by Tristram, 
and ruins near Bethsaida Julias : but 
their claims are generally regarded as 

j not well supported. 

The argument from tradition is divid- 

I ed between Khan Minyeh,a,nd Tell Hum, 
159 



CAP 



CAP 



but prevailingly in favor of Tell Hum. 
Conder ( Tent- Work in Palestine, ii. 182) 
claims Jewish and Arab tradition for 
Khan Minyeh, but Dr. Thomson and 
Furrer claim it decidedly for Tell Hum. 
The arguments for Khan Minyeh, 
briefly stated, are: (1) It is near the 




Kafr) "of Nahum," and Tell Hum 
means "the mound or ruins of Hum" 
— i. e. Nahum. 

The strongest argument against Khan 
Minyeh is the absence of ruins of suffi- 
cient importance to indicate a city of 
the size of Capernaum. The English Sur- 
vey party in 1866 
jf dug up at Khan Min- 
\ yeh chiefly fragments 
of pottery ; Kitchener 
in 1877 examined the 
more extensive exca- 
vations, bringing to 
light what appeared 
to him to be a wall 
of squared stones. 
Robinson conjectures 
that the ruins of Ca- 
pernaum were trans- 
ported to Tiberias,but 
Tiberias was already 
built when Caper- 
naum was in its 
prosperity. Those 
place Caper- 



who 

naum at Khan 



Min- 



Gennesaret, from Khan Minyeh. (From a Photograph taken for the 
Palestine Exploration Fund.) 



yeh usually locate 



sea-shore r while Tell Hum is at some 
distance from the shore; (2) it is in 
the land of Gennesaret, if Gennesaret is 
identical with el-Ghuweir ; (3) it is well 
located for a custom-house, on the high- 
way from Jerusalem to Damascus. 

The arguments in support of Tell Hum 
mainly are : (1) The extensive ruins, cov- 
ering a space half a mile long by a quar- 
ter of a mile wide, indicate a large city 
like Capernaum ; (2) the ruins of a large 
synagogue have been discovered there ; 
(3) when Christ crossed the lake from 
Capernaum, Mark 6 : 33, the crowd ran 
around the end of the lake to meet him : 
and it is claimed that Tell Hum is more 
likely, therefore, to have been his start- 
ing-point than Khan Minyeh ; (4) Jose- 
phus, wounded on the plain of Batikha, 
at the north end of the lake, was car- 
ried to Capernaum, most likely the 
nearest place — not, therefore, at Khan 
Minyeh, but Tell Hum; (5) historical 
narratives of the sixth and seventh cen- 
turies and the Jewish and Arab tradi- 
tion appear to favor Tell Hum as Caper- 
naum ; (6) the identity of name, for Ca- 
pernaum means " the village" {Kefr or 
160 



C h o r a z i n at Tell 
Hum and Bethsaida 
at Et- Tabighah. This theory leaves the 
important ruins at Kerazeh to be ex- 
plained. As the latter cannot be ig- 
nored, they form a strong objection to 
Khan Minyeh. If, however, Capernaum 
was at Tell Hum, then Chorazin was 
doubtless at Kerazeh, and no important 
ruins remain unexplained. 

At present, therefore, the arguments 
are strongly in favor of Tell Hum, but 
a final decision of the question must 
wait further excavations. The explo- 
rations of the English society organ- 
ized in 1878-1879 for the purpose of 
determining the sites of the three cities 
may furnish information for the satis- 
factory settlement of this question. 

Ruins at Tell Hum. — The most re- 
markable ruin at Tell Hum is that of a 
Jewish synagogue. Around this, and 
up the slope behind it, are the remains 
of an ancient town; the walls of many 
private houses can be traced, and the 
appearance of a main street leading 
toward ancient Chorazin. The syna- 
gogue was about 75 feet long by 58 feet 
wide ; its walls were built of hard white 
limestone, almost marble, resting on ba- 



CAP 



CAP 



saltic ruck. Portions of columns, pedes- 
tals, capitals of the Corinthian order, and 
blocks of stone have been uncovered on 
its Bite, and on the lintel of a door a rep- 
resentation of the pot of manna was dis- 
covered, recalling the words of Jesus: 
"Your fathers did eat manna in the 
wilderness, and are dead." John 6 : 49. 
If Tell Hum is Capernaum, then this 
synagogue was doubtless the one which 



northward along the bank, on which 
several springs and the remains of build- 
in ir s nre to be seen, until it reaches Tell 
limn. From thence northward to Kera- 
zeh, probably Chorazin, is about 2 miles, 
and there are traces of a paved road 
which connected the city with the great 
caravan-road to Damascus. Following 
the shore of the lake to the north-west 
about 2 miles, where the Jordan emp- 
ties into the Sea of 
Galilee, is Abu Zany, 
which Dr. Thomson 
regards as Beth- 
saida, the birthplace 
of Peter and An- 
drew. The ruin of 
all these cities has 
! been so complete as 
to render their very 
sites doubtful, and 
strikingly to remind 
us of the fearful pre- 
diction of our Lord 
concerning them. 
Matt. 11:21-23. 

CAPH'TOR 
{chajjlet), the origi- 
raiins at Tell Hum. (From a Photograph. Palestine Exploration Fund.) nSi \ home of the 




the pious Roman centurion built, Luke 
7 : 1-10, and in which Jesus taught. 

North of the town are two tombs, one 
built under ground of limestone blocks 
after the hard basaltic rock had been cut 
away ; the other above ground and white- 
washed within and without, as in our 
Lord's day. Matt. 23 : 27. 

The road from Khan Mini/eh to Tell 
Hum now leads over the rocks at some 
height above the lake. It is a narrow 
path, more like an ancient conduit than 
a road. From this height the view ex- 
tends to Tiberias. A short distance 
from Khan Minyeh by the seashore is 
'Ain et-Tin, or "Fig Spring" (which 
Dr. Robinson erroneously identified with 
the spring "Kapharnaum," mentioned by 
Josephus). A mile farther north is the 
charming bay Et-Tabighah, by which 
some locate western Bethsaida, but at 
which, more probably, was the suburb 
and harbor of Capernaum ; here is a 
very copious fountain abounding in 
fish (probably the " Kapharnaum " of 
Josephus), and a large stream which 
turns a mill and once watered, through 
an aqueduct, the plain of Gennesaret. 
The road from Et-Tdbujhah continues 
11 



Caphtorim or Philistines. Deut. 2 : 23 ; 
Jer. 47 : 4 ,• Am. 9 : 7. Some have placed 
it in Cappadocia, others in Cyprus or in 
Crete. It is more probably identical with 
Caphtur, and the northern deltaof Egypt. 

CAPPADO'CIA, the largest and 
most easterly province of Asia Minor. 
On the north was Pontus, on the east 
the Euphrates, beyond which were Ar- 
menia and Mesopotamia, on the south 
Syria and Cilicia, and on the west Ga- 
latia. It was high table-land, inter- 
sected by ranges of mountains, sparse- 
ly wooded, but good for grain or graz- 
ing. Cappadocia was conquered by 
Cyrus, ruled by Alexander the Great, 
tributary to the Seleucida?, and became 
a Roman province, a. d. 17. Some of 
its people were in Jerusalem on the day 
of Pentecost, Acts 2 : 9, and afterward 
Christians of the province were ad- 
dressed by Peter. 1 Pet. 1:1. 

CAP'TAIN, an officer in the Jew- 
ish army whose rank or power was des- 
ignated by the number of men under 
his command, as captain of fifty or 
captain of a thousand, and the com- 
mander or chief of the whole army was 
called the captain of the host. Deut. 1 : 
101 



CAP 



CAP 



15; 2 Sain. 19:13, etc. The divisions 
of the army were regulated in some 
measure by the division of families, as 
the heads of families were usually offi- 
cers. 2 Chr. 25 : 5. Captains of hun- 




A Roman Captain or Centurion. 
dreds, or larger companies, were proba- 
bly what would be called in modern 
phrase staff-officers, and formed the 
council of war. 1 Chr. 13 : 1. The " cap- 
tain of the guard," Acts 28 : 16, was the 
commander of the Praetorian troops at 
Rome. See Centurion. 

Captain of the Temple, Acts 4:1, 
was the chief of the priests and Levites 
who kept guard around and within that 
sacred edifice. In this non-military 
sense is Christ called " Captain " in 
Heb. 2: 10. 

CAP'TIVE. Gen. 14:14. Usually 
denotes one taken in war. Among East- 
ern nations such persons were treated 
with great cruelty, and were subjects 
of merchandise. Eor instances of this 
merciless treatment see Jud. 1 : 7 ; 1 Sam. 
11 : 2 ; 2 Sam. 8 : 2 ; 2 Kg?. 25 : 7. It 
is a remarkable fact that though the Is- 
raelites dealt in many instances harshly 
with those they captured, yet their con- 
duct, stood out in such favorable contrast 
to that of heathen nations that the hu- 
manity of some even of their worst kings 
was reckoned upon by their conquered 
enemies. 1 Kgs. 20 : 31-34. The pas- 
sage Joel 3:3 brings out into melan- 
162 



choly prominence both the lot of pris- 
oners of war and also the contempt 
manifested for the Jews. The Bible 
(Speaker's) Commentary thus expounds 
the verse: " The Jewish prisoners were 
held so cheap that a slave-girl was sold 
by her captor for a draught of wine, and 
a slave-boy was given in place of the 
small coin thrown to a prostitute. Dur- 
ing the Jewish war Titus took 97,000 
prisoners, of Avhom he publicly sold all 
that were under 17 years of age. After 
Hadrian's Jewish war four Jews were 
sold for a measure of barley at Hebron." 
The Romans sometimes compelled a cap- 
tive to be joined with a dead body, and 
to bear it about until the horrible efflu- 
via destroyed the life of the living. 

The capture of Judaea by the Romans, 
A. D. 70, was commemorated by coins 
which are shown in the following cut: 




Coins to Commemorate the Capture of Judsea. 
(Farrar's "'Life of Christ.") 
On the left-hand coin is seen the emperor Titus ; Ju- 
daea is weeping at the foot of a palm tree. On the 
right hand, a Jewish captive with hands tied hehind 
his hack looks upon a Jewess seated at the foot of a 
palm tree. 

CAPTIVITY. Num. 21 : 29. A 
term usually employed to denote an im- 
portant era in the history of the Jewish 
people. To punish their rebellions and 
idolatries, God suffered them to come 
into frequent bondage to surrounding 
nations. Six of their partial and tran- 
sient captivities took place at an early 
period of their history, of which a par- 
ticular account is given in Judges. 

Soon after the close of Solomon's 
reign the kingdom was divided. Ten 
of the tribes took the name of " the 
kingdom of Israel," leaving the tribes 
of Judah and Benjamin to constitute 
the kingdom of Judah. Each of these 
two kingdoms suffered a distinct captiv- 
ity. The Jews reckon four national cap- 
tivities — the Babylonian, the Median, 
the Grecian, and the Roman. 

Pul, B. c. 762, and then Tiglath-pileser, 
B. c. 740, kings of A ssyria, made war upon 



CAP 



CAP 



the kingdom of Israel and carried a large 
number of the people (chiefly those of 
the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and Manas- 
seh) into captivity, 2 Kgs. 15 : 29 ; ] Chr. 
5 : 26, and the residue remained under 
their own king, but paid tribute to the 




Priaoijeid Le lore Saigon. (Nineveh Marbles.) 

Assyrian government. After the lapse 
of 20 years this tribute was refused, 
and therefore Shalmaneser besieged and 
(after three years) Sargon captured 
Samaria, the capital of the kingdom, 
and the great mass of the people were 
transported to provinces beyondthe Eu- 
phrates, b. c. 721. Their fate is a fre- 
quent subject of speculation, but noth- | 
ing definite can be determined. Nor 
was the kingdom of Judah long left un- I 




Jewish Captives before Darius. (From Ancient 
I'ersepolis.) 

molested. In Hezekiah's reign Senna. . 
cherib, king of Assyria, took the fenced [ 
cities of Judah, b. c. 713, and would j 
have taken Jerusalem had Hezekiahnot j 
sent him a heavy tribute. 2 Kgs. 18: 13. 
His next attempt on the city, which oc- I 



curred some little time after, was defeat- 
ed by a miracle. 2 Kgs. 19 : 35. 

Nebuchadnezzar repeatedly overran 
the kingdom of Judah, the first time in 
the third year of Jehoiakim. He carried 
a few captives to Babylon, among whom 
were Daniel and his companions, b. c. 
605. 2 Kgs. 24 : 1 j Dan. 1 : 1-4. In the 
tenth or eleventh year of Jehoiakim he 
came again, B. c. 598, 2 Chr. 36: 6, and 
a third time in the eighth year of the 
reign of Jehoiachin. This invasion re- 
sulted in the carrying away of 10,000 
Jews. 2 Kgs. 24: 10-16. The 70 years' 
captivity began when Nebuchadnezzar, 
for the fourth time, invaded Judaea, 
B. c. 588. 2 Kgs. 25 : 1. The king, Zed- 
ekiah, was taken, his sons slain, the 
temple burnt and the city despoiled, 
and the greater part of the population 
carried into Babylonia. Jer. 52 : 8-13. 
During this long captivity the rite of 
circumcision was observed, the genea- 
logical tables filled, distinctions of rank 
maintained, and thus the Jews retained 
their nationality intact. 

In b. c. 536 the Jews were allowed to 
return from Babylon by Cyrus, as a 
portion of them did under Zerubbabel, 
Ezr. 2 :2, and some time afterward un- 
der Ezra, Ezr. 7 : 7, b. c. 458, and Nehe- 
miah, Neh. 7 : 66, b. c. 445. Those who 
remained in Assyria or scattered over 
the Roman empire kept up their na- 
tional distinctions and were known as 
" The Dispersion," John 7 : 35 ; 1 Pet. 
1:1; Jas. 1:1, and afterward were 
starting-points for Christianity. 

Children of the Captivity, Ezr. 
4 : 1, a common figure of 
speech, denoting those who 
were in captivity, or per- 
haps sometimes literally 
their posterity. Turn again, 
Ps. 126 : 1, turn away, Jer. 
29 : 14, turn back, Ze'ph. 3 : 
20, or bring again, Eze. 16 : 
53, the captivity, are figura- 
tive phrases, all referring to 
the Jewish nation in bondage 
and their return to Canaan. 
A similar expression is used 
in relation to individuals, as in Job 
42 : 10 : The Lord turned the captiv- 
ity of Job — that is, he released him from 
the unusual sufferings and perplexities 
to which he had been in bondage, and 
caused him to rejoice again in the favor 
163 



Bas-relief at 



CAR 



CAR 



of God. He led captivity captive, Eph. 
4 : 8, or " he led those as his captives who 
had made captives of others," is a figur- 
ative allusion to the victory which our 
blessed Redeemer achieved over sin and 
death, by whom our ruined race are 
brought into bondage. Rom. 8 : 21 ; 
Gal. 4 : 24 : Heb. 2:15; 2 Pet. 2:19. 

CAR'BUNCLE. This term repre- 
sents two Hebrew words. The first, Ex. 
28 : 17 ; 39 : 10 : Eze. 28 :. 13, meaning 
flashing like lightning, is supposed to be 
either the emerald or beryl, both of 
which are precious stones of a green 
color. " Thy gates of carbuncles," Isa. 
54: 12, has reference to a stone shining 
like fire — possibly a brilliant species of 
ruby. 

CARCHEMISH, or CHAR'- 



CHEMISH {citadel of Chemosh), a 
chief city of northern Syria, on the 
Euphrates, where a great and decisive 
battle was fought, in which Nebuchad- 
nezzar defeated Pharaoh-necho, 2 Chr. 
35 : 20 ; 2 Kgs. 23 : 29 ; Jer. 46 : 2, in 
b. c. 605. It was formerly identified 
with Circesium. Rawlinson placed it ; c 
Bir, near Hierapolis, on the Euphrates : 
a later writer at Kalaat, below Bered/i,. 

CARE'AH {bald-head), the father 
of Johanan. 2 Kgs. 25 : 23. Elsewhere 
spelt Kareah. 

CA'RIA, a small Roman province 
in the south-western part of Asia Minor. 
Its cities, Cnidus and Miletus, are men- 
tioned in Acts 20 : 15 ; 27 : 7. 

CAR'MEL [fruitful, or wooded). 
1. One of the most noted mountains in 








Mount Carmel, from the Bay of Acre. (After Views of G. M. Powell.) 



Palestine, a range or ridge about 12 
miles long, one end jutting into the 
Mediterranean Sea in a bold bluff over 
500 feet high, extending thence south- 
east until it abruptly breaks off in an 
inland bluff over 500 feet above the sea- 
level. Its highest elevation, about 4 miles 
from the east end, is nearly 1740 feet. 
It is specially noted as being the scene 
of remarkable events in the history of 
Elijah and Elisha. 2 Kgs. 2 : 25 ; 4 : 25. 
The scene of the famous contest between 
Elijah and the prophets of Baal, 1 Kgs. 
18 : 20-42, was near the east end of the 
ridge, at el-Mahrakah {>. e. " burnt-offer- 
ing") ; a well is near, and a slippery path 
leads down to the Kishon, several hun- 
dred feet below. This stream is now call- 
164 



ed Nahr el-Miikutta," river of slaughter, 
in memory of this event. It is a sacred 
mountain alike to Jews, Christians, and 
Moslems, and formerly swarmed with 
monks and hermits. One tract, known 
as the Monk's Cavern, has hundreds of 
caves, and a little below is the traditional 
cave of Elijah. On the mountain is the 
large monastery of the Carmelites, which 
affords hospitable accommodation and a 
magnificent view. It is now occupied 
by eighteen monks. The German col- 
ony of Haifa has recently planted vine- 
yards on Mount Carmel. 

Present Appearance. — Carmel is cov- 
ered with a profusion of vegetation, 
illustrating " the excellency of Carmel." 
Isa. 35 : 2. It is still known as Kurmttl 



CAK 



CAS 



and Mar EUjas (Mount St. Elias). The 
rugged sides of the ridge are of hard, 
dark stone, always steep, often precip- 
itous, covered with shrubs of dark, rich 
green. These shrubs are chiefl} r a kind 
of pistachio with no berries, the sponge- 
laurel, the hawthorn, and the arbutus. 
The bare spots are covered with flowers, 
as rock-roses, striped asphodel, the daisy, 
and the red and purple anemone. The 
horse of the traveller often presses out 
a sweet fragrance from the thyme and 
mint. Herds of goats are frequently seen 
climbing its steep sides, and occasional- 
ly a gazelle bounds through the shrubs, 
while the fox, jackal, wolf, and a stray 
wild boar and a panther (chetah) add to 
the animal life of the mountains. The 
partridge and woodcock also abound. 
Huge valleys upward of 1000 feet deep 
wind tortuously from the main ridge to 
the sea, requiring hours to cross to the 
opposite summits. The rock is a com- 
pact, sandy limestone. 

2. A town in the mountains of Judah, 
where Saul set a monument, 1 Sam. 15 : 
12 ; 25 : 2, 5, 7, 40 : 27 : 3, and Uzziah 
had vineyards, 2 Chr. 26 : 10 ; now Kur- 
mvl, 10 miles south-east of Hebron, 
where are ruins of a strong castle. 

CAR'MI (vine-dresser). 1. The 
fourth son of Reuben, progenitor of the 
Carmites. Gen. 46 : 9 : Ex. 6:14; Num. 
23 : 6 : 1 Chr. 5 : 3. 

2. The father of Achan, the " troubler 
of Israel." Jos. 7:1, 18. 

CARPENTER. The first allu- 
sion to the carpenter's trade in the 
Scriptures occurs in the command to 
Xoah to build the ark, Gen. 6: 14-16, 
and the directions here given presup- 
pose quite a considerable skill. The 
second time the trade is mentioned 
is in the description of the setting up 
of the tabernacle in the wilderness, Ex. 
25 : 23 ; 27 : 1-15, where various kinds 
of wood-work — the ark, the table, the 
altar, the acacia boards, etc. — are spoken 
of. From this point and throughout the 
holy writings frequent mention is made 
of this trade: and though it appears 
that both David, 2 Sam. 5:11, and Sol- 
omon, 1 Kg?. 5 : 0, employed foreign art- 
isans, the numerous allusions, in the his- 
torical, prophetical, and poetical books of 
the 0. T., to the tools, implements, and 
methods of this trade, show that the na- 
tive craftsmen must have been possessed 



! of great skill, and the trade itself held in 
I high esteem among the people. 

Joseph, the husband of Mary, was a 
! carpenter, Matt. 13 : 55, and our Lord 
! himself worked at the trade, Mark 6 :3. 
" Is not this the carpenter's son ?" yea, 
"Is not this the carpenter?" asked the 
! people, not in contempt, but in wonder. 
! They implied, however, that they re- 
i garded him as one of themselves, as no 
[ better than they. But we may be thank- 
j ful that our Lord is thus called, for the 
very word "is full of meaning, and has 
exercised a Aery noble and blessed in- 
fluence over the fortunes of mankind. 
! It has tended to console and sanctify 
j the estate of poverty, to ennoble the 
duty of labor, to elevate the entire con- 
I ception of manhood as of a condition 
| which in itself alone, and apart from 
every adventitious circumstance, has 
its own grandeur and dignity in the 
| sight of God." — FARRAR : Life of Christ, 
ch. vii. 

CARPUS (fruit), a friend of Paul 
at Troas. 2 Tim. 4: 13. 

C AR'RIAGE (from carro, « a car "), 
old English for " baggage," luggage re- 
quiring to be carried. Jud. 18 : 21 ; 1 Sam. 
17 : 20, 22 ; Isa. 10 : 28 : 46 : 1 ; Acts 21 : 
15. They "took up their carriages" — 
i. e. they packed up their things and 
commenced their journey. 

CARSHENA (illustrious?), one 
of the seven highest princes of Persia 
and Media. Esth. 1 : 14. 
CART. See Wagon. 
CASE'MENT. See Window. 
CASIPH'IA. Ezr. 8:17. Probably 
near Ahava. 

CAS'LUHIM (fortified), a Mizra- 
ite people or tribe. Gen. 10 : 14; 1 Chr. 
1:12. 

CAS'SIA. Ex. 30 : 24. The bark of 
a tree (Cinnamomum cassia) like the cin- 
namon, and one of the ingredients, of 
the holy anointing oil. It was brought 
from India by the Tyrians. The He- 
brew refers, in Ps. 45 : 8, to another 
kind of spice, remarkable for its fra- 
grance, and not yet identified with 
much probability. 

CAS TLE, in Acts 21 : 34, 37 : 22 : 
24 ; 23 : 10, 16, 32, means " the fortress 
at the north-west corner of the temple 
in Jerusalem. It was called by Herod 
the Tower of Antonia, in honor of his 
patron, Mark Antony. The temple was 
165 



CAS 



CED 



a kind of citadel that guarded Jerusa- 
lem, and so the Tower of Antonia was 
a fortress that commanded the temple." 

CAS TOR and POLLUX. Acts 
28:11. In heathen mythology," Castor" 
and " Pollux " were the names of twin 
sons of Jupiter who presided over the 




Castor and Pollux. (From a Coin of Bruttii.) 

destinies of sailors. Hence an image 
representing them was often seen on the 
prow of ancient ships, like the figure- 
heads of modern days. In the case of 
Paul's ship, the name was Castor and 
Pollux. 

CAST OUT, comp. John 9 : 22 
and 34, or EXCOMMUNICATE, 
was to cut off from the privileges of 
the Jewish Church. 

CAT'ERPILLAR {the consumer), 
probably another word for locusts in 
their .immature or wingless state, ap- 
pearing in vast numbers and of most 
destructive voracity. 1 Kgs. 8 : 37. 
Hence they were often employed as the 
agents in the execution of God's judg- 
ments, Ps. 78 : 46 and 105 : 34, and fig- 
uratively represent a great multitude. 
Isa. 33 : 4; Jer. 51 : 14, 27. They were 
regarded as among the most desolating 
visitations of God's hand. 

CAT'TLE. Gen. 1 : 25. In the 
common scriptural use of this term it 
embraces the tame quadrupeds em- 
ployed by mankind, as oxen, horses, 
sheep, camels, goats, etc. Gen.l3:2; Ex. 
12 : 29 and 34 : 1 9 ; Num. 20 : 19 ; 32 : 
16, and Ps. 50 : 10, and Job 1 : 3, where 
the word translated *' substance" would 
be more properly rendered " cattle." 

The allusion in Job 36 : 33 is ex- 
plained by the well-known fact that 
certain animals of this class are pecu- 
liarly sensitive to the change of air 
which precedes rain. 

CAUL. Isa. 3:18. The attire of 
the head, made of net-work and orna- 
mented. In Hos. 13 : 8 the word "caul" 
ICG 



denotes the pericardium, or membranous 
bag which encloses the heart. This 
word in the Pentateuch denotes one of 
the viscera, probably the great lobe of 
the liver. 

CAVE. Caves are very common 
in Palestine, and the names of sec- 
tions of country were derived from 
this fact, as the Hawaii, Eze. 47 : 16, is 
caveland, and the Horites are dwellers 
in caves. They were made use of as 
temporary dwelling-places, Gen. 19 : 30 ; 
as places of concealment, Josh. 10 : 16; 
Jud. 6 : 2 ; 1 Sam. 13 : 6 ; 22 : 1, 2 ; 
24:3; 2 Sam. 23: 13: 1 Kgs. 18 : 4; 
19 : 9; Heb. 11 : 38 ; and as burial- 
places, Gen. 23 : 17, 19 and 49 : 29; 
John 11 : 38. Some noted ones are named 
in the Bible, such as Adullam, the Mach- 
pelah, Makkedah, etc. The manger in 
which our Lord was born may have been 
a cave. See Tombs and Burial. 

CE ' DAR. Undoubtedly several 
cone-bearing, evergreen trees are in- 
cluded under this title. But ordinarily, 
and especially when the full form is 
given — cedar of Lebanon — the still fa- 
mous tree of that name (Cedrus Libani) 
is meant. The Scriptures correctly give 
its characteristics. Comp. Ps. 92 : 12 ; 
Eze. 31 : 3-6 ; 1 Kgs. 7 : 2 ; 10 : 27 ; Song 
Sol. 4 : 11 1 Hos. 14 : 6 ; Isa. 2 : 13 ; 10 : 
19. It is one of the most valuable and 
majestic evergreen trees of Eastern 
forests, and is found upon Mounts 
Amanus and Taurus, in Asia Minor, and 
other parts of the Levant, but in its 
greatest perfection on Mount Lebanon. 
It grows to the height of 70 or 80 feet. 
The branches are thick and long, spread- 
ing out almost horizontally from the 
trunk, which is sometimes 30 or 40 
feet in circumference. Eze. 31 : 3, 6, 8. 
Maundrell measured one which was 36 
feet and 6 inches in the girth, and 111 
feet in the spread of its boughs. The 
wood is of a red color and bitter taste, 
which is offensive to insects, and hence 
it is very durable and admirably adapt- 
ed for building. A specimen of this 
wood in the British Museum is labelled 
" Cedar of Lebanon, from Palace of 
Nimrod; 3000 years old." Cedar was 
used for the most noble and costly edi- 
fices, as the palace of Persepolis, the 
palace of Solomon, and the temple at 
Jerusalem. This timber served not only 
for beams for the frame and boards for 



CED 



CED 



covering buildings, but was also wrought 
into the walls. 2 Sam. 7 : 2 ; 1 Kgs. 6 : 
36 and 7 : 12. The gum which exudes 
from the trunk and the cones is as soft 
and fragrant as the balsam of Mecca. 

This tree, there is reason to believe, 
once quite covered the mountains of 
Lebanon between the heights of 3000 
and 7000 feet. Rev. H. H. Jessup has 
visited and described eleven distinct 
groves of cedars on those mountains, 
including, altogether, several thousand 
trees. 

The principal forest visited by trav- 
ellers is 8 hours' ride from Baalbec, on 
Cedar Mountain (Jebel el-Arz), about 



6300 feet above the sea-level, a little 
below the summit. Baedeker ( I'ahstine 
and Syria, p. 505) thus ("escribes it: 
" The group occupies the top of a hill 
with five culminating points of various 
sizes, on the eastern and western sides 
of which runs a water-course. It con- 
sists of about 350 trees, the tallest of 
which does not exceed 78 feet in height. 
The rock on which they grow is white 
limestone, and the decaying spines, 
cones, and other matter have formed 
a dark-colored soil. The oldest trees, 
about 9 in number, are on the south- 
eastern height. In the midst of the 
north-western group stands a Maronite 




Cedars of Lebanon. 
chapel. Unfortunately, no care what- 
ever is taken of these noble trees. The 
goats eat all the young shoots, and cedar 
branches are even used for fuel, par- 
ticularly on the occasion of an annual 
festival in August. Countless names 
are cut on the trunks of the trees. 
... In gloomy weather the sombre 
group and its black surroundings 
form a weird and wild picture." 

In most of the botanic gardens and 
arboretums of Europe and America 
growing specimens of this monarch of 
Eastern forests may now be seen. It 
thrives especially well in England. In 
the general appearance of its bark and 
foliage it is much like the larch, but it 



{After Photographs.) 

is a far more widely-branching an 

massive tree. 

Dr. G. E. Post, of Beirut, Syria, who is 
a good botanist, supplies the following 
interesting information concerning this 
tree-: " The first mention of the cedar 
in the Bible is in Lev. 14:4, 6, 49, 51, 
52, with the parallel passage, Num. 
19 : 6. The children of Israel were 
then in the peninsula of Mount Sinai. 
Did the cedar grow in that region? or 
is the cedar there alluded to a differ- 
ent tree from the cedar of Lebanon ? 

" There are other trees known now in 

Syria as cedars. The Aleppo pine is 

one, and it is quite probable that this 

tree may have grown in that region, 

167 



CED 



.CEN 



although not more so than that the 
cedar itself was there. The juniper 
(Juniper us oxycedrus) still grows in the 
peninsula of Sinai; and being of the 
same family as the cedar, it is allowable 
to regard it as the plant here intended. 
A species of juniper is known in Eng- 
lish by the name of 'cedar.' In view, 
however, of admitted changes in climate 
in all the countries bordering the east- 
ern end of the Mediterranean, there is 
nothing to forbid the possibility of the 
cedar of Lebanon having once existed 
on Sinai. It grows on the Atlas chain 
and the mountains connecting Taurus 
with the Himalayas, as well as in the 
latter groups. May it not have found 
in Sinai a connecting station between 
its distant homes in the Atlas and the 
Lebanon and Himalayas ? 

(i Some very foolish things have been 
said about the durability of the cedar. 
It has been pronounced, perhaps from 
trials on specimens taken from Euro- 
pean or American trees, a crooked, in- 
ferior, perishable wood. In point of 
fact, it is notable for toughness, dura- 
bility, and adaptedness to the climate 
and circumstances of Syria. There is 
no such thing as a rotten cedar. 
Branches broken off by the tempests 
lie unrotten on the ground. The trunks, 
where barked by travellers or peeled by 
the lightning, remain dead, but un- 
corrupted. The name of Lamartine, 
carved on one of the giant trees 109 
years ago, is fresh and legible to-day. 
All other woods indigenous to Syria are 
liable to the attacks of insects or a kind 
of dry rot. Cedar beams are unchange- 
able. No greater injury has been done 
to Lebanon than denuding it of its kingly 
tree. The cedar is a desirable wood for 
carving. Isa. 44 : 14. It is hard, fra- 
grant, takes a high polish, which devel- 
ops a beautiful grain, and it grows 
darker and richer bv time. 

" ' The trees of the Lord are full of sap ; 
the cedars of Lebanon, which he hath 
planted.' Ps. 104:15. The aromatic 
sap of this tree exudes from the slight- 
est scratch, and distills in copal drops 
down the ba;-k. If two branches rub 
together, they soon unite. Several trees 
are often joined in this way through the 
superabundance of their vitality. 

" ' The righteous shall flourish like the 
palm tree ; he shall grow like a cedar 
168 



in Lebanon.' A palm tree attains its 
height in a hundred years or less ; a ce- 
dar grows for thousands of years. A 
palm tree soon bears fruit and flour- 
ishes ; a cedar grows slowly and tarries 
long before it bears fruit, but it con- 
tinues to bear fruit long centuries after 
the palm tree has decayed. It continues 
fat and flourishing (green). The cedar 
is ever green. Its vitality is equally 
apparent in the heat of summer and 
the snows of winter. How apt a likeness 
of the righteous, who grows in grace as 
he lengthens out his years ! The cedar 
still bears multitudes of cones when it 
has been riven by lightning, torn and 
almost uprooted by the wind. So afflic- 
tion but develops the graces of the 
righteous, and the green branches bear 
abundance of fruit when the blighted 
ones have been severed and for ever 
lost." See Lebanon. 

CE'DRON. John 18:1. See Ke- 

DRON. 

CEII/ING. We have a description 
of the ceiling of Solomon's temple and 
palace in 1 Kgs. 6:9,10,15; 7:3; 2 
Chr. 3:5. It was made of planks of 
cedar or fir "laid on beams or rests in 
the wall." Eastern floors and ceilings 
were just the reverse of ours. Their 
ceilings were of wood, painted, Jer. 22: 
14, ours are of plaster ; their floors were 
of plaster or some sort of tiles, ours are 
of wood. 

CELLARS. 1 Chr. 27 : 27. Of 
cellars such as are common among us 
nothing was known in the East, if we 
except the chambers which are used in 
Persia for the storing of earthen jars 
or other vessels of wine. Among the 
Hebrews and Greeks these jars were 
buried up to the neck in the ground. 
The word "wine-cellars" in the passage 
cited probably denotes the patches of 
ground used to bury wine. See Wine. 

CEL'O-SYR'IA. See Ccelo- 
Syria. 

CEiV'CHREA (accurately CEN'- 
CHRE.E), the eastern harbor of Cor- 
inth, on the Saronic Gulf, and the em- 
porium of its trade with the Asiatic 
shores of the Mediterranean, about 9 
miles east of that city; the western 
harbor was Lechasum. A church was 
formed at Cenchrea, of which Phebe 
was a deaconess. Rom. 16 : 1. Paul 
sailed from thence to Ephesus. Acts 



CEN 



CEN 



18 : 18. The town was full of idolatrous 
monuments and shrines. It is now call- 
ed Kikrie*. 

CENSER. Lev. 10:1. A vessel 
used in the temple-service for the pur- 
pose of carrying the fire in which the 
incense was burned, taken from the per- 
petual supply on the altar of burnt- 
offering. It was sometimes made of 
pure gold. 1 Kgs. 7 : 50; 2 Chr. 26 : 
10, 19. The censer was held in one 




S^ 



Egyptian Centers. (Wilkinson.) 
hanrl. and the incense was carried in 
the other hand. The priest strewed the 
pulverized incense upon the fire, and 
the cloud of smoke ascended up in a 
dark volume and filled the apartment 
with its fragrance. The word ren- 
dered "censer" in Heb. 9 : 4 means a 
golden altar of incense. 

CEN'SUS. In the 0. T. there is 
mention made of twelve censuses. 

1 . The earliest was under Moses, in the 
third or fourth month after the Exodus. 
Its object was to raise money for build- 
ing the tabernacle, each person num- 
bered — ('. e. every male from 20 years and 
upward — being obliged to pay half a 
shekel. The census showed there were 
603,550 men. Ex. 38 : 26. 

2. In Num. 1 : 2 there is the order for 
a second numbering, in the second 
month of the second year after the 



Exodus. The result showed the same 
figures. Num. 1 : 46. This fact has led 
some to suppose that these two number- 
ings were in fact one, but applied to dif- 
ferent purposes. 

3. The next census was made imme- 
diately before the entrance of the He- 
brews into Canaan. Num. 26. The 
total number of males fit for military 
service was 601,730. while the Levite 
males from a month old were 23,000. 

4. For a long time after that there 
Avas no reckoning made. But David, 
instigated by Satan, out of mere curi- 
osity and ambition to know how large 
a people he governed, ordered a count, 
which showed that the men of Israel 
over 20 years of age were 800,000, and 
of Judah" 500,000. 2 Sam. 24:9; 1 Chr. 
21 : 1. These are round figures, and do 
not quite agree with those of 1 Chr. 21 : 5. 

5. Solomon completed the census by 
causing the foreigners and remnants of 
the conquered nations resident within 
Palestine to be numbered. 2 Chr. 2 : 
17, 18. 

We read of much more frequent cen- 
suses after this : 6. Rehoboain, 1 Kgs. 
12 : 21 : 7. Abijam, 2 Chr. 13 : 3, 17 ; 8. 
Asa, 2 Chr. 14:8, 9; 9. Jehoshaphat, 2 
Chr. 17 : 14-19 ; 10. Amaziah, 2 Chr. 25 : 
5,6; 11. Uzziah, 2 Chr. 26 : 13. All 
these must have kept at least an account 
of how many could bear arms, since we 
find in the passages cited the number of 
their troops. Besides, the numbers re- 
ferred to are those of the separate tribes 
and companies — e. g. Jud. 7 : 3; 1 Kgs. 
20:15: Jer. 52:30. 

12. The last general census was that 
made at the time of the Return. Ezr. 
2 : 64 and 8:1-14 give the numbers of 
males in the first and second caravan. 

These figures indicate the importance 
attached to the census, though no sci- 
entific use was made of it, as by us. 
It would appear that the kingdom of 
Judah was most populous under Je- 
hoshaphat. The numbers, in propor- 
tion to the area of the country, have been 
quoted as an objection to the narrative. 
But while it must be freely granted that 
the population was dense, still the den- 
sity has been paralleled, and even ex- 
ceeded, in modern times. Palestine, it 
should be remembered, was a very fer- 
tile land. On the census of Cyrenius, 
Luke 2:2, see Taxing, Days of the. 
169 



CEN 



CHA 



CENTURION. Matt. 8 : 5. The 
title of an officer of the Roman army 
who had command of 100 soldiers. See 
Captain. 

CE'PHAS {rock), a Syriac surname 
given to Simon, which in the Greek is 
rendered Petros, and in the Latin Petrus, 
both signifying " a rock." John 1 : 42. 
See Peter. 

CESARE'A. See Cjesarea. 

CESARE'A-PHILIP'PI. See 
C^esarea-Philippi. 

CHAFF. The Hebrew farmer sepa- 
rated the corn from the husk by throw- 
ing the mixed mass up against the wind. 
On account of their weight, the grains 
were thrown quite a distance, while the 
light chaff fell immediately to the ground 
if not blown entirely away. Hence the 
exceedingly forcible image of the Avicked 
being swept off by the breath of God. Ps. 
1 : 4; 35 : 5. In the figurative language 
of John the Baptist, the winnowing- 
shovel — called in our version a " fan " 
— is said to be in the hand of God, and 
with it he will thoroughly purge his 
floor. Matt. 3 : 12: Luke 3 : 17. 

CHAINS. A distinction must be 
made between fetters, which were for the 
feet, and chains, which were for any part 
of the body. Chains were worn for orna- 
ment, dignity, or restraint. They were 
made of gold for the first two purposes, 
and of iron for the last. In the ancient 
Orient both sexes wore them ostenta- 
tiously. They were put on Joseph and 
Daniel as a symbol of sovereignty. Gen. 
41 : 42 ; Dan. 5 : 29. So to-day kings 
wear the chain of the order of the Gold- 
en Fleece. Chains were put by the Mid- 
ianites upon their camels. Jud. 8:21. 
They were also worn by women as a fas- 
tening between the anklets. Isa. 3:19. 
The chains used on prisoners, Jud. 16 : 
21 : 2 Sam. 3 : 34 ; 2 Kgs. 25 : 7 ; Jcr. 39 : 
7 ; 52 : 11, were fetters. Handcuffs were 
also used. The Roman practice was to 
bind the prisoner's hand to the hand of 
a soldier, or to a soldier by either hand. 
Acts 12 : 6, 7; 21 : 33 ; 28 : 16, 20; 2 
Tim. 1:16. 

The " chains " which bound the mad- 
man of Gadara, Mark 5 : 3, 4, were prob- 
ably not of iron, but were ropes. The 
iron "fetters" he shivered. 

" Chain " is used in Lam. 3 : 7 in a met- 
aphorical sense to denote tribula'ion. 

CHALCEDONY. Rev. 21 : 19. 
170 



A variety of quartz much like the agate, 
of pearly, wax-like lustre, and of great 
translucency ; sometimes called white 
carnelian. Its name is from Chalcedon, 
near Constantinople. 

CHALDiF/A, a country anciently 
situated on both sides of the river Eu- 
phrates, and bordering on the Persian 
Gulf. It had an estimated area of 23,000 
square miles, about the same as the mod- 
ern kingdom of Denmark, or half that of 
Louisiana in the Mississippi Delta. In 
later times, and in a more extended 
sense, it included a territory about 450 
miles long by 100 to 130 miles wide. 
It occupied the southern portion of the 
great Mesopotamian plain, the most fer- 
tile part of that country. It was ren- 
dered still moi-e productive by numer- 
ous canals, which were used for defence, 
for commerce, and for navigation. The 
country was naturally divided into two 
portions, the larger part lying between 
the rivers Tigris and Euphrates, and 
the smaller portion lying on the south- 
western side of the latter river. It was 
also divided into Northern and South- 
ern Chaldaaa, each having four import- 
ant cities. In later times the " land 
of the Chaldseans " was applied to 
all Babylonia, and to the whole of the 
empire over which the Chaldasans ruled. 

Physical Features and Products. — The 
chief features of the country were the 
rivers, for on all sides it was a dead 
level, broken now only by solitary 
mounds, old ruins, marshes, and streams. 
The summers are hot, the winters rainy, 
and seldom colder than 30° F. Wheat, 
millet, barley, dates, and fruits of all 
kinds were abundant. Its fertility and 
productions were proverbial in ancient 
times. For sketch-map of Chaldasa, 
see Assyria. 

History. — It is noticed in Scripture as 
the native country of Abram, Gen. 11 : 31 ; 
its people attacked Job, Job 1 : 17, and 
it was the term by which the empire of 
Nebuchadnezzar was sometimes called. 
Originally it was the district in the south 
of the " land of Shinar " where Nimrod 
built four cities. Gen. 10 : 10. Chaldasa 
soon extended its influence and sway, 
until in the time of Abraham its con- 
quests reached nearly to the sources of 
the Euphrates, and westward into Ca- 
naan and Syria. Among the four great 
kingdoms or empires on the Euphrates, 



CHA 



CHA 



secular historians usually place the 
Chaldasan as the first in order or earli- 
est, lasting for about ten centuries, from 
B. c. 2300 to about B. c. 1300 ; the Assyr- 
ian empire next, lasting about six and 
a half centuries, from b. c. 1270 to b. c. 
625; the Babylonian empire third in or- 
der, continuing from about B.C. 625 to B.C. 
538 ; and the Medo-Persian fourth. Some 
of these kingdoms in their earlier history 
no doubt existed contemporaneously for 
a time. Chaldasa and Assyria were at 
times independent of each other: hence 
the order given above applies chiefly to 
them as empires. The great cities of 
the Chaldasan empire were Ur, Ellasar, 
Babylon, Erech, Accad, Calneh, Sephar- 
Vaim, Ahava, and Cutha. Its great rulers 
were Nimrod, Urukh, and Chedorlaomer. 
The latter marched an army for 1200 
miles on a conquering tour to the Dead 
Sea, and held Canaanitish nations in 
subjection for 32 years. Gen. 10:9; 
14: 1-4. The Chaldasans, according to 
Rawlinson and others, were chiefly of 
Cushite origin, while their more north- 
ern neighbors were Semitic. After the 
lapse of centuries the former lost their 
Cushite character, and became a people 
scarcely distinguishable from the Assyr- 
ians. After their subjugation, in B.C. 
1300, they held an insignificant place in 
history for over six centuries, but re- 
covered themselves in b. c 625, and es- 
tablished a new kingdom, known as the 
Babylonian empire. For the later his- 
tory see Babylon, Assyria, and Nine- 
veh. 

CHALK-STONES. Isa.27:9. A 
soft mineral substance resembling what 
we call limestone. To make the stones 
of the Jewish altars like chalkstones is 
to crumble and destroy them. 

CHAMBER. Gen. 43:30. Usu- 
ally, the private apartments of a house 
are called chambers. 2 Sam. 18 : 33 ; Ps. 
19 : 5 ; Dan. 6 : 10. Particular rooms 
of this class in Eastern houses were 
designated by significant terms. 

Guest-chamber. Mark 14 : 14. This 
we may suppose to have been a spacious 
unoccupied room, usually in the upper 
part of the house, and furnished suita- 
bly for the reception and entertainment 
of guests and for social meetings. The 
proverbial hospitality of the Jews would 
make such provision necessary, and es- 
pecially at Jerusalem, in festival sea- 



sons, when every house in the city was 
the stranger's home. Mark 14 : 15 ; Luke 
22 : 12 ; Acts 1 : 13. See Hospitality. 

Inner Chamber. 2 Kgs. 9:2. A 
chamber within another chamber. 

Little Chamber. 2 Kgs. 4 : 10. An 
apartment built upon and projecting 
from the walls of the main house, and 
communicating by a private door with 
the house, and by a private stairway 
with the street. 

Upper Chamber, or Loft, Acts 9 : 37, 
occupied the front part of the building, 
over the gate or outer entrance, and was 
used to lodge strangers. Comp. 1 Kgs. 
17 : 19 and 23 with 2 Kgs. 4 : 10. See 
Dwellings. 

CHAMBERING, licentiousness, 
wantonness. Rom. 13 : 13. 

CHAMBERLAIN. 2 Kgs. 23: 11. 
An officer who has charge of the royal 
chambers, or the king's lodgings, ward- 
robes, etc. In Eastern courts eunuchs 
were commonly employed for this ser- 
vice. Esth. 1 : 10, 12, 15. The word oc- 
curs twice in A. V. of N. T., but entirely 
different offices are meant in the Greek. 
Blastus, " the king's chamberlain," men- 
tioned in Acts 12 : 20, " held a post of 
honor which involved great intimacy 
and influence with the king." Eras- 
tus, " the chamberlain of the city of 
Corinth," who sent salutations to the 
Roman Christians, Rom. 16 : 23, was 
probably the treasurer of the city. 

CHAMELEON. Lev. 11:30. A 
species of lizard of very singular anat- 
omy, appearance, and habits. "It re- 
mains exclusively on trees (and bushes), 
often suspended by its tail to the ex- 
tremity of a branch, whence it darts 
forth its long tongue, covered with a 
viscous fluid, to entrap passing insects. 
Each foot is a grasping hand, by which 
it clings with great force to a branch, 
but it is almost helpless on the ground. 
The chief peculiarity of this lizard is 
the enormous size of the lungs (whence 
arose the fable that it lived on air), and 
these, when filled, render the animal 
semi-transparent. It has the faculty 
of changing color more developed than 
in any other lizard, and this change is 
influenced, not by the bodies on which 
it happens to rest, but by the wants 
and passions of the animal. The struc- 
ture of the eyes is very wonderful. They 
are so prominent that one-half of the ball 
171 



CHA 



CHA 



projects out of the head, and not only 
can they be moved in any direction, 
but each has an independent action : 
one eye may be looking forward, while 
with the other the animal examines an 




Chameleon. {After Tristram.) 
object behind it. The chameleon is 
very common in Egypt and the Holy 
Land, especially in the Jordan valley." 
— Tristram. 

CHAM'OIS (pronounced sham' my). 
Deut. 14 : 5. The true chamois is be- 
lieved never to have lived in Arabia or 
Palestine. It is now thought that this 
animal of the Bib'e was a species of 
wild sheep (Oois tragelephus) formerly 
abundant among the mountains of Si- 
nai, but now apparently confined to 
Africa. 

CHA'NAAN, Greek form of Ca- 
naan. Acts 7:1. See Caxaan. 

CHANCELLOR. The word oc- 
curs in Ezr. 4: 8, 17 as the translation 
of the Hebrew lord of counsel — i. e. 
counsellor, royal prefect — the office held 
by Rehum, who was the Persian gover- 
nor in Samaria at the time. 

CHANGEABLE SUITS OF 
APPAREL. See Clothes. 

CHANGERS OF MONEY, or 
MONEY-CHANGERS. Matt. 21 : 
12; John 2:14. When Judaea became 
a province of Rome the Jews were re- 
quired to pay taxes in Roman currency, 
while the annual tribute for the service 
of the sanctuary was the half-shekel 
of Jewish currency. To exchange the 
172 



one for the other was the business of 
the money-changers, like the business 
of modern brokers. They stationed 
themselves in the courts of the temple, 
the place of general resort for stran- 
gers from every part of the land, and 
their oppressive and fraudulent prac- 
tices probably justified the allusion of 
our Saviour to a den of thieves. 

CHANGES OF RAIMENT. 
See Clothes. 

CHANT. See Viol. 

CHAP'EL. The word occurs, Am. 
7:13, as a mistranslation for SANC- 
TUARY, a place of worship. Bethel 
is called the king's sanctuary by one 
of the idol-priests, because there the 
king of Israel paid idolatrous worship 
to the golden calves. See Bethel. 

CHAPITERS (French chapitre), 
Ex. 36:38, or CAPITALS (as they 
are called in modern architecture), are 
the upper or ornamental part of a 
column. 

CHAPMAN (from the same root 
as cheap, chop), merchant. 2 Chr. 9 : 14. 
In the corresponding passage, 1 Kgs. 
10 : 15, spice-merchants. 

CHA'RAN. See Hara*. 

CHARASHIM, VALLEY OF 
(ravine of craftsmen), near by Lydda. 
1 Chr. 4 : 14; now Hirsha. 

CHARCHEMISH. 2 Chr. 35 : 
20. See Carchemish. 

CHARGER (old English, from 
the French charger), that on which a 
thing is laid, a dish. Num. 7 : 13 ; Ezr. 
1:9; Matt. 14 : 8, 11. A shallow bowl 
or basin used for receiving the blood at 
the preparation of the sacrifices. The 
charger in which Herod's daughter 
brought the head of John Baptist was 
probably a trencher or platter. 

CHARIOT. Chariots were not 
exclusively used for warlike purposes. 
In the Bible, instances of a peaceful use 
occur, as in the account of Joseph's ex- 
altation, Gen. 41:43, and meeting with 
his father, 46 : 29 ; Ahab's fleeing before 
the coming storm at the command of 
Elijah, 1 Kgs. 18:44; Naaman's com- 
ing to Elisha, 2 Kgs. 5:9; and the 
Ethiopian eunuch's journey homeward. 
Acts 8 : 2S. But the commoner use was 
for war. They are first mentioned in 
the Bible in connection with Joseph in 
Egypt. Later on they formed part of 
Pharaoh's pursuing army at the Exodus. 



CHA 



CHA 



And they were part of the offensive 
weapons among all nations which figure 
in Bible history. The use of war-chari- 
ots was introduced by David. 2 Sam. 
8:4. This change was obedient to the 
altered condition of the people, from a 
democracy, which relies upon volunteers 
for its defence, to a monarchy, which 
employs a regular army. Solomon had 
1400 chariots, and cities fortified for 
their safe-keeping. 1 Kgs. 10 : 26 ; 9 : 
19. After his day they formed a regu- 
lar branch of the military service, and 
are frequently mentioned. 1 Kgs. 22 : 
34 ; 2 Kgs. 9 : 16, 21 j 13 : 7, 14 ; 18 : 24 ; 
23 : 30 ; Isa. 31 : 1. The texts just 




Egyptian Chariot. (After Wilkinson.) 



quoted also prove that Egypt was the 
source whence both the chariot-horses 
and the chariots themselves were prin- 
cipally drawn. A description of an 
Egyptian chariot will therefore be a 
description of a Jewish one. The 
Egyptian chariot was an " almost semi- 
circular wooden frame with straight- 
ened sides, resting posteriorly on the 
axle of a pair of wheels, a rail of wood 
or ivory being attached to the frame by 
leathern thongs, and a wooden upright 
in front. The back of the car was open, 
and the sides were strengthened and 
embellished with leather and metal 
binding : the floor was of rope net-work, 
to give a springy footing to the occu- 



pants. On the off-side were the bow- 
case, sometimes the quiver, and spear- 
case, crossing diagonally : the last named 
inclined backward. If two warriors 
were in the chariot, there was a second 
bow-case. The wheels had usually six 
spokes, fastened to the axle by a linch- 
pin, secured by a thong. The horses 
had a breast-band and girths attached 
to the saddle, but were without traces. 
They wore head-furniture, often orna- 
mented, with a bearing-rein. The driv- 
ing-reins passed through rings on each 
side of both horses. Two persons gen- 
erally were in a chariot, but there was 
sometimes a third, holding the umbrella 
of state." — Wil- 
kinson: An e . 
Egypt., 1879, vol. i. 
pp. 222-241 : vol.ii. 
pp. 201-203. The 
Assyrian war- 
chariots were near- 
ly similar. Some- 
times a third horse 
was attached, but 
in later times this 
was laid aside; the 
chariot was made 
higher, and the 
quiver placed in 
front instead of on 
the side. — Lat- 
ARD: Nineveh, vol. 
ii. pp. 348-354; 
AYRK : Treas.qf 
Bib. Knowledge. 

Chariots armed 
with scythes were 
used in later times. 
Warriors some- 
times fought standing up in them, or 
else used them to carry them into the 
battle, and leaping from them fought 
on foot. 

The word "chariot" is sometimes 
used figuratively ; e. g. in Ps. 68 : 17 it 
means the angelic host. Elisha called 
Elijah " the chariot of Israel and the 
horsemen thereof." 2 Kgs. 2:12. The 
imagery was borrowed from the phe- 
nomena of the miraculous ascent. The 
phrase means that Elijah, by his pray- 
ers and his counsels, was the true de- 
fence of Israel, and better than either 
chariots or horsemen. 

Captains of Chariots. The phrase 
occurs in Ex. 14 : 7 ; 15 : 4 ; 1 Kgs. 
173 



CHA 



CHE 



22 : 33. In the first two passages it 
means "commanders of the highest 
rank, chosen specially to attend on the 
person of Pharaoh ; probably com- 
manders of the 2000 Calasirians, who, 
alternately with the Hermotybians, 
formed his body-guard. They may 
have been, for the most part, known to 
Muses.*' — Bible (Speaker's) Commen- 
tary, i)i loco. 

Chariots of the Sun. It was a 
Persian practice to dedicate a char- 
iot and horses to the sun. These 
chariots were white, and drawn proba- 
bly by white horses in sacred proces- 
sions. This idolatrous practice found 
favor in Judah, for it is recorded, to the 
honor of Josiah and as a proof of his 
zeal, that he took away the horses which 
previous kings had given to the sun, 
and burned the chariots of the sun with 
fire. 2 Kgs. 23:11. 

CHARITY (from Lat. caritas, 
Fr. charite). In 1 Cor. 13 : 1 and paral- 
lel passages the Saxon word love (to 
God as well as to man) would better ex- 
press the sentiment intended. See Love. 
Charity, in the popular acceptation of 
the word, is confined to love to suffering 
men, or almsgiving. See Alms. 

CHARM, CHARMER. See 
Adder, Asp. Divination. 

CHARRA1V. Acts 7 : 2, 4. The 
Greek form of Haran, which see. 

CHATTER. See Crane, Swal- 
low. 

CHE'BAR, a river in Chaldsea, 
Eze. 1:1,3; 3 : 15, etc. : probably the 
same as Habor, and perhaps the royal 
canal which connected the Tigris with 
the Euphrates, 30 miles above Babylon. 

CHE'BEL (cord), a Hebrew topo- 
graphical term, Josh. 2:15; 1 Sam. 10 : 
5; Ps. 16 : 6 : usually applied to the Ar- 
gob. Deut. 3:4, 13, 14; 1 Kgs. 4 : 13. 
See under Bashan. 

CHEDORLAOMER [handful 
of sheaves), the king of Elam, and one 
of the four allied kings who subjected 
:he kings of the five cities of the plain. 
These remained in the service of Che- 
dorlaomer for twelve years, but in the 
thirteenth rebelled. Chedorlaomer sum- 
moned the allies, met the five kings, 
completely routed them, carried off much 
spoil, part of which belonged to Lot, 
whom they likewise captured. Abram 
started in pursuit with his own ser- 
174 



j vants, defeated them, was able to re- 
cover all the spoil and his nephew Lot. 

| In the battle Chedorlaomer appears to 
have perished. The narrative is given 
in Gen. 14. 

CHEEK. To be struck upon the 
cheek was, among the Hebrews, to be 
grossly insulted. In proof see 1 Kgs, 

22 : 24 : Job 16 : 10 ; Matt. 5 : 39. 
CHEESE was a common article of 

food among the Hebrews. The word 
occurs but three times in the Bible, and 
in each case the original word is differ- 
ent. 1 Sam. 17 : 18 ; 2 Sam. 17 : 29 ; Job 
10 : 10. It is difficult to decide how far 
these terms correspond with our notion 
of cheese. In the original the first word 
means " a cutting," " ten sections of 
curds," soft cheese; the root of the 
second word means "to scrape," im- 
plying that the cheese was grated ; 
while the third word means " curdled 
milk." The modern Bedouins use a 
kind of coagulated butter-milk, which 
is ground when dried hard, and eaten 
mixed with butter. 

CHE'LAL {perfection), one who had 
a strange wife. Ezr. 10 : 30. 

CHEL'LUH (completed), one who 
had a strange wife. Ezr. 10 : 35. 

CHE'IiUB (fruit-basket, or bird- 
cage). 1. One of Judah's posterity. 1 
Chr. 4:11. 

2. The father of one of David's offi- 
cers. I Chr. 27 : 26. 

CHELUBAI (capable), Hezron's 
son ; same with Caleb. 1 Chr. 2 : 9, 18, 
42. 

CHEMARIMS (those who go about 
in black : i. e. ascetics), priests of false 
gods. Zeph. 1:4; 2 Kgs. 23 : 5, margin : 
Hos. 10:5, margin. 

CHE'MOSH (subduer), the na- 
tional deity of the Moabites, who were 
his people, as the Israelites are the peo- 
ple of Jehovah. Num. 21:29; Jer. 48: 
7, 46 ; called " the abomination of Moab." 
1 Kgs. 11 : 7. Solomon introduced, 1 
Kgs. 11 : 7, and Josiah suppressed, 2 Kgs. 

23 : 13, his worship in Jerusalem. Upon 
the recently discovered Moabite Stone, 
King Mesha, 2 Kgs. 3 : 4, attributes to 
his god Chemosh his victories. See 
Dibon. The same traits of cruelty and 
lust prove him to have been identical 
with Molech, the god of the Ammon- 
ites. Jud. 11 : 24. It was to Chemosh 
that Mesha offered his son. 2 Kgs. 3 : 



CHE 



CHE 



27. The god is also identified with 
Baal-Peor. Saturn, or Mars. 

CHENA'ANAH(mei-fki4 1- 
The father of the false prophet Zedeki- 
ah. 1 Kgs. 22 : 11, 24; 2 Chr. 18 : 10, 23. 

2. A Benjamite, 1 Chr. 7:10; perhaps 
same as the preceding. 

CHEN'ANI (contracted from next 
name), a Levite who took part in the 
purification of the people under Ezra. 
Neli. 9:4. 

CHENANI' AH (whom Jehovah hath 
mode), a Levite chief in David's reign. 

1 Chr. 15:22. 27: 26:29. 

CHE ' PHAR - HAAM'MONAI 
(village of Ammonites), a village of Ben- 
jamin. Josh. 18 : 24. 

CHEPHI'RAH (village), one of 
four towns of the Gibeonites, belonging 
to Benjamin, Josh. 9 : 17 ; 18 : 26 ; Ezr. 

2 : 25 ; probably now Kefir, 8 miles west 
of Gibeon. Conder gives it as Kefireh. 

CHE'RAN (lyre), a Horite chiefs 
son. Gen. 36:26; 1 Chr. 1:41. 

CHER'ETHIMS, identical with 
Cherethites. 

CHER'ETHITES andPEL'E- 
THITES (executioners and couriers) 
formed the body-guard of King David. 
2 Sam. 8: 18; 15: 18; 20: 7. It is 
probable they were mercenaries, origi- 
nally Philistines, for Cherethite is con- 
nected with Pelethite, which was, it is 
likely, only another form of the word 
Philistine. 

CHE'RITH (gorge), THE 
BROOK, a brook or torrent " before 
Jordan" where the prophet Elijah was 
hid. 1 Kgs. 17 : 5. Its location is much 
disputed. Robinson and several others 
identify it with Wady Kelt, a swift, 
brawling stream, 20 yards wide and 3 
feet deep, running into the Jordan from 
the west, a little south of Jericho. Some 
identify it with Wady Fusail, a little 
farther north, and yet others think it 
was some stream on the other, or eastern, 
side of the Jordan. 

CHERUB. Ezr. 2:59; Neh. 7: 
61. A place in Babylonia; perhaps 
Cheripha of Ptolemv. 

CHERUB, CHER'UBIM. 
Many derivations have been proposed. 
The best are from roots signifying either 
" strong " or " to plough ;" hence, terri- 
ble. The cherubim were not angels, 
since altogether different occupations 
are given to them in the Bible. Thus 



angels are sent out upon messages, but 
the cherubim always are in the presence 
of God. They are winged, and are in 
appearance like combinations of parts 
of different animals. The word first 
occurs in Gen. 3 : 24, and is applied to 
the guard which was placed over Eden 
after the expulsion of fallen man. 

" It is remarkable that while there 
are precise directions as to their position, 
attitude, and material, Ex. 25 : 18, etc., 
and descriptions, 2 Chr. 3 : 10-13, noth- 
ing is said about their shape, except 
that they were winged. On the whole, 
it seems likely that the word ' cherub ' 
meant not only the composite creature 




Egyptian Winged Figures. 

form, of which the man, lion, ox, and 
eagle were the elements, but, further, 
some peculiar and mystical form." — 
Smith : Dictionary of the Bible. 

According to the primitive concep- 
tion, the cherubim were the bearers of 
God when he appeared in his glory upon 
the earth, Ps. 13 : 1 ; so, in Ezekiel's vis- 
ion, they carry the throne of God. Eze. 
11 : 22 ; cf. 1 : 19 ; 10 : 16 ff. They are the 
" wings of the wind," by which God 
in the thunder-cloud is borne to the 
world. Isa. 19 : 1 ; Ps. 104 : 3. Hence 
they are the witnesses of his presence : 
wherever they are, God is. How appro- 
priately, therefore, were representations 
of them placed in the tabernacle and tem- 
ple! In the former, two golden cheru- 
bim stood in the holy of holies, upon 
the mercy-seat. Ex. 37 : 8. They Avere 
likewise pictured upon the curtains. 26 : 
1,31; 36:8,35. In Solomon's temple 
two colossal figures of the cherubim, 
overlaid with gold, stood upon the floor 
175 



CHE 



CHI 



and overshadowed the ark, which was 
between them, in the holy of holies. 1 
Kgs. 6 : 27. They were also carved 
upon the doors, upon all the "walls of 
the house," and put between represen- 
tations of palm trees. 1 Kgs. 6 : 29, 32, 
35 ; 2 Chr. 3 : 7. Indeed, in all parts 
did they constitute, with lions, oxen, 
and palm trees, the ornamentation of 
the temple. 1 Kgs. 7 : 29, 36. The cheru- 
bim, therefore, testified that God was in 
the midst of his people. 

A second idea which they represent is 
that they were the watchers of the places 
where God is. They cover his glory from 
vulgar gaze ; they stand in the service 
of the invisible and the unapproachable 
God. Comp. Ex. 19:9, 16; 24:15. 

Similar winged creatures are met with 
in great variety in the legends and sym- 
bols of other peoples of antiquity, but 
the originality of the Hebrew cherubim 
is not to be disputed. Still, the forms 
Avhich they assumed may have been in 
part derived from these nations. Very 
interesting is the comparison of the He- 
brew cherubim with figures in the Egyp- 
tian and Assyrian temples. 

CHES'ALON (strength,), a place on 
the north-west of Judah, Josh. 15:10; 
probably Kesla, 8 miles west of Jeru- 
salem. 

CHE'SED (gain), Nahor's son. 
Gen. 22:22. 

CHE'SIL (fool, or idolatrous), in 
the south of Judah, Josh. 15 : 30 ; proba- 
bly the same as Bethul and Bethuel : if 
so, it may be at Belt Aula, 7 miles north- 
west of Hebron. 

CHEST. There are two Hebrew 
words so translated. The first is applied, 




Egyptian Chest or Box. 
in 2 Kgs. 12:9,10; 2 Chr. 24: 8, 10, 11, 
to the coffer into which the people threw 
176 



their voluntary contributions for the re- 
pair of the temple under Joash. But the 
original word in every other place ex- 
cept Gen. 50: 26, where it is applied to 
Jacob's coffin, means the ark of the cove- 
nant. A different word altogether is used 
for Noah's and Moses's " ark." The sec- 
ond word occurs only in Eze. 27 : 24. and 
means a treasure-chest where valuables 
are stored. 

CHESTNUT TREE. Gen. 30 : 
37. Doubtless the translation here should 
be "plane tree" (Platanns orientalis). 
This tree closely resembles the well- 
known American species which we call 
sycamore or buttonwood (Platanus oc- 
cldentalls). The Oriental tree gi'ows 
along streams in the north of Pales- 
tine, and when long spared attains 
great size. Eze. 31 : 8. 

CHE SUE' LOTH {loins, or 
flank), a town of Issachar ; possibly the 
same as Chisloth-tabor. Josh. 19 : 12, 
18 ; now Iksal, 4 miles west of Tabor. 

CHE'ZIB (lying), probably iden- 
tical with Ach,iib, 2. Gen. 38 : 5. Con- 
der places it at 'Alu Kezbak. 

CHI'DON. 1 Chr. 13 : 9. Called also 
the threshing-floor of Nachon, 2 Sam. 6 : 
6 ; it was near Jerusalem. 

CHIEF OF ASIA. Acts 19 :31. 
Certain wealthy persons were appointed 
annually in the Asiatic provinces of 
Bome to preside over the religious rites, 
public games, etc., which they maintain- 
ed in honor of the gods, and at their own 
expense. They received their title from 
the name of the province ; as, the chief of 
Caria was called cariarch, or of Ly'cia, 
lyciarch, etc. The title is properly " asi- 
arch," and was borne, it would seem, af- 
ter the duties of the office had been dis- 
charged. This explains the reference in 
the Acts. These asiarchs, who advised 
Paul not to expose himself needlessly to 
the fury of the populace in Ephesus, may 
well have been friendly to the apostle, 
without being Christians. 

CHIEF PRIEST. See Priest. 

CHILDREN. The term is used in 
A. V. where " sons " would better repre- 
sent the Hebrew or Greek ; as, " the chil- 
dren of Abraham," " the children of 
Israel," "the children of God." It was 
regarded among the Jews as not only 
a misfortune, but even a disgrace, if a 
married woman was barren. The more 
sons a man had, the more was he es- 



CHI 



CHO 



teemed. The inheritance of the father 
was divided equally among all the sons, 
except the eldest, who received a double 
portion. The daughters got nothing 
unless there was no son, in which case j 
they shared equally the property, and J 
were forbidden to marry out of their j 
father's tribe. Num. 27 : 7-12 5 35 : 2, 8. ' 
Wills were needless, and therefore un- 
known. The authority of the parent 
was very great, and children are com- 
manded to reverence their parents. The 
law allowed children to be sold into 
bondage in payment of the parents' 
debts. Lev. 25 : 39-41. We find al- 
lusions to the practical working of this 
law in 2 Kgs. 4: 1 and Matt. 18 : 25. 

Child-birth in Eastern countries is 
usually, although not always, compara- 
tively easy. Gen. 35:17; 38:27; Ex. 
1:19; 1 Sam. 4:19,20. The new- 
born Hebrew child was washed, rubbed 
with salt, and wrapped in swaddling- 
clothes, Luke 2 : 7 ; circumcised on the 
eighth day, when the name was given. 
Child-birth rendered the woman cere- 
monially unclean for 40 days in the case 
of a son, and 80 in the case of a daugh- 
ter. At the conclusion of the period 
she offered for her cleansing the sac- 
rifices the Law prescribed. Lev. 12. 
Women nursed their own children in 
most cases, and did not wean them until 
the lapse of 30 months, or even 3 years. 
The weaning was made a festive occa- 
sion. This custom was very old. Gen. 
21 : 8. Daughters remained under the 
care of the mother until the period of 
marriage, but boys passed in their 
fifth year under the training of the 
father. See Education. 

CHII/EAB {like to his father?), 
a son of Abigail by David, 2 Sam. 3:3; 
called Daniel in 1 Chr. 3:1. 

CHILI'ON (sickly), son of Naomi, 
and husband ofOrpah. Ruth 1:2-5; 4: 
9, 10. 

CHIL/MAD, a place or country, 
Eze. 27 : 23 ; perhaps identical with 
Kalwadha, near Bagdad. 

CHIMHAM. 2 Sam. 19 : 37. It 
is possible he was a son of Barzillai, but 
it cannot be certainly inferred from 1 | 
Kgs. 2 : 7, which is sometimes cited to 
prove it. Some have supposed that 
David gave Chimham a parcel of land 
which was afterward known by his 
name. Jer. 41 : 17. 
12 



CHIM'NEY. See Dwellings. 

CHIN'NERETH, or CHIN'- 
NEROTH. Josh. 11:2. A fenced 
city of Naphtali, on the lake, or sea, 
of the same name; afterward called 
Gennesar, and about 3 miles north-west 
of Tiberias, according to Fiirst. 

CHIN'NERETH, SEA OF. 
See Galilee. Sea of. 

CHIOS, an island of the ^Igean 
Sea, 5 miles from the coast of Ionia, in 
Asia Minor. It is 32 miles long and 
from 8 to 18 miles wide, and noted for 
its wines. Paul passed by it. Acts 20: 
14, 15. Its modern name is Scio or 
Khio. 

CHIS'LEU. See Months. 

CHIS'LON (confidence), the fathei- 
of Elidad the Benjamite, who was chosen 
to represent his tribe in the division of 
the land. Num. 34:21. 

CHIS'LOTH-TABOR, either a 
mountain or a place. Josh. 19 : 12. If 
the former, it is probably identical with 
Tabor ; if the latter, it is perhaps to be 
found at Iksal, 2£ miles west of Tabor. 

CHIT'TIM,orKIT'TIM. Num. 
24: 24 ; Isa. 23 : 1, 12 ; Jer. 2 : 10 ; Eze. 
27 : 6 ; Dan. 11 :30. In these passages 
the "isles," "ships," "products," and 
"people" of Chittim are mentioned or 
alluded to ; hence the name has gener- 
ally been supposed to mean the island 
of Cyprus, though Kitto thinks it a 
general term applied to islands and 
coasts west of Palestine. See Cyprus. 

CHI'UN. Am. 5 : 26. An idol 
which the Israelites made and wor- 
shipped in the wilderness. See Rem- 
phan. 

CHLO'E (green herb), a Christian 
woman, some of whose family told 
Paul of the dissensions in the Corinth- 
ian church. 1 Cor. 1 : 11. 

CHORA'SHAN. 1 Sam. 30:30. 
Probably the same as Ashan ('Aseileh). 

CHORAZIN, a city named with 
Capernaum and Bethsaida in the woes 
pronounced by Christ. Matt. 11 : 20-23 ; 
Luke 10 : 13. The identification of 
Chorazin depends largely, though not 
wholty, upon that of Capernaum. Rob- 
inson places it at Tell Hum, but others, 
with greater probability, fix its site at 
Keidzeh, 2£ miles west of Tell Hum, 
and west of the valley of the Jordan. 
The ruins cover a large area, and con- 
sist of a synagogue, the ornaments be- 
177 



CHO 



CHR 



ing cut in black basalt rock, walls of 
dwellings, columns which supported the 
roofs and doorways, some of them in 
a tolerably perfect condition, and a 
paved roadway leading to the great 
caravan-route to Damascus. See Ca- 
pernaum. 

CHOZEBA. 1 Chr. 4 : 22. It 
has generally been regarded as iden- 
tical with Chezib and Achzib, but Con- 
der places Chozeba at a ruin of import- 
ance in Wady Arrub, or valley of Bera- 
choth, and called Kneiztbah, a name 
which is almost the exact equivalent for 
the Hebrew Chozeba. 

CHRIST, JESUS. Matt. 1:1. 
Christ is the official, Jesus the personal, 
name of our Lord. It is from the Greek 
word Christos, which signifies "anoint- 
ed," corresponding to the word Messiah in 
the Hebrew. He is called the Anointed 
in allusion to the custom of anointing 
with oil such as were set apart to a sa- 
cred or regal office, because by the Spirit 
he was anointed to the threefold office 
of prophet, priest, and king. 

The word "Jesus" is derived from a 
Hebrew word signifying " to save," or 
" sent to save." Matt. 1 : 21 : Luke 2 : 
11,21. The word "Joshua" has the 
same meaning, and is a very common 
name among the Hebrews, and should 
have been used in Acts 7:45 and Heb. 
4: 8 instead of " Jesus." 

Jesus the Christ is a descriptive 
phrase, like John the Baptist. Matt. 
26:63, Mark 8:29; 14:61; John 1: 
20, 25, 41: 6:69; 7:41; 10:24; 11: 
27; 20:31. The word "Jesus" is 
almost always used alone in the Gos- 
pels, while, in the Acts and Epistles, 
" Jesus Christ " or "Lord Jesus Christ" 
is the prevailing expression. 

The first promise of the Messiah was 
given in Gen. 3:15. The Son of God 
and all true believers are "the seed of 
the woman." Comp. Acts 13 : 23 : Gal. 
4:4, and Heb. 2:16 with John 17:21- 
23. The devil and all his servants rep- 
resent the serpent and his seed. John 
8 : 44 ; 1 John 3 : 8. The temptations, 
sufferings, and ignominious death of 
Christ, and the fierce opposition and 
persecution which his followers have 
endured, are significantly described by 
the bruising of the heel ; while the 
complete victory which our Redeemer 
has himself achieved over sin and 
178 



death, and which his grace enables the 
believer also to obtain, and the still 
more perfect and universal triumph 
which he will finally accomplish, are all 
strikingly illustrated by the bruising 
or crushing of the serpent's head. 

The books of heathen mythology 
furnish curious allusions to this pas- 
sage of the Bible. In one of them Thor 
is represented as the eldest son of Odin, 
a middle divinity, a mediator between 
God and man, who bruised the head of 
the serpent and slew him. And in one 
of the oldest pagodas of India are 
found two sculptured figures, repre- 
senting two incarnations of one of 
their supreme divinities, the first to be 
bitten by a serpent and the second to 
crush him. 

The promise thus given when man 
fell was supplemented by so many par- 
ticulars in the course of the centuries 
that the coming Messiah was the great 
hope of Israel. In type and symbol, in 
poetry and prose, in prophecy and his- 
tory, the Jews had set before them in 
increasing prominence and clearness 
the character and life and death of 
the promised Messiah, and yet, as a 
nation, they grossly misapprehended 
his character and the purpose of his 
mission. They were accustomed to re- 
gard his coming as the grand era in the 
annals of the world, for they spoke of 
the two great ages of history, the one 
as preceding and the other as following 
this wonderful event ; but they per- 
verted the spiritual character of the 
Messiah and his kingdom into that of 
a temporal deliverer and ruler. 

We find that about the time of the 
Messiah's appearance Simeon, Anna, 
and others of like faith, were eagerly 
expecting the promised salvation. Luke 
2 : 25-38. 

At the appointed time the Redeemer 
of the world appeared. He was born in 
the year of the city of Rome 749 — i. e. 
4 years before the beginning of our 
era — at Bethlehem, in Judaea, of the Vir- 
gin Mary, who was espoused to Joseph : 
and through them he derived his descent 
from David, according to prophecy. Ps. 
89 : 3, 4 and 110:1. Comp. Acts 2:25, 
36; Isa, 11:1-10: Jer. 23 : 5, 6 ; Eze. 
34 : 23, 24 ; 37 : 24, 25 ; John 7 : 42. 

The story of Christ's life is told with 
so much simplicity, completeness, and 



CHE 



CHR 



sweetness in the Gospels, and is at the 
same time so familiar to every Bible- 
reader, that it is not necessary here to 
repeat it. In one sentence, Jesus Christ 
was the incarnate God, whose coming 
was the fulfilment of prophecy ; whose 
life was the exemplification of absolute 
sinlessness ; whose death was the result 
of man's malice, and yet the execution 
of God's design and the atonement for 
the sins of the world; whose resurrec- 
tion was the crowning proof of his di- 
vinity ; whose ascension was a return 
to his abode, where he ever liveth to 
make intercession for us. To prove his 
character we have the unanimous testi- 
mony of eighteen centuries. " The per- 
son of Christ is the miracle of history." 
We claim for him perfect humanity and 
perfect divinity. He was not only the 
Son of man, but the Son of God in one 
undivided person. The term "Son of 
man," which Christ applies to himself 
about eighty times in the Gospels, places 
him on a common level with other men 
as partaking of their nature and consti- 
tution, and at the same time above all 
other men as the absolute and perfect 
Alan, the representative Head of the 
race, the second Adam. Comp. Rom. 5 : 
12 ff. ; 1 Cor. 15:27; Heb. 1:8. While 
other great men are limited by national 
prejudice, Christ is the King of men, 
who draws all to him ; he is the uni- 
A-ersal, absolute Man, elevated above 
the limitations of race and nationality. 
And yet he is most intensely human. 
The joys and sorrows of our common 
life are met by his deep and tender sym- 
pathy. All love him who know him. 
His foes are the cruel, the licentious, 
and the malicious. The records of the 
evangelists are not elaborate, artistic 
pages with many erasures, as if the 
writers had toiled after consistency. 
They are simple, straight - forward, 
guileless testimonies; and yet the im- 
pression they leave upon the attentive 
reader is that in Jesus Christ the plant 
of Humanity bore its rarest flower, the 
tree of Life its most precious fruit. It 
will be granted that the question of the 
justice of this claim turns upon his per- 
fect sinlessness. Some have dared to 
say that while in the Gospels no sinful 
acts are recorded, there may have been 
sins which are unrecorded. But with- 
out fear he challenged his foes to con- 



vict him of sin. John 8:46. He was 
the only man who has made any such 
demand. Christ's sinlessness is con- 
firmed by his own solemn testimony, the 
whole course of his life, and the very 
purpose for which he appeared. Self- 
deception in this case would border on 
madness, falsehood would overthrow the 
whole moral foundation of Christ's cha- 
racter. Hypocrites do not maintain 
themselves under such a strain. But 
besides being sinless, he was perfectly 
holy. He did not simply resist sin : he 
blended and exercised actively all vir- 
tues. The grandeur of his character 
removes him at once from all the sor- 
didness, pettiness, and sinfulness of our 
every-day life. His memory comes to 
us with tKe refreshment of the cooling 
breeze on a summer's day. We can 
supplicate his help because we have 
seen him tried and triumphant, and we 
know his strength is great. All human 
goodness loses on closer inspection, but 
Christ's character grows more pure, sa- 
cred, and lovely the better we know him. 

But Jesus was likewise the Son of God, 
and so he is usually called by the apos- 
tles. The perfection of his humanity i? 
matched by the perfection of his divin- 
ity. His Godhead comes out in many 
ways. He exercises a supernatural con- 
trol over Nature. The waves sink at hi£ 
command, the fig tree withers away, the 
water turns into wine. By his touch or 
word, without a prayer or any recogni- 
tion of superior power, the lepers are 
cleansed, the blind see, and the lame 
walk. Higher yet does Christ go : he 
forgives sins — not with the ostentation 
of a presuming charlatan, but simply, 
decidedly, gently. He takes from the 
sinner his damning load by the same 
action which brings back health. He 
likewise intercedes with the Father for 
men. He claims equality and eternity 
with God. Twice God proclaims him 
as his Son. Accompanied by legions 
of angels, sustained by divine strength, 
Jesus of Nazareth lives as the express 
image of the Father, conquers the grave, 
rises from the dead, and ascends to take 
his place as God, blessed for ever. 

The Church has the daily experience 
of her Lord, who is present always in 
the hearts of all true believers. When 
souls yearn for cheer, when mourners 
cry out for comfort, when men need 
179 



CHE 



CHR 



counsel, they seek Jesus ; and they are 
supplied from the inexhaustible fount 
of his humanity. When the sinner feels 
the burden of his sin pressing heavily 
and groans for release, when the insolv- 
ent debtor falls at the feet of his Lord, 
crying, " Have mercy I" when the saint 
is set amid the perplexities of life, when 
he enters the valley of the shadow of 
death, when he comes to the brink of the 
river, — these are times when the perfect 
divinity of Jesus is proven to the satis- 
faction of the soul. 

" Behold the God-Man !" cries the 
Church ; and this is the exultant ex- 
clamation of the soul left to its deepest 
instincts and noblest aspirations, the 
soul which was originally made for 
Christ, and finds in him the solution of 
all moral problems, the satisfaction of 
all its wants, the unfailing fountain of 
everlasting life and peace. 

Personal Appearance of Jesus Christ. 
— None of the evangelists — not even the 
beloved disciple and bosom-friend of 
Jesus — has given us the least hint of 
his countenance and stature. This was 
wise. We ought to cling to the Christ in 
the spirit rather than to the Christ in 
the flesh. Yet there must have been 
spiritual beauty in his face. He won 
the hearts of his disciples by a word. 
We are indeed left to conjecture merely, 
but we cannot read in the hints of his 
personal power any necessity for taking 
Isaiah's description of the suffering Mes- 
siah in all its literal baldness. There 
was nothing repulsive about Jesus. He 
had not the physiognomy of a sinner; a 
supernatural purity and dignity must 
have shone through the veil of his flesh. 

The first formal description of his 
looks dates from the fourth century — 
is, indeed, unauthentic, probably a monk- 
ish fabrication, and yet, because it is 
curious and has had a groat influence 
upon the pictorial representations of 
Jesus, we insert it here. It is ascribed 
to Publius Lentulus, a heathen, supposed 
contemporary and friend of Pilate, in an 
apocryphal letter to the Roman Senate : 
" In this time appeared a man, who 
lives till now — a man endowed with 
great powers. Men call him a great 
prophet; his own disciples term him 
the Son of God. His name is Jesus 
Christ. He restores the dead to life 
avid cures the sick of all manner of dis- 
180 



eases. This man is of noble and well- 
proportioned stature, with a face full of 
kindness, and yet firmness, so that be- 
holders both love him and fear him. His 
hair is the color of wine, and golden at 
the root, straight and without lustre, but 
from the level of the ears curling and 
glossy, and divided down the centre, 
after the fashion of the Nazarenes. His 
forehead is even and smooth, his face 
without blemish, and enhanced by a 
tempered bloom, his countenance in- 
genuous and kind. Nose and mouth 
are in no way faulty. His beard is full, 
of the same color as his hair, and forked 
in form ; his eyes blue and extremely 
brilliant. In reproof and rebuke he is 
formidable : in exhortation and teach- 
ing, gentle and amiable of tongue. 
None have seen him to laugh, but 
many, on the contrary, to weep. His 
person is tall, his hands beautiful and 
straight. In speaking he is deliberate 
and grave and little given to loquacity; 
in beauty, surpassing most men." 

It may be proper to suggest the lead- 
ing points and principal references re- 
specting the divinity of our Lord. 

I. The names and titles of the su- 
preme Being are applied to him. John 
1:1; Rom. 9 : 5 ; 1 John 5:20; Rev. 1 : 
11 ; comp. Isa. 6 : 1-10 with John 12 : 41. 

II. The principal attributes of God 
are ascribed to Christ; as, eternity, 
John 1:1; 8 : 58 ; Rev. 22 : 13 ; super- 
human knowledge, Matt. 9:4; John 16 : 
30; 21:17; omnipotence, Phil. 3:21; 
Col. 2 : 9, 10 ; omnipresence, Matt. 18 : 
20 ; 28 : 20 ; John 3:13; and unchange- 
ableness. Heb. 13 : 8. 

III. The works and prerogatives of 
God are ascribed to him, such as the 
creation of all things, John 1:1,3; Col. 
1 : 16, 17, and their preservation, Heb. 
1:3; forgiveness of sins, Dan. 8:9; 
comp. with Ps. 30 ; Matt. 9:2,6; Col. 
3 : 13 ; power to raise the dead and to 
judge the world. Matt. 25 : 31-33 ; John 
5 : 2-29 : Rom. 14 : 10 ; 2 Cor. 5 : 10. 

IV. He is the object of religious wor- 
ship. Phil. 2:10, 11; Heb. 1:6; Rev 
5:11-13. 

We insert here, as a help in study- 
ing the harmony of the four Gospels, the 
chronological table of the life of Christ, 
from Schaff's Popular Commentary on 
the New Testament (New York, 1879), 
vol. i. p. 18. 



CHR 



CHR 



Outline of the Gospel History. 



Ye;ir of 
Rome. 


A. C. 




Matthew. 


Mark. 


Luke. 


John. 


749 
780 

780 

781 


B. C. 

5 
Dec. 

A. D. 
27 
Jan. 

27 
28 


I. Introduction. 






1 : 1-4 
3 : 23-38 

1 : 5-80 

2 : 1-52 

3 : 1-23 


1 :l-5 

1:6- 
2: 12 

2 : 13- 
5:1 

5:1 

to 

6:14 

6:71 


Genealogies 


1 : 1-17 
1 : 18-25 

2 : 1-23 

3:1- 
4: 11 






II. Birth and Childhood of Jesus. 

III. Our Lord's Introduction to his 

Ministry. 
From appearance of the Baptist } 
To wedding at Cana of Galilee / 

IV. First Year of our Lord's Min- 

istry. 
{According to Andrews, narrated by John 
only.) 
From the first Passover } f 




1:1-13 










To the second Passover) { 

V. Second Year of our Lord's Min- 








( Wholly in Galilee.) 
From the beginning of the min-~) 

istry 1 
To the feeding of the five thou- j 

sand and J 


4:12- 
14:36 


1 :14- 
6 :56 


4: 14- 
9:17 










780 
781 


27 

28 


IV. First Year of our Lord's Min- 
istry. 

{According to Robinson.) 
From the first Passover, includ-"] 

ing the following events, nar- > 

rated by the Synoptists : j 
Beginning of Galilean ministry... 
Kejection at Nazareth and re-) 

moval to Capernaum j 








2:13 
to 

5:1 

5:1 
6:14 

6:71 


4:17 
4 : 13-16 
4 : 18-22 


1:14 

to 
2: 14 


4:14 
4 : 16-31 

5 : 1-11 
4 : 31-37 

4 : 38-41 

4 : 42-44 

5 : 12-16 
5 : 17-26 
5 : 27, 28 


Healing of a demoniac at Caper- ) 

naum f 

Healing of Peter's wife's mother... 

First circuit through Galilee 


8 : 14-17 

4 : 23-25 

8: 2-4 

9:2-8 

9:9 




Call of Matthew 


Followed bv second Passover 


V. Second Year of our Lord's Min- 
istry. 
From second Passover and the") 
Sabbath controversy in Galilee > 
To feeding of five thousand and] 
Discourse at Capernaum, including 

Events narrated by Luke in 


12 : 1- 

14:36 


2 : 23- 
6:56 


6:1- 
9:17 






f 11:14- 
113:9 


And those narrated by Matthew, 
not cited under IV. 






782 
783 


29 

Apr.7, 
30 


VI. Third Year of our Lord's Min-) 

istry. v 

Until arrival at Bethany j 

VII. From the Arrival at Bethany ) 
to the Burial of Jesus / 

VIII. Kesurrection and Ascension 


15 : 1- 
20 : 34 

21:1- 

27:66 

28 


7:1- 
10:52 

11 : 1- 

15:47 

16 


9:18- 

19:28 

19 : 29- 

23:56 

24 


7:1- 
11:57 

12:1- 
19:42 

20, 21 1 



181 



CHR 



CHR 



The life of Christ has heen of late 
studied with an eagerness, a keenness, 
and a wealth of illustration that argue 
well for the future. The question, 
"What think ye of Christ?" is asked 
to-day with peculiar emphasis. This 
new-born interest in the earthly life of 
the Founder of the Christian religion 
will bear fruit in the increased rever- 
ence of believers and the increased re- 
spect of his foes. 

Christs, False. Matt. 24 : 24. Our 
Lord warned his disciples that false 
Christs should arise. Not less than 24 
different persons of such pretensions 
have appeared, and the defence of their 
claims to the Messiahship has cost the 
Jews a great expense of life and treas- 
ure. One of them, Coziba, or Barcho- 
cheba, lived early in the second century. 
He put himself at the head of the Jew- 
ish nation as their Messiah; they ad- 
hered to him. The Romans made war 
upon him, and the Jews themselves 
allow that in their defence of this false 
Messiah they lost between 500,000 and 
600,000 souls ! In the twelfth century 
not less than 8 or 10 impostors appeared 
under the same name, and were followed 
by great numbers of the Jews. Most of 
them were punished for their imposture 
with death, and usually involved a mul- 
titude of their deluded followers in per- 
secution and death. The last that 
gained any considerable number of 
converts was Mordecai, a Jew of Ger- 
many, who lived in 1682. He fled for 
his life, and his end is not known. 

CHRISTIAN. Acts 26: 28. This 
was a name given to the followers of our 
Saviour, and its proper beautiful mean- 
ing is " a follower of Christ." The Chris- 
tians called themselves first " disciples," 
" believers," " brethren," "saints." The 
name " Christian " originated at Anti- 
och, Acts 11 : 26, about the year 42 or 
43, and probably (like the names " Naza- 
renes" and "Galilaeans") as a term of re- 
proach or contempt. The word occurs 
in only three places in the New Testa- 
ment — viz. in the two passages before 
cited and in 1 Pet. 4:16, where it is 
implied that the very name was asso- 
ciated with reproach and suffering. 
Tacitus (b. about A. D. 54), a profane 
historian, tells us of the low or vulgar 
people called the followers of Christ, 
or Christians. 
182 



The term Christian is now employed 
(1) in contradistinction to pagans, Jews, 
and Mohammedans, and (2) to denote 
the open professors of religion, in con- 
tradistinction from those who are not 
professors. In some countries it is still a 
term of bitter reproach, and the assump- 
tion of it is attended with persecution, 
cruelty, and death. 

The Christian religion is received at 
the present day (as it is supposedj by 
nearly one-third of the inhabitants of 
the world--?, e. over 400,000,000 among 
1.460,000,0(10. But in point of intelli- 
gence, civilization, and influence on the 
world the Christian nations far surpass 
all other nations combined. One of the 
most recent estimates is the following: 

Jews 7,000,000 

Mohammedans 230,000,000 

Pagans 793,000,000 

Roman Catholics 210,000,000 

Protestants 130,000,000 

Eastern Christians 84,000,000 

1,460,000,000 

CHRONICLES. In its general 
signification, this term denotes a chron- 
ological history, or an account of facts 
and events in the order of time. The 
thirteenth and fourteenth books of the 
Old Testament, which among the an- 
cient Jews formed only one book, are call- 
ed the First and Second Book of Chron- 
icles, and are in some sense supple- 
mental to the two books of Kings, which 
precede them, with this difference — that 
the Chronicles are written from the 
sacerdotal point of view and present 
chiefly the fortunes of Jewish worship, 
while the Kings are written from the 
prophetic view of the history of the 
theocracy. They appear to have been 
compiled from the national diaries or 
journals, and the constant Jewish tra- 
dition, which internal evidence sup- 
ports, is that they were written by 
Ezra. These voluminous diaries are 
referred to frequently under different 
names, 1 Kgs. 14 : 19 j 1 Chr. 27 : 24; 
Esth. 2 : 23, but are not to be con- 
founded with the abstract which con- 
stitutes the books to which this article 
refers. 

The principal object of the author of 
these books was to point out, from the 
public records, the state of the different 
families before the Captivity and the 



CHR 



CHR 



distribution of the lands among them, 
that each tribe might, as far as possible, 
obtain the ancient inheritance of its 
fathers at its return. So that this por- 
tion of the Old Testament may be con- 
sidered as an epitome of all the sacred 
history, but more especially of that from 
the origin of the Jewish nation to their 
return from the first captivity, embra- 
cing a period of nearly 3500 years. The 
first book traces the rise and propaga- 
tion of the children of Israel from 
Adam, together with a circumstantial 
account of the reign and transactions 
of David ; the second continues the 
narrative, and relates the progress and 
dissolution of the kingdom of Judaea 
(apart from Israel) to the year of the 
return of the people from Babylon. 
Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles should 
be read and compared together, as they 
relate substantially the same histories, 
though with different degrees of par- 
ticularity and with different means of 
information, so that the whole contains 
but one history : and what is obscure or 
defective in one part may be explained 
or supplied in another. 

CHRONOLOGY. We present 
here a condensation of the article of 
It. S. Poole on this subject in Smith's 
Dictionary of the Bible. 

We must seek a ma media between 
putting absolute reliance upon the bib- 
lical chronological data and declaring 
them altogether vague and uncertain. 
The truth is, the Bible does not give a 
complete history of the times to which 
it refers : in its historical portions it 
deals with special and detached periods. 
This accounts for its scantiness and oc- 
casional want of continuity. Hence there 
is great value in independent evidence 
in the N. T. and in incidental evidence 
in the 0. T. 

Scientific observation of the natu- 
ral changes of the weather and the sea- 
sons was probably unknown to the 
Jews until the Captivity. But still 
these changes must have been noted, 
and from these observations we are safe 
in deducing their divisions of time. 
An hour was the smallest division the 
J^-ws recognized. The " sun-dial of 
Ahaz" — whatever instrument, fixed or 
movable, it may have been — implies a 
division of the kind. The civil day 
was reckoned from sunset, the natural 



day from sunrise. The rir'yht was di- 
vided into three watches, though the 
first must be inferred. The "middle 
watch " occurs in Jud. 7:19; the " morn- 
ing watch " is mentioned in Ex. 14 : 24 
and 1 Sam. 11 : 11. In the N. T. four 
watches are mentioned — the Roman 
system ; all four are mentioned to- 
gether in Mark 13 : 35 — the late watch, 
midnight, the cock-crowing, and the 
early watch. The Hebrew iceek was a 
period of seven days, ending with the 
Sabbath, which word indeed is oftt n 
used for " week." As the Egyptians di- 
vided their month of 30 days into de- 
cades, the Hebrews could not have bor- 
rowed their week from them ; probably 
both it and the Sabbath were used and 
observed by the patriarchs. The month 
was lunar. The first day of it is called 
the " new moon," and was observed as 
a sacred festival. In the Pentateuch, 
Joshua, Judges, and Ruth we find hut 
one month, the first, the month Abib, 
mentioned with a special name, the rest 
being called according to their order. 
In 1 Kgs. three other names appear — 
Zif, the second, Ethanim, the seventh, 
and Bui, the eighth. No other names 
are found in any book prior to the Cap- 
tivity. The year was made up of 12 
lunar months, beginning with the first 
part of our April. The method of in- 
tercalation can only have been that 
which obtained after the Captivity — the 
addition of a thirteenth month when- 
ever the twelfth ended too long before 
the equinox for the first-fruits of the 
barley-harvest to be offered in the mid- 
dle of the month following, and the 
similar offerings at the time appointed. 
The later Jews had two beginnings to 
the year, the seventh month of the 
civil reckoning being Abib, the first of 
the sacred. The sabbatical and jubilee 
years began in the seventh month. 
Agricultural considerations probabty led 
to this anomaly. The seasons do net 
appear to have been fixed among the 
ancient Hebrews. We find mention of 
the merely natural divisions of "sum- 
mer and winter," " seed-time and har- 
vest." Anciently, their festivals and 
holy-days were noticeably few ; for be- 
sides the Sabbaths and new moons, there 
were but four great festivals and one fast 
— the feasts of the Passover, of weeks, 
trumpets, tabernacles, and the fast on the 
183 



CHR 



CHE 



day of atonement. But after the Cap- 
tivity many holy days were added, such 
as the feast of Purim, of the dedication — 
recording the cleansing and rededication 
of the temple by Judas Maccabseus — 
and fasts on the anniversaries of great 
national misfortunes connected with the 
Babylonish captivity. The sabbatical 
year was a year of rest. It commenced 
at the civil beginning of the year, with 
the seventh month, at the feast of tab- 
ernacles. Deut. 31 : 10. The jubilee 
year began on the day of atonement, 
after the lapse of seven sabbatical 
periods, or 49 years. It was similar to 
the sabbatical year in its character, 
although doubtless yet more important. 
Eras seem to have been used by the 
ancient Hebrews, but our information is 
scanty. The Exodus is used as an era 
in 1 Kgs. 6:1, in giving the date of 
Solomon's temple. The era of Jehoi- 
aehin's captivity is constantly used by 
Ezekiel. The earliest date is the fifth 
year, 1 : 2, and the latest the twenty- 
seventh. 2d: 17. The era of the Seleu- 
cidae is used in the First and Second 
Maccabees, and the liberation of the 
Jews from the Syrian yoke, in the first 
year of Simon the Maccabee, is stated 
to have been commemorated by an era 
used in contracts and agreements. 1 
Mace. 13 : 41, 42. Regnal years seem to 
have been counted from the beginning 
of the year, not from the day of the 
kind's accession. 

We may distinguish different periods 
in Jewish history, although we are not 
able with accuracy to assign them dates. 
1. From Adam to Abram's departure 
from Haran. This period is the most 
indefinite of all. We have indeed two 
genealogical lists — from Adam to Noah 
and his s >ns, Gen. 5 : 3-32, and again from 
Shem to Abram. 11 : 10-26. But the Ma- 
spretic Hebrew text, the Septuagint, and 
the Samaritan Pentateuch greatly dif- 
fer. The Septuagint makes this period 
1000 years longer than the Hebrew. 
The question to which list the prefer- 
ence should be given is still unset- 
tled. 2. The second period is from 
Abram's departure from Haran to the 
Exodus. The length of this period is 
stated by Paul in Gal. 3 : 17 to be 430 
years, and there is no difficulty in the 
way of accepting his figures which can- 
not be solved. 3. The third period is 
184 



from the Exodus to the foundation of 
Solomon's temple. We may consider this 
period about 638 years, but others reduce 
it to one-half. 4. The fourth period is 
from the foundation of Solomon's tem- 
ple to its destruction. We come now 
upon tolerably sure ground ; from b. c. 
1000 on we have contemporary evi- 
dence. Two interregnums have been 
supposed — one of 11 years, between Jer- 
oboam II. and Zachariah, and the other 
of 9 years, between Pekah and Hoshea. 
We prefer, in both cases, to suppose 
a longer reign of the earlier of the two 
kings between whom the interregnums 
are conjectured. The whole period 
may be held to be of about 425 years ; 
that of the undivided kingdom, 120 
years ; that of the kingdom of Judah. 
about 388 years ; and that of the king- 
dom of Israel, about 255 years. 5. The 
fifth period is from the destruction of 
Solomon's temple to the return from the 
Babylonish captivity. The difficulty in 
calculating this period springs from the 
prophesied number — the 70 years. Two 
numbers, held by some to be identical, 
must here be considered. One is the 
period of 70 years, during which the 
tyranny of Babylon over Palestine and 
the East generally was to last, Jer. 25 ; 
and the other the 70 years of the Baby- 
lonish captivity. The commencement 
of the first is the first year of Nebu- 
chadnezzar and the fourth of Jehoi- 
akim, Jer. 25 : 1, when the successes 
of the king of Babylon began, Jer. 46 : 
2, and the conclusion is the fall of Baby- 
lon. The famous 70 years of captivity 
would seem to be the same period, since 
it was to terminate with the return of 
the captives, Jer. 29 : 1 ; and the order 
for this was published by Cyrus, who 
took Babylon, in the first year of his 
reign. 

Principal Systems of Biblical Chro- 
nology. — There are three, long, short, 
and Rabbinical. The long chronology 
takes the Septuagint for the patriarchal 
generations, and adopts the long interval 
from the Exodus to the foundation of 
Solomon's temple. The short chronol- 
ogy — that in the margin of the A. V., 
and derived from Archbishop Ussher 
(1580-1656)— takes the Hebrew for the 
patriarchal generations, and makes the 
second period to be 480 years. The 
Rabbinical chronology accepts the bib- 



CHE 



CHU 



Heal numbers, but makes the most ar- 
bitrary corrections. 

We subjoin a table in which the 



results of some of the more important 
of the various chronological schools are 
contrasted : 





Hales. 


R. S. Poole. 


W. Palmer 


TJSSHER. 




B.C. 

5411 

3155 

2078 
1648 
1027 
586 


1 5421 ) 

(3160 j 

2082 
1652 
1010 

586 


B.C. 

5362 

3100 

2084 
1654 
1014 

587 


B.C. 
4004 

2348 

1921 
1491 
1012 
588 


Flood 






Foundation of Solomon's Temple... 
Destruction of Solomon's Temple.. 



CHRYSOLITE. Rev. 21 : 20. 

The word means " golden stone," and we 
thus learn its color. It is quite agreed 
that it was the yellow topaz or the beryl 
of the 0. T. 

CHRYSOPRASUS. Rev. 21 : 
20. A stone of a "golden leek" or 
green color, as its name imports. It 
is of a most agreeable hue, opaque, and 
extremely hard. 

CHUB, a people, probably in north 
Africa, and of a land near Egypt. Eze. 
30:5. 

CHUN. 1 Chr. 18 : 8. Same as Ber- 
othai. 2 Sam. 8 : 8. 

CHURCH. The English word (like 
the similar terms in the Teutonic. Celtic, 
and Slavonic languages) is derived from a 
Greek word (Kvpia<6v) meaning " belong- 
ing to the Lord" (Christ), "the Lord's 
house." Some derive it from a Celtic root 
meaning "round," because the temples in 
which the first Christian congregations 
gathered were circular. In the N. T. the 
original word is ecclesia, which means 
an assembly, either secular, Acts 19 : 32, 
or religious, Acts 2 : 47, etc. It is ap- 
plied either to the whole body of believ- 
ers in Christ, the Church universal, Matt. 
16 : 18 Eph. 1 : 22, or to a particular 
congregation in a local sense, as "the 
church at Jerusalem." Acts 15:4; "at 
Antioch,"13 : 1, " of the Thessalonians," 
2 Thess. 1:1, "at Corinth," 1 Cor. 1:2. 
The original word is used only twice in 
the Gospels, each time by Matthew, 16: 
18, where it means the Church univer- 
sal, and 18 : 17, where it means a local 
congregation. The evangelists usually 
employ the term " the kingdom of God " 
or " the kingdom of heaven " for the 



spiritual substance of the Church uni- 
versal. 

The day of Pentecost is the birth- 
day of the Christian Church. Prom 
small beginnings it has spread over all 
the earth and been the one permanent 
fact amid all temporal changes. To-day 
it is the foundation of true civiliza- 
tion, virtue, and religion. What the 
Christian Church condemns the world 
must eventually give up, for darkness 
cannot abide the entrance of light. 

A distinction must be made between 
the real Church of Christ, the genuine 
believers, and the outward organization, 
which comprises both true and false 
friends of Christ. To the former only 
do the promises belong. 

In the outward sense the Church is 
divided into various denominations, 
as the Baptist, the Congregational, the 
English, the Episcopal, the Greek, the 
Lutheran, the Methodist, the Moravian, 
the Presbyterian, the Reformed, the 
Roman, and other churches. But in 
the Bible the word is never used in a 
denominational or confessional sense, 
or in the sense of a church-building. 

CHURCHES, ROBBERS 
OF, is the translation in Acts 19 : 37, 
instead of "robbers of temples" or 
" sacrilegious " persons. 

CHURN. See Butter. 

CHUSHAN-RISHATHAIM. 
Jnd. 3 : 8-10. A king of Mesopotamia, 
and an oppressor of the Israelites. Oth- 
niel, Caleb's nephew, delivered them 
from his dominion. 

CHU'ZA (a seer ?), the steward of 
Herod Antipas. His wife, Joanna, was 
one of the women who ministered to 
185 



CIL 



CIS 



Jesus in life and in death. Luke 8:3; 
24:10. 

CILI'CIA, the south-easterly prov- 
ince of Asia Minor, having Cappadocia 
on the north, Syria on the east, the 
Mediterranean Sea on the south, and 
Pamphylia and Pisidia (?) on the west. 
Eastern Cilieia was a rich plain ; west- 
ern Cilicia was rough and mountainous, 
lying on the Taurus range. Its capital 
was Tarsus, and many of its people 
were Jews. It is frequently mentioned 
in the book of Acts. 6:9; 15 : 23, 41 ; 
21 : 39 ; 22 : 3 ; 23 : 34 ; 27 : 5 ; and 
Gal. 1:21. See Tarsus. 

CINNAMON. Song Sol. 4: 14. A 
well-known aromatic, produced from the 




Cinnamon. (C. zeylanecum. After Dr. Birdwood.) 
inner bark of a tree which grows chiefly 
in Ceylon, and being peeled off and cut 
into strips curls up in the form in which 
it is usually seen. The cinnamon tree 
belongs to the laurel family, and attains 
the height of 30 feet. Cinnamon was 
one of the ingredients of the holy oil, 
Ex. 30 : 23, and was probably an article 
of commerce in ancient Babylon. Rev. 
18:13. 

CIN'NEROTH. 1 Kgs. 15 : 20. 
Same as Chinnereth. 
186 



CIRCUMCISION (cutting round), 
a rite or ceremony of the Jewish relig- 
ion, which consisted in cutting off the 
foreskin of all males on the eighth day 
after their birth. It was established as 
the token of God's covenant with Abra- 
ham, Gen. 17 : 9-14, who immediately 
subjected himself and all his family to 
its observance. The precept of circum- 
cision was renewed to Moses, Ex. 12 : 
44; Lev. 12:3; John 7 : 22, 23, requir- 
ing that all should submit to it who 
would partake of the paschal sacrifice. 
The Jews have always been very scru- 
pulous in its observance, though it was 
omitted in their journey through the 
wilderness for some reason. Many 
other nations have the rite. It existed 
among the Egyptians, the Ethiopians, 
the Mexicans, and the West Indians, 
and to-day among the Caffres of South 
Africa, the Abyssinians, the islanders 
of the Pacific Ocean, and the South 
American tribes. It is the chief cere- 
mony of initiation into the religion of 
Mohammed, though it is regarded only 
as a traditionary precept, and is not 
performed till the child is 13 years old. 
The instrument used for this purpose 
was a knife, a razor, or even a sharp 
stone. Ex. 4 : 25 ; Josh. 5 : 3. 

The design of this requirement obvi- 
ously was to fix upon the persons of all 
the natural male descendants of Abra- 
ham a distinguishing mark, separating 
them from all the rest of the world. As 
this rite was peculiar to the Jews, they 
are called " the circumcision," and the 
Gentiles "the uncircumcisiou." Rom. 
4:9. 

The terms " uneireumcised " and " un- 
circumcision " are also used to denote 
impurity or wickedness generally, and 
" to circumcise the heart " was to become 
tractable and docile. Ex. 6 : 1 2, 30 ; Jer. 
4:4; 6: 10; 9:26; Eze. 44:7; Acts 7: 
51. Jews who renounced Judaism some- 
times endeavored to erase the mark of 
circumcision by a surgical operation, and 
probably Paul alludes to this. 1 Cor. 7 : 
18. See Covenant, Concision. 

CIS'TERN. The face of the coun- 
try and the rarity of rain between May 
and September made cisterns indispen- 
sable in Judaea. They were mostly pri- 
vate property. Num. 21 : 22. Some were 
formed by merely excavating the earth ; 
others were covered reservoirs, into 



CIT 



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which the water was conducted ; and 
others still were lined with wood or ce- 
ment, or hewn out of the rock with great 
labor and ornamented with much skill. 
When the pits were empty there was a 
tenacious mire at the bottom, and they 
were used as the places of the most 
cruel punishments. It was into such 
a pit, probably, that Joseph and Jere- 
miah were cast. Gen. 37 : 22 ; Jer. 38 : 
6. Large cisterns are now found in Pal- 
estine at intervals of 15 or 20 miles. 
One of them is described by a modern 
traveller to be 660 feet long by 270 broad. 
These cisterns were the chief dependence 
of the people for water ; hence the force 
of the allusion. Jer. 2: 13. The city of 
Jerusalem was remarkably well supplied 
with water, so that during her many 
sieges her inhabitants never suffered 
from thirst. See Conduit. 

Various illustrations from the cistern 
are given in Scripture. A wheel was 
used to draw up the bucket, and "the 
wheel broken at the cistern," in Eccl. 
12 : 6, denotes the breaking up of the 
vital powers of the human body. An 
exhortation to due restraint in pleasure 
is indicated by " Drink waters out of 
thine own cistern." Prov. 5 : 15. 

CITIZENSHIP. The Jew had 
no earthly citizenship in the Roman 
sense : his commonwealth was a congre- 
gation of believers, governed by the 
Lord himself. But Roman citizenship 
is referred to in the N. T. This was the 
term for the privileges enjoyed by cer- 
tain subjects of the Roman empire. The 
right was obtained by inheritance or by 
purchase, Acts 22 : 28, or by military 
service, by favor, or by manumission. 
Among the privileges of this position 
was, the possessor could not be impris- 
oned without trial, Acts 22 : 29, still less 
be scourged, Acts 16 : 37, or crucified. 
Since to inflict either of these was a 
great indignity and severely punished, 
the assertion that one was a Roman 
citizen was a deterrent. But Jews 
who escaped on this account were still 
liable to their own law. 2 Cor. 11 : 
24. The right of appeal unto Caesar 
was one of the privileges of Roman 
citizenship. Acts 25 : 11. Paul was a 
Roman citizen, and repeatedly availed 
himself of his privileges against the 
violence of the mob. The words " I 
am a Roman citizen " had a magic 



power all over the civilized world, and 
even among barbarians. 

CIT'Y. It is not very easy to de- 
termine by what the Jews distinguished 
villages from towns, and towns from cit- 
ies. Probably, at first, a number of 
tents and cottages formed a village. 
They were brought together by family 
relationship, by local attraction, and 
for mutual defence against more pow- 
erful clans or tribes. When their sit- 
uation became insecure, they began to 
protect themselves by a ditch or hedge 
or a wall. The advancement from this 
rude state to the fortified towns and cit- 
ies of ancient days was easy and rapid. 
The first city was built by Cain. Gen. 4 : 
17. It may be presumed that cities were 
always walled. Num. 13 : 28. They were 
often (if not always) fortified, and many 
of them were very populous. The streets 
were crooked and narrow, so that in some 
of them loaded camels could not pass 
each other, as is the case to-day in 
Alexandria, Cairo, Jerusalem, and Da- 
mascus. Sometimes, in Asiatic cities, a 
broad street, or a section of it, is cover- 
ed for the accommodation of merchants 
or tradesmen, and such places are called 
bazaars ; and the prominent branch of 
business transacted there gives the name 
to the street ; as, the woollen-drapers', 
coppersmiths', etc. Around the gates 
of cities was the principal concourse of 
people, Neh. 8:1; Job 29 : 7 ; and there- 
fore these stations were desirable for 
booths or stalls for the sale of merchan- 
dise. 2 Kgs. 7:1. These square or 
open places are probably intended in 
2 Chr. 32:6 and Neh. 3:16; 8 : 1, 3. 
Some cities were adorned with open 
squares and large gardens. One-third 
of the city of Babylon was occupied 
with gardens. Caesarea, Jerusalem, 
Antioch, and other of the largest cit- 
ies, were paved. 

Fenced City, 2 Kgs. 10 : 2, or De- 
fenced Cities, Isa. 36:1, a fortified 
city. To build a city and to fortify or 
fence it, in the Oriental idiom, mean 
the same thing. The fencing or fortifi- 
cation was usually with high walls, and 
watch-towers upon them. Deut. 3 : 5. 
The walls of fortified cities were form- 
ed, in part at least, of combustible ma- 
terials, Am. 1 : 7, 10, 14, the gates being 
covered with thick plates of i v on or 
brass. Ps. 107:16; Isa. 45:2; Acts 
187 



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12 : 10. There was also within the 
city a citadel or tower, to which the 
inhabitants fled when the city itself 
could not be defended. Jud. 9 : 46-52. 
These were often upon elevated ground, 
and were entered by a flight of steps. 

See GrATE. 

At the time when Abraham came 
into the land of Canaan there were al- 
ready in existence numerous towns, 
which are mentioned in the book of 
(ienesis — Sodom, Gomorrah. Zeboim, 
Admah, Bela, Hebron, and Damascus. 
This last is probably the oldest city in 
the world. The spies who were sent to 
Canaan brought back an account of well- 
fortified cities. In the book of Joshua 
we read of no less than 600 towns of 
which the Israelites took possession. 
When the city of Ai was taken, its in- 
habitants, who were put to the sword, 
amounted to 12,000, Josh. 8 : 16-25, and 
we are told that Gibeon was a still greater 
city. 10 : 2. It is commonly calculated 
that in Europe one-third or one-fourth 
of a nation is comprised in its cities and 
towns. Reckoning the Hebrews, then, 
at 3,000,000, it would give about 1250 
for the average population of the towns, 
and it is probable that half the inhab- 
itants dwelt in towns for greater safety. 
Now, in Gibeah, Jud. 20 : 15, there were 
700 men who bore arms, and of course 
not less than 3000 inhabitants. By a 
similar calculation, we conclude that 
the 48 cities of the Levites contained 
each about 1000 souls. In the time of 
David the population of Palestine was 
between 5,000,000 and 6,000,000, and 
we may suppose that the towns and cit- 
ies were proportionately increased. On 
the great annual festivals Jerusalem 
presented a sublime spectacle of count- 
less multitudes, when all the males of 
the nation were required to be there 
assembled. At such times the city 
itself was insufficient to contain the 
host of Israel, and thousands encamp- 
ed around on its outskirts. After the re- 
turn from the Babylonish captivity, the 
population of the towns may have been 
inconsiderable, but the subsequent in- 
crease was most rapid ; so that in the 
time of Josephus the small villages of 
Galilee contained 15,000 inhabitants, 
and the larger towns 50,000. At the 
same period Jerusalem was 4 miles in 
circuit and had a population of 150,000. 
188 



The same author tells us that under 
Cestius the number of paschal lambs 
was 256,500, which would give about 
2,700,000 persons attending the Pass- 
over. At the time of the fatal siege of 
Jerusalem more than 1.000,000 of per- 
sons were shut in by the Romans ; so 
that the space included by the 4 miles 
must have been remarkably economized. 
But the number may be exaggerated. 

City of David, 1 Chr. 11 : 5, a sec- 
tion in the southern part of Jerusalem, 
embracing Mount Zion, where a fortress 
of the Jebusites stood. David reduced 
the fortress and built a new palace and 
city, to which he gave his own name. 
Bethlehem, the native town of David, 
is also called, from that circumstance, 
the city of David. Luke 2:11. 

City of God, Ps. 46 : 4, was one of 
the names of ancient Jerusalem, and 
j its appropriateness is evident from 
Deut. 12 : 5. 

Holy City. Neh. 11 : 1. The sacred- 
ness of the temple extended itself in 
some measure over the city, and hence 
Jerusalem itself was called the " Holy 
City," and is so distinguished in the 
East at the present day. 

Cities of the Plaix. See Sodom. 

Cities of Refuge, Deut. 19 : 7, 9 ; 
Josh. 20:2, 7, 8, were six of the Leviti- 
cal cities divinely appointed by the Jew- 
ish law as asylums, to which those who 
had been undesignedly accessory to the 
death of a fellow-creature were com- 
manded to flee for safety and protec- 
tion. The kinsmen of the deceased, or 
other persons who might pursue to kill 
him, could not molest him in one of 
these cities until his offence was inves- 
tigated and the judgment of the congre- 
gation passed. If he were not within 
the provisions of the law, he was deliv- 
ered to the avenger and slain. If he 
was, then his life was safe so long as he 
lived within the city or in the circuit of 
1000 yards beyond. There he must re- 
main until the death of the high priest 
during whose term of office the homicide 
was committed. The custom of blood- 
revenge was deeply rooted among the Is- 
raelites, and continues among the Arabs 
to this day, and the institution of cities 
of refuge was wisely designed to check 
the violence of human passion. Several 
sections of the Jewish law have relation 
to this subject. For the size and situa- 



CLA 



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tion of the cities, see Num. 35 : 4, 5, 14 ; 
the description of persons and the man- 
ner of killing in cases which entitled 
the slayer to protection, Num. 35 : 15- 
25; Deut. 19:4-13. For the mode of 
ascertaining whether the offence was 
worthy of death and the consequences 
of the judgment, see Num. 35 : 24-33 : 
and for the rules to be observed by the 
manslayer in order to avail himself of 
the benefit of the city of refuge, see 
Num. 35 : 25-28. It is doubtful wheth- 
er the trial of the manslayer was had at 
the city of refuge or in the vicinity of 
the place where the offence occurred. 
Perhaps there were two processes, one 
introductory to the other, as we have a 
preliminary xamination to determine 
if the party accused shall be held to an- 
swer for his offence. This first process 
might have been at the city of refuge. 
Jewish writers say that signs were erect- 
ed in some conspicuous place, pointing 
to the cities of refuge, at every cross- 
road, on which was inscribed, " Refuge, 
Refuge." which, with many other simi- 
lar provisions, were designed to direct 
and facilitate the flight of the unhappy 
man who was pursued by the avenger of 
blood. There were other sacred places 
of refuge, particularly the temple and 
the altar of burnt-offerings. Ex. 21 : 14. 

Cities with Suburbs. Josh. 21:41, 
42. This expression is explained by 
reference to Num. 35 : 1-5. See Treas- 
ure-cities, Walls. 

CLAU'DA, a small island, 7 
miles long by 3 miles wide, in the Med- 
iterranean Sea, south of Crete, Acts 
27:16: now Gozzo. 

CLAU'DIA, a Christian woman in 
Rome who joins Paul in saluting Timo- 
thy. 2 Tim. 4:21. 

CLAUDIUS {lame), the fourth 
Roman emperor, successor of Caius 




Coin of Claudius. (British Museum.) 

Caligula, A. D. 41-54. Acts 11 : 28. Her- 
od Agrippa I. was mainly instrument- 



al in securing him the throne. Several 
different famines took place during his 
reign, one of which, predicted by Aga- 
bus, was very severe, and lasted three 
years. In the ninth or twelfth year of 
his reign he banished the Jews, proba- 
bly including the Christian converts, 
from Rome. Acts 18 : 2. 

CLAUDIUS LY'SIAS, the 
chief captain or commander of a band 
of soldiers stationed as a public guard 
over the temple, who interposed his au- 
thority, and thus saved Paul from vio- 
lence at the hands of a temple-mob, and 
afterward sent him with a strong guard 
to the procurator Felix at Csesarea. 
Acts 21, 22, and 23. 

CLAY. The Hebrew word is used 
in the 0. T. in the sense of ordinary 
mire in the streets, Ps. 18 : 42 ; at the 
bottom of the sea, Isa. 57 : 20 ; in a cis- 
tern or subterranean prison. Jer. 38 : 6. 
It is also translated "clay" — i. e. pot- 
ter's clay— Isa. 41 : 25 ; Nah. 3 : 14. In 
the N. T. the word " clay " is applied to a 
mixture of spittle with dust. John 9 : 6, 
11, 15.- For the use of clay in brick- 
making, see Brick ; and in pottery, see 
Potter. Clay was also used for seal- 
ing. Job 38 : 14. Wine-jars, tombs, and 
doors were, and are, sealed with clay. 
See Seal. 

CLEAN, and UNCLEAN'. Lev. 
10 : 10. These words are applied in 
the Jewish law to persons, animals, and 
things. 

In order to partake of the privileges 
of the Jewish Church, the individual 
must not only be circumcised, but be 
ceremonially clean. How the various 
kinds of uncleanness were contracted, 
what time it continued, and what was 
the process of purification, are partic- 
ularly described in Lev. 11-15 : Num. 19. 

The division of animals into clean 
and unclean existed before the Flood, 
Gen. 7 : 2, and was probably founded 
upon the practice of animal sacrifice. 
Those animals only which divide the 
hoof and chew the cud were regarded 
as clean. Lev. 11 : 3, 4. The same chap- 
ter enumerates a variety of beasts, birds, 
reptiles, fishes, and things which are un- 
clean. See also Ex. 22 : 31 ; 34 : 15, 26 ; 
Deut. 14:21. One object of these dis- 
tinctions was to guard the Jews against 
heathen idolatry. Eating with the Gen- 
tiles was regarded as a peculiar aggra- 
189 



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vation of the offence of associating with 
them. Matt. 9:11; Acts 11: 3. Some of 
the prohibited animals were unwhole- 
some. The Hebrews were taught by 
these strict regulations to habitually 
regard their relation to God, and to ab- 
stain from everything that should offend 
his infinite holiness or involve the least 
appearance of pollution. The distinc- 
tion between clean and unclean ani- 
mals and nations was annulled by a 
special revelation to Peter. Acts 10 : 
9-16. 

CLEM'ENT, a fellow-laborer 
of Paul, Phil. 4:3; probably the same 
who was afterward bishop of Rome and 
wrote two epistles to the Corinthians, 
which are still extant, and were once 
read in some churches. 

CLE'OPAS {very renowned), one 
of the two disciples who were met by 
Christ on the way to Einmaus. Luke 
24 : 18. Some regard him as the same 
with Cleophas. 

CLEOPHAS. John 19: 25. See 
Alpheus. 

CLERK. See Town-clerk. 

CLOAK. See Clothes. 

CLOSET. See Dwelling. 

CLOTH. The art of making cloth 
was known very early. The skins of 
animals supplied the place of cloth at 
first, but we may suppose that spinning 
and needle- work were so far perfected 
as to furnish cloth, of a coarse kind at 
least, at an early period. Ex. 35 : 25 ; 
Jud. 5 : 30. The beauty of dress con- 
sisted in the fineness and color of the 
cloth. See Sackcloth. 

CLOTHES, CLOTH'ING. The 
immobility of the East is evinced in 
nothing more than in the absence of 
any change in dress from generation to 
generation. The clothing of the ancient 
liebrews may be known from that of the 
modern Orientals. The ordinary dress 
consisted of the inner garment, the out- 
er garment, a girdle, and sandals. 

1. The inner garment originally was 
a sort of shirt, sleeveless, and reaching 
only to the knees. Afterward it was 
larger and longer, and with sleeves. A 
girdle confined it around the waist. Jud. 
14:13. A person with only it on was 
said to be naked. 1 Sam. 19 : 24 ; Isa. 
29:2-4; John 21 : 7. Its material was 
wool, cotton, or linen, varying in qual- 
ity according to the taste and wealth of 
190 



the owner. This inner garment is com- 
monly translated in the Bible " coat," 
but "shirt" would be more correct. 

2. The girdle. — When the garments 
came to be made long and flowing they 
were confined around the loins with gir- 
dles, which served not only to bind 




A Modern Arab. 



A Modem Greek. 



them to the body, but also to hold them 
when tucked up. This increased the 
gracefulness of their appearance and 
! prevented them from interfering with 
labor or motion. Hence " to gird up 
the loins " became a significant figu- 
rative expression, denoting readiness for 
service, activity, and watchfulness, and 
"to loose the girdle" was to give way 
to repose and indolence. 2 Kgs. 4 : 29 ; 
Job 38 : 3 ; Isa. 5:27; Jer. 1:17; Luke 
12 : 35 ; John 21 : 7 ; Acts 12 : 8 ; 1 Pet. 
1:13. This girdle was a belt or band 
of cord, cloth, or leather, 6 inches or 
more in breadth, with a clasp affixed to 
loosen or draw it closer. Sometimes 
the girdle was made of linen, Eze. 16 : 
10, and was often adorned with rich 
and beautiful ornaments of metal, pre- 
cious stones, and embroidery. 

The girdle was used to carry weapons, 2 
Sam. 20 : 8, money, and other things usu- 
ally carried by us in the pocket. The 
Arabs carry their daggers in it, point- 
ing to the right side, and through all 
the East it is the place for the handker- 
chief, smoking-materials, and the im- 
plements of one's profession. See Ink- 
horx. The word translated "purses," 
Matt. 10 : 9, is in other places trans- 
lated " girdle.'' The girdle not only 
protected the body, but braced it with 
strength and firmness. The girdle is 



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supposed by some to have been a chief 
article or appendage of the armor ; 
hence to have it continually fastened 
upon the person is emblematical of great 
fidelity and vigilance. And because it 
encircled the body very closely, the 




Girded for Walking. 

perfect adherence of the people of God 
to his service is figuratively illustrated 
by the cleaving of the girdle to a man's 
loins. Jer. 13 : 11. In the same view, 
righteousness and faithfulness are call- 
ed by the prophet, Isa. 11 : 5, " the gir- 
dle" of the promised Messiah. 

3. The outer or tipper garment, Matt. 
21 : 8, or cloak, Matt. 5 : 40, was a square 
or oblong strip of cloth, 2 or 3 jards long 
and 2 yards wide. Such a garment is 
now worn by the Arabs. It was simply 
wrapped around the body as a protec- 
tion from the weather ; and when oc- 
casion required, it might be thrown over 
the shoulder and under the arm, some- 
what like an Indian blanket, and be 
fastened with clasps or buckles, two 
corners being in front, which were call- 
ed skirts, and were often used as aprons 
sometimes are among us. Ex. 12 : 34 ; 
2 Kgs. 4:29; Luke 6:38. The Arabs 
throw this garment over the left shoul- 
der and under the right arm, and thus 
cover the whole body, leaving only the 
right arm exposed. This garment was 
the poor man's bed-clothing. Ex. 22 : 
26, 27 ; Job 22 : 6 ; 24 : 7. This was 
probably the cloak and the coat or 
linen garment to which reference is had 
in Matt. 5:40, and, in a more ample 
form, was called a robe, Luke 23 : 11, 
or a mantle. 2 Kgs. 2 : S. It is sup- 
posed that the fringes, with the blue 
ribbon. Num. 15:38, were placed on 
the corners or borders of this garment. 



Matt. 23 : 5. They are seen still on 
ancient monuments. 

In winter fur dresses or skins were 
worn, as at the present day, in Eastern 
countries. A dress of sheep- or goat- 
skins is, perhaps, meant in 2 Kgs. 1 : 8 
and Zech. 13:4. The common skins 
of this kind were worn by the poorest 
and meanest people, Heb. 11 : 37, but the 
fur dresses were sometimes very costly, 
and constituted a part of the royal ap- 
parel. The word translated "robe," 
Jon. 3 : 6, is supposed to mean a fur gar- 
ment. The sheep's clothing, Matt. 7:15, 
was considered emblematical of inno- 
cence and gentleness, and was the dis- 
guise of the false prophets, who were, in 
truth, fierce and ravenous as wolves for 
the blood of souls. The word trans- 
lated "sheets," Jud. 14:12, 13, is sup- 
posed to denote some kind of garment 
worn next to the skin, and probably 
the same which is spoken of under the 
general name of "fine linen " in Prov. 
31 : 24 : Isa. 3 : 23 ; and Mark 15 : 46. 
See Sheets. 

The linen cloth mentioned in Mark 
14 :51 was probably an article of bed- 
clothing caught up in haste and thrown 
around the body — " a wrapper of fine 
linen, which might be used in various 
ways, but especially as a night-shirt." 
The Arabs use for a complete dress by 
day the same garment which serves 
them for a bed and covering by night. 
Deut. 24 : 13. Such 'also is the use of 
the Highlander's plaid. 

The dress of the women differed from 
the men's only in the outer garments. 
A veil further distinguished them. 
It was considered a token of mod- 
esty in unmarried women, Gen. 24:65, 
and of subjection and reverence in 
those that were married. 1 Cor. 11 : 3- 
10. The robe was often made full, and 
when tucked up the front of it would 
answer the purpose of a large apron, 
which is one meaning of the word 
translated "veil." Euth 3:15. The 
Arabs put their hykes or cloaks to a 
like use. 

Handkerchiefs. Acts 19 : 12.— These 
were common among the Hebrews. The 
people of Eastern nations at this day 
carry them in their hands, and they 
are often wrought beautifully with 
the needle. 

Aprons, mentioned in Acts 19 : 12, 
191 



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were sweat-cloths from the apostle's 
body. 

4. Sandals and shoes. Deut. 25 : 9 ; 
Mark 6 : 9. — The sandal was at first a 
flat piece of wood or leather suited to 
the sole of the foot, and bound upon it 
by straps or strings. The fastening 
was called a latchet. Gen. 14 : 23. 

The common sandal is made of a 
piece of hide from the neck of a camel, 
and sometimes of several thicknesses 
sewed together. It is fastened by two 
straps, one of which passes between the 
great and second toe, and the other 
around the heel and over the instep. 
Hence it appears that the shoe was 
easily slipped off, and that it afforded 
no protection from the dust and dirt. 
Sandals were never worn in the house. 
The taking: off of the shoes was a mark 



of reverence shown to exalted persons 
and sacred places. At the doors of 
Hindoo pagodas and Mohammedan 
mosques sandals are collected in great 
numbers for the use of strangers. 

The necessity of washing the feet 
after every walk is obvious, and it was 
the first token of hospitality to supply 
water for this purpose. Gen. 24:32; 
Luke 7 : 44. To unloose the straps or 
latchets was the business of a menial, 
Mark 1 : 7, as was also the washing of 
the feet. John 13 : 1-16. 

The wooden sandal is much worn 
in Arabia, Judaea, and Egypt. Though 
often expensive and neat, it was usually 
a cheap, coarse, and very clumsy article. 

The following represent various forms 
of sandals which are still in common 
use in many countries of the East. 




Sandals. (From Farrar's "Life of Christ.") 



Mitre, Ex. 39 : 28, or bonnet, Ex. 28 : 
40, was a part of the sacred dress only, 
worn on the head. The Arab women 
wear a cap of folded cloth not unlike 
the modern turban, and the Hebrew 
women wore head-dresses of various 
shapes. Isa. 3 : 20. 

Blue fringes were attached to the four 
corners of the outer garment to remind 
the wearer of God's commandments. 
Num. 15 : 37-39. It was one of the 
fringes of Jesus's garment which is 
called the " hem " touched by the woman. 
Matt. 9 : 20 ; Luke 8 : 44. For enlarging 
these fringes to attract notice Jesus re- 
bukes the Pharisees. Matt. 23 : 5. 

Change of raiment or garments. 2 
Kgs. 5 : 5, 22. — It is customary in the 
East at this day to make presents of 
garments; and the Asiatic princes keep 
changes of raiment ready made for 
192 



presents to persons of distinction whom 
they wish particularly to honor. The 
simple and uniform shape of the gar- 
ments makes this custom practicable, 
and accounts also for the change of 
one person's dress for another's which 
is mentioned in sacred history. Gen. 
27:15; 1 Sam. 18:4. See also Deut. 
22 : 5 ; Luke 15 : 22. 

Changeable suits of apparel, or festal 
robes, Isa. 3 : 22, are supposed to have 
been made of some thin fabric orna- 
mented with embroidery and worn over 
garments of various colors ; of which 
beautiful representations are to be seen 
in Indian paintings. 

Coat of many colors. — This was, prop- 
erly speaking, a " shirt of extremities " — 
a " shirt" which reached to the feet — prob- 
ably made of fine material. Gen. 37 : 3. 

Among the appendages to Jewish 



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COA 



dress were jewels of gold and silver, I 
bracelets, necklaces, ear-rings, etc. 
Nose- and ear-rings are very common 
in the East. The thread, Gen. 14 : 23, 
is supposed by some to mean the thread 




Eastern Fringed Garment. {From Fo,rrar's 
"Life of Christ") 

on which precious stones were hung for 
neck-chains. Eze. 16 : 11. Bracelets were 
worn on the arms by both sexes, 2 Sam. 
1:10, and by females upon the leg also. 
Isa. 3 : 19, 20. See Bracelets. Women 
in Persia and Arabia wear rings full of 
little bells about the ankle. Isa. 3:16. 
Hand-mirrors, made of molten brass and 
finely polished, were aviso a common ac- 
companiment of female dress, Ex. 38 : 
8 ; Isa. 3 : 23, and were either carried 
in the hand or suspended from the gir- 
dle or neck. In later times these mir- 
rors were made of polished steel. 

All the Grecian and Roman women, 
without distinction, wore their hair long. 
On this they lavished all their art, dis- 
posing it in various forms and embellish- 
ing it with many ornaments. In an- 
cient medals and statues we see the 
plaited tresses interwoven with expen* 
13 



sive and fantastic decorations so point- 
edly condemned by the apostle as proofs 
of a vain mind, and as inconsistent with 
the modestj* and decorum of Christian 
women. 1 Tim. 2 : 9, 10 ; 1 Pet. 3 : 1, 3, 
4. See Phylacteries. 

Rending Clothes. See Rend. 

CLOTH, LINEN. See Clothes. 

CLOUD. The Hebrew words thus 
translated bring out the ideas of a 
•■covering" for the sky, a " darkness," 
or simply a "vapor." The references 
to clouds in the Bible will be better un- 
derstood when the fact is known that 
from the beginning of May to the end 
of September not a cloud is usually seen, 
1 Sam. 12 :17, 18; hence their appear- 
ance would be phenomenal. The on- 
coming of clouds marked the approach 
of rain. 1 Kgs. 18:44; Luke 12 : 54. 
"A cloud without rain" was indeed a 
proverb for a man whose performance 
belied his promise. Prov. 25 : 14. 
Clouds shield the divine Presence, Ex. 
16:10; 33 : 9: Num. 11: 25; 1 Kgs. 8: 
10 ; Job 22 : 14 ; Ps. 18 : 11 ; and in evi- 
dence of the divinity of Christ is the 
fact that clouds play a part in his re- 
corded life and in his future glory. 
Matt. 17:5; 24:30; Acts 1:9; Rev. 
14 : 14. Clouds symbolize transitori- 
ness, Job 30 : 15; Hos. 6:4; armies 
and multitudes of people, Isa. 60 : 8; 
Jer. 4:13: Heb. 12 : 1. "A cloudy 
day" is a day of calamity. Eze. 30 : 
3 ; 34 : 12. Peter likens false teachers 
to "clouds that are carried with a tem- 
pest." 2 Pet. 2 : 17. 

CLOUD, PILLAR OF. When 
the people of Israel commenced their 
march through the wilderness, God 
caused a cloud resembling a pillar to 
pass before the camp. In the day-time 
it was like a cloud, dark and heavy, and 
in the night bright and shining like fire. 
It also served as a signal for rest or mo- 
tion. Num. 9 : 17-23. 

CLOUTED. Josh. 9 : 5. Worn out 
and patched. 

CNI'DUS, a Greek city at the ex- 
treme south-western corner of Asia 
Minor, now in ruins, on Cape Crio. 

COAL. There is no evidence that 
the Hebrews were acquainted with coal. 
They used charcoal for their fires. The 
Hebrew words which are translated 
"coal" etymologically refer to heat in 
general, usually to fuel of wood, and in 
193 



COA 



COL 



1 Kgs. 19 : 6 and Isa. 6 : 6 to hot stones. 
In the N. T. the Greek words. Rom. 12 : 
20 and John 18 : 18 ; 21 : 9, refer like- 
wise to charcoal. 

COAST (from the Latin coata, « a, 
rib") is often used in the English Bible 
for "border," and has no reference to 
the sea. Jud. 11 : 20 ; 1 Sam. 5:6; Matt. 
8 : 34. 

COAT. See Clothes. 

COCK. See Cock-crowing. 

COCKATRICE. Jer. 8:17; Isa. 
11 : 8 ; 14 : 29 ; 59 : 5. The word, in the 
Scriptures, evidently denotes a very ven- 
omous reptile. The original signifies a 
creature that hisses, doubtless some spe- 
cies of serpent. Tristram proposes the 
great yellow viper, the largest of its 
kind found in Palestine, and one of 
the most dangerous. On one occasion 
he saw one of these vipers spring on a 
quail which was feeding : " It missed its 
prey, and the bird fluttered on a few 
yards, and then fell in the agonies of 
death. On taking it up I found that 
the viper had made the slightest possi- 
ble puncture in the flesh of one of the 
wings as it snapped at it, and this had 
caused death in the course of a few sec- 
onds." In the passage from Jeremiah 
above cited allusion is made to thS un- 
yielding cruelty of the Chaldean armies 
under Nebuchadnezzar, who were ap- 
pointed ministers of divine vengeance 
on the Jewish nation for their manifold 
and aggravated sins. 

COCK'- CROWING. Mark 13 : 
35. A name given to the third watch 
of the night, from midnight to day- 
break. Some perplexity has been occa- 
sioned by the difference between the ex- 
pressions in Matt. 26 : 34, " before the 
cock crow, thou shalt deny me thrice," 
and Mark 14 : 30, " before the cock crow 
twice, thou shalt deny me thrice." To 
reconcile this seeming variance, it is 
stated that there were two cock-crow- 
ings — one soon after midnight, and the 
other about three o'clock — and that the 
last, which was the signal of approaching 
day, was spoken of as the cock-crowing. 
To this it has been answered that only 
one hour elapsed between the denials. 
Luke 22 : 59. This is true of the second 
and third, but there seems to be no au- 
thority for saying it is of the first and 
second. It seems most natural to sup- 
pose that the phraseology in both cases 
194 



was substantially the same, and that the 
Jews understood by the phrase " before 
the cock crow" the same time which 
was denoted by the phrase '•' before the 
cock crow twice." Both referred to that 
cock-crowing which especially and most 
distinctly marked a watch or division 
of the night. There is no reference to 
poultry in the 0. T., and only an inciden- 
tal one in the New. Matt. 23 : 37 ; Luke 
13 : 34. Some suppose that poultry were 
introduced into Judaea by the Romans. 

COCK'LE {stinking like carrion). 
This word may denote troublesome or 
offensive weeds in general. Job 31 : 40. 
But the arums, which abound in Galilee 
and other Eastern regions, have pre- 
cisely the odor indicated by the orig- 
inal, and may be the plants meant. 
The proximity of these offensive growths 
is sometimes scarcely endurable. 

CarLE-SYR^A (hollow Syria), 
the great valley between the Lebanon 
and Anti-Lebanon ranges of mountains. 
See Lebanon and Syria. 

COF'FER, "a movable box hang- 
ing from the side of a cart." 1 Sam. 6 : 
8, 11, 15. 

COF'FIN. See Bury. 

COHORT. See War. 

COL-HO'ZEH (all-seeing), a man 
of Judah. Neh. 3 : 15 ; 11 : 5. 

COLLEGE. 2 Kgs. 22 : 14. This 
word is the translation of what was 
probably the name of one of the di- 
visions of Jerusalem — viz. " the lower 
city," built upon the hill Akra. 

COL'LOPS. Job 15 : 27. Thick 
pieces of flesh. 

COI/ONIT. Acts 16 : 12. A city or 
province planted or occupied by Roman 
citizens, as Philippi. Roman laws and 
manners naturally prevailed, but the 
colony had an independent internal 
government. The colonists were in 
the beginning all Roman citizens, and 
therefore entitled to vote at Rome. 

COLORS. Gen. 37:3. The art 
of coloring cloth seems to have attain- 
ed to great perfection among the Jews, 
though it did not originate with them, 
but with their idolatrous neighbors, the 
Phoenicians and Egyptians, the former 
supplying the dyes, the latter the mode 
of applying them. Four artificial col- 
ors are spoken of in the Bible. 

1. Purple, which was derived from a 
shell-fish native to the Mediterranean 



COL 



COM 



Sea. The coloring-matter was found in 
a small vessel in the fish, and the rest 
of the fish was useless. Purple was 
the royal and noble color, indicative of 
wealth and station. Jud. 8:26; Esth. 
8 : 15 ; Luke 16 : 19 ; Rev. 17 : 4: 

2. Blue, produced from a similar 
source, used in the same way, and for 
the same purposes. Ex. 25 : 4 ; Esth. 1 : 6. 

3. Scarlet and crimson appear to ex- 
press the same color. " The dye was 
produced from an insect somewhat re- 
sembling the cochineal, which is found 
in considerable quantities in Armenia 
and other Eastern countries" — Smith. 
The three colors above mentioned, to- 
gether with white, were employed in 
the tabernacle curtains and in the vest- 
ments of the priests. 

4. Vermilion was used in fresco-paint- 
ing, Eze. 23 : 14, for coloring the idols 
themselves, and for decorating the walls 
and beams of houses. Jer. 22 : 14. 

The natural colors noticed in the Bi- 
ble are white, black, red, yellow, and 
green, yet only three colors are sharply 
defined, lohite, black, and red. To show 
the vagueness of the use of the others, 
the tint green (translated "yellow" in 
the A. V.) is applied in the Hebrew to 
gold, Ps. 68 : 13, and to the leprous 
spot. Lev. 13 : 49. 

COLOSSE, or COLOSSI, a 
city of Phrygia, on the Lycus. a branch 
of the Maeander, and 12 miles above 
Laodicea. Paul wrote to the church 
there, Col. 1 : 2, and possibly visited it 
on his third missionary journey. See 
Acts 18: 23; 19:10. The town is now 
in ruins ; there is a little village called 
Chronos 3 miles south of the site of 
Colosse. 

COLOSSIANS, EPISTLE 
TO THE, was written by Paul while 
be was a prisoner at Rome, A. D. 62. It 
is probable that Epaphras, who is spo- 
ken of as the minister of Christ in that 
place, Col. 1 : 7, came to Rome to con- 
sult Paul respecting the semi-Judaistic 
and semi-Oriental opinions that had 
been preached among the Colossians by 
Jews who had been tainted by Essenic 
Gnosticism. See Essenes. These no- 
tions would tend not only to mar the 
simplicity of their belief, but to obscure 
the glory of Christ. Col. 2 : 8-23. To 
these damaging errors Paul writes a 
refutation. "The occasion, then, of 



the Epistle being the existence and in- 
fluence of false teachers in the Colos- 
sian church, the object of the apos- 
tle was to set before them their real 
standing in Christ, the majesty of his 
person, and the completeness of his re- 
demption, and to exhort them to con- 
formity with their risen Lord, following 
this out into all subordinate duties and 
occasions of common life." 

The Epistle to the Ephesians, written 
at a little later date, is very similar to 
it, but more full on the doctrine of the 
church. Both were sent from Rome by 
the same bearers, Tychicus andOnesimus. 
COLT. The young of camels and 
asses are so called. Gen. 32 : 15 ; 49 : 11 ; 
j Jud. 10 : 4 ; Job 11 : 12 ; Matt. 21 : 2, 5, 
7, and elsewhere. 

COME BY. In Acts 27 : 16 this 
! phrase means " to secure the boat, so as 
i to hoist it into the ship." 

COM'FORTER. John 14: 16. 
This word is the English rendering for 
Paraclete, and occurs only in the Gos- 
i pel of John. In four out of the five 
! passages in which it is used it is ap- 
| plied to the Holy Ghost, and should 
! be translated " advocate" or " helper." 
I For the Paraclete does not simply com- 
fort, but defends our cause and inspires 
j our courage. See Advocate. 

COMMANDMENTS. See Law. 
COMMERCE. In some form this 
j must have existed from the time when 
men formed separate communities, and 
when the dwellers in cities became de- 
pendent upon farmers and foreign na- 
tions for food. We find notices of trade 
I in this way in the time of Abraham, 
and particularly in the history of Jo- 
seph and of the Egyptian famine. But 
I foreign trade was not much cultivated 
| by the Jews. Indeed, they do not seem 
to have been in the least a sea-faring 
| people, for the commercial enterprises 
j of Solomon and of Jehoshaphat both 
I ultimately failed. 1 Kgs. 22 : 48, 49. 
j But we know that the Jews consum- 
ed foreign articles, Neh. 13:16; Ezr. 
j 3:7, and also supplied foreign coun- 
tries, as Phoenicia. 1 Kgs. 5 : 11; 
Eze. 27:17; Acts 12:20. Joppa, the 
modern Jaffa, the port of Jerusalem, 
carried on a busy trade. From it went 
vessels to various ports. Isa. 2:16; Jon. 
1 : 3. The internal trade was largely 
increased by the festivals. The sale of 
195 



COM 



CON 



animals for sacrifice and the exchanging 
of money were carried on even in the 
temple-enclosure, and led to our Lord's 
indignant rebuke. John 2 : 14 ; Matt. ! 
21:12. 

COMMUNION. 1 Cor. 10 : 16. 
Intimate fellowship and communica- 
tion, such as is expressed in John 15 : 
1-7 and 17 : 10, 21-26 ; Rom. 12 : 4, 5 ; 
2 Cor. 13:14; 1 John 1: 3. As the or- 
dinance of the Lord's Supper furnishes 
both the opportunity for and the motive 
to this mutual love and confidence, John 
13 : 34; 15 : 12, it is called, by way of 
distinction, "the holy communion." 

COMPASS, TO FETCH A, 
means " to go around." 2 Sam. 5 : 23 ; 
2 Kgs. 3:9: Acts 28 : 13. 

CONANFAH {whom Jehovah hath ! 
made), a Levite chief. 2 Chr. 35 : 9. 

CONCISTON, a term used sarcas- 
tically to denominate the Judaizers who ; 
insisted on circumcision as necessary 
for Gentile converts. Phil. 3 : 2. They 
thus perverted the rite, and therefore, 
instead of calling them by the honora- 
ble name of the " circumcision," Paul 
calls them the " concision," the " muti- 
lation." 

CONCUBINE, by the Jewish 
law, a lawful wife of a secondary or in- 
ferior rank, and consequently neither 
regarded nor treated as the matron or 
mistress of the house. Concubines ! 
were either Hebrew girls bought of 
their fathers, or Gentile captives taken 
in war. Foreign slaves or Canaanitish 
women were also illegally concubines. 
Concubines were not betrothed or wed- j 
ded with the usual solemnities and cere- j 
monies which attended marriage. They j 
had no share in the family government, I 
and the children of the wife were pre- 
ferred to the child of the concubine in j 
the distribution of the inheritance. 
Yet the children of the latter were I 
not counted as illegitimate, but stood | 
upon the same footing as those of the 
wife in the family, as their names oc- j 
cur in the genealogical lists. Gen. 22 : 
24; 1 Chr. 1 : 32. The custom among 
the Jews originated in the great de- 
sire for children, and therefore it was 
that barren wives gave their maid-ser- 
vants to their husbands that they might 
have children by them. Gen. 16 : 3 ; 30 : 
4. The law of Moses did not stop the 
practice, but modified it. Ex. 21 : 7-9 ; 
196 



Deut. 21 : 10-17. There was no stigma 
upon the position. The concubine was 
a recognized member of the family; 
when she had been a slave previous to 
becoming such a one, she still remained 
in slavery. Her distinction from the 
wife was in her lower social position, 
and in her far looser hold upon her 
husband. She might be dismissed with- 
out any formal divorce. Her unfaithful- 
ness was criminal, but not looked at as, 
strictly speaking, adultery, and hence 
was not so severely punished. Jud. 19 : 
2. In the days of the monarchy the 
kings imitated their heathen neighbors 
in the establishment of harems, and 
multiplied the number of wives and 
concubines. To seize on the royal concu- 
bines for his own use was thus a usurp- 
er's first act. Such was probably the 
intent of Abner's act, 2 Sam. 3 : 7, and 
similarly the request on behalf of Adon- 
ijah was construed. 1 Kgs. 2 : 21-24. — 
Smith : Dictionary of the Bible. 

Where polygamy was tolerated — as it 
was among the Jews — the permission of 
concubinage would not seem so much at 
war with the interests and preservation 
of society as we know it to be. The 
gospel restores the sacred institution 
of marriage to its original character, 
Gen. 2 : 24 ; Matt. 19 : 5 ; 1 Cor. 7 : 2, 
and concubinage is ranked with forni- 
cation and adultery. 

CONDEMNATION. The term 
refers to the sentence pronounced upon 
an adjudged criminal. In the sight of 
God the race lies under condemnation 
because of Adam's inherited sin and 
their actual transgressions. Rom. 5 : 
16, 18. The law which convicts men 
of sin is called the "ministration of 
condemnation." 2 Cor. 3:7, 9. But 
the gospel announces deliverance from 
sin. John 3 : 18. Therefore it is truly 
"good tidings of great joy." Luke 2 : 
10. By faith in Christ are we deliver- 
ed from condemnation, and are brought 
into the glorious liberty of the children 
of God. Rom. 8:21. 

CON'DUIT (te'ahih in Hebrew).. 
2 Kgs. 18 : 17 ; 20 : 20 ; Isa. 7:3; 36 : 
2. Used to signify something for con- 
veying water, as a " water-course," Job- 
38 : 25, or a " trench." It probably in- 
cluded an aqueduct, such as must have 
been used to convey the water from the 
Pool of Solomon to Jerusalem. Pilate 



CON 



CON 



built a new aqueduct or repaired that 
of Solomon, which still remains. 

CONEY (the hitler), a small animal 
(By rax Syriacus) found in Syria and 
Arabia, and much resembling the rab- 
bit in size, general appearance, and 
habits. Ps. 104 : 18 ; Prov. 30 : 26. Its 
Hebrew name is appropriate, from its 
dwelling in the rocks. The coney, 
however, does not burrow, but, like the 
rhinoceros and hippopotamus (with 
which naturalists class it), has hoofs 
rather than nails upon its toes. It is 
almost tailless, has short ears, is clothed 



in tawny fur, and is a very timid and 
harmless creature. 

Solomon justly pronounced the co- 
neys " exceeding wise." So great is 
their wariness that they have never 
been trapped and can but rarely be 
shot. They are accustomed to feed in 
small companies upon the herbage near 
their fastnesses, but it is said they al- 
ways first post a sentinel, and at a 
squeak of alarm, on the least indication 
of danger, they all plunge into their 
retreats. 

The references to this animal in the 




Coney. 

Law (Lev. 11 : 5 : Deut. 14 : 7) are to be 
understood in a popular sense. Though 
not strictly a ruminant animal, the 
coney, like the hare and rabbit, has a 
habit of moving its jaws as if chewing, 
while it does not completely divide the 
hoof, as does the ox or deer. 

The coney " is an exceedingly active 
creature, leaping from rock to rock with 
wonderful rapidity, its little sharp hoofs 
giving it a firm hold of the hard and 
irregular surface of the stony ground. 
Even in captivity it retains much of its 
activity, and flies about its cage with a 
rapidity that seems more suitable to a 
squirrel than to an animal allied to the 



(Hyrax Syriacus. After Houghton.) 

rhinoceros and hippopotamus. ... It 
is a tolerably prolific animal, rearing 
four or five young at a birth, and keep- 
ing them in a soft bed of hay and fur, 
in which they are almost hidden. If 
surprised in its hole and seized, the 
Hyrax will bite very sharply, its long, 
chisel-edged teeth inflicting severe 
wounds on the hand that attempts to 
grasp it. But it is of a tolerably docile 
disposition, and in a short time learns 
to know its owner, and to delight in 
receiving his caresses." — J. G. Wood. 

CONGREGATION, an assem- 
bly ; a gathering of people for either 
political or religious purposes. 
197 



CON 



CON 



1. In the 0. T. (kahal) it denotes 
the Hebrew people in its collective 
capacity, under its peculiar aspect 
as a holy community, held together by 
religious rather than political bonds. 
Deut. 31 : 30 ; Josh. 8 : 35 ; 1 Chr. 29 : 1, 
etc. " Sometimes it is used in a broad 
sense, as inclusive of foreign settlers, 
Ex. 12 : 19, but more properly as ex- 
clusively appropriate to the Hebrew 
element of the population. Num. 15 : 
15." The congregation was governed 
by the chief of the tribes and families, 
but from these was selected a council 
of 70 elders. Num. 16 : 2 ; 11 : 16. This 
was a permanent institution, for these 
representatives of the people — who at 
first met at the door of the tabernacle 
at the call of one silver trumpet, while 
the congregation came at sound of the 
two, Num. 10 : 3, 4, 7 — became in post- 
exilic days the Sanhedrin. Doubtless 
these meetings of the elders are often 
meant when the term " congregation " 
is used. Thus they meet to elect a 
king. 1 Sam. 10 : 17. Their decisions 
bound the nation. Josh. 9 : 15, 18. 

2. In the N. T. it means the Christian 
Church at large or a local congregation, 
but in King James's Version the corre- 
sponding Greek word (ecclesia), when 
used of a religious assembly, is always 
rendered " church," even in Acts 7 : 38, 
where it means the Jewish congregation 
in the wilderness. King James ex- 
pressly commanded the revisers to do 
this, in opposition to the Geneva Ver- 
sion, which uses the more literal render- 
ing "congregation." In Acts 19 : 32, 
39, 40 it means simply a popular assem- 
bly. See Church. 

CONFAH. See Jehoiachin. 

CONONFAH {whom Jehovah hath 
set), a chief among the Levites. 2 Chr. 
31 : 12, 13. 

CONSCIENCE is the inborn sense 
of right and wrong, the moral law written 
on our hearts which judges of the moral 
character of our motives and actions, 
and approves or censures, condemns or 
justifies us accordingly. Rom. 2:15. 
This universal tribunal is established in 
the breast of every man, even the hea- 
then. It may be weakened, perverted, 
stupefied, defiled, and hardened in vari- 
ous ways, and its decisions are more or 
less clear, just, and imperative accord- 
ing to the degree of moral culture. John 
J98 



8:9; Acts 23 : 1 ; 24 : 16 ; Rom. 9:1; 
and 1 Tim. 1 : 5. 

CONSECRATE, CONSE- 
CRATION. Ex. 32 : 29 : Lev. 7 : 
37. The word means "to set apart for 
holy uses." It is applied in the Bible to 
both persons and things. The tribe of 
Levi was consecrated to the priesthood 
with the most solemn and imposing 
ceremonies. Vessels, Josh. 6 : 19, prof- 
its, Mic. 4 : 13, fields, Lev. 27 : 28, cat- 
tle, 2 Chr. 29 : 33, individuals, Num. 6 : 
9-13; 1 Sam. 1 : 1L, 28, and nations, 
Ex. 19 : 6, were anciently consecrated 
or set apart to sacred purposes. See 

CONVENIENT signifies "becom- 
ing," " fitting," " appropriate," in sev- 
eral passages ; e. q. Prow 30 : 8 ; Jer. 
40 : 4 : Rom. 1 : 28 ; Eph. 5:4; Phile. 
8. This is the old Latin sense of the 
word. 

CONVERSATION is never used 
in the A. V. in its ordinary sense, but 
always denotes "course of life," "con- 
duct." Phil. 3 : 20 reads " our conver- 
sation is in heaven," but the Greek is 
properly translated by "citizenship." 
What is now called " conversation " is 
expressed in the A. V. by " communica- 
tion." 2 Kgs. 9:11; Matt. 5 : 37 ; Eph. 
4 : 29, etc. 

CONVERSION, or turning from 
one state, pursuit, inclination, or direc- 
tion to another. Acts 15 : 3. The corre- 
sponding Greek term in the N. T. de- 
notes a change of mind or heart which 
takes place in the sinner when the Holy 
Spirit convinces him of his sinfulness, 
persuades him to hate sin and to for- 
sake it, and to lead a life of holv obe- 
dience to Christ. Matt. 3:8: Luke 3 : 
3: 15:7: 24:47: Acts 5 : 31 ; 11:18; 
20 : 21 : 2 Cor. 7:9, 10; 2 Tim. 2 : 25 : 
Heb. 6:16; 12:17; 2 Pet. 3:9. Con- 
version is an act of man, while regenera- 
tion, or the new birth, is an act of God, 
but both are produced by the agency 
of the Holy Spirit, and usually coincide, 
though not always : for very young chil- 
dren may be regenerated, but cannot, 
strictly speaking, be said to be converted. 
TheScriptures describe mankindas alien- 
ated from God. as having the understand- 
ing darkened, and as dead in trespasses 
and sins. Hence the corresponding force 
and pertinency of the terms by which the 
change is described; such as created, re- 



CON 



COK 



newed, Eph. 4 : 23, 24, restored to sight, 
Eph. 1:18; Eev. 3 : 18, and raised from 
the dead. John 5 : 21, 24 ; Eph. 2 : 1. 

CONVOCA'TION, sometimes 
used with the adjective "holy," denotes 
a meeting of a religious character. Ex. 
12 : 16 ; Lev. 23 : 2 ; Num. 28 : 18. 

COOK'ING was not carried by the 
Jews to any perfection, because meat 
did not form part of their ordinary 
diet. It was done in early times ex- 
clusively, and in all periods of their 
history usually, by the matron of the 
family, apparently irrespective of her 
social condition, Gen. 18 : 6 ; although 
professional cooks were sometimes em- 
ployed in later times. 1 Sam. 8:13; 
9 : 23. As is evident from the expedi- 
tious way in which meals were gotten 
up, the animal, usually a kid, a lamb, 
or a calf, was cooked immediately after 
killing. For roasting, a fire of wood 
or else an oven, which was merely a 
hole dug in the ground, heated by ashes, 
and then covered up, was employed. 
When the animal was boiled, which was 
the usual way, both in the case of sacrifice 
other than the paschal lamb, Lev. 8 : 
31, and for domestic use, it was cut up, 
the flesh separated from the bones and 
minced, and the bones themselves 
broken up, and the whole mass thrown 
into a caldron filled with water, Eze. 
24 : 4, 5, and boiled over a wood-fire, and 
the salt or spices thrown in to season it. 
The meat and broth were served up sep- 
arately, the latter being used as a sauce 
to dip bread into. Gen. 18 : 8 ; Jud. 6 : 
19. Vegetables were usually boiled and 
served as pottage. Gen. 25 : 29 ; 2 Kgs. 
4 : 38. Fish was probably boiled. Luke 
24 : 42.— Smith : Diet, of the Bible. 

CO'OS, or COS, a small island 
north-west of Rhodes, Acts 21 : 1, in 
the jEgean Sea ; now called Stanchio. 

COP'ING. 1 Kgs. 7 : 9. The top 
course or finish of a wall. It is usually 
of flat or semi-circular bricks or hewn 
stone, projecting beyond the face of the 
wall, and forming an ornament similar 
in effect to the capital of a column. 

COPTER, a well-known metal, 
once as "precious as gold." Ezr. 8: 
21 ; 2 Tim. 4 : 14. The word translated 
"copper" in Ezra is elsewhere improp- 
erly rendered Brass, which see. 

COR. See Measures. 

CORAL, Eze. 27:16, was an 



article of Tyrian merchandise, and is 
well known as a marine production, 
found in almost every variety of shape 
j and size, and sometimes increasing to 
such an extent as to form the basis of 
islands, or to stretch out in dangerous 
reefs for many miles. It is capable of 
being worked up into beads and other 
ornaments ; for which use the red spe- 
cies is the most valuable. Job mentions 
it in connection with pearls. Job 28 : 
18. 

COR'BAN {offering) signifies a 
gift or thing consecrated to God or his 
service, particularly in fulfilment of a 
vow. Mark 7 : 11. The Jews permitted 
, such an abuse to be made of this con- 
secration that a child was suffered to 
deny the request of his parents, or 
withhold assistance from them in their 
distress, merely on the pretence that 
what they asked or needed was conse- 
crated to God. 

CORDS. See Ropes. 

CO'RE, the Greek form of Korah ; 
used in Jude 11. 

CORIANDER SEED. Ex.16: 
31. The coriander plant (Con'andrum 
sativum) grows wild in Palestine and 
neighboring countries, and is often cul- 
tivated in the United States. The seeds 
are globular, and when dry are pleasant 
to the taste and smell, and, incrusted 
with sugar, are often sold by confec- 
tioners. We are told that the particles 
of manna were shaped like coriander 
seed. 

COR'INTH, the capital of Achaia, 
and a renowned and voluptuous city of 
Greece, about 40 miles west of Athens, on 
an isthmus about 10 miles wide at that 
point. It had two sea-ports, Cenchrea, 
on the east, about 9 miles distant, and 
Lechasum, on the west, only about 2 miles 
away. Corinth was about 5 miles in cir- 
cuit, and on the south an immense rocky 
mountain called Acrocorinthus rises ab- 
ruptly to the height of 2000 feet, upon the 
summit of which was a temple of Venus. 
It had an extensive commerce, like all 
the large towns on the Mediterranean 
Sea, and became celebrated for its 
wealth, magnificence, and learning. It 
was esteemed as the light and ornament 
of all Greece. It was, however, no less 
remarkable for its corruption and licen- 
tiousness. "To live as at Corinth" was 
a proverb meaning profligate indul- 
199 



COR 



COR 



gence, and the name " Corinthian " ap- 
plied to a woman was infamous. 

Paul preached at Corinth, about A. D. 
53, a year and six months, Acts 18 : 11 ; 
paid it, A. D. 54-57, a short second visit 
("by the way"), not mentioned in the 
Acts, but implied in 1 Cor. 16 : 7 ; 2 Cor. 
12:13, 14; 13:1, where he speaks of 



Mill! 




Corinth and Aciocoiinthus. 
an intended third journey to Corinth, 
which coincides with that in Acts 20 : 
2 ; and spent there the three winter 
months, from 57 to 58, during which he 
wrote the Epistle to the Romans. Acts 
20 : 2, 3 ; comp. 1 Cor. 16 : 6 ; Rom. 16 : 
1. He wrote two letters to the Chris- 
tians in that city, rebuking their sins, 
and refers to the Isthmian games cele- 
brated at Corinth evei-y Olympiad. The 
city is now desolate, the little miserable 
village of Gortho occupying its site. 

CORINTHIANS, PAUL'S 
EPISTLES TO THE. They ex- 
hibit the trials and temptations, the vir- 
tues and vices, of a Greek congregation 
in apostolic times, and the wisdom and 
love, the trials and patience, of Paul 
in dealing with some of the most diffi- 
cult practical and doctrinal questions 
which arise again and again in the his- 
tory of every church. They are so full 
of individuality and local adaptation 
that their Pauline origin has never 
been disputed. 

1. The First Epistle was written at 
Ephesus, toward the close of the apos- 
tle's three years' residence there, in 
the spring of A. n. 57. It was sent to 
the church by Stephanas, Fortunatus, 
Achaicus, and Timotheus, according 
to the superscription. Its immediate 
cause was the painful news which 
had reached Paul that there were 
200 



dissensions in the church between the 
different elements — converted Jews, 
proselytes, and Gentiles — which com- 
posed it. Some of the members de- 
clared themselves Pauline, while others 
were Petrine ; others were of Apollos, 
and others of Christ — Christians in a 
sectarian and exclusive sense, chs. 1-4. 
This state of things is explic- 
3^ able. The Corinthian church 
(jfc| was founded by the apostle 
while upon his second mis- 
sionary journey, Acts 18 : 1, 
sq., during his eighteei? 
months' residence in Cor- 
inth. Not long after he left, 
Apollos came, Acts 19 : 1, who 
by his eloquence won follow- 
ers. Judaizers also from Je- 
rusalem came to the city, who 
misrepresented Paul as a dan- 
gerous radical, denied his 
apostolic authority, and 
obliged him to defend him- 
self. Thus the church was sadly rent. 
Those who styled themselves " of 
Christ" may have at first attempted 
reconciliation by going back of all hu- 
man authority to Christ, but would seem 
finally to have added a fourth to the ex- 
isting factions. Another trouble which 
demanded decisive action was a lax state 
of sexual morals. This gives Paul op- 
portunity to express his views upon 
marriage and the relation of the sexes 
generally, chs. 5-7. From these spe- 
cific cases of overt act he passes to the 
consideration of several matters of 
Christian practice — eating meats offer- 
ed to idols, chs. 8, 9 : the proper observ- 
ance of the Lord's Supper and its true 
nature, ch. 10 ; the proprieties of wor- 
ship, ch. 11 ; the gifts of the Spirit, chs. 
12, 13, 14. In ch. 15 he treats of the 
resurrection in a strain of marvellous 
eloquence. 

2. The Second Epistle was written 
from Macedonia, 7:5; 8:1; 9 : 2, in the 
same year, a few months later than the 
First — i. e. in the summer or autumn of 
a. n. 57. The contents seem to have 
been determined by the accounts the 
apostle had received from Titus, and 
perhaps, also, from Timothy, of the ef- 
fect of his previous Epistle. This was 
upon the whole favorable; still, many 
denied Paul's right to the apostleship. 
Accordingly, in this Epistle he first of 



COK 



COR 



all gives an account of his ministry 
and opens his heart toward his con- 
verts, chs. 1-7; next, exhorts them to 
give liberally to the support of the 
church in Jerusalem, probably because 
this proof of Christian brotherhood 
would cure their local jealousies, chs. 
8, 9: and lastly, he defends his apos- 
tolical character, chs. 10-13. 

It has been generally supposed, from 
1 Cor. 5 : 9, that there were more epis- 
tles to this church than these two, but 
how many cannot be determined. The 
two Epistles are singularly affectionate, 
although this church was sadly removed 
from the ideal. 

CORIN THUS, the Latin form of 
Corinth, which see. It occurs in the sub- 
scription to the Epistle to the Romans. 

CORMORANT {the plunger), a 
bird mentioned as unclean in Lev. 11 : 
17 ; Deut. 14 : 17. In two other passages 
a word meaning the Pelican, which 
see, is translated "cormorant." The 
true cormorant is found along the salt 
and fresh waters of Syria, and is cer- 
tainly a "plunger," so that there is no 
reason for a change in the passages of 
the Pentateuch, as some have suggest- 
ed. These birds are as large as the 
raven, of a dark color, with long necks, 
webbed feet, feed upon fish, and are pro- 
verbial for their voracity. See cut on p. 
203. 

CORN. Mark 4: 28. This word is 
generally applied in the United States 
to maize or Indian-coim, which it never 
means in the Bible, for that grain, like 
the Western continent, was, in scriptural 
times, as yet undiscovered. The English 
Bible uses the word as the general name 
for all sorts of cereals, such as wheat, 
barley, millet, and fitches, and of such 
cornfields only must we think. Oats 
are not known in Palestine, and rye is 
rarely, if ever, grown. 

A " corn of wheat " is a kernel of 
wheat. The figurative use of the word 
" corn," usually in connection with wine 
and oil, is very frequent, as grain and 
wine and olives were the leading pro- 
ductions of the country. Deut. 11: 14'; 
18:4; 28:51; 2 Chr. 32:28; Hos. 2 : 
22 ; Joel 2 : 19. 

It is probable that grain was commonly 
used in its crude state in the early ages 
of the world. It was sometimes done in 
later times, Matt. 12 : 1 ; and even now 



it is no uncommon thing, in passing a 
field of wheat, to pluck an ear, and, af- 
ter rubbing the husk or beard off by 
rolling it between the hands, to eat the 
grain, which is very palatable, even in 
that state. The Jewish law permitted 
standing corn to be plucked by any one 
passing through it, Deut. 23:25; and 
this custom, or right, is still respected 
in some parts of the East. See Mills. 

The " parched corn " of the Bible, Lev. 
23 : 14 ; Ruth 2:14; 1 Sam. 17 : 17, etc., 
"corresponds to the kaly of the Arabs, 
and is obtained in the following man- 
ner : When wheat is being harvested, 
some of the green ears are thrown upon 
the coals of fire and roasted ; they are 
but partially divested of the hull by 
rubbing between the hands, and are 
very much relished." — Van Lennep. 

CORNELIUS, a Roman centu- 
rion of the Italian cohort stationed at 
Caesarea, and the first»heathen convert 
to Christianity. He was a Gentile by 
birth, but a God-fearing man, a half 
proselyte — i. e. leaning to the Jewish 
religion, yet uncircumcised, and hence 
considered unclean. Acts 10 : 1. His 
prayers, being offered in the faith of a 
promised Messiah, were heard, and God 
sent Peter to make known to him the 
plan of salvation through a crucified 
and risen Redeemer. Thus the door of 
faith was opened to the Gentiles. Cor- 
nelius and his family were baptized in 
the name of the Lord Jesus. Acts 10 
and 11. 

CORNER. According to the Mo- 
saic law, it was forbidden to reap the 
corners of the field, so that there might 
be gleanings for the poor. Lev. 19 : 9 ; 
23 :22. The "corner of the house-top," 
Prov. 21 : 9, is a narrow place exposed to 
sun and rain, contrasted with the wide 
room or house below. The word " cor- 
ner" in the phrase "corners of Moab," 
or of any other country, Num. 24 : 17 ; 
Jer. 48 : 45, means the length and 
breadth of the country, and also of 
the world. " Corner of a bed," Am. 
3 : 12, the corner of a room, was on 
the elevated part (used by night for a 
bed or couch), and contained the most 
honorable seat. See Bed. In the pas- 
sage last cited it figuratively denotes 
the most proud and luxurious of the Is- 
raelites in Samaria. In Zech. 10 : 4 the 
word "corner" is used to denote either 
201 



COR 



COW 



the corner-stone or the most conspicuous 
part of a building, and evidently refers 
to Christ, Matt. 21 : 42, where he is men- 
tioned as " the head " (or chief ) " of the 
corner," though the Jews, in erecting the 
temple of their faith, rejected him as un- 
fit for so impoi-tant a place. 

Corner-stone. Job 38:6. A massive 
stone, placed at the foundation in the cor- 
ner of a building, and binding the two 
walls together. Christ is called "the 
Corner-stone of the Church " because 
he gives strength and unity to the whole 
structure of God's house. Comp. Eph. 
2:20; 1 Pet. 2:6; Matt. 21 : 42 ; Rom. 
9 : 32, 33 ; 1 Cor. 1 : 23. 

CORNET. 1 Chr. 15 : 28. An in- 
strument of music about 18 inches long, 
used by the priests, and giving a loud, 
smooth sound. 

CORRUPTION, MOUNT OF. 
See Olives, Mount of. 

COS. See Coos. 

CO'SAM (a diviner), one of Christ's 
ancestors. Luke 3 : 28. 

COTTAGE. Isa. 24 : 20. The 
same with tent or garden-hut. 

COT'TON is now grown in Syria 
and Palestine, and is preferred to linen 
for turbans and shirts. But there is no 
proof that the ancient Hebrews knew 
anything about it. The word occurs 
only in Esth. 1 : 6, where the A. V. ren- 
ders "green." 

COUCH. See Bed. 

COUN'CIL. There are three legal 
bodies called " councils " in the English 
N. T. 

1. The Sanhedrin, the supreme court 
of the Jews, the fountain of their gov- 
ernment, which sat at Jerusalem. By 
this body Jesus was tried. Matt. 26 : 59. 
See Sanhedrin. 

2. The lesser courts. Matt. 10:17; 
Mark 13 : 9. One was in each town, but 
two in the capital. Josephus states that 
each court consisted of seven judges, 
with two Levites as assessors. The 
"judgment," Matt. 5:21, probably ap- 
plies to them. 

3. The "council" spoken of in Acts 
25:12 was a kind of jury "composed 
of councillors appointed to assist and 
advise the Roman governors." 

COUNSELLOR. Luke 23 : 50. 
An officer connected with the royal 
camp of the Jews; supposed to be re- 
ferred to in 1 Kgs. 12 : 6-12. 
202 



COURSE. See Abia. 

COURT. See Temple, Dwellings. 

COVENANT, an agreement or mu- 
tual obligation contracted deliberately 
and with solemnity. God's covenant 
with men signifies his solemn promise 
or engagement. Gen. 17 : 14; Ex. 34 : 
10; Deut. 4:13; Isa. 59:21. 

The Hebrew word for " making a 
covenant" signifies "a cutting," be- 
cause covenants were often made by 
cutting animals in two and passing be- 
tween their parts. Gen. 15 : 10, 17 : Jer. 
34 : 18. 

The term "the covenants," Rom. 9 : 
4, refers to the various promises made 
to Abraham. God made a covenant 
with Noah and with Abraham. 

The chief and most important use of 
the word, however, is in relation to the 
two great dispensations which are dis- 
tinguished as the old and new, or as the 
covenant of the law and the covenant of 
the gospel. The former was made with 
the children of Israel through Moses, 
and rested much in the outward cere- 
monies and observances which the law 
enjoined (meats and drinks, and divers 
washings and carnal ordinances). The 
new covenant was made through Christ, 
sealed by his own blood, and secures to 
every believer the blessings of salvation 
and eternal life. Comp. Ex. 20 : 24 ; 
Gal. 3 ; Heb. 8. The titles " Old and 
New Testaments" arose from the inac- 
curate rendering of the word "cove- 
nant" by testamenUim in the Latin Vul- 
gate. 

Covenant of Salt. Num. 18 : 19 ; 2 
Chr. 13 : 5. This term denotes a cove- 
nant in the sealing or ratification of 
which salt was used, which made it 
inviolable. Lev. 2 : 13. See Salt. 

COVET, Ex. 20:17, COV'ET- 
OUSNESS. Ex. 18 : 21. To covet is 
to desire strongly. 1 Cor. 12 : 31. When 
such a desire is felt for that which we 
cannot lawfully possess, it is sinful and 
becomes covetousness, which is idolatry, 
Col. 3 : 5, for it is placing the heart and 
affections on the creature rather than on 
the Creator. Covetousness has relation 
commonly to riches, and, in the scrip- 
tural sense, includes the desire of accu- 
mulating, whatever may be the means. 
Prov. 28 : 16 : Eccl. 5 : 10 ; Luke 12 : 15- 
34; 1 Tim. 6:9, 10. 

COW. Isa. 7 : 21. In this remark- 




Crane. (After Tristram.) 



coz 



CKE 



able prophecy the event foretold is that 
the face of the land of Judah should be 
so completely changed, and the inhabit- 
ants so greatly reduced in number, that, 
with only a single young cow and two 
sheep, a family should be supplied with 
an abundance of milk and butter, and 
vineyards which before commanded a 
high rent should be overgrown with 
briers and thorns. 

By the Levitical law, Lev. 22 : 28, a 
cow and her calf were not to be killed 
on the same day. A similar precept is 
found in Ex. 23 : 19, and another in 
Deut. 22 : 6, 7. Whether they were de- 
signed to prevent inhumanity or referred 
to some heathen custom is uncertain. 
The cow is esteemed holy by the Hin- 
doos. 

COZ {thorn), a descendant of Judah. 
1 Chr. 4 : 8. 

COZ'BI {lying), the daughter of a 
Midianite chief. She was slain by 
Phineas. Num. 25 : 15, 18. 

CRACKNELS denotes crumb- 
cakes, so called because of the " sharp 
noise made when breaking." 1 Kgs. 
14:3. 

CRANE, next to the ostrich, the 
largest bird found in the Holy Land, 
measuring 4 feet in height and 7 feet 
from tip to tip of its extended wings. 
The crane {Grits cinerea) feeds upon 
frogs, fish, worms, insects, and some- 
times vegetable , substances. When 
upon the wing it is always noisy, and 
its cry is hoarse and melancholy : hence 
the allusion of Isa. 38 : 14. These birds 
return in the spring with great regu- 
larity from their migrations, and flocks 
of thousands pass over Palestine. Jer. 
8:7. 

CREATES Ps. 51:10, CREA'- 
TOR, Eccl. 12 . 1, CREATION. 
Mark 10 : 6. The word " creation " some- 
times denotes all living things, and at 
others the act of creation. To create is 
to cause anything to exist that never ex- 
isted in any form or manner before. Gen. 
1:1; Col. 1:16. It is to make without 
materials to make of. Thus, " God said, 
Let there be light, and there was light." 
Gen. 1:3. 

The panorama of creation in the first 
two chapters of Genesis is the sublimest 
that can be found or conceived, and em- 
inently worthy of God, and man as made 
in the image of God. Neither poetry 
204 



nor science has been able, or will ever 
be able, to produce anything better. 
God must have revealed it to the writer 
in a retrospective vision. The Bible 
gives two accounts. Gen. 1:1 to 2 : 3, 
and 2 : 4-25. They supplement each 
other, and they differ as the names of 
God Elohim (used in the first) and Je- 
hovah (used in the second) differ. The 
first refers to the creation of the whole 
universe, the second looks particularly 
to the creation of man and to the subse- 
quent history of the fall and of redemp- 
tion. The great object of the inspired 
writer in both was to show that God is 
the Author of all existence, that he made 
all things in beautiful order, and that he 
made them for his glory and for the use 
and dominion of man as the crowning 
work of his hands; that the God who 
created the universe is the same as the 
Jehovah of the history of the redemption 
of fallen man. The six days represent 
six indescribable divine works in six 
divine periods, ending in a divine rest. 
Gen. 2 : 2, 3. 

The first work was the creation of 
light — i. e. the diffused cosmic light; 
the second, the organization of the 
physical heavens and the separation of 
the firmament from the earth ; the third, 
the formation of the earth and the divis- 
ion of sea and land, with the creation of 
vegetable life; the fourth, the creation 
of the sun — i. e. the concentrated solar 
light — and the planetary system ; the 
fifth, the creation of lower animal life in 
water and air ; the sixth, the creation 
of higher animals on land, and the cre- 
ation of man in the image of God. On 
the seventh day God rested from his 
creative work and entered upon his ac- 
tivity as the Preserver of all things, 
blessing his creatures and instituting 
the weekly day of rest for the benefit of 
body and soul. The first three days 
represent the era of matter, the next 
three days the era of life : the seventh 
day introduces the period of history, or 
of the moral world as distinct from the 
physical. 

The six days of creation are not ne- 
cessarily six literal days, but may be, 
and are probably, periods of indefinite 
length. The question is not what God 
could do (for one hour or one minute 
would suffice for his omnipotence), but 
in what manner he usually works. That 



CEE 



CEE 



the word " day " is often used in a wider 
sense is evident from such expressions 
as the " day of the wicked," the " day 
of grace," the "day of judgment." To 
God a thousand years are as one day. 
Ps. 90 : 4 ; 2 Pet. 3 : 8. The narrative 
itself indicates such a wider use of the 
word ; for the sun, that luminary which 
determines the solar day, was not created 
before the fourth day, and the seventh 
day, which represents the period of di- 
vine rest or preservation, has no evening. 
Gen. 2:4. For aprofound scholarly hand- 
ling of this matter see Tayler Lewis's, 
"Special Introduction to the First Chap- 
ter of Genesis," part ii. pp. 131-135, in 
Lange's Commentary on Genesis (and his 
Six Days of Creation). He says: "It 
is not any duration, but the phenomenon, 
the appearing itself, that is called day." 
The Bible and science, nature and 
revelation, being the products of one 
and the same God, cannot contradict 
each other ; and various attempts have 
been made to harmonize the Mosaic 
cosmogony with modern geology and 
astronomy by able Christian scientists 
(such as Prof. Guyot, Principal Daw- 
son, and others). But it should be kept 
in mind that the Bible does not intend 
to teach science, but religion and the 
way of salvation. The great truths 
taught by Moses in the first two chap- 
ters of Genesis are obvious and inde- 
pendent of all science, as Guyot says : 
" A personal God calling into existence 
by his free, almighty will, manifested by 
his word, executed by his Spirit, things 
which had no being ; a Creator distinct 
from his creation; a universe, not eter- 
nal, but which had a beginning in time; 
a creation successive — the six days — and 
progressive — beginning with the lowest 
element, matter, continuing by the plant 
and animal life, terminating by man, j 
made in God's image; thus marking 
the great steps through which God, in 
the course of ages, has gradually real- 
ized the vast organic plan of the cosmos j 
we now behold in its completeness, and 
which he declared to be very good, — ; 
these are the fundamental spiritual 
truths which have enlightened men of 
all ages on the true relations of God to 
his creation and to man. To under- j 
stand them fully, to be comforted by 
them, requires no astronomy or geology. 
To depart from them is to relapse into 



! the cold, unintelligent fatalism of the 
old pantheistic religions and modern 
philosophies, or to fall from the upper 
regions of light and love infinite into 
the dark abysses of an unavoidable 
scepticism." 

It is interesting to compare with the 
Mosaic cosmogony the old Assyrian 
tradition of the Creation, which has 
been brought to light by modern dis- 
covery. 

These Chaldasan or Assyrian legends 
of the Creation have been discovered in 
a mutilated form, written upon twelve 
tablets, and are printed by the late Mr. 
George Smith in his Chaldsean Account 
of Genesis (London, 1876). He thus 
translates the fragments which contain 
the first part of the story : " When 
above were not raised the heavens, and 
below on the earth a plant had not 
grown up; the abyss also had not 
broken up their boundaries : the chaos 
(or water) Tiamat (the sea) was the 
producing mother of the whole of them. 
Those waters at the beginning were 
ordained ; but a tree had not grown, a 
flower had not unfolded. When the 
gods had not sprung up, any one of 
them ; a plant had not grown, and 
order did not exist; were made also the 
great gods, the gods Lahmu and Laha- 
mu they caused to come . . ^ and they 
grew . . . the gods Sar and Kisar were 
made ... a course of days and a long 
time passed" (pp. 62, 63). Compare 
Gen. 1:1,2. 

The succeeding tablets are so bi'oken 
that no connected story can be read from 
them until we come to the fifth, which 
gives an account of the fourth day of 
creation : " It was delightful, all that 
was fixed by the great gods. Stars, 
their appearance [in figures] of animals 
he arranged. To fix the year through 
the observation of their constellations, 
twelve months (or signs), of stars in 
three rows he arranged, from the day 
when the year commences unto the 
close. He marked the position of the 
wandering stars [planets] to shine in 
their courses, that they may not do in- 
jury, and may not trouble any one ; the 
positions of the gods Bel and Hea he 
fixed with him. And he opened the 
great gates in the darkness shrouded — 
the fastenings were strong on the left 
and right. In its mass [?'. e. the lower 
205 



CKE 



CKE 



chaos] he made a boiling, the god Urn 
[the moon] he caused to rise out, the 
night he overshadowed, to fix it also 
for the light of the night, until the 
shining of the day, that the month 
might not be broken, and in its amount 
be regular. At the beginning of the 
month, at the rising of the night, his 
horns are breaking through to shine on 
the heaven. On the seventh day to a 
circle he begins to swell, and stretches 
toward the dawn further" (pp. 69-71). 
Comp. Gen. 1 : 14-19. 

The seventh tablet is very imperfect, 
but the translation gives some interest- 
ing coincidences with Genesis : " When 
the gods in their assembly had created 
. . . were delightful the strong mon- 
sters . . . they caused to be living crea- 
tures . . . cattle of the field, beasts of 
the field, and creeping things of the 
field . . . they fixed for the living crea- 
tures . . . cattle and creeping things of 
the city they fixed . . . the assembly of 
the creeping things the whole which 
were created . . . which in the assem- 
bly of my family . . . and the god Nin- 
si-ku (the lord of noble face) caused to 
be two . . . the assembly of the creep- 
ing things he caused to go ... " (pp. 
76, 77). Comp. Gen. 1 : 24, 25. 

The tablets which relate the creation 
of man are unhappily so mutilated that 
the sense is totally uncertain, but the | 
first fragment appears to give the speech j 
of the Deity to the newly-created pair, j 
and on the reverse a particular address 
to the woman. Then follow more tab- 
lets relating the Fall. 

Prof. Oppert read before the congress j 
of Orientalists in Florence (1878) atrans- | 
lation of the Assyrian tablets relating to 
the Creation and the Fall, which differs 
greatly from the above-given translation 
of Mr. George Smith. The mutilated j 
condition of the tablets, together with j 
the uncertainty of many of the mean- 
ings, easily accounts for the differences. 
We give, by way of comparison, Prof. 
Oppert's translation of the tablet on 
which the fourth creative day is de- 
scribed : 

"1. He distributed the stations of the 
great gods, seven in number, 
2. And fixed the stars, the mansions of 
the seven lumari (i.e. fixed stars J 
regulating the celestial move- j 
ments). I 

206 



3. He created the perpetual renewal of 

the year and divided it into thirty- 
six decades. 

4. For each of the twelve months he 

fixed three stars. 

5. From the day of the beginning of 

the year until its close 

6. He fixed the station of the god Nib- 

iru that their circles (of days) 
might be perpetually renewed. 

7. In order to prevent either shorten- 

ing or interruption 

8. The stations of Bel and Hea he fixed 

with it, 

9. And he spread the three gates on the 

limbs of the angles. 

10. He made a sigar on the right and on 

the left : 

11. At the four exteriors he established 

staircases. 

12. The moon was appointed to betray 

the night, 

13. And he made it renew itself to hide 

the night and make day perpetual; 

14. (Saying): 'Every month with day- 

break accomplish thy circle. 

15. In the beginning of the month the 

night will reign : 

16. Thy horns will be invisible, for the 

heaven is renewed. 

17. The seventh day thy disk will be 

filled up on the left, 

18. But open in darkness will remain 

the half on the right. 

19. (In the middle of the month) the 

sun will be on the horizon of the 
sky at thy rising. 

20. (In splendor may thy form reign 

and make . . . 

21. (Hence go back) and turn thyself 

toward the way of the sun. 

22. (Then will change) the darkness : to 

the sun return, 

23. . . . seek her ways . . . 

24. (Rise and) set according to the eter- 

nal laws.'" 

The account of the Creation upon 
these tablets is manifestly confused. 
How different the account in Genesis, 
which bears throughout the impress of 
truth ! The Bible contains the revealed 
order of events ; the tablets have only 
the traditional, and in part purely fan- 
ciful, story to tell. 

CREDITOR. See Loax. 

CRES'CENS (growing), a Christian 
of whom Paul speaks in 2 Tim. 4 : 10. 

CRETE, now Candia, a large island 



CHI 



CRO 



in the Mediterranean Sea, midway be- 
tween Syria and Italy. It is about 140 
miles long by 35 miles wide. Its sur- 
face is mountainous, the classic Mount 
Ida being one of its peaks, but there 
are fertile valleys. It was formerly 
possessed by a rich and powerful peo- 
ple ; Virgil speaks of its hundred cities. 
But the people were proverbially liars, 
Tit. 1 : 12 — a character they are said 
still to bear. " Homer dates all the 
fictions of Ulysses from Crete, as if he 
meant to pass a similar censure on the 
Cretans to that quoted by Paul — Kp^Te? 
del \\iev<TTai." — Cowper : Odyssey, b. xiii. 
Cretans were at Jerusalem on the day 
of Pentecost, Acts 2:11; Paul was ship- 
wrecked near the island, and he left Titus 
there as the first pastor and superintend- 
ent, who was "to ordain elders in every 
city" of the island. Tit. 1:5. It is now 
under the tyranny of the Turks, but 
thoroughly Greek in nationality and 
sympathy, and will probably ere long 
be annexed to the kingdom of Greece. 
It is supposed to have been first set- 
tled by the Philistines. See Caphtorim. 

CRIB, a stall for cattle or fodder, 
Prov. 14 : 4 ; Job 39 : 9 ; Isa. 1:3; or 
perhaps simply the manger out of which 
the cattle were to eat. 

CRIMSON. Jer. 4 : 30. See 
Colors. 

CRISP'ING-PINS. The word is 
not properly translated in Isa. 3 : 22, 
for it denotes a reticule, probably richly 
ornamented. 

CRIS'PUS. Acts 18: 8. An officer 
of the Jewish synagogue at Corinth. 
He and his family were converted un- 
der Paul's preaching, and he received 
the ordinance of baptism at the apos- 
tle's hands. 1 Cor. 1 : 14. 

CROSS, CRUCIFY. Matt. 23 . 
34; 27:32. Crucifixion is a mode of 
execution of great antiquity, and still 
prevails among the Hindoos and Chi- 
nese. It was regarded by the Romans 
as the basest and most ignominious 
death, deserved only by traitors and 
slaves. Luke 23 : 32. It was an accursed 
death'. Deut. 21 : 23 ; Gal. 3:13. Hence 
the force of the expressions 1 Cor. 1 : 
23 ; Phil. 2:8; Heb. 12 : 2. As soon as 
the sentence was pronounced, " Thou 
shalt be crucified," the person was 
stripped and fastened to a post about as 
high as the waist, and was then scourged 



with rods or whips made of leather 
strips armed with small bits of lead or 
bone, and often so severely as to occasion 
death. After the scourging the person 
was compelled to bear his own cross to 
the place of execution. This was usu- 
ally an elevated place without the city, 
and near the highway. 

There are three forms of the cross — 
one in which the two pieces of wood 
cross below the top, one in which they 
are placed one on the top of the other, 
and one in which they are placed diago- 
nally : 




Three Forms of the Cross. 
The first is the usual form ; the second 
is probably the oldest. 

The monogram of Christ used by the 
early Christians and by Constantine 
represents the cross with the initials 
of the name of Christ (the X and the 
P), thus : 



J 



The cross was so fixed into the earth 
that the feet of the sufferer were usu- 
ally about 2 feet from the ground. In 
or near the middle of the upright post 
there was a projection, to which he was 
raised by cords ; and being previously 
divested of his clothing, he was first 
bound to the cross-beam, and then nailed 
by his hands, with strong iron spikes, 
to its extremities. There is conclusive 
evidence from profane history that the 
hands were pierced in this way, and 
that it was peculiar to the punishment 
of crucifixion, but whether the feet were 
207 



CEO 



CEO 



nailed separately, or whether a single 
nail transfixed them both, or whether 
they were merely tied to the beam by 
a cord, is doubtful. In order to lessen 
the pain, it was customary to give the 
sufferer wine medicated with myrrh, 
etc. Our Redeemer rejected this draught, 
Mark 15 : 23, choosing to suffer to the 
full extent the pains of death. Vinegar, 
too, was a refreshing and sustaining 
drink, and was offered to him. Matt. 
27 : 48. The criminal was fastened to 
the cross by four soldiers appointed for 
the purpose, who were allowed the ap- 
parel of the sufferer as the perquisite of 
their office. Matt. 27 : 35. 

Over the cross was commonly placed 
a writing or superscription, indicating 
the offence for which the individual 
was put to death. It was called by 
the Romans titulus, or the title. John 
19 : 19-22. 

Among the Romans the prisoner often 
remained upon the cross till his body 
fell to the earth by its own weight, but 
the Jews were permitted, in obedience 
to the precept of their law, Deut. 21 : 
22, 23, to terminate the sufferings of the 
malefactor before sundown. This was 
effected in various ways — sometimes by 
setting fire to the foot of the cross, and 
at others by breaking the limbs with a 
hammer or piercing the body with a 
lance. John 19 : 31-37. The agonies of 
this death were extreme. Cicero says : 
" The executioner, the covering of the 
head, the very name of the cross, should 
be removed afar, not only from the 
body, but from the thoughts, the eyes, 
the ears, of Roman citizens ; for of all 
these things, not only the actual oc- 
currence and endurance, but the very 
contingency and expectation — nay, the 
mention itself — is unworthy of a Roman 
citizen and a freeman." The judges 
denominated it "the utmost torment, 
the extremest punishment." 

The extension of the limbs just after 
so severe a scourging, and the impossi- 
bility of making the slightest motion 
without occasioning suffering, the pier- 
cing of the hands and feet in the parts 
most susceptible of acute and agonizing 
pain, the exposure of the wounded and 
lacerated flesh to the action of the sun 
and air hour after hour, the loss of blood, 
and the sense of the indignity and con- 
tempt, which, as shown to our Saviour, 
208 



was the most bitter, malicious, and un- 
sparing that can be conceived, — all con- 
spired to make it, to the very last de- 
gree, a death of pain. Often the 
strength of the malefactor lingered for 
three days, and even longer. Hence 
the surprise of Pilate. Mark 15 : 44. 

The figure of a cross has often been 
represented on the banners of contend- 
ing armies, thus : 




With the conversion of the Roman 
empire, the cross, front a sign of shame, 
became a sign of honor. It reminds us 
of the great price of our salvation, and 
])oints the true way to immortality and 
gloi-y : " No cross, no crown." 

The cross is often used figuratively for 
those reproaches, self-denials, and sac- 
rifices which the true followers of Christ 
must be expected to endure if they faith- 
fully maintain their profession. Matt. 
16 : 24. 

The classic work upon the cross and the 
crucifixion of Jesus is Justus Lipsius's 
(d. 1606) De Grv.ce, 1595. But in 1878, 
Herman Fulda, pastor near Halle, Ger- 
many, issued a work entitled Das Kreuz 
und die Kreuzigung, which maintains that 
Lipsius and all his followers are wrong. 
This statement he fortifies by a fresh 
examination of the sources. According 
to Fulda, the cross of Jesus was a post. 
His hands were nailed on either side of 
it ; his feet, the knees being much bent, 
were fastened by a stout cord to this 
post, but not nailed, and they, together 
with the nailed hands, supported the 



CEO 



CRY 



body. Owing to haste, he deems it prob- 
able that the customary " seat " fasten- 
ed to the cross as a partial support was 
wanting. Fulda finds in this extreme- 
ly painful position one reason for the 
speedy death of Jesus, which occasioned 
Pilate's incredulity. 

CROWN. 2 Kgs„ 11 : 12. Anciently 
the crown or diadem was only a head- 
band, Eze. 16 : 12, or a ribbon or fillet, 
made of silk or linen, surrounding the 
head, and probably connected behind. 
Crowns arose probably from the natu- 
ral custom of wearing wreaths of flow- 
ers on occasions of joy and festivity, or 
else from the custom of binding the hair 
to prevent its dishevelment by the wind. 
Ex. 28 : 36, 37 ; 29 : 6. We find it rep- 
resented on ancient medals. Newly- 
married persons of both sexes wore 
crowns. Comp. Song Sol. 3:11 with 
Eze. 16 : 12. It was usually a badge 
of royalty or princely distinction. It 
was sometimes of pure gold, and was 
worn by kings, 2 Chr. 23 : 11 ; Matt. 
27 : 29, and sometimes in battle. 2 Sam. 
1:10; 12 : 30. The weight, in the last 
passage, denotes the value, and not the 




Crowns. {After Ayre.) 
1. Crown of Upper Egypt. 2. Crown of Upper and 
Lower Egypt United, 3. Assyrian Crown, from Nine- 
veh Marbles. 4. Laurel Crown. 5. Crown of Herod 
the Great. 6. Crown of Aretas, King of Arabia. 

gravity, of the crown. Afterward the 
shape and size were changed, and cost- 
ly ornaments appended to it. 2 Sam. 
12 : 30. It was worn by queens. Esth. 
2:17. It was customary for a king to 
wear as many crowns as he had king- 
doms. Rev. 19 : 12. The word is figu- 
14 



ratively used by the sacred writers to 
denote honor, Prov. 12 : 4, prosperity, 
Lam. 5 : 16, eternal life, and blessed- 
ness. 1 Pet. 5 : 4. The inscription on 
the crown of the high priest, Ex. 39 : 30, 
was significant of his sacred office and 
functions. Such inscriptions have some- 
times been placed on the crowns of 
princes and heroes to indicate some 
splendid action or service. Paul uses the 
custom of giving crowns of laurel or pars- 
ley to the victors in the Greek games to 
furnish an illustration of the difference 
between the honor of earthly distinction 
and that which comes from following 
■Christ. In Rev. 17 : 5 allusion seems 
to be made to the crown of the Jewish 
high priest, whose raiment is described 
as having the colors and ornaments of 
the sacred vestments. It is said that 
the word mysterium ("mystery") was 
| formerly engraven on the papal crown, 
j and was erased in the time of Julius III. 
The " crown of thorns " worn by 
Christ, Matt. 27 : 29, was probably made 
! of a common Arabian plant, called nabk, 
which has "many small and sharp spines, 
soft, round, pliant branches, leaves much 
I resembling \vy, of a very deep green, 
| as if in designed mockery of a victor's 
wreath." — Hasselquint, quoted in Ayre : 
Treasury of Bible Knoioledge. The sol- 
diers plaited the wreath for Christ 
rather as an insult than to cause him 
suffering. 
CRU'CIFY. See Cross. 
CRUSE. 1 Kgs. 17 : 12. A small 
vessel for liquids, used by the Jews. 

CRYSTAL. Job 28: 17. The word 
here rendered " crystal " is used nowhere 
else, and is believed to mean "glass," 
which was made by the ancient Egyp- 
tians and highly valued. Elsewhere the 
subject of this paragraph usually denotes 
ice or frost, and the original term is often 
so translated, as "frost," Gen. 31:40; 
Job 37 : 10; Jer. 36 : 30 ; and "ice." 
Job 6:16; 38:29; Ps. 147:17. In Eze. 
1 : 22, rock-crystal, a stone perfectly 
transparent and resembling the purest 
glass, was plainly meant, and there may 
be reference to the peculiarly dazzling 
effect of light reflected from its surface. 
The ancients supposed that this mineral 
was only "ice congealed by intense 
cold," and valued it highly for its great 
beauty. Its transparency is alluded to 
in Rev. 4:6; 21 : 11 j 22 : 1. 

209 



CUB 



CUP 



CU'BIT. See Measures. 

CUCK'OO. Lev. 11:16. Doubtless 
a mistranslation. It is thought most 
probable that " the slender bird " here 
referred to may have been a species of 
shearwater {Puffinus), several kinds of 
which are common on the coast of Pal- 
estine, are sold in the markets of mari- 
time towns, and, as living on fish, would 
be forbidden food to the Jews. 

CUCUMBER. Num. 11 : 5. A gar- 
den-vegetable well known in this coun- 




Squirting Cucumber. {From Rielim.) 
c. Section of the Fruit, a. Plant. 6. Fruit. 

try. Cucumbers, melons, and onions are 
now among the leading productions of 
Egypt, and are also commonly cultiva- 
ted in Palestine. Besides our own kind, 
another (Cucumis chate) is cultivated, 
having a fruit with less flavor, but 
larger. 

'•' Cucumbers form an important item 
in the summer food of the poor, and are 
eaten with the rind on, without any con- 
diment. In the oppressive heat of sum- 
mer they form a most grateful vegetable. 
I remember seeing dinner served out to 
an Arab school in Jerusalem, which con- 
sisted of a thin barley-cake and a raw 
cucumber to each boy." — Tristram. 

The "lodge in the garden of cucum- 
bers," Isa. 1 : 8, rudely constructed of 
poles and boughs, may still be seen in 
many fields. It is intended to shelter a 
watchman set to protect the fruit from 
jackals and other animals, as well as 
from thievish men. When the crop is 
over and the lodge forsaken by the 
keeper, " the poles fall down, or lean 
every which way, and those green 
210 



boughs with which it is shaded will 
have been scattered by the wind, leav- 
ing only a ragged, sprawling wreck, a 
most affecting type of utter desolation." 
— Thomson. Job seems to have had 
such ruins in mind. 27 : 18. 

CUM'MIN. Matt. 23 : 23. A low 
herb {Cuminum sativum) of the fennel 
kind, which produces aromatic seeds 
and is found in Syria. In Isa. 28 : 25, 
27 reference is made to the manner of 
sowing and threshing it. The same 
method is observed in Malta at this day. 
It was one of the things of less conse- 
quence which the Pharisees strictly 
tithed. See Mint. 

CUN'NING is used in the Bible in 
its original sense of " knowing," " skil- 
ful." Gen. 25 : 27 : 1 Sam. 16 : 16, etc 
In 2 Pet. 1 : 16 the word '' cunningly " is 
used in a similar sense. 

CUP. 1 Kgs. 7 : 26. The horns of 
animals were anciently used by some 
nations as drinking-vessels, but the 
Jews had cups and goblets at a very 
early period, Gen. 44 : 2, though they 
used horns for anointing-oil. 1 Sam. 
16 : 13. Some of their cups were highly 
ornamented, 1 Kgs. 7 : 26, and in shape 
were probably not unlike those now 
used for culinary purposes by the Egyp- 
tians. Cups of this kind, made of gold, 
silver, copper, etc., according to the 
owner's wealth, are in use in Persia at 
this day. 




Syrian King aud Cup-bearer. 

The figurative use of this word in the 
Scriptures is frequent. Generally, how- 



CUP 



GYP 



ever, it represents the blessings or the 
judgments of Heaven, or the allotments 
of God's providence. Ps. 23 : 5 ; 75 : 
8 : 116 : 13 ; Isa. 51 : 17-22. Comp. Jer. 
25 : 15 and 51 : 7 with Eev. 14 : 10 and 
16 : 19. The sufferings of our Saviour 
are also represented bv a similar figure. 
Matt. 20 : 22 and 26 : 39. 

CUP-BEARER. See Butler. 

CUP OF BLESSING. See 
Blessing. 

CURSE. Gen. 27 : 12. In the 
scriptural use it is the opposite of bless. 

To curse is to imprecate evil upon any 
one. Gen. 9 : 25 ; comp. Gen. 27 : 12 ; 
Neh. 13:2; Matt. 5:44; John 7:49: 
James 3 : 9. The curses which are re- 
corded in the Bible as being pronounced 
by Noah, Moses, Joshua, and others, are 
not to be regarded as the effects of pas- 
sion or revenge. They were either pro- 
nounced under the immediate influence 
of God's Spirit, or are to be viewed as 
only predictions of evil uttered in the 
form of imprecation. 

The words "curse" and "cursed" 
are the opposite of "bless" and 
" blessed," and are often so contrasted. 
Deut. 28. See Bless. The curse of 
the ground and of the serpent, Gen. 
3 : 14, 17, is to be regarded as the 
doom or judgment of God upon them. 

The curse of the Law is the sentence 
of condemnation which it pronounces 
on the transgressoi-, Gal. 3 : 10, and 
from which Christ redeems us by " be- 
ing made a curse for us." Gal. 3 : 13 ; 
comp. Bom. 8:1 and Gal. 3:13 with 
Bom. 5 : 16 and 2 Cor. 3 : 7-9. 

To curse, in an evil or blasphemous 
sense, is to affirm or deny anything 
with thoughtless or rash imprecations 
of divine vengeance. Matt. 26 : 74. 

CUSH {black?). 1. The oldest son 
of Ham. and father of Nimrod. Gen. 
10 : 6, 7, 8 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 8, 9, 10. 

2. A Benjamite in the time of Saul. 
Ps. 7, title. 

CUSH. 1. A country near the Gi- 
hon, Gen. 2 : 13, marg., north of Assyria. 

2. The country peopled by Cush or 
the Ethiopians, Gen. 10 : 6, lying to the 
south of Egypt, on the upper Nile, and 
possibly extending its rule into south- 
ern Arabia. See Ethiopia. 

CUSHAN. Hab. 3 : 7. Perhaps 
the same as Cush, though some think it 
refers to the king- Chushan-rishathaim. 



CU'SHI {the Ethiopian). 1. One to 
whom Joab intrusted the news of the 
defeat and death of Absalom. 2 Sam. 
18 : 21-23, 31, 32. 

2. An ancestor of Jehudi. Jer. 36 : 
14. 

3. The father of Zephaniah the proph- 
et. Zeph. 1:1. 

CUSHITE. See Cush. 
CUSTOM, RECEIPT OF. See 
Publican. 
CUTH, and CUTHAH. 2 Kgs. 

17 : 24, 30. A city of Assyria, 15 miles 
north-east of Babylon, where the name 
Cutha is inscribed upon bricks of Nebu- 
chadnezzar's age. At Cutha was the 
great university from whence the origi- 
nals of the tablets giving an Assyrian 
account of the Creation were brought 
by Assurbanipal. H. Bassam, a distin- 
guished Assyrian scholar, in 1879 at- 
tempted to discover the site of the royal 
record-office and to re-explore these 
ruins of Cutha. 

CUT'TINGS IN THE FLESH. 

This repulsive practice, common among 

idolaters, ancient and modern, originates 

in the notion that pain and blood please 

| the angry deity. Cutting with a knife 

' also formed a part of a funeral ceremony. 

I It would seem that the Syrians were 

! particularly addicted to the custom ; 

! accordingly, the Israelites were strongly 

1 forbidden thus to mutilate themselves. 

! Comp. Lev. 19 : 28 ; Deut. 14 : 1 ; 1 Kgs. 

18 : 28 ; Jer. 16 : 6. 
CYM'BALS. There are two kinds 

of cymbals, both of which we find men- 
tioned in Ps. 150 : 5. The first kind, 
called the "loud cymbals," like casta- 
nets, consisted of small round plates, 
two of which are held in each hand, one 
upon the thumb and the other upon the 
middle finger, and being struck together 
skilfully make an agreeable sound. The 
second kind, called the " high-sounding 
cymbals," were two broad convex plates 
of brass, the concussion of which pro- 
duced a shrill, piercing sound, like clat- 
tering rather than tinkling. 1 Cor. 13 : 1. 
The cymbals were used in connection 
with other instruments, not only in the 
temple or on sacred occasions, but in 
times of war and as a musical accom- 
paniment to Hebrew women in dan- 
cing. Both kinds are in common use 
to-day in the East. 

CY PRESS. Isa. 44 : 14. The 
211 



CYP 



CYP 



Hebrew word indicates a tree with, hard- 
grained wood, but there are objections 
to the true cypress, and there is no cer- 
tainty what it was. It may have been 
the Syrian juniper, which grows wild 
upon Lebanon, as the cypress never 
does in the Holy Land. The latter tree 
(Cupresstis sempervirens) is a tall ever- 
green, the wood of which is heavy, aro- 
matic, and remarkably durable. Its foli- 
age is dark and gloomy, its form close 
and pyramidal, and it is usually planted 
in the cemeteries of the East. Coffins 
were made of it in the East, and the 
mummy-cases of Egypt are found at 
this day of the cypress-wood. The tim- 
ber has been known to suffer no decay 
by the lapse of 1100 years. 

CYPRUS, a large, fertile island 
of the Mediterranean Sea, triangular in 
form, 150 miles long, and from 50 to 60 
miles broad. Venus was its chief god- 
dess ; hence her name Cypria. It con- 



tained two prominent cities, Salamis and 
Paphos, and 17 towns. Salamis was at 
the east and Paphos at the west end of 
the island. Acts 13 : 5. Barnabas was 
a native of Cyprus, and its people are 
noticed in apostolic history. Acts 4 : 
36 ; 13 : 4 : 15 : 39. Sergius Paulus, 
proconsul of Cyprus, was converted by 
Paul on his first missionary-tour, Acts 
13 : 7 ff., and thus became the first 
Christian ruler on record. 

History. — Cyprus was colonized by the 
Phoenicians at a very early date. It was 
the Chittim, or Kittim, of the O. T. 
Num. 24 : 24. Through Greek colonists 
it received the name of Kypros, perhaps 
from the plant Cyprus (henna — Lawsonia 
alba. See Camphire). Copper-mining 
and the production of swords, armor, and 
other articles in bronze were its princi- 
pal industries. There was also an ex- 
tensive commerce. In literature, Cyprus 
boastedof very early distinction. Thoth- 




Map of 

mes III. of Egypt conquered the island. 
At a later period Belus, king of Tyre^ de- 
stroyed most of its cities. Sargon made 
it tributary to Assyria, B. c. 707 ; Apries, 
king of Egypt (the Pharaoh of Scripture), 
plundered it. Later, it was ti-ibutary to 
Darius. The Athenians and Lacede- 
monians conquered part of Cyprus from 
the Persians, B. c. 477. Alexander the 
Great was aided by 120 ships from this 
island in his siege of Tyre, b. c. 335. In 
B. c. 294 the island was a dependency of 
Egypt. Cato took possession of it for 
the Romans. Cicero was proconsul 
212 



Cyprus. 

there, B. C. 52. The Byzantine empe- 
rors and the Arabs successively held 
sway. Cyprus was a frequent halting- 
place of the Crusaders. Richard I. of 
England captured it in A. D. 1191, and 
sold it to the Knights Templars. Later, 
the Genoese and Venetians held the 
island. The Turks dispossessed the 
Venetians A. D. 1570, and have retained 
their mastery for more than 300 years. 

The control of Cyprus was secured 
in 1878 by the English government as a 
naval station and base of operation for 
the protection of Asiatic Turkey and the 



CYR 



CYR 



Indian government. The recent exca- 
vations and discoveries of General Ces- 
nola have brought to light a vast num- 
ber of antiquities and works of art of 
Phoenician, Egyptian, Greek, and spe- 
cific Cypriotic characters, which are de- 
posited in the Metropolitan Museum of 
New York. See Cesnola : Cyprus, its 
Ancient Cities, Tombs, and Temples, New 
York, 1878. 

CYRE'NE, the capital of a small 
province, and the chief city of Libya, 
in northern Africa. It was the cen- 
tre of a wide district between Car- 
thage andEgypt, and corresponding 
to modern Tripoli. It was a Grecian 
city, founded about B. c. 631. Under 
Alexander the Great the Jews were 
about one-fourth of the population, 
and were granted citizenship on the 
same terms as Greeks. At Alexan- 
der's death it was attached to Egypt : 
became a Roman province in b. c. 
75 ; Simon, who bore our Saviour's 
cross, was of that city, Matt. 27 : 
32 ; its people were at Jerusalem 
during the Pentecost, and they had 
a synagogue there, Acts 2 : 10; 6 : 
9, and some of them became preach- 
ers of the gospel. 11 : 20 ; 13 : 1. Cy- 
rene was destroyed by the Saracens in 
the fourth centurv, and is now desolate. 

CYRE NIANS. See Cyrene. 

CYRE'NIUS {Kyrenios), the Greek 
form of the Roman name Quirinius. 
Luke 2:2. He was probably twice 
governor of Syria — the first time from 
b. c. 4 (the year of our Lord's birth) to 
b. c. 1, and again from a. d. 6 to 11. It 
was during his first governorship that 
the " first taxing " or enrolment occurred, 
which necessitated the visit of Joseph 
and Mary to Bethlehem. The second 
census took place A. d. 6, and is men- 
tioned by Luke in Acts 5 : 37 and by 
Josephus. His full name was Publius 
Sulpicius Quirinius. See Taxing, Days 

OF THE. 

CY'RITS {the sun; in Hebrew, Ko- 
resh), founder of the Persian empire, 
a prince, statesman, and conqueror of 
great renown, and an instrument em- 



ployed by Jehovah in the execution of 
his designs of mercy toward the Jews, 
as foretold by Isaiah. 44 : 28 ; 45 : 1-7 ; 
comp. 2 Chr. 36 : 22, 23 ; Ezr. 1:1-4; 
Dan. 6 : 28. He was the son of Cam- 
byses, king of Persia, and a nephew of 
Darius the Mede (Cyaxares), and united 
the crowns of Persia and Media. His 
chief biographers (Xenophon and He- 
rodotus) present his history and ex- 
ploits in very different aspects. His 
conquests extended over all western 




Reputed Tomb of Cyrus. 

Asia, but the most brilliant of them 
was that of Babylon, b. c. 538. After 
this event he ordered a return of the 
Jews, who had been 70 years in cap- 
tivity, fo their own land, and furnished 
them very liberally with the means of 
rebuilding their temple. Daniel lived 
at his court, and was his favorite 
minister and adviser. Dan. 6 : 28. His 
edict for the rebuilding of the temple 
may be said to mark the beginning of 
strict Judaism, for the Jews from that 
time became consolidated ecclesiastically 
under the government of the Sanhedrin. 
Cyrus died from a wound received in 
battle, b. c. 529. His reputed tomb still 
exists, near Murgab, the ancient Pasarga- 
da3. — RAWLINSOX : Ancient Monarchies, 
vol. iii. p. 318. The captivity of the Jews, 
which was ended by the decree of Cy- 
rus, ended also the sin of idolatry in the 
nation. 

213 



DAB 



DAM 



D, 



DABAREH. Josh. 21 : 28. An 
incorrect form for Daberath. 

DAB'BASHETH (hump of a 
camel), a town of Zebulon. Josh. 19 : 11. 

DABERATH (pasture), a town of 
Zebulon and Issachar, Josh. 19 : 12 : 21 : 
28 ; now Beburieh, west of Mount Tabor. 

DAG'GER, a short sword, usually 
made with a double edge, and suspended 
from the girdle. Jud. 3 : 16, 21, 22. See 
Arms. 

DA'GOIV (diminutive, to express 
endearment, of fish), the national god 
of the Philistines. His corresponding 
goddess was Atargatis or Derceto, and 
they were, at times worshipped in a 
common temple. Atargatis is man- 
ifestly related to Astarte. There were 
temples of Dagon at Gaza, where Sam- 
son performed his final feat of strength 
in pulling down the pillars, Jud. 16 : 23 ; 
at Ashdod, where the idol miraculously 
fell down before the ark of the covenant, 
1 Sam. 5 : 1-4 (this temple was de- 
stroyed by Jonathan in the Maccabsean 
war, 1 Mace. 10 : 83, 84; 11 : 4; Joseph., 
Ant., 13, 4, $ 5) ; at Beth-dagon, in Judah, 
Josh. 15: 41, and in Asher, Josh. 19: 
27 ; and elsewhere. Dagon was repre- 
sented with the face and hands of a man 
and the body of a fish, the fish part sig- 
nifying fecundity. 

The worship of a fish-god was not 
original with the Philistines or the 




The Fish-God. {From a bas-relief pom 
Khorsabad. Botia.) 

Phoenicians, who also were Dagon's 
worshippers, but with the Assyrian 
Babylonians, upon whose monuments 
are representations of such a god, under 
the name Odakon, sporting in the sea 
214 



surrounded by fishes and marine ani- 
mals. He was said to have emerged 
from the sea and to have been "one of 
the great benefactors of men," because 
he taught them the use of letters, the 
arts, religion, and agriculture. 

DALAI'AH (tohom Jehovah hath 
freed), a man of David's posterity. 1 
Chr. 3 : 24. 

DALE, THE KING'S. Gen. 14: 
17:2 Sam. 18 : 18. Probably in the val- 
lev of Jehoshaphat, near Jerusalem. 

DALMANUTHA, a town on the 
Sea of Galilee, near Magdala, Mark 8 : 
10; Matt. 15:39; probably at 'Ain-el- 
Bdrideh, on the west side of the sea, 2 
miles from Tiberias, where are ruins. 

DALMA'TIA, a mountainous dis- 
trict on the east of the Adriatic Sea; 
visited bv Titus. 2 Tim. 4 : 10. 

DALPHON {swift ?), the second 
of the ten sons of Haman. Esth. 9 : 7. 

DAM'ARTS (a heifer), a woman, 
probably of distinction, who was con- 
verted under Paul's preaching in Athens. 
Because she is mentioned, Acts 17 : 34, 
immediately after Dionysius the Areop- 
agite, Chrysostom and others maintained 
she was the latter's wife. But the very 
mode of mentioning — " a woman named" 
— is against the conjecture. 

DAMAS'CUS, the most ancient and 
famous city of Syria, 133 miles north-east 
of Jerusalem, at the base of Anti-Leb- 
anon mountains. It is on a fertile plain 
30 miles in diameter, with mountains on 
three sides. The plain is well watered 
by the Barada, the Chrysorrhoas (or 
"Golden Stream") of the Greeks, the 
Abana of Scripture ; and El A'waj (" the 
crooked"), the Pharpar of Scripture. 2 
Kgs. 5 : 12. These streams flow into 
meadow-lakes 18 miles east of the city. 
Damascus lies 2260 feet above the sea- 
level. The climate is delightful : frost 
is not uncommon in winter, but fire- 
places are unknown : in summer the 
thermometer marks 1 00° to 104°, but the 
nights are cool and the dews heavy ; yet 
the people sleep on the flat roofs of their 
houses. Damascus is called by the Arabs 
" the Eye of the Desert " and the " Pearl 



DAM 



DAN 



of the East." It is to the Mohammedan 
the earthly reflection of paradise. The 
chief cause of its beauty and fertility is 
the abundance of water, which calls forth 
a most luxuriant vegetation round about 
the city, and makes it a blooming oasis 
in the midst of a vast desert. 

History. — Damascus is called the old- 
est city in the world ; said by Josephus 
to have been founded by Uz, a grandson 
of Shem ; Abraham visited it, Gen. 14 : 

15 ; 15 : 2; it was conquered by David, 2 
Sam. 8 : 5, 6 : was allied with Israel and 
against Israel, 1 Kgs. 15 : 18, 20 ; 2 Chr. 

16 : 3 ; was taken by Tiglath-pileser ; de- 




Wall of Damascus. 



(From Conybeare and Howson's 
■St. Paul.") 



nounced by Jeremiah. Jer. 49 : 27 ; and 
afterward seldom noticed in 0. T. his- 
tory. It was surrendered to Alexander 
the Great after the battle of Issus. B. c. 
333. In the N. T. it is noticed as the 
place of the scene of Paul's conversion, 
Acts 9 : 1-25 : later it became the resi- 
dence of a Christian bishop ; was con- 
quered by the Arabs, a. d. 635 : attacked 
by the Crusaders, A. n. 1126: several 
times besieged : was taken by the Mon- 
gols, 1260 ; plundered by the Tartars, 
1300 ; attacked by Timour, 1399, to whom 
it paid a million pieces of gold : became 
ft provincial capital of the Turkish em- 
216 



pire, 1516; and is now- the residence of 
a Turkish governor. It is the hot-bed 
of Mohammedan fanaticism. In 1860, 
6000 Christians were massacred by the 
Moslems in cold blood, in the city and 
adjoining districts. 

Present Condition. — Though twelve 
times pillaged and burned, it now ex- 
tends on both sides of the Barada, and 
has a population of from 110,000 to 
150,000. The most remarkable building 
is the Great Mosque, which was once a 
Byzantine church dedicated to John the 
Baptist. The principal street, known 
i as Stdtany, or Queen's street, runs in 
nearly a straight line from east to 
west, and is supposed to be the same 
as the street called " Straight " in 
Acts 9 : 11. The traditional sites of 
the houses of Naaman and Ananias 
and the place in the wall where Paul 
was let down in a basket are still 
pointed out. No less than four 
places near the city have been 
claimed as the scene of Paul's con- 
version. 

The Presbyterian Church of Ire- 
land maintains a Protestant mis- 
sion there, which has several sub- 
stantial buildings and labors among 
the Greeks and the Jews. There is 
also an Episcopal mission and 
chapel in Damascus. 

DAMNATION. This term, 
in common use, denotes the endless 
perdition of the ungodly. Matt. 23 : 
33 ; Mark 3 : 29 ; John 5 : 28, 29 : 2 
Pet. 2 : 3. But when the Bible was 
translated the word was used where 
"condemnation" or "judgment" 
would more properly express the 
sense, so that, while generally ap- 
plying to the eternal state of the 
soul, it is sometimes to be taken in its 
milder meaning. Igndrance of this 
fact has led to deplorable consequences. 
Saints have been made despondent and 
sinners driven to despair. 1 Cor. 11 : 
29 ought to be translated "eateth and 
drinketh judgment to himself." So in 
Bom. 13:2 and 14 : 23. 

DAN (judge), the' fifth son of Jacob, 
and the first of Bilhah, Bachel's maid. 
Gen. 30 : 6. Nothing is known person- 
ally of the patriarch. The prediction 
uttered by Jacob respecting him, Gen. 
49 : 16, 17, is variously interpreted. It 
is probable that the elevation of his 



DAN 



DAN 



tribe to an equal rank with the others, 
notwithstanding that he was born of a 
concubine, was foretold in v. 16, and the 
residue of the prediction may allude to 
the subtle and crafty disposition of his 
descendants. Indeed, we know that 
Samson, who was among the most noted 
of them, was remarkably successful in 
stratagem, Jud. 14 ; 15; and perhaps 
the same trait was characteristic of 
their tribe. Jud. 18 : 26, 27. 

It is noticeable that the tribe of Dan 
is omitted from the numbering in Rev. 
7. Because of this, and because Dan 
first introduced idolatry into Israel, 
Jud. 18, many of the fathers maintained 
that Antichrist would come from Dan. 

DAN. 1. The territory in Canaan 
allotted to Dan was on the sea-coast, 
west of Benjamin and between Ephraim 
and Judah. It embraced a broad plain, 
14 miles long, near the sea. The Am- 
orites kept them from the plain and 
forced them into the mountains. Hence 
they had another portion granted them, 
near Mount Hermon, Jud. 18, where 
they set up a graven image stolen from 
Micah. 

2. Dan, City of, the chief city of the 
northern district held by this tribe. 
Jud. 20 : 1. It was originally called 
Laish, Jud. 18 : 29 ; noted for idolatry, 
Jud. 18 : 30 ; now called Tel-el-K&dy, or 
" mound of the judge," 3 miles from Ba- 
nias, north of the waters of Merom. 

3. The Dan of Eze. 27 : 19 is possibly 
the same as No. 2, but some identify it 
with Dedar, others with Aden, in Arabia. 

DANCE. The Jewish dances were 
generally expressions of joy and grati- 
tude, sometimes in honor of a conquer- 
or, Jud. 11 : 34 : 1 Sam. 18 : 6, 7, and 
sometimes on domestic occasions. Jer. 
31 : 1, 13 ; Luke 15 : 25. The dance was 
also introduced into the religious ser- 
vice, and the timbrel (tambourine) was 
employed to direct it. Some individ- 
ual led, and the rest followed with 
measured steps and devotional songs. 
Thus, David and Miriam led such a 
band. 2 Sam. 6 : 14; Ex. 15 : 20. In- 
dividuals often expressed feelings of 
joy in the same way. Luke 6 : 23 ; 
Acts 3 : 8. 

Dancing was practised from a very 
early period as a natural exercise and 
amusement. Job 21 : 11 ; Mark 6 : 22. 
But the mingling of males and females 



which is so common in modern dances 
was unknown to the Jews. Indeed, the 
dancing was mostly done by the women 
alone, as is still the case in Egypt. 

A Hebrew word, mahhol, which oc- 
curs in some passages — e. g. Ps. 150 : 
4 — and is rendered " dance " in our ver- 
sion, is supposed by some scholars to 
mean a musical instrument. 

DAN'IEL {God is my judge). 1. One 
of the four greater prophets. He was of 
noble, perhaps of royal, descent, and 
probably born at Jerusalem. Dan. 1 : 
3; 9:24; comp. Josephus's Antiq. In 
his early youth he was carried captive 
by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylon, together 
with three other Hebrew youths of rank, 

i Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah,'B. c. 

I 604. He was there instructed in the 
language and arts of the Chaldasans, 
and, with his three companions, trained 
for the royal service in the palace. Dan. 
1 : 1-4. The prince of the eunuchs 
changed all their names, calling them 
respectively Belteshazzar (t. e. " prince 
of Bel"), Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed- 
nego. These four refused to eat of the 
king's meat and to drink his wine, but 
chose "pulse and water." Notwith- 
standing this diet, they were in better 
condition than the heathen courtiers. 

After three years' training, God gave 
Daniel an opportunity to display his 
learning and wisdom. He interpreted 
a dream which Nebuchadnezzar had 
forgotten. Dan. 2. In reward, he was 
made "ruler over the whole province 
of Babylon, and chief of the governors 
over all the wise men of Babylon," and 
in this position so distinguished himself 
that he won great fame and was men- 
tioned as a model man even by his con- 
temporaries. Eze. 14 : 14, 20 ; 28 : 3. On 
another occasion he faithfully explained 
to his monarch the intention of God to 
punish him for his pride. Dan. 4. For 
Belshazzar, a grandson and successor 
of Nebuchadnezzar, he performed a 
similar service, reading the handwi-it- 
ing upon the wall, Mene, Mene, Tekel, 
Upharsin. Dan. 5. 

Under Darius the Mede, Daniel was 
made the first of the " three presidents " 
of the empire. His enemies obtained a 
command from Darius forbidding all 
prayer save unto the king for 30 days. 
But Daniel did not stop praying ; and 
this fact being discovered, he was cast 
217 



DAN 



DAN 



into the den of lions, which, was the 
punishment for a violation of the king's 
order. But God delivered him, and he 
was kept in his office. In the reign of 
Cyrus he likewise prospered, but seems 
to have left Babylon, as his latest re- 
corded vision, 10 : 1, 4, was by the Hid- 
dekel, in the third year of Cyrus, B. c. 
534. When he died, and where, are 
uncertain. His reputed tomb is shown 
at Susa, on the Tigris. 

Daniel at the court of Babylon resem- 
bles Joseph at the court of Pharaoh. 
Both were involuntary exiles from their 
country and people ; both were great 
statesmen ; both maintained the purity 
of their religion and their personal cha- 
racter, though surrounded by idolatry 
and corruption ; both rose by their wis- 
dom and integrity from slavery to the 
highest dignity in a heathen empire j 
both are shining examples of loyalty 
to God and to virtue. 

2. Daniel is the name of two, or per- 
haps three, other persons mentioned in 
the Bible. 

(a) The second son of David by Abi- 
gail the Carmelitess. 1 Chr. 3:1. He is, 
however, called Chileab in 2 Sam. 3 : 3. 

(6) A priest of the family of Itha- 
mar, mentioned, Ezr. 8 :2, as having re- 
turned with Ezra. He is probably again 
spoken of in Neh. 10 : 6 among those 
who sealed the covenant drawn up by 
Nehemiah, b. c, 445. 

DANIEL, BOOK OF. It con- 
sists of two distinct parts. 1. Histori- 
cal, chs. 1-6, containing the interesting 
narrative given in the preceding section, 
and with it an account of the attempt- 
ed burning of Shadrach, Meshach, and 
Abed-nego in a fiery furnace because 
they would not worship the golden im- 
age which Nebuchadnezzar set up on 
the plain of Dura. 2. Apocalyptic, chs. 
7-12, or the record of Daniel's visions. 
Ch. 1 contains the introduction; chs. 
2-6 present a general view of the 
progressive history of the powers of 
the world, and of the principles of the 
divine government, as seen in events 
in the life of Daniel ; and chs. 7-12, the 
prophecy of the future of the people of 
God. The book is written in prose, but 
not in the same language throughout. 
The introduction, chs. 1-2 : 4, first clause, 
is written in Hebi'ew, but from the sec- 
ond clause of the fourth verse of the 
218 



second chapter to the end of ch. 7 it 
is in Aramaic, called Syriac in that 
verse. From the beginning of ch. 8 to 
the end, in which part the visions are 
related in the first person, the language 
is Hebrew. 

The interpretation of Daniel requires 
profound knowledge of ancient history. 
The book is, in fact, a sort of religious 
philosophy of history. Its fundamen- 
tal idea is that all the kingdoms of the 
world, which pass away, are ruled and 
overruled by divine Providence for the 
kingdom of Christ, which will last for 
ever. The book of Daniel occupies in 
the 0. T. the same position which the 
Revelation of John occupies in the 
New. It views the kingdom of God 
in its contact and conflicts with the em- 
pires of the world, and looks forward 
to the universal reign of Christ, the 
resurrection of the dead, and the final 
judgment. The empires of the world 
appear first in Nebuchadnezzar's dream, 
ch. 2, under the figure of a colossal im- 
age with a head of gold, a breast and 
arms of silver, a belly of brass, and 
legs and feet of iron and clay. These 
represent respectively (according to the 
usual orthodox interpretation) the Baby- 
lonian, the Medo-Persian, the Macedo- 
Greek, and the Roman empires : they 
are overthrown at last by a stone cut 
out of the mountain without hands and 
becoming a great mountain, which rep- 
resents the reign of the Messiah. The 
indestructible rock of God's own work- 
manship breaks to pieces the metal 
colossus of man's hand. The same suc- 
cession of monarchies is presented in 
the seventh chapter, under the form of 
a vision of four beasts seen by the 
prophet himself. The fourth beast has 
ten horns, denoting ten kingdoms, grow- 
! ing out of it, and a little horn (7 : 8, 24) 
springing up among the four fractured 
horns of the Greek empire. Interpret- 
ers agree as to the first empire, which 
must be Babylonia, but differ as to the 
other three. Some combine the Medes 
and Persians in one empire ; others di- 
vide them, and regard the Greeks (Alex- 
ander the Great and his successors) as 
representing the fourth empire, and re- 
fer the " little horn " to Antiochus 
Epiphanes. Still others give the proph- 
ecy of Daniel a more comprehensive 
sweep over all the world-empires before 



DAN 



DAR 



and after Christ, as preparing the way 
for the ultimate and everlasting reign 
of Christ. This prophecy of Christ, 
the most important in the book, is 
constantly fulfilling before our eyes, and 
cannot be set aside by any negative crit- 
icism. 

The book of Daniel has been much 
attacked, but also successfully vindica- 
ted by biblical scholars. In the second 
part Daniel speaks in the first person as 
the receiver of the divine revelations re- 
corded therein, so that the only alterna- 
tive here is between truth and fraud. 
The very fact that two languages are 
used renders it extremely unlikely that 
it should have been forged or written 
in any later period, but to Daniel, 
familiar as he was with both Hebrew 
and Aramaic, it was natural. The 
book displays familiar acquaintance 
with Babylonian life and royal man- 
ners, and suits throughout the period 
of the Babylonian exile and the pecu- 
liar position of Daniel at the Babylo- 
nian court. The genuineness is sanc- 
tioned by the highest authority — that 
of Christ, Matt. 24 : 15, from which 
there is no appeal for believers. 

The attacks upon the book have been 
in three lines: (1) Its extraordinary 
events — the golden image, the burning 
fiery furnace, the dreams, the lions' den, 
etc.; (2) its minute propnecies ; (3) its 
foreign (Greek) words ; (4) its narrative. 
To these objections it is sufficient to re- 
ply : (1) The characteristics of Babylon, 
the manners and customs of the East, am- 
ply justify the language and prove that 
the book is genuinely Oriental and Baby- 
lonian. (2) The peculiar position of Dan- 
iel required an exceptional and startling 
character for his revelations; his proph- 
ecies have been in great part fulfilled. (3) 
The Greek words are only four in num- 
ber, and are the names of musical in- 
struments which may have been import- 
ed from Greece as early as b. c. 600. 
(4) Its historical difficulties. Belshaz- 
zar is represented as the last king of 
Babylon, while the authority there known 
gave Nabonnedus as the last king. This 
difficulty was solved by Sir Henry Raw- 
linson's decipherment of a cylinder 
among the ruins of Ur in Chaldasa in 
1854. Nabonnedus had his eldest son, 
Belshazzar, as co-regent, and therefore 
it might well be that while he met the 



Persians in the field his son ruled in the 
capital. Thus is explained how Daniel 
was made the third ruler in the king- 
dom. Dan. 5:16, 29. 

Apocryphal Additions to Daniel. — 
These exist in the Greek version, and 
are : The Song of the Three Holy Chil- 
dren, the History of Susanna, and the 
Story of Bel and the Dragon. They 
passed into the Vulgate, and so into 
j modern translations. They embody 
I popular traditions, but never formed 
j part of the Hebrew Bible. 

1. The Song of the Three Holy Chil- 
dren purports to be the triumphal song 
of the three confessors in the furnace, 

j Dan. 3 : 23, in praise of their miraculous 
deliverance. The chief part has been 
used as a hymn (Benedicite) in the Chris- 

i tian Church since the fourth century. 

2. The History of Susanna, who was 
1 cleared from a charge of adultery by the 

shrewdness of Daniel. Probably based 
upon a fact. 

3. The History of Bel and the Drag- 
on, a strange exaggeration of the rec- 
ord of the divine deliverance of Daniel, 

| ch. 6. 

DAN-JA'AN. 2 Sam. 24: 6. Prob- 
I ably Dauian, a ruin north of Achzib. 
DAiV'XAH, a city in the mountains 
of Judah. Josh. 15 : 49. Conder identi- 
fies it with modern Idhnd, about 8 miles 
north-west of Hebron. 

DA'RA, contr. form of DAR'DA 
{pearl of wisdom), one whom Solomon 
outrivalled in wisdom. 1 Kgs. 4 : 31 ; 1 
Chr. 2 : 6. 

DAR/IC, the name of a Persian 
: gold coin, which is translated " dram" 
j in 1 Chr. 29 : 7 : Ezr. 2 : 69 ; 8 : 27 ; Neh. 
7 : 70, 71, 72. The name comes from the 
j Persian word dara, " a king," like the 
: English sovereign. It was the common 
j gold-piece of the Persian empire. It 
| was current in Palestine under Cyrus, 
and Artaxerxes Longimanus. It weigh- 
ed about 128 grains Troy, and was worth 
about five dollars. Besides the gold there 
was a silver daric, worth about fifty cents. 
There is no mention of this latter coin 
in the Bible. 

DARI'US (restrainer), the name of 
several kings of Media and Persia men- 
: tioned in the Bible. 

1. Darius the Median, Dan. 5 : 31, was 
the son of Ahasuerus ; he took Babylon 
from Belshazzar the Chaldsean, being at 
219 



DAE 



DAV 



that time about 62 years old. The best 
identification is that which makes him 
Astyages, the last king of the Medes. 
" Only one year of the reign of Darius 
is mentioned, Dan. 9:1; 11 : 1 : and if, 
as seems probable, Darius (Astyages) 
occupied the throne of Babylon as su- 
preme sovereign, with Nerigalsarasser 
as vassal-prince, after the murder of 
Evil-merodach (Belshazzar), b. c. 559, 
one year only remains for this Median 
supremacy before its overthrow by Cyrus, 
b. c. 558, in exact accordance with the 
notices in Daniel." Under him Daniel 
was advanced to the highest dignity, 
which exposed him to the malice of 
enemies and led to his being cast into 
the den of lions, but by a miracle he 
escaped injury. See Daniel. 

2. Dai'ius, the son of Hystaspes, the 
founder of the Perso-Aryan dynasty, 
and ruler, b. c. 521-486. Ezr. 4 : 5, 24; 
Hag. 1:1, 15; Zech. 1 : 1, 7 ; 7:1. He 
found in the palace at Achmetha or 
Ecbatana, the capital of Cyrus, a decree 
of that king concerning the temple in 
Jerusalem. This he confirmed, and the 
temple was finished in 4 years, b. c. 
516. Ezr. 6 : 15. It may, however, have 
been used before it was entirely com- 
pleted, as is inferred from Zech. 7 : 2, 3. 

3. Darius the Persian, mentioned in 
Neh. 12 : 22, is generally identified with 
Darius Codomannus, the antagonist of 
Alexander the Great, who ascended the 
throne b. c. 336, and reigned until 
B. c. 330. He was the last Persian 
monarch, and was killed by his own 
generals. Alexander defeated him, and 
thus the prophecy of Daniel, ch. 8, was 
fulfilled. 

DARKNESS. The darkness which 
constituted one of the plagues of Egypt 
might " be felt." Ex. 10:21. This may 
have been occasioned by a thick, heavy 
vapor, or other sensible change in the at- 
mosphere, which caused an entire inter- 
ception of the sun's rays. It was evident- 
ly miraculous, and the dread and ter- 
ror it inspired are vividly described. Ex. 
10 : 22, 23. So of the darkness that 
shrouded the earth when our Saviour 
was put to death, Luke 23 : 44, 45 ; it 
was manifestly miraculous, as no natu- 
ral eclipse of the sun could take place 
at that period of the moon. " Dark- 
ness" is used in a metaphorical sense 
for ignorance or sin, John 1:5; Rom. 
220 



13 : 12 ; Eph. 5:11; for misery, Isa. 5 : 
30 ; 59 : 9, 10 ; for the final doom, Matt. 
8 : 12. God is said to dwell in the thick 
darkness. Ex. 20 : 21; 1 Kgs. 8:12. 

DAR'KON (scatterer), one whose 
posterity returned from Babylon. Ezr. 
2 : 56 : Neh. 7 : 58. 

DARL ING. The word occurs in 
Ps. 22 : 20 and 35 : 17 as the translation 
of a Hebrew word which correctly means 
" my only one," as it is applied to 
" something which exists singly and 
cannot be replaced if lost, as an only 
son, Gen. 22 : 2, or daughter." Jud. 
11 : 34. 

DA'THAN (belonging to a foun- 
tain), a Reubenite chieftain who joined 
in Korah's rebellion. Num. 16 ; 26 : 9 ; 
Deut. 11 : 6 ; Ps. 106 : 17. 

DAUGHTER is used in the Bi- 
ble in several other senses than the 
literal one. It describes a female de- 
scendant, Gen. 27 : 46, the women of a 
city or country, Gen. 36 : 2, or women 
in general, Prov. 31 : 29 ; the female 
worshippers of an idol, Mai. 2 : 11 ; 
cities and their dependent towns. In 
Eccl. 12:4 " daughters of music " are 
singing-women. 

DA'VID (beloved), the youngest of 
the eight sons of Jesse, of the tribe of 
Judah, was born in Bethlehem, B. c. 
1085, and was both in his prophetical 
and regal character an eminent type of 
: the Messiah. 1 Sam. 16 : 13. While he 
| was employed as a shepherd in his 
i father's fields God sent Samuel to Beth- 
! lehem, on the occasion of the annual 
j sacrificial feast, with instructions to 
anoint David as king of Israel in the 
place of Saul, who had incurred the di- 
vine displeasure, and was therefore to 
be deposed. Dean Stanley thus de- 
scribes David's appearance and phys- 
ique as he stood before Samuel : " He 
was short of stature, had red hair and 
bright eyes. He was remarkable for 
the grace of his figure and countenance, 
well made, and of immense strength 
and agility. In swiftness and activity 
he could only be compared to a wild 
gazelle, with feet like harts' feet, with 
arms strong enough to break a bow of 
steel. Ps. 18 : 33, 34." — History of the 
Jewish Church, 2d series, Lect. 22- 
Probably neither David nor any one 
else understood the real meaning of this 
anointing. At all events, David went 



DAV 



DAV 



back to the shepherd-life. We next 
hear of him as chosen by Saul, upon 
the suggestion of one of the body- 
guard, to play upon a harp, and thus 
soothe the troubled spirit of the 
king. In this he was eminently suc- 
cessful. Saul made him one of his ar- 
mor-bearers, and requested permission 
of Jesse to allow him to remain at his 
court. 1 Sam. 16:21-23. But it seems 
that David after a time returned home. 
It was then perhaps that his adventure 
with the lion and the bear took place. 
After an interval of uncertain length — 
Josephus says " after a few years " — 
David had his famous fight with Go- 
liath. But he had so altered that Saul 
did not recognize in the grown man 
flushed by triumph the lad who had 
played the harp in his hours of .men- 
tal distress ; hence his question of Ab- 
ner — " Whose son is this youth ?" — was 
natural. 1 Sam. 17 : 55. The superiority 
in military glory which the women gave 
David excited the jealousy of the king, 
and so, although David was made a 
chieftain, lived at court, and enjoyed 
the friendship of the king's son, yet 
he was constantly exposed to the wrath 
of Saul. 

Agreeably to the terms of the king's 
promise to him who slew the giant, 
David became the king's son-in-law, 
marrying Michal, whom he loved, but 
only on condition that he slew a hun- 
dred Philistines — an exaction made in 
hope that the attempt would end fatally. 
But David and his men slew two hun- 
dred. David found his position full of 
danger. His very presence seemed to 
arouse the envy of Saul, so that the lat- 
ter determined to kill him, and several 
times cast his javelin at him as he stood 
playing before him. By a stratagem 
Michal saved David's life and enabled 
him to flee to Samuel at Ramah. 1 Sam. 
19 : 13, 18. David then became con- 
vinced that a further residence at court 
was impossible, and accordingly an 
affecting parting with Jonathan took 
place, 1 Sam. 20, and David became a 
fugitive from the hand of Saul. Armed 
with the sword of Goliath and anointed 
with the sacred oil, the future king 
sought a home among the Philistines. 
But his fame had preceded him, and 
his assumed madness scarcely saved 
him. 1 Sam. 21. Therefore he went 



to the cave of Adullam and gathered 
gradually a motley crowd, composed of 
insolvent debtors and malcontents. 1 
Sam. 22 : 1, 2. But David proved his 
fitness to rule a kingdom by controlling 
these men and bringing them to accede 
to his wishes. 

The history of David's life for the 
next few years is filled with the details 
of alternate defeats and victories, of 
his flight, of his magnanimous refusal 
to lay hands on the Lord's anointed, 
1 Sam. 24: 16, of his residence among 
neighboring tribes, of the episode of Abi- 
gail, 1 Sam. 25, and finally of the battle 
of Gilboa, in which Jonathan fell and 
Saul slew himself, unable to bear defeat. 
1 Sam. 31. The lament which he then 
composed is one of the noblest odes of 
friendship, and a monument of his gen- 
erosity to a fallen foe and of devotion to 
a fallen friend. 2 Sam. 1 : 19-27. 

Then David, by divine direction, re- 
moved to Hebron, where the chief men of 
Judah met him and offered him the gov- 
ernment of their tribe, which he accepted. 
Accordingly, he was anointed for the sec- 
ond time. 2 Sam. 2:4. In Hebron, as 
king of Judah, he reigned seven years 
and a half. During this time Ishbo- 
sheth, the son of Saul, by means of 
the skilful general Abner, maintained a 
decreasing semblance of authority over 
Israel. But at length he and Abner 
were killed, and thus the way prepared 
for the execution of God's plan to set 
David on the throne of united Israel. 

David was solemnly anointed for the 
third time. 2 Sam. 5 : 3. Soon after he 
assumed the government he obtained 
possession of Jerusalem, reduced the 
fortress which the Jebusites had main- 
tained, and established the seat of his 
government there. Under his wise and 
liberal policy the place was greatly en- 
larged ; magnificent edifices rose up on 
every side, fortifications were erected, 
and the ark, which had been before 
without a fixed abode, was brought into 
the new city with religious ceremonies 
peculiarly joyful and solemn. 2 Sam. 6 : 
12-19. Thenceforward, Jerusalem be- 
came the capital of the kingdom, the res- 
idence of the royal family, and, more 
than all, the city of God. Ps. 48 : 2 ; 
Matt. 5 : 35. To it the tribes repaired 
from every quarter of the land to cel- 
ebrate their annual festivals, and its 
221 



DAV 



DAV 



growth in population, wealth, and splen- 
dor was very rapid. 

David now formed the design of 
building a magnificent temple for the 
worship of Jehovah, to take the place 
of the tabernacle, which was but a 
temporary and movable structure. He 
was informed, however, by God's di- 
rection, that this service would be 
reserved for his son Solomon. 2 Sam. 7. 

After several contests with the nations 
that bordered on Israel, in which David 
was uniformly victorious, there broke 
out a war with the Ammonites (see 
Ammonites), during the progress of 



; vated sins of murder and adultery which 
brought disgrace and distress on his 
family and government and involved 
him in trouble during the remnant of 
his days. 2 Sam. 12 : 9. His domestic 
peace was destroyed by the outrage 
committed upon Tamar by Amnon, re- 
venged, " after two full years," by Absa- 
lom, who slew Amnon at a feast. 2 Sam. 
13 : 14, 29. This murder occasioned 
Absalom's flight to his father-in-law's 
court at Geshur. Being recalled, he 
started a rebellion which compelled the 
king to flee from his capital and exile 
himself to avoid being cut off by a 
parricidal hand. 2 Sam. 15-18. The 




Tomb of David. (After 

death of Absalom, though it brought 
relief to the kingdom, inflicted a deep 
wound on the father's heart. The in- 
surrection under Sheba and the mur- 
der of Amasa by Joab followed in quick 
succession. And to close the melan- 
choly catalogue was the terrible judg- 
ment which he brought upon himself 
and the nation by numbering the people 
for some purpose which was sinful in 
the sight of God, though not explained 
to us. 2 Sam. 24. 

David was now 70 years old, and 
had reigned seven and a half years 
over the tribe of Judah and thirty- 
three over the whole kingdom of 
Israel. Just before his death his son 
222 



a Photograph by Godd.) 

Adonijah made a bold attempt to 
usurp the throne : and to secure the king- 
dom against any pretender, David re- 
signed "the crown to Solomon, put into 
his hands the plan and model of the 
temple and the treasure accumulated 
for it, summoned the influential men of 
the nation, and delivered his farewell 
address. He died B. c. 1015, and was 
buried in the •'city of David." 1 Kgs. 
2 : 10. His tomb became the sepulchre 
of subsequent kings, and one of the sa- 
cred places of the kingdom. It is point- 
ed out on Mount Zion, at Jerusalem, 
outside the city wall. See cut. above. 
David was a type of Christ. They 
both inherited their kingdoms after 



DAY 



DAY 



suffering. And David, as the ruler over 
temporal Israel, was a forerunner of the 
Son of David, who was to reign over 
the spiritual Israel for ever. Matt. 1:1; 
9:27; 12:23, etc. 

When David is spoken of as a man 
after God's " own heart," 1 Sam. 13 : 
14 ; Acts 13 : 22, reference is obviously 
intended to his general character and 
conduct, and not to every particular in- 
stance of it. As he was human, he 
was imperfect ; and when he sinned, 
God punished him, and that with great 
severity. But he was remarkable for 
his devotion to God's service, and he 
kept himself from idols. He established 
the government of Israel, and extended 
its dominions to the full extent of the 
promise to Abraham, and left a com- 
pact and united empire, stretching from 
Egypt to Lebanon, and from the Eu- 
phrates to the Mediterranean. 

The life and character of David shine 
in his poetry — the life of action, ad- 
venture, war : the character of manly 
strength and womanly tenderness. 
Thus his Psalms supply biographical 
material. By means of them his heart 
is read. The man who could kill a 
giant is found to have a delicate appre- 
ciation of friendship. He whose pas- 
sion led him into sin, whose hate into 
words of cursing, was able to mourn 
with deepest humility and bless with 
heartiest assent. It is to the Psalms 



of David, albeit he did not write the 
entire collection, that the Church of 
God has appealed for comfort in ad- 
versity and sanctification in prosperity. 
In regard to them Canon Perowne 
truthfully and eloquently says : " The 
very excellence of these Psalms is their 
universality. They spring from the 
deep fountains of the human heart, 
and God, in his providence and by his 
Spirit, has so ordered it that they should 
be for his Church an everlasting heri- 
tage. Hence they express the sorrows, 
the joys, the aspirations, the struggles, 
the victories, not of one man, but of 
all. And if we ask, How comes this to 
pass ? the answer is not far to seek. 
One object is ever before the eyes and 
the heart of the Psalmist. All enemies, 
all distresses, all persecutions, all sins, 
are seen in the light of God. It is to 
him that the cry goes up ; it is to him 
that the heart is laid bare ; it is to him 
that the thanksgiving is uttered. This 
it is which makes them so true, so pre- 
cious, so universal. No surer proof 
of their inspiration can be given than 
this — that they are not of an age, but 
for all time ; that the ripest Christian 
can use them in the fulness of his 
Christian manhood, though the words 
are the words of one who lived cen- 
turies before the coming of Christ in 
the flesh." — The Psalms, 3d ed., vol. i. 
p. 21. 



Genealogical Table. 

Salmon or Salman. Elimelech=Naomi. Ruth 1:1. 

Ruth 4: 21; 1 Chr. 2:11. | 

I 



Boaz=Ruth=Mahlon. 

Obed. 
Ruth 4 : 17. 



Chilion=Orpah. 



2 Sam. 17 : 25, Nahash=unknown=Jesse. 



Jonathan. 1 Chr. 27 : 32. 



Zeruiah. 
1 Chr. 2 : 1 



Abigail=Jethe 
1 Chr. 



:Ira?? 
1 Chr. 
2:17. 11:40. 



I 

Eliab, 
Klihu. 
1 Chr. 
27: 
18. 



Abin- 
adab. 



Abishai. Joab. Asahel. Amasa. 



Zebediah. 
1 Chr. 27 : ' 



Abi h ai l=:Rehoboam . 
2 Chr. 11 : 18. 



Shanimah, 
Shimmah, 
Shimeah. 

2 Sam. 

21 : 21. 
I 



Netha- 
neel. 



I I 

Raddai Ozem 
(Rael). (Asam) 



I I 

(one DAVID 
, is not 

given, 

unless 

Elihu. 
Chr. 2:15). 



Jonathan. Jonadab. Joel ? 
2 Sam. 21 : 21 ; '2 Sam. 1 Chr. 
1 Chr. 27:32. 13:3. 11:38. 

Nathan ? ? 
1 Sam 16 : 12. 



David, City of, applied to Zion, 2 
Sam. 5:7; to Jerusalem, 1 Kgs. 2:10; 
3:1; to Bethlehem, Luke 2 : 4, 11. 



DAY. The natural day consists of 
24 hours, or one revolution of the earth 
upon its axis. The artificial day is the 
223 



t>£A 



DEA 



time during which the sun is above the 
horizon. The civil day is reckoned 
differently by different nations — some 
from sunrise to sunrise ; others from 
sunset to sunset ; others still from noon 
to noon, or from midnight to midnight. 
The Jewish day was reckoned from 
evening to evening, adopted, as some 
think, from Gen. 1 : 5, or, as others 
with more probability hold, from the 
" use of the lunar calendar in regulating 
days of religious observance." Lev. 23 : 
32. Their Sabbath, or seventh day, 
which was the only day named — the 
others were numbered merely — began on 
what we call Friday, at sunset, and 
ended on what we call Saturday, at 
sunset. Ex. 12 : 18. This mode of reck- 
oning days was not uncommon in other 
Eastern nations. The day was origi- 
nally divided into morning, noon, and 
night. Ps. 55 : 17. But besides, the 
Jews distinguished six unequal parts, 
which were again subdivided. 1. Dawn, 
subdivided into gray daion and rosy 
dawn. 2. Sunrise. Some supposed that 
the Hebrews, prior to leaving Egypt, 
began the day at that time, but discon- 
tinued it by divine command, and began 
at even in order to be different from those 
nations which worshipped the rising 
sun. 3. The heat of the day, about nine 
o'clock. 1 Sam. 11:11; Neh. 7 : 3, etc. 
4. The two noons. Gen. 43 : 16 ; Deut. 
28 : 29. 5. The cool (lit. wind) of the 
day, before sunset. Gen. 3:8. 6. Even- 
ing. In Ex. 12 : 6 ; 30 : 8, margins, occurs 
the phrase " between the two evenings," 
which probably is correctly taken to 
mean " between the beginning and end 
of sunset." 

The mention of hours in the Bible 
dates from the Captivity, Dan. 3 : 6, 
and it is therefore reasonably presumed 
that this division of time is of Baby- 
lonish origin. Before the Captivity the 
Jews divided the night into three 
watches — from sunset to midnight, 
from midnight to cock-crow, Jud. 7 : 
19 ; from cock-crow to sunrise. Ex. 14 : 
24. In the N. T. mention is made of 
four watches, because the Greek and 
Roman division was then adopted. In 
our Lord's time the division of the day 
into 12 hours was common. John 11 : 9. 
The word " day " is used of a festal day, 
Hos. 7:5; a birthday, Job 3 : 1 ; a day 
of ruin, Hos. 1:11; Job 18 : 20 ; the 
224 



judgment-day, Joel 1 : 15 ; 1 Thess. 5 ; 
2 ; Acts 17 : 31 ; and the kingdom of 
Christ. John 8 : 56 ; Rom. 13 : 12. It 
is also often used to denote an indefi- 
nite time. Gen. 2:4; Isa. 22 : 5. The 
term " three days and three nights," 
in Matt. 12 : 40, denotes the same space 
of time as " three days." Matt. 27 : 
63, 64. 

Day's Journey, a distance mentioned 
Gen. 31 : 23 ; Ex. 3 : 18, etc. It is quite 
evident that this phrase does not mean 
any particular distance, but rather the 
space travelled during one day, and this 
would of course vary with the circum- 
stances of the traveller. But unless 
there is special reason for believing the 
contrary, we may interpret it as mean- 
ing a stretch of 25 to 30 miles, since 
this is the usual length of a day's jour- 
ney in the East, on camel or horseback, 
performed in 6 to 8 hours. See also 
Sabbath Day's Journey. 

Day, Lord's. See Sabbath. 

Daysman. Job 9 : 33. The word is 
derived by Webster from " him who 
fixes the day upon which he will decide 
as judge or arbitrator." It was in com- 
mon use, when the Bible was transla- 
ted, in the sense of "umpire." 

Dayspring. Job 38 : 12 ; Luke 1 : 78. 
The first dawning of light. Comp. Isa. 
60:1, 2 and Rev. 22:16. 

Day-star, or Morning-star, 2 Pet. 
1 : 19, in the figurative language of the 
apostle, is supposed to mean the light 
which shines on the soul of the believer, 
and cheers him with the expectation 
of a perfect day of holiness and joy. 

DEACON {servant). This name, 
as a title of office, has been applied to the 
"seven men of honest report, full of 
the Holy Ghost and wisdom," who were 
appointed over the business of serving 
tables, in order that the apostles might 
be at liberty to give themselves contin- 
ually to prayer and the ministry of the 
word. They were set apart by prayer 
and the laying on of the apostles' hands. 
Acts 6 : 1-6. Very likely these seven men 
held a higher position than those after- 
ward appointed, as, in addition to rou- 
tine and more or less servile duties, they 
preached and did the work of evan- 
gelists ; e. g. Stephen and Philip. The 
idea that a man must be a deacon be- 
fore he can be an elder or bishop is not 
found in the N. T. The qualifications 



DEA 



DEB 



and duties of deacons are particularly 
set forth in Acts 6 : 1-6 and 1 Tim. 3 : 
8—12 

DEA'COXESS. Such was Phoebe, 
and in all probability Tryphena, Try- 
phosa, and Persis occupied the same 
office in the church in Rome. Rom. 16 : 
1, 12. It is therefore probable that 
there was in the different churches an 
order of pious women employed in at- 
tending upon those of their own sex in j 
some of the same offices and duties ; 
which the deacons performed for their j 
brethren. Among these we reckon the j 
care of the sick, of the poor and the 
widows, the education of orphans, at- 
tention to strangers, the practice of 
hospitality, comp. 1 Tim. 5 : 10, and the 
assistance needed at the baptism of fe- 
males. The question whether the " wid- 
ows" in 1 Tim. 5 : 9-16 are proper dea- 
conesses may be answered in the affirm- 
ative, because the word translated "to 
take into the number" or "to enroll" 
applies not to widows in general, but to 
the deaconesses, for the following rea- 
sons : 

1. If understood of any insertion I 
merely in the list of those supported 
from the congregational fund, it implies 
an injustice to widows under 60 years ! 
old or to those twice married, who might 
easily be even more destitute. 

2. The opposite interpretation con- 
flicts with the context, for Paul ad- j 
vises, in v. 14, the younger widows to j 
remarry ; but this would be to cut them 
off from all help in case they were wid- 
ows again. 

3. This interpretation leaves it inex- 
plicable why a special vow was required 
of these widows, v. 12. 

4. But by understanding the word to j 
apply, not to widows in general, but to : 
those who were specially elected and 
ordained to the particular office of dea- j 
coness, all these objections vanish. 

DEAD, DEATH. Death is the ' 
destruction or extinction of life. By j 
the transgression of God's command- 
ment our first parents became liable to 
death. The threatening was , " In the j 
day that thou eatest thereof thou shalt 
surely die." Gen. 2 : 17 (comp. Rom. 5 : 
12-14; lCor.l5:21,22:Heb.9:27). This | 
expression does not mean to define the 
time of actual dissolution, but rather 
to denote an inevitable liability or 
15 



exposure to death, which, in that day 
and by that act, they should surely 
incur. 

The sacred writers speak of a death 
which affects the body only, Gen. 25 : 
11; of another, which describes the 
condition of the soul under the power 
of sin, Eph. 2:1; and a third, which 
denotes the everlasting perdition of the 
wicked. James 5 : 20. In each of these 
senses our divine Redeemer may be re- 
garded as having virtually destroyed 
death and delivered them who, through 
fear of death, were all their lifetime 
subject to bondage. Heb. 2 : 14, 15. To 
avail ourselves, however, of the benefits 
of his perfect triumph, we must believe, 
trust, love, and obey him. See Bury, 
Resurrection, Christ. 

DEAD SEA, a name not found in 
Scripture. See Salt Sea. 

DE'BIR (sanctuary), the name of 
three places. 1. In the highlands of 
Judah, near Hebron ; captured by Josh- 
ua, Josh. 10 : 38, 39 : was first called 
Kirjath-sepher, Josh. 15 : 15, and Kir- 
jath-sannah, 15 : 49 j was allotted to 
the priests. 21 : 15. It has been placed 
at Deioir-ban, 3 miles west of Hebron, 
and at Dilbeh, 6 miles south-west. 
Conder, however, rejects these, and sug- 
gests Dhaheriyeh, north of which are 
copious springs, which he identifies 
with "the upper springs and the nether 
springs " of Jud. 1 : 15. 

2. A place near the valley of Achor, 
Josh. 15 : 7 ; perhaps Wady Dabir, be- 
tween Jericho and Jerusalem. 

3. A place on the boundary of Gad, 
east of the Jordan, Josh. 13 : 26 ; possi- 
bly the same as Lo-debar, which see. 

DE'BIR, king of Eglon, one of the 
five kings who warred against Gibeon. 
He, with his companions, was slain by 
Joshua and hanged on a tree. Josh. 10 : 
3, 23, 26. 

DEBORAH (a bee). 1. The nurse 
of Rebekah, and her companion into Ca- 
naan. Gen. 24:59. She was buried at 
Bethel, under the "oak of weeping." 
35 : 8. "Nurses held a high and hon- 
orable place in ancient times, and espe- 
cially in the East, where they were of- 
ten the principal members of the fam- 
ily. 2 Kgs. 11 : 2 ; 2 Chr. 22 : 11." 

2. A woman of eminent wisdom and 
holiness (called a prophetess), and a 
judge of the people of Israel. Jud. 4: 
225 



DEC 



DEC 



4. She was the wife of Lapidoth (al- 
though some think the passage should 
read "a woman of Lapidoth"), and 
had her judgment-seat under a palm 
tree, which from this circumstance, and 
from the rarity of the tree, is spoken 
of as " the [well-known] palm tree of 
Deborah." Jud. 4 : 5. Israel was suffer- 
ing at that time a most oppressive bond- 
age under Jabin, a Canaanitish king, 
to which it was doomed in consequence 
of its sin. Deborah, by divine direc- 
tion, called upon Barak, who had proba- 
bly signalized himself in some way, and 
commanded him to station himself upon 
Mount Tabor with a prescribed number 
of men, and she would see to it that 
Sisera, the commander of the tyrant's 
army, should be there, and should fall 
into Barak's hands. Barak engaged to 
undertake the enterprise if Deborah 
would accompany him. To this she 
consented, prophesying, however, that 
if she went the honor of the victory 
would be hers and not his, and that 
Sisera would be regarded as having 
fallen by the hands of a woman. Jud. 
4:9. The two armies met, and the 
event was as Deborah predicted. Sis- 
era fled, and died by the hand of Jael; 



his army was cut off and every man 
slain. Jud. 4: 21. 

The triumphal song composed or dic- 
tated by Deborah on that occasion is re- 
garded as one of the finest specimens of 
Oriental poetry. Jud. 5. We give a few 
verses from a revised version : 

'Lord, when thou wentest forth out of 

Seir, 
When thou marchedst out of the field of 

Edum, 
The earth trembled, the heavens also 

dropped, 
Yea, the clouds dropped water. 
The mountains flowed down at the presence 

of the Lord, 
Even that Sinai at the presence of the Lord 

the God of Israel. 

The kings came, they fought ; 

Then fought the kings of Canaan 

In Taanach hy the waters of Megiddo; 

They took no'gain of silver. 

They fought from heaven ; 

The stars from their courses fought against 

Sisera. 
The river Kishon swept them away, 
That ancient river, the river Kishon. 
March on, my soul, with strength." 
See Barak. Jael. 

DEBTOR. See Loan. 

DECAP'OLIS (ten cities), a region 
noticed three times in the Bible. Matt. 




Map of Decapolis. (Frovi Schaff's "New Testament Commentary.") 

4:25; Mark 5 : 20 ; 7:31. It lay near I sides of the Jordan. The cities were 
the Sea of Galilee, probably on both | rebuilt by the Romans about B. c. 65; 
226 



DEC 



DEM 



but as other cities grew up, writers are 
not agreed as to the Dames of the ten 
cities. Pliny gives them as follows: 
Scythopolis, Hippos, Gadara, Pella, 
Philadelphia, Geiasa, Dion, Canatha, 
Raphana, Damascus. Six are deserted, 
and none have many inhabitants except 
Damascus. 

DECISION, VALLEY OF. 
Joel 3:14. See Jehoshaphat. 

DE'D AS (low yronnd). 1. The name 
of a descendant of Ham. Gen. 10 : 7 ; 
1 Chr. 1 : 9. 

2. A son of Jokshan, son of Abra- 
ham by Keturah. Gen. 25 : 3 ; 1 Chr. 
1:32. 

DEDICATE, DEDICATION, 
a religious ceremony by which any per- 
son, place, or thing is set apart for the 
service of God or to some sacred use. 
Num. 7; 2 Sam. 8 : 11 : 1 Kgs. 8. Cities, 
walls, gates, and private houses were 
thus dedicated. Neh. 12 : 27. The prac- 
tice of consecration was very common 
among the Jews, and was suited to the 
peculiar dispensation under which they 
lived. 

Dedication, Feast of the, mentioned 
only once in the canonical Scriptures, 
John 10 : 22, was instituted to commem- 
orate the purging of the temple and the | 
rebuilding of the altar after Judas Mac- I 
cabaeus had driven out the Syrians, 1 j 
Mace. 4 : 52-59, b. c. 164. Like the 
other Jewish feasts, it lasted eight days, J 
but, unlike them, attendance at Jerusa- j 
lem was not obligatory. In general, it 
was kept like the feast of tabernacles. ; 
The Hallel was sung every day. It was 
a time of rejoicing. It began upon the 
25th day of Chisleu (December), the an- 
niversary of the pollution of the tem- 
ple bv Antiochus Epiphanes, B. c. 167. 

DEEP, THE, in Luke 8: 31 and 
Rom. 10 : 7, does not refer to the sea, 
but to the abyss, the place where lost 
spirits await their final doom. The 
same word is rendered the " bottomless 
pit" in Rev. 9 : 1, 2, 11: 11:7; 20:13. 

DEFILE'. Under the Jewish law, 
many blemishes of person and conduct 
were regarded as defilements or pollu- 
tions, rendering those upon whom they 
were found unclean, and subjecting 
them, for the time being, to many civil 
and religious disabilities. Mark 7 : 2. 
The term is most frequently used by 
the saored writers in a figurative sense. 



DEGREE 7 . This word is used to 
signify rank or station. Ps. 62 : 9 ; 1 
Tim. 3 : 13. The phrase "song, or 
psalm of degrees," which forms the 
title to Psalms 120 to 134 inclusive, has 
been variously interpreted ; some sup- 
pose it has reference to the elevated 
voice in which they were sung, others 
to the time when they were sung — viz. 
at the annual festivals, when the Jews 
went up to Jerusalem, and that in this 
sense they were called " odes of ascen- 
sion." The Rabbins suppose they were 
sung by the Levites as they ascended 
the 15 steps which separated the men's 
court from the women's in the temple j 
and others again suppose that the word 
" degree " denotes the peculiarly climac- 
teric style of these Psalms — viz. that the 
thought or expression of one verse is 
resumed and carried forward in the next 
succeeding verse, as in Psalm 121 ; but 
this is improbable. 

DEHAVITES, supposed by Herod- 
otus to be a Persian tribe, and, as some 
think, the same who are mentioned as 
from Ava. Ezr. 4:9; 2 Kgs. 17 : 24. 

DE'KAR (a lancer), the father of 
one of Solomon's commissariat officers. 
1 Kgs. 4 : 9. 

DELAI'AH {whom Jehovah hafh 
freed). 1. The head of the twenty- 
third temple-course of pi'iests. 1 Chr. 
24:18. 

2. " Children of Delaiah " are spoken 
of in Ezr. 2 : 60 : Neh. 7 : 62. 

3. The father of a man who tried to 
terrify Nehemiah. Neh. 6: 10. 

4. A prince in the time of Jeremiah. 
Jer. 36: 12, 25. 

DELILAH (pining with desire), 
a harlot of the valley of Sorek, in the 
tribe of Judah, and near the borders of 
the Philistines, with whom Samson as- 
sociated, and who betrayed him. Jud. 
16:4-18. See Samson.' 

DELUGE. See Flood. 

DE'MAS, a zealous disciple and 
fellow-laborer of Paul, Phile. 24; Col. 
4 : 14, who afterward left him through 
inordinate love of the world, 2 Tim. 4 : 
10. The name is most probably a con- 
traction from " Demetrius " or from 
" Demarchus." 

DEME'TRIUS. 1. A silversmith 
who resided at Ephesus and manufac- 
tured silver shrines or small portable 
temples and images of Diana. See Di- 
227 



DEN 



DEU 



ANA. Acts 19 : 24. These were pur- 
chased by foreigners, who either could 
not come to Ephesus, or else desired a 
memento of the city and a model of its 
famous temple. This was a very lucra- 
tive business in that city, where the 
worship of Diana was chiefly main- 
tained; and hence, when the gospel 
began to make an impression, and the 
people to forsake their vain idols for the 
service of the living God. Demetrius saw 
that he should lose his business unless 
he could still keep the people in sin. So 
he called a meeting of those who worked 
at that trade, and made a speech to them. 
By this harangue he inflamed the pas- 
sions of his fellow-craftsmen, and they 
excited the multitude, until the whole 
city of Ephesus was thrown into an up- 
roar, which was finally quelled by the 
politic and seasonable advice of the 
town-clerk. Acts 19. 

2. A disciple of high reputation, and, 
as some suppose (though without war- 
rant), the Demetrius of Ephesus con- 
verted to the faith of the gospel. 3 
John 12. 

DENA'RIUS, a Roman silver coin 
nearly equivalent to the Greek drachma, 
and worth about 15 cents; translated in 




Roman Denarius. (From Eiehm.) 
the A. V. "penny," which makes the 
impression of a very small sum ; it was 
really the amount of a day's wages. 
Matt. 20 : 2 ; comp. Luke 10 : 35. " Shil- 
ling" would be a much nearer equiva- 
lent ; but the better way would have been 
to transfer the Greek term into English 
(denar), as the evangelists retained the 
Latin term in the Greek. See Penny. 

DEPUTY. The office was that of 
proconsul, or governor of a senatorial 
province. Acts 13 : 7, 8, 12 ; 19 : 38. 

DER'RE, a city of Lycaonia, Acts 
14 : 16, 20; 16: 1, about 20 miles from 
Lystra. Kiepert places it near Lake Ak- 
Ghieul, but Hamilton at Divle, several 
miles farther south. 

DESERT. The popular concep- 
tion of the term must not be applied 
228 



to all passages in the English Bible, in 
which the word is the translation of 
four Hebrew words denoting definite 
localities. 

1. It is applied to the ArabnTi, Eze. 
47 : 8, the name of the remarkable de- 
pression which runs through the land 
of Palestine : but this is a waste merely 
because of the depopulated and neglect- 
ed state of the country. It is capable 
of cultivation. See Arabah. 

2. It is used to translate midbar, 
" pasture-ground," in Ex. 3:1; 5:3; 
19:2; Num. 33:15, 16. 

3. Borbah. Ps. 102 : 6 ; Isa. 48 : 21 ; 
Eze. 13 : 4. But the term commonly 
employed is "waste places " or " deso- 
lation." 

4. Jeshimon. With the definite arti- 
cle, it is treated as a proper name. See 
Jeshimon. Without the article, it oc- 
curs in a few passages of poetry. In 
the following verses it is translated 
"desert:" Ps. 78 : 40 ; 106:14; Isa. 
43 : 19, 20. 

The " desert," as an illimitable stretch 
of heavy sand, does not exist in Bible 
lands. The " desert of Sinai " is a wild 
and desolate region of country, but in 
many parts, especially from Elim ( Wady 
Ghurundel) to Mount Sinai, and the re- 
gion toward the southern border of Pales- 
tine, are traces of previous fertility ; and 
when the Israelites guided their flocks 
through it, they found pasture in many of 
the little valleys, and perhaps upon some 
of its plains. The different tracts men- 
tioned under this name in the Bible, as 
Shur, Sin, Paran, etc., will be found par- 
ticular^ noticed in their proper places. 

DESOLATION, ABOMINA'- 
TION" OF. See Abominable. 

DEUEL {invocation of God), the 
father of the prince of Gad in the wil- 
derness. Num. 1:14; 7 : 42 ; 10 : 20. 
But in 2:14 he is called Reuel. 

DEUTER-ON'OMY, on THE 
SECOND LAW (so called from its 
repeating the Law), is the fifth book of 
the Bible, and (except the last chapter) 
was evidently written by Moses. Deut. 
1 : 5, comp. with Deut. 34 : 1 ; 2 Chr. 
25 : 4 ; Dan. 9:13; Mark 12 : 19 ; Acts 
3 : 22. This book contains three ad- 
dresses of Moses to the Israelites in the 
plain of Moab in the eleventh month of 
the fortieth year of their journeyings, 
expounding, supplementing, and en- 



DEV 



DEV 



forcing the Law, the delivery of the 
book of the Law to the Levites, and the 
song of Moses. The first address, 1 : 1- 

4 : 40, is a brief rehearsal of the history 
of the "Wandering," particularly of 
those events which conditioned their 
entry into the Promised Land. Upon 
this resume Moses grounds an exhorta- 
tion to obedience. The second address, 

5 : 1-26 : 19, follows almost immedi- 
ately after the first, being separated 
from it only by three verses, giving a 
brief notice of the three cities of refuge 
which Moses severed on the east side of 
the Jordan. This address, like the first, 
has a formal historical setting, 4 : 44—49, 
by way of introduction. It contains a 
recapitulation, with a few additions and 
alterations, of the Law given on Sinai. 
Particularly noticeable is the slightly- 
different version of the ten command- 
ments. But this long address is not the 
least like a dry legal recital. Through- 
out, the spiritual earnestness of Moses is 
shown, and, as has been well said, " It 
is the father no less than the legislator 
who speaks. And whilst obedience and 
life are bound up together, it is the obe- 
dience of a loving heart, not a service of 
formal constraint, which is the burden 
of his exhortations." The third part of 
Deuteronomy, 27 : 1-30 : 20, opens with 
the joint command of Moses and the 
elders to keep all the commandments, 
and, when they had crossed the Jordan, 
to write them upon the great plastered 
stones they were ordered to set up with 
appropriate ceremonies. Then follows 
the third address, 27 : 11-30 : 20, whose 
topic is " The blessing and the curse." 

After these three addresses, in ch. 31 
there follows the delivery of the Law to 
Joshua and Moses's speech on the oc- 
casion, containing a command to read 
the Law every seven years. In ch. 32 
we have the song of Moses; in ch. 33, 
Moses's blessing of the twelve tribes. 
These were the last written words of 
Moses, and most beautifully do they set 
forth the majesty of God and the excel- 
lency of Israel. The final verses of the 
book give an account of the death of 
Moses, and were, of course, written by 
another hand. The date of the book 
may be set down as about B. c. 1277. 
See also Pentateuch. 

DEVIL {slanderer). This word (from 
the Greek diabolos) is sometimes applied 



to very wicked men or women, John 
6:70 (Judas Iscariot) ; Acts 13:10; 
2 Tim. 3:3; Tit. 2 : 3, and translated 
" devil " or " false accusers," but usually 
it denotes the one most subtle and ma- 
lignant of the evil spirits, and the great 
enemy of God and man. It corresponds 
to the Hebrew Satan ("adversary"),, 
which is also used in the N. T. Matt. 
16 : 23 ; Mark 8 : 33 : Luke 22 : 3. 
Satan can assume a character quite 
opposite to his real one, and hence he 
is said by Paul to transform himself 
into an " angel of light," 2 Cor. 11 : 14. 
Although there is only one devil, our 
English version often speaks of " cast- 
ing out devils" and of persons "pos- 
sessed with devils " — e. g. Matt. 4 : 24. 
The word is not the same as that applied 
to Satan, but means " demons" or " evil 
spirits." It is common to call these af- 
flicted people demoniacs. Three views 
are held upon the demoniacal posses- 
sions : 

1. That the possession of the devil 
symbolizes the prevalence of evil in the 
world, the casting out of the devils by 
our Lord, his conquest over that evil 
power by his doctrine and his life. 
This theory of course gives up the 
historic character of the narratives. 

2. That the demoniacs were not really 
under the power of demons ; but inas- 
much as it was commonly believed they 
were, our Lord and the evangelists spoke 
to them and of them in this fashion. 
They wei-e merely persons suffering 
unusual diseases of body and mind, es- 
pecially epilepsy, melancholy, insanity. 
The advocates of this view present three 
arguments: (1) The symptoms of the 
" possessed " were frequently those of 
bodily disease — dumbness, Matt. 9 : 32 ; 
blindness, Matt. 12 : 22 ; epilepsy, Mark 
9 : 17-27 — or those seen in cases of or- 
dinary insanity, Matt. 8 : 28. (2) " To 
have a devil" seems to be equivalent 
to to be " mad," John 7 : 20 : 8 : 48 ; 10 : 
20. (3) There is no such thing to-day 
as " demoniacal possession," but there 
are frequent cases similar to those re- 
corded. Hence the language is popular, 
and not exact. 

3. That there were persons actually 
possessed by demons — such possession 
manifesting itself in the forms of bod- 
ily and mental disease. Our Lord really 
cast out demons. This theorv has in its 

229 



DEV 



DIA 



support: (1) The plain meaning of the 
text. It is the most natural interpreta- 
tion. The demons are plainly distin- 
guished from the persons whom they 
possess : they have a separate con- 
sciousness; they know Jesus, and look 
forward with trembling to the judg- 
ment-day ; they pass from one person 
to another, or even into a herd of swine. 
(2) It accords with the Scripture notion 
of the malignity of Satan that he should 
make a special exhibition of his power 
against Jesus. (3) It explains the con- 
fessions of our Lord's divinity which 
imply superhuman knowledge. (4) It 
renders intelligible the crucial narrative 
of the man among the tombs, Mark 5 : 1- 
20. The other theories either deny the 
fact or give a forced interpretation. (5) 
It vindicates the truthfulness of Jesus, 
which the other theories impugn. He 
not only addressed the patients as 
"possessed," Luke 4 : 35, but distinct- 
ly linked demoniacal possession with 
the evil one. Matt. 12 : 25-30 ; Luke 
10:18. 

DEVO'TIONS. In Acts 17 : 23 we 
should read " your objects of devotion " 
instead of "your devotions," because in 
King James's day the word denoted 
the objects, and not the acts, of wor- 
ship. 

DEW, a dense vapor which falls on 
the earth during the night, and which 
in Judaea was so copious as in a great 
measure to supply the absence of show- 
ers. It thus became a beautiful em- 
blem, of spiritual blessings, Deut. 32 : 
2; Job 29 : 19, as well as of temporal 
prosperity, because without the appar- 
ent etfort of rain it gently accomplished 
the same result. But then it vanished 
so quickly on exposure to the sun that 
it was likewise an emblem of transient 
desires and relinquished efforts in God's 
service. Hos. 14 : 5-7. The heat and dry- 
ness of the air in the Holy Land are such 
that if it were not for the dews the earth 
would be parched and all its fruits with- 
ered. The same fact may be inferred from 
Jud. 6 : 37-40 : 2 Sam.* 17 : 12 : Job 29 : 
19 : Song Sol. 5 : 2. The Psalmist, Ps. 
133 : 3, mentions particularly the dew of 
Hermon as emblematical of the rich and 
abundant blessings of spiritual com- 
munion. So Hos. 14 : 5-7. 

DIADEM. See Crown. 

DI'AL, an instrument employed to 
230 



measure time, or to determine the ap- 
parent progress of the sun by the shad- 
ow which the gnomon, or point in the 
centre of a graduated arc, casts. 

The "dial of Ahaz" is the only one 
mentioned in the Bible. 2 Kgs. 20 : 11 ; 
Isa. 38 : 8. The sign of Hezekiah's 
recovery was that the shadow of the 
sun went ten degrees backward upon 
it. The best interpretation of the pas- 
sage is to suppose that the dial, like 
those discovered in Babylonia, " was a 
series of steps or terraces on which an 
upright pole cast its shadow." It was 
therefore probably modelled after those 
in familiar use with the ally of Ahaz, 
Tiglath-pileser. The fact that ambas- 
sadors came from Babylon to inquire 
of the wonder proves that the fame 
thereof had reached that city. It is a 
question of considerable importance 
whether this miracle was wrought upon 
the rays of the sun, by which they were 
deflected in an extraordinary manner, so 
as to produce this retrograde motion of 
the shadow, while the sun itself seemed 
to go on its way, or whether the motion 
of the earth or the position of the sun 
was so changed as to produce this result. 
It was this miracle to which reference 
is made in 2 Chr. 32 : 31. 

DIAMOND. Ex. 28 : 18 ; Eze. 

28 : 13. " There is no trace of evidence 

! that the ancients ever acquired the skill 

I to engrave on the diamond, or even that 

they were acquainted with the stone." — 

I Canon Cook. The claims of jasper, 

| onyx, chalcedony, emerald, and rock- 

: crystal to be the diamond of the Bible 

I have all been urged. Its diversity from 

any other stone in the high priest's 

breast-plate will incline some minds 

to advocate rock-crystal. For Jer. 17 : 

1, see Adamant. 

DIA'NA, a heathen goddess of great 
celebrity, whose worship was attended 
with peculiar splendor and magnificence 
at Ephesus, her guardian city. Acts 
19 : 28. Her magnificent temple in that 
city was ranked among the Seven Won- 
ders of the world. It was 220 years in 
building. Pliny tells us that it was 
425 feet long and 220 in breadth, and 
that it was adorned with 127 columns, 
each 60 feet high, 27 of which were 
curiously carved and the rest polished. 
Little silver models of the temple, with 
the image of the goddess enshrined in 



DIB 



DIB 



them (see the opposite cut), were made 
for sale, and were disposed of in such 
quantities as to afford profitable work 
for many hands. Acts 19 : 24, 25. See 
Demetrius. 

In tbis temple there was "the image 




Diana of Ephe.sus. (From Lewin's "St. Paul.") 
(This figure was taken from an alabaster image in 
the museum of Naples, but it is in great measure 
ideal A more accurate representation is on the coin, 
following.) 

which fell down from Jupiter," a rude 
wooden image having a head decorated 
with a mural crown : "each hand held a 
bar of metal, and the lower part ended 
in a rude block covered with figures of 




Temple of Diana. (From a Coin in the Pem- 
broke Collection.) 

animals and mystic inscriptions." Later 
figures had many breasts, evidently 
symbolical of the reproductive powers 
of Nature, and therefore it was a sort 
of companion-idol to Ashtoreth. No 
bloody sacrifices were offered in her 
worship. Her temple in Ephesus was 
the treasury in which immense quanti- 
ties of wealth were stored up, and was 
also a place of safety. It was beloved 
with singular passion, and hence the 
insinuation that Paul's preaching tend- 
ed to lower the regard for it led to the 
uproar so graphically described in Acts 
19. See Ephesus, Paul. 

DIB'JjAIM (double cake), one whose 
daughter the prophet Hosea married. 
Hos. 1:3. 

DIB'LATH. Eze. 6 : 14. It has 
been identified with the modern ruin 
Uibl. See Riblah. 

DIBLATHA'IM. See Almon- 

DIBLATHATM. 

DI'BOFf (toasting), the name of 
two towns. 

1. Dibon in Moab. Num. 21 : 30 ; Isa. 
15 : 2. It was built by Gad, Num. 32 : 
34, and hence called Dibon-grad : was 
assigned to Reuben, Josh. 13 : 9, 17 ; 
was also called Dimon. Isa. 15 : 9. It 
afterward returned to Moab, Isa. 15 : 2; 
Jer. 48:18, 22; now called Dhttdn, 
about 12 miles east of the Dead Sea and 
3 miles north of the Amon. Its ruins 
are extensive, covering the tops of two 
adjacent hills. 

The famous Moabite Stone, bear- 
ing an inscription of Mesha, a king 
of Moab, about 900 b. c, was found 
here within the gateway by Rev. F. A. 
Klein (a German missionary at Jerusa- 
lem) in 1868. The stone is of black 
231 



DIB 



DIB 



basalt, 3 feet 8£ inches high, 2 feet 3£ 
inches wide, and 1 foot 1.78 inches 
thick. It has 34 lines of Hebrew-Phoe- 
nician writing, and contains a most re- 
markable corroboration of the Scripture 
history in 2 Kgs. 3. Translations haye 



4*y?& 



t/fi. 



{yyy4i\* e y v 'jr •/$*.< ty-vy.)' 
*r ^n^ wr z-»4rny/*f 



*vif V w 




The Moabite Stone. 
been made by Dr. Ginsburg, M. Gan- 
neau, and Prof. Schlottmann. The lat- 
ter's translation is as follows: 

I Mesa, son of Chamos-nadab, the 
king of Moab [son ofl Yabni. My 
father ruled over Moab [ . . years], 
and I ruled after my father. And I 
made this high place of sacrifice to 
Chamos in Korcha, a high place of 
deliverance, for he saved me from all 
[who fought against Moab]. 

Omri, king of Israel, allied himself 
with all his (Moab's) haters, and they 
oppressed Moab [many days] : then 
Chamos was irritated [against him and 
against] his land, and let it go over 
232 



[into the hand of his haters], and they 

oppressed Moab very sore. 

In my days spoke Ch[amos], I will 

therefore look upon him and his house, 

and Israel shall perish in eternal ruin. 

And Omri took possession of the town 
of Medeba, and sat therein [and they 
oppressed Moab, he and] his son, forty 
years. [Then] Chamos looked upon 
Moab in my days. 

And I built Baal Meon, and made 
therein walls and mounds. And I went 
to take the town of Kirjathaim, and the 
men of Gad [lived] in the district [of 
Kirjathaim] from days of their grand- 
fathers, and the king of Israel built 
Kirjathaim. And I fought against 
the town and took it, and I strangled 
all the people that were in the city [as 
a sacrifice] to Chamos, the god of M oab. 

(Here follows a lacuna: at the end of 
it the words 'before the face of Chamos 
in Kirjathaim.' Probably stood here, just 
as in lines 17, 18, a notice of the change 
of an Israelitish to a Moabite sanctuary.) 

And I destroyed the High Place of 
Jehovah, and dedicated it before the 
face of Chamos in Kirjathaim. And I 
allowed to dwell therein the men of 
.... and the men of ... . 

And Chamos said to me, ' Go up. 
Take [the town of] Nebo against Is- 
rael . . .' and I went up during the 
night, and fought against it from the 
dawn to midday, and I took it . . . and 
I saw it quite . . . 

(In the rest of this part — more than 
two lines— there are, besides isolated let- 
ters, only legible through the gaps the 
names of God separated from each other.) 

to Astar Chamos . . . Jehovah .... 
before the face of Chamos. 

(It may safelv be presumed that mention 
was made here of the restoration of heathen 
in the room of the Israelitish worship.) 

And the king of Israel built Jahaz, 
and sat therein, while he fcught against 
me, and Chamos drove him before my 
sight. And I took from Moab two hun- 
dred men, fully told. And I beleaguer- 
ed Jahaz and took it, in addition to 
Dibon, 

I built Korcha, the wall toward the 
forest, and the wall . . . and I built 
her gates, and I built her towers, and 
I built the king's house: and I made 
store-places for the mountain water in 
the midst of the town. And there were 



DIB 



DIS 



no cisterns within the town, in Korcha, 
and I said to all the people, ' Make (you) 
every man a cistern in his house.' 

(Here follows a sentence with difficult 
expressions at the beginning and a gap in 
the middle. The following is conjectural :) 

And I hung up the prohibition for 
Korcha [against association with the] 
people of Israel. 

I built Aroer, and I made the streets 
in Arnon. I built Beth Bamoth, for [it 
was destroyed]. I built Bezer, for men 
of Dibon compelled it, fifty of them, for 
all Dibon was subject; and I filled [with 
inhabitants] Bikran, which I added to 
the land. And I built . . . the temple 
of Diblathaim, and the temple of Baal 
Meon, and brought thither Ch[amos]. 

(After a hiatus are the words :) 

. . the land . . . And Horonaim . . 
dwelt therein . . . 

(Probably there followed the name of 
an Edonrite parent tribe or clan. Then 
again after a gap:) 

Chamos said to me, ' Come. Fight 
against Horonaim and [take it].' 

In the last gap, out of more than two 
lines, it is only possible, besides separated 
letters, to read the word of Chamos. With- 
out doubt it was here related how the king, 
by the help of Chemosh, took the town. 

Prof. Schlottmann divides the inscrip- 
tion into three parts : the first to the sixth 
section, inclusive, of the victories of Mesa 
over Israel; the second, sections seven and 
eiitht, of the buildings and erections of the 
king; and the third, of a battle in the south, 
toward Edom. (See The Recovery of Jerusa- 
lem, pp. 396-399.) 

2. A town in the south of Judah, 
Neh. 11 : 25 ; the same as Dimonah, 
Josh. 15 : 22, and probably modern eh- 
Dheib. 

DI'BON-GAD. Num. 33 : 45, 46. 
See Dibon, 1. 

DIB'RI (eloquent), a Danite, father 
of Shelomith, wife of an Egyptian. 
Lev. 24:11. 

DID'YMUS. See Thomas. 

DIK'LAH (palm tree), a son of 
Joktan, Gen. 10 : 27 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 21, who 
settled a district in Arabia abounding 
in palm trees ; probably Yemen, in 
southern Arabia. 

DIL/EAIV (gourd, or cucumber), a 
city in the lowlands of Judah, near 
Mizpeh. Josh. 15 : 38. Van de Velde 



places it at Tina, south of Ekron (Rob- 
inson's Beit-Tima), Warren at B'abin. 

DIM'NAH, a Levitical city in Zeb- 
ulon, Josh. 21 : 35,; same as Rimmon. 
1 Chr. 6 : 77 ; now Mummdneh. 

DIMONAH. Josh. 15 : 22. See 
Dibon. 2. 

DFMON, WATERS OF. Isa. 
15 : 9. See Dibon, 1. 

DFNAH (judged, or avenged), the 
only daughter of Jacob and Leah, Gen. 
30 : 21, mentioned in Scripture, al- 
though there were probably others. 
The daughters were less likely to be 
spoken of than the sons. Jacob, on his 
return from Padan-aram to Canaan, 
halted at Shechem : here Dinah was 
wronged by Shechem, son of the prince 
Hamor. His offer of marriage was ac- 
cepted on condition that he and all the 
other men in the town were circumcised. 
But while they were recovering, Simeon 
and Levi, Dinah's own brothers, led an 
attack upon them and killed them all, 
completely pillaged the place, and made 
prisoners of the women and children. 
Jacob's words to his sons after the act 
betray more fear of the anger aroused 
among their neighbors and its bad con- 
sequences than offence at their treach- 
ery. Gen. 34:30. Dinah is mentioned 
with the rest of the family who went 
into Egypt. Gen. 46:8,15. 

DF1VAITES, the name of some of 
the Cuthaean colonists placed in Samaria 
by the Assyrians after the conquest of 
the ten tribes. Ezr. 4: 9. 

DINHABAH. Gen. 36 : 32 ; 1 
Chr. 1 : 43. A capital city of Edom ; 
site unknown. 

DINNER. See Meals. 

DIONYSIUS (rotary of Dionysus ; 
i. e. Bacchus), a member of the court of 
the Areopagus ; converted under the 
preaching of Paul at Athens. Acts 17 : 
34. Tradition says he became the bish- 
op of Athens, where he suffered martyr- 
dom, a. d. 95. The writings which bear 
his name are of much later date. 

DIOTREPHES (Jove-nourished), 
the head of the church, situation un- 
known, in Asia Minor to which Gaius 
belonged. 3 John 9. John rebukes him 
for his arbitrary use of authority and 
resistance to the higher powers. See 
John, Eptstles of. 

DISCERNING of spirits 
was one of the miraculous gifts of the 
233 



DIS 



DIS 



Holy Ghost, by virtue of which the 
spirits of men were tried whether they 
were of God. 1 Cor. 12 : 10 ; 1 John 4 : 1. 
It was a most desirable gift in the first 
ages of the Church, when false prophets 
and wicked spirits abounded on every 
side. Comp. Acts 5:1-10; 13 : 6-12. 

DISCI'PLE, one who receives, or 
professes to receive, instruction from 
another. In the N. T., it denotes the 
professed followers of our Saviour, but 
not always his true followers. Matt. 10 : 
24 ; 11 : 2 ; Luke 14 : 26, 27, 33 ; John 
6 : 66 : 9 : 28. See School. 

DISCO V'ER (from dis, negative, 
and cover) is used in the English Ver- 
sion for " uncover," " lay bare." Ps. 29 : 
9; Isa. 22:8; Mic.l:6. "The voice of 
the Lord . . . discovereth the forests " — 
i. e. strippeth off the leaves. 

DISEASES. The multiplied forms 
in which sickness and suffering appear 
among men are so many signs of the 
evil of sin. Reference is made to the 
interposition of God in sending and re- 
moving diseases. Ps. 39 :9-l 1 : 90 : 3-12. 

The plagues, pestilences, and other 
instrumentalities by which, in former 
ages, a multitude of lives were de- 
stroyed at once were often miraculous 
— that is, the natural causes and prog- 
ress of disease were not employed, or 
were not visible. Ex. 12 : 23, 29 : 2 Kgs. 
19 : 35 ; 1 Chr. 21 : 12-15 ; Acts 12 : 23. 

The simple diets and habits of the 
Jews would keep them from many dis- 
eases, but the Bible proves that they en- 
joyed no miraculous protection. The 
diseases of the East of to-day were 
known to them ; such are ophthalmia, 
leprosy, brain-fever, pestilential fevers, 
lung-disorders. There was also a special 
form of disease, known as " having an 
evil spirit," very common in our Lord's 
dav. See Devil, Medicine. 

DISH. See Table. 

DI'SHAN (ante/ope), a son of Seir 
the Horite. Gen. 36:21, 28, 30; 1 Chr. 
1 : 38. 42. 

DISHON (antelope). 1. Another 
son of the same. Gen. 36 : 21, 26, 30 j 
1 Chr. 1:38. 41. 

2. A son of Anah, and a grandchild 
of Seir. Cen. 36:25: 1 Chr. 1 : 40. 

DISPENSATION. This word, 
in its scriptural use, generally denotes 
a plan or scheme, or a sys'em of pre- 
cepts and principles prescribed and re- 
234 



vealed by God for his own glory, and 
for the advantage and happiness of his 
creatures. 1 Cor. 9:17; Eph. 1:10; 3 : 
2 ; Col. 1 : 25. In the passages above 
cited it is supposed to mean an author- 
ity or commission to preach the gospel. 
The dispensation of the Law by Moses 
and of the gospel by Jesus Christ are 
examples of the use of the word in its 
former meaning. 

DISPERSED', DISPER- 
SION. These terms are usually ap- 
plied to the Jews who after their cap- 
tivity, and during the time of the second 
temple, were scattered abroad through the 
earth. Jas. 1:1; 1 Pet. 1:1. In the time 
of Christ they were divided into three 
g^eat sections — the Babylonian, the Syr- 
ian, and the Egyptian. The Epistles of 
James and Peter were addressed to them. 
Apostolic preaching followed the line of 
these Jewish settlements. 

The settlement of the Jews in Rome 
dates from the conquest of Palestine by 
Pompey, b. c. 63. But long ere this 
Jews became residents in other lands. 
Naturally, they gave up some of their 
distinctive customs. The thrice-a-year 
visitation of the temple was impossible. 
The temple in Jerusalem, although 
their national centre, was no longer 
their religious home. The synagogue 
became their usual place of meeting. 
Thus the loosening of the stiff hold of 
original Judaism prepared them for the 
change to the freedom of Christianity. 

DIS'TAFF, a staff around which 
the tow is wound for spinning. Prov. 
31:19. The spindle is mentioned in 
connection with the distaff as an instru- 
ment of employment on the part of the 
virtuous woman. In early ages, spin- 
ning (hence, the law-term "spinster" 
for an unmarried female) was a part of 
the household duties of women, even in 
rich and distinguished families; and it 
was a maxim that a young woman 
should never be married until she had 
spun herself a set of body-, bed-, and 
table-linen. At the present day the 
Egyptian women spend their leisure- 
hours in working with the needle, par- 
ticularly in embroidering veils, hand- 
kerchiefs, etc., with colored silk and 
gold, in which they carry on a sort of 
traffic through the channel of a female 
broker. In ancient Egypt the yarn 
seems all to have been spun with the 



DIV 



DIZ 



hand, and the spindle is seen in all the 
pictures representing the manufacture of 
cloth, as well as both men and women 
employed in the manufacture. See 
Spindle. 

DIVES. See Lazarus. 

DIVINA'TION is the practice of 
divining or foretelling future events. 
Deut. 18 : 1 0. In the passage cited it is 
put in connection with witchcraft, nec- 
romancj^, and other abominations of the 
heathen which the Jews were to avoid. 
Divination prevailed among the Israel- 
ites and many of the Eastern nations. 
The modes or means of divining were 
by consulting or being familiar with 
spirits, by the motions of the stars, 
clouds, etc., and by lots, rods or wands, 
dreams, the flight of birds, the entrails 
of animals, etc., etc. It is said of Jo- 
seph's cup, Gen. 44:5, that he divined 
by it. It is not to be inferred, however, 
that he practised divination, but rather 
that he uses the words in his supposed 
character of a native Egyptian. His 
brethren would therefore believe that 
by the cup he did actually divine, as was 
the custom of the land. In so speaking, 
Joseph practised deception; we are not, 
however, called upon to believe he was 
•perfect. The Egyptian magicians were 
diviners, so were the wise men, the 
Chaldasans of Babylon. There are 
many words used in Scripture to de- 
note them. Some diviners were learn- 
ed, others very ignorant. Ventriloquism 
and illusion formed part of their busi- 
ness, although many believed in the 
reality of their revelations. In divin- 
ing with the cr.p, a small piece of gold 
or silver, or a jewel, was thrown into 
a spherical goblet, an incantation was 
pronounced, the number of waves were 
counted and the appearance of the ob- 
ject studied. Or else the goblet was 
simply filled with pure water and ex- 
posed to the sunlight : whatever it re- 
flected was suppose to give an answer. 
In the case of the witch of Endor, she 
began to practise her art, but, to her 
amazement, no less than to Saul's, the 
vision or spirit of Samuel actually arose, 
and announced the imminent defeat and 
death of the king. The root of the He- j 
brew word translated " witch " means 
" a bottle." The term arose from the 
supposed inflation of these persons by I 
the spirit. 



The Jews were familar with four 
genuine ways adopted by God to make 
known the future. These were (1) by 
visions, as in the case of the patri- 
archs; (2) dreams interpreted, as by 
Joseph and Daniel; (3) by the Urirn 
and Thummim ; (4) and by the proph- 
ets. 1 Sam. 28 : 6. The practice of 
divination in all its forms is severely 
reprobated by Moses and other sacred 
writers, Lev. 20 : 27 ; Deut. 18 : 9-14: 
Jer. 14:14; Eze. 13:8,9, because "c, 
prying into the future clouds the mine 
with superstition and is an incentive 
to idolatry," as is the case with the 
pagans. In whatever form it is prac- 
tised or regarded, it is reproachful to 
Christianity, and argues great folly,, 
ignorance, and sin. 2 Pet. 1 : 19. 

DIVORCE', the dissolution of the 
marriage relation. This was permit- 
ted by the law of Moses because already 
existent, but so regulated as to miti- 
gate its injustice and' cruelty to the 
wife, Deut. 24 ; 1-4, and in certain cases 
forbidden, Deut. 22 : 19, 29. Although 
divorce was common in the later days 
of the Hebrew nation, Mai. 2 : 16, and 
men put away their wives for trivial 
causes, Matt. 19 : 3 — and many of the 
Jewish doctors contended that this was 
the spirit of the Law — there is no dis- 
tinct case of divorce mentioned in the 
0. T. Our Saviour was questioned upon 
this matter, but he defeated the purpose 
of his inquisitors to entangle him in 
his talk, and took the opportunity to 
rebuke the lax morals of the day and 
set forth adultery as the only proper 
ground of divorce. Matt. 5 : 32 ; 19 : 9 ; 
Mark 10:11; Luke 16: 18. 

According to Jewish customs, the 
husbiind was required to give his wife 
a writing or bill of divorcement, in 
which was set forth the date, place, 
and cause of her repudiation, and a 
permission was given by it to marry 
whom she pleased. It was provided, 
however, that, she might be restored to 
the relation at any future time if she 
did not meanwhile marry any other 
man. The woman also seems to have 
had power — at least in a later period 
of the Jewish state — to put away her 
husband — ?'. e. without a formal divorce 
to forsake him. Mark 10 : 12. 

DIZ'AHAB {region of gold), a 
place in the Arabian desert, near which 
235 



DOC 



DOG 



Moses rehearsed to Israel God's dealings 
with them, Deut. 1:1; possibly Dehab. 

DOCTOR. Doctors or teach- 
ers of the law were those who made it 
their business or profession to teach the 
Law of Moses, and they were in great 
repute among the Jews. Luke 2 : 46. 
Some have distinguished the scribes 
from the doctors by supposing that the 
former wrote their opinions, while the 
latter taught extemporaneously. The 
doctors were generally of the sect of the 
Pharisees, perhaps always. Luke 5 : 17. 
The word " teachers" came into early use 
among Christians as a title to those who 
taught the doctrines of the faith, 1 Cor. 
12 : 28, and hence was afterward applied 
to those who became eminent for their 
learning and aptness in teaching. 

DOD'AI {loving), one of David's 
captains. 1 Chr. 27:4. 

DOD'ANIM (lenders ?), a family or 
race descended from Javan, son of Japh- 
eth. Gen. 10:4: 1 Chr. 1:7. 

DOD'AVAH [love of Jehovah), a 
man of Mareshah, father of the Eliezer 
who prophesied against Jehoshaphat. 2 
Chr. 20 : 37. 

DODO {amatory). 1. The father 
of Eleazar, one of David's mighty men. 
2 Sam. 23:9: 1 Chr. 11:12. 

2. The father of Elhanan, another 
mighty man. 2 Sam. 23 : 24 : 1 Chr. 11 : 
26. 

DO'EG (fearful). See Ahimelech. 

DOG. Ex. li:7. The dog was not 
only an unclean animal by the Jewish 
Law, but was regarded with peculiar 
contempt, Ex. 22 : 31 ; Deut. 23 : 18 ; 1 
Sam. 17: 43; 24:14; 2 Sam. 9 : 8 ; 2 
Kgs. 8 : 13; Phil. 3:2; Eev. 22 : 15; 
and he is so regarded at the present 
day by the Turks, who can find no more 
abusive and contemptuous language to 
apply to a Christian than to call him 
a dog. In Eastern countries dogs are 
more like wolves than our dogs, and 
live wild in the open air. 

Solomon puts a living dog in contrast 
with a dead lion to show that the mean- 
est thing alive is of more importance 
than the noblest that is dead. Eccl. 9: 
4. Abner's exclamation, "Am I a dog's 
head?" 2 Sam. 3 : 8, has a signification 
of the same kind. Isaiah expresses the 
necessity of repentance and sincerity to 
make a sacrifice acceptable to God by de- 
claring that without them " he that sac- 
236 



rifices a lamb " does nothing better than 
" asif he cut off a dog's neck." Isa. 66 : 3. 
The only useful purpose to which dogs 
appear to have been put was to guard 
the flocks, Job 30 : 1, and even in that 
passage they are spoken of with con- 
tempt. Isaiah may be understood to al- 
lude to this manner of employing them in 
his description of the spiritual watchmen 
of Israel. Isa. 56:10, 11. 

Although dogs were numerous in the 
Jewish cities, they were not kept in 
the houses, but wandered through the 
streets (as they do to this day in Con- 
stantinople), picking up whatever was 




Dog modelled in Clay. (From Kouyunjik. After 
Rawlinson.) 

thrown out of the remains of the table 
afler the family had eaten. So David 
speaks of his wicked enemies. Ps. 59 : 
6, 14, 15. The Mosaic law directed the 
people to throw to the dogs the flesh 
that was torn by beast?. Ex. 22:31. 

This manner of living accounts for 
the savageness of dogs in the East. 
They preyed upon human flesh, licked 
the blood of the slain, and sometimes 
were wild enough to attack men as 
bloodhounds do. 1 Kgs. 14:11; 16:4; 
21 : 19, 23 ; 22 : 38 ; 2 Kgs. 9 : 10, 36 ; 
Ps. 22:16, 20; 68:23; Jer. 15:3. 
Their habits made them dangerous to 
touch. Prov. 26: 17. 

The Eastern people were in the prac- 
tice of applying the names of animals 
to men who resemble them in their dis- 
position, as we call a cunning man a 
fox, a brave man a lion, etc. So our 
Saviour told his disciples, " Give not 
that which is holy unto the dogs," lest 
they turn upon you and tear you after 
they have eaten it. Matt. 7 : 6, meaning 
that they should not offer the sacred 
truths of the gospel to those insolent 



DOO 



DOV 



and abominable men who would only 
heap abuse on them for it, having ref- 
erence, also, to the practice of the priests 
at the altar, who would not throw to the 
dogs any of the meat used in sacrifice. 
He told also the Syro-Phoenician woman 
that it was not proper to give the chil- 
dren's meat to dogs, Matt. 15 : 26 — that 
is, the gospel was sent first to the Jews, 
who are called the children, and was not 
yet to be given to one of the Gentiles, 
as she was, whom the Jews called dogs 
— for the children must first be fed 
before the meat was thrown into the 
street. Those who are shut out of the 
kingdom of heaven are dogs, sorcerers, 
etc., Rev. 22 : 15, where the word is ap- 
plied to all kinds of vile persons, as it 
is to a particular class in Deut. 23 : 18. 
The comparison of Solomon illustrat- 
ing the return of a fool to his folly, 
Prov. 26 : 11, cited in 2 Pet. 2 : 22, is 
taken from a natural fact. Persecu- 
tors are called dog. Ps. 22 : 16. 

DOOR. See Dwellings. 

DOPH'KAH (cattle-driving), an 
encampment of Israel in the wilderness, 
Num. 33 : 12, 13 ; somewhere in Wady 
Feirnn. 

DOR (dwelling), a royal city of the 
Canaanites, Josh. 11 : 2 : 12 : 23, within 
the territory of Asher, but allotted to 
Manasseh, Josh. 17 : 11 ; Jud. 1 : 27 ; 1 
Chr. 7 : 29, and was one of Solomon's 
provision-districts, 1 Kgs. 4:11; now 
Tantura, 8 miles north of Caesarea, 
where there are considerable ruins. 

DOW CAS (gazelle). See Tabitha.. 

DO'THAiV (two cisterns), where Jo- 
seph found his brethren, Gen. 37:17, 
and Elisha resided. 2 Kgs. 6 : 13. It 
was on the south side of the plain of 
Jezreel, 12 miles north of Samaria ; now 
called Tell- Dothdn, 5 miles south-west 
of Jenin. Numerous bottle-shaped cis- 
terns hewn in the rock are still found, 
which are supposed to resemble the 
"pit" of Gen. 37:24. Caravans still 
pass this place, as of old, on their way 
from Damascus to Egypt. 

DO TO WIT means to make known. 
2 Cor. 8:1. 

DOUGH. See Bread. 

DOVE. Gen. 8:9. A bird clean 
by the Mosaic law, and often mentioned 
by the sacred writers. In their wild 
state doves dwell principally in holes in 
the rocks. Song Sol. 2 : 14 ; Jer. 48 : 28. 



They are innocent in their dispositions, 
and make no resistance to their enemies. 
Matt. 10 : 16. They are very much at- 
tached to their mates ; and when one is 
absent or dies, the other, or survivor, 
laments its loneliness. Isa. 38:14; 
59 : 11 ; Eze. 7 : 16 ; Nah. 2 : 7. 

There are various allusions to the 
mildness, peacefulness, and affection of 
doves. The Church is called a " turtle- 
dove " and a " dove," or compared to it. 
Ps. 74 : 19 ; Song Sol. 1 : 15 ; 2 : 14; 4: 
1 ; 5 : 2 ; 6:9. Where " doves' eyes " 
are spoken of in these passages, allusion 
is made to the meekness of their ex- 
pression. Lange's Commentary translates 
Song Sol. 5 : 12 thus : " His eyes [are] 
like doves by brooks of water, bathing 
in milk, sitting on fulness." Thus un- 
derstood, the passage compares the iris 
nestling in the white of the eye to a 
blue pigeon bathing in a brook of milk. 
It was in the manner of a dove that 
the Holy Spirit descended upon our Sa- 
viour at his baptism. Matt. 3:16; Mark 
1:10; Luke 3 : 22 ; John 1 : 32. Hosea 
compares timid Ephraim to " a silly 
dove without heart," 7:11, and says 
that when the Jews shall be called to 
their own land they shall " tremble," or 
fly, "as a dove out of the land of As- 
syria." 11 : 11. David in his distress 
wished that he could fly from his trou- 
bles as the doves do to warmer climates 
on the approach of winter. Ps. 55 : 6-8. 
The appearance of the dove is spoken 
of as an emblem of spring. Song Sol. 
2:12. 

The dove is mentioned in an inter- 
esting part of the early history of 
the world as being sent out by Noah 
from the ark to discover whether the 
dry land had appeared. Gen. 8 : 6-12. 

The dove was used in sacrifices. It 
was, among other animals, prepared by 
Abram when God manifested his inten- 
tion to bless him, as narrated in Gen. 
15 : 9. When a child was born the 
mother was required within a certain 
time to bring a lamb and a young pig- 
eon, or turtle-dove, for offering; but if 
she were too poor to afford a lamb, she 
might bring two turtle-doves, or two 
young pigeons. Lev. 12 : 6-8. Thus we 
may judge of the poverty of Mary, the 
mother of Jesus, when upon his birth 
she brought to the temple at Jerusalem 
the two birds instead of a lamb. Luko 
237 



DOV 



r>ov 



2 : 24. It was to supply applicants 
with animals for sacrifice that certain 
persons sat in the temple with doves to 
sell, whom our Lord forced to leave it 
because "the house of prayer" was not 
a fit place for buying and selling. Mark 
U: 15; John 2:14-16. 

David, Ps. 68 : 13, " refers to a kind" 
of dove " found at Damascus, whose 
feathers, all except the wings, are lit- 



erally as yellow as gold ; they are very 
small and kept in cages. I have often 
had them in my house, but their note is 
so very sad that I could not endure it." 
— Thomson. 

In all Eastern towns homes are pro- 
vided for the pigeons ; sometimes spe- 
cial towers are erected for them ; some- 
times the upper stories of the houses 
are fitted with openings or " windows," 




Turtle Dove. (After Houghton.) 



and are sacred to their use. The im- 
mense compact masses of these birds as 
they are seen flying to their houses or 
places of resort can never be forgotten 
by Eastern travellers. They sometimes 
resemble a distant cloud, and are so 
dense as to obscure the rays of the 
sun. Hence the allusion in Isa. 60 : 8. 
Tristram says that the pigeon tribe 
abound in Palestine to a degree un- 
known in other countries. The great 
238 



abundance of plants of the clover and 
vetch family accounts for their num- 
bers. Eock-doves, in myriads beyond 
computation, inhabit the caves and fis- 
sures which honeycomb the limestone 
cliffs of Palestine. The wild rock-pig- 
eon (Colitmba livin), the ancestor of 
the domestic races, is found here, as 
well as other species. See Turtle- 
dove. 

Dove's Dung. There are two views 



DOW 



DEI 



Concerning the material to which there 
is reference in 2 Kgs. 6 : 25. Some sup- 
pose that this substance was in great 
demand as a quick manure for those 
vegetables which might be soonest 
raised for the famishing Samaritans ; 
others believe that so terrible was the 
extremity that the people were glad to 
get even so disgusting a substance as 
this for food. The great price at which 
it was held — about a dollar and a half a 
pint — militates against either form of 
this view. The other view is that the 
produce of some plant not commonly used 
for food is intended. The seeds of a kind 
of millet formerly called by the Hebrews 
" doves' seed," and of other plants, have 
been proposed. The root of the star- 
of-Bethlebem {Ornithognlum — i.e. bird- 
milk) meets with much favor. The 
bulb of this plant has often be n eaten, 
and it is abundant in Palestine. 

DOWRY, in the Eastern accepta- 
tion of the word, means that which the 
husband pays for his wife, instead of 
that which the wife receives from her 
father and brings to her husband. Gen. 
29 : 18 ; 34 : 12 ; 1 Sam. 18 : 25. So, Ex. 
22 : 16, 17 ; Josh. 15 : 18, a man was re- 
quired to pay a certain sum as dowry or 
a nuptial-present, and this was to be 
according to the rank the woman sus- 
tained, and such as the fathers of vir- 
gins of the same rank were accustomed 
to receive for their daughters. Hos. 3 : 
2. See Marriage. 

DRACHMA, a Greek silver coin, 
translated "a piece of silver" in Luke 
15 : 8, 9, equal in value to a Roman 
denarius, or about fifteen and a half 
cents (wrongly translated "penny"). 
See D knar us. 

DRAGON. This word, in the Bible, 
has at least three meanings. Very com- 
monly, where it occurs in connection 
with ostriches, owls, deserts, and ruins, 
it denotes the jackal, whose characteris- 
tics are unmistakably indicated, such as 
his "wailing" and "snuffing up the 
wind." So in Job 30 : 29 ; Ps. 44:19; 
Jer. 9:11, in all which passages soli- 
tude and desolation are illustrated. Mic. 
1 : 8. In some passages it denotes mon- 
sters of the deep or huge land-reptiles, 
as in Deut. 32:33; Ps. 91:13. The 
figurative use of this term, as in Ps. 
74 : 13 ; Eze. 29 : 3 ; Rev. 12 : 3 and 
20 : 2, is sufficiently obvious. 



DRAMS. See Daric 

DRAUGHT. Matt. 15: 17. A vault 
or drain for the reception of filth. In 
this sense it is probably used in 2 Kgs. 
10 : 27. When applied to fishes it means 
those which are caught by one sweep or 
drawing of the net. 

DREAM. From a very early peri- 
od dreams have been observed With su- 
perstitious regard. God was pleased to 
make use of them to reveal his purposes 
or requirements to individuals, and he 
also gave power to interpret them. Gen. 
20 : 3-6 ; 28 : 12-14 ; 1 Sam. 28 : 6 ; Dan. 
2 ; Joel 2 : 28. And if any person 
dreamed a dream which was peculiarly 
striking and significant, he was permit- 
ted to go to the high priest in a partic- 
ular way and see if it had any special 
import. But the observance of ordinary 
dreams and the consulting of those who 
pretend to skill in their interpretation 
are repeatedly forbidden. Deut. 13 : 1- 
5 ; 18 : 9-14. 

The words dreams and visions are some- 
times used indiscriminately, Gen 46 : 2 ; 
Num.12: 6: Job 20 : 8 ; 33: 14, 15 ; Dan. 
2:28; 7:1, though elsewhere they would 
seem to be distinguished. Joel 2 : 28. In 
the vision the subject may be awake even 
though it take place at night. 2 Kgs. 6 : 
17 ; Acts 18 : 9 ; 23 : 11 ; 27 : 23. Paul's 
vision, 2 Cor. 12 : 1, 2, 4, was an ecstasy. 
To his mind heaven was open, yet so real 
was the vision that he could not tell 
whether he were in the body or out of 
it. Some commentators place this vis- 
ion while Paul lay on the ground at 
Lystra as if dead from the stoning. 

Sometimes miraculous revelations of 
God's will are called visions. Luke 1 : 
22 : 1 Sam. 3:15. See Vision, Trance. 

The power of interpreting dreams was, 
of course, a supernatural gift, so far as 
the dreams had reference to future 
events ; for these are necessarily un- 
known, except to the supreme Disposer 
of them. Gen. 40:5, 8; 41:16. Since 
the fuller revelation of God's will has 
been made to us in the gospel, all confi- 
dence in dreams as indicative of future 
events is presumptuous and delusive, 
and all pretension to the power of inter- 
preting them must be regarded as in the 
highest degree impious and absurd. 

DRESS. See Clothes. 

DRINK-OFFERING. See Of- 
fering. 

239 



DEI 



BUR 



DRINK, STRONG. The use of 

strong drink, even to excess, was not 
uncommon among the Israelites. This 
is inferred from the striking figures by 
which the use and effects of it are de- 
scribed, Ps. 107 : 27 j Isa. 24 : 20 j 49 : 
26 ; 51 : 17-22, and also from various 
express prohibitions and penalties. 
Prov. 20 : 1 ; Isa. 5:11. A variety of 
intoxicating drinks are comprised un- 
der the term. Isa. 28 : 7. Although the 
Bible sheds little light upon the nature 
of the mixtures described, it doubtless al- 
ludes to drink brewed from grain or made 
of honeycombs, dates, or boiled fruits, 
and the beer of Egypt. Date-wine was 
in great request among the Parthians, 
Indians, and other Orientals, and is said 
by Xenophon to have produced severe 
headaches. 

The Jews carefully strained their wine 
and other beverages, from fear of vio- 
lating Lev. 11 : 20, 23, 41, 42, as do now 
the Buddhists in Ceylon and Hindostan. 
This fact explains our Lord's remark 
to the Pharisees in Matt. 23 : 24: "Ye 
blind guides, who strain out" (not of) "a 
gnat and swallow a camel." See Wine, 
Vinegar. 

DROMEDARY. Isa. 60 : 6. A 
breed of the camel remarkable for its 
speed. Jer. 2 : 23. It can travel from 60 
to 90 miles or more in a day. The drom- 
edary is taller and has longer limbs than 
other varieties of camel, and cannot as 
well bear heat or cold. See Camel. 

DROPPING, A CONTIN- 
UAL. The force of the comparison used 
in Prov. 27 : 15 will be understood when 
it is borne in mind that Oriental houses 
have flat roofs made of mud. These 
naturally crack under the heat, and so 
in a shower the water often comes 
through the large crack. 

DROUGHT. From the end of 
April to September in the land of Ju- 
daea is "the drought of summer." The 
grass is sometimes completely withered, 
Ps. 102 : 4, and all the land and the 
creatures upon it suffer, and nothing 
but the copious dew of the night pre- 
serves the life of any living thing. Hag. 
1 : 11. The heat is at times excessive. 
Near Cana, in Galilee, in July, the ther- 
mometer, in a gloomy recess under 
ground, perfectly shaded, stood at 100° 
Fahrenheit at noon. For a more full 
account of the climate, see Palestine. 
240 



DRUNKENNESS. See Drink, 
Wine. 

DRUSIL'LA, third daughter of the 
Herod who is mentioned in Acts 12 : 1- 
4, 20-23. She first married Azizus, king 
of Emesa, who professed Judaism for 
her sake. But by means of a sorcerer, 
Simon uf Cyprus, she was induced to 
forsake her husband and marry Felix, 
the Roman governor, and was present 
at the hearing of the apostle Paul before 
her husband at Caesarea. She was noted 
for great personal beauty. Acts 24 : 24. 

DUKE, in the English Bible, means 
only a chief or leader (an Oriental 
Sheikh), and must not be understood, 
in the modern sense, as a title of he- 
reditary nobility. Gen. 36j 15-19. 

DU1/CIMER. Tke instrument 
denoted by this word was, in the opin- 
ion of the best Bible scholars, as well as 
of the Rabbins, a bag-pipe like that in 
use at the present day among the peas- 
ants of north-western Asia and southern 
Europe, and called by them zampayna, 
which is a word of similar sound to the 
word here used, sumphoniah. Dan. 3 : 5, 
10, 15. It was composed of two pipes 
with a leathern sack, and produced a 
harsh, screaming sound. It has no re- 
semblance at all to the modern dulcimer. 

D U'MAH (silence), a son of Ishmael. 
Gen. 25: 14: 1 Chr. 1 : 30. 

DU'MAH (silence). 1. A town in Ju- 
dah, near Hebron, Josh. 15 : 52 ; now ed- 
JDdmeh, 10 miles south-west of Hebron. 

2. A region, perhaps near Mount Seir. 
Isa, 21:11. 

DUNG. In many countries of the 
East wood is so scarce and dear as to 
be sold by weight. Hence animal ex- 
crements are used as fuel. Eze. 4:12. 
It is a very common material for heat- 
ing ovens, even among people of com- 
fortable circumstances. In Arabia the 
excrements of asses and camels are col- 
lected in the streets by children, mixed 
with cut straw, put in the sun to dry, 
and thus fitted for use as fuel. The ef- 
fluvia arising from the use of it are very 
offensive, and penetrate the food. 

Dove's Dung. See Dove. 

DUNG- GATE. See Jerusalem 
(Gates of). 

DU'RA, the plain near Babylon 
where Nebuchadnezzar set up a golden 
image. Dan. 3 : 1. Oppert identifies it 
with Ditair, a little south-east of Baby- 



DUR 



DWE 



Ion, where the pedestal of a huge statue 
was discovered. 

DURE, Matt. 13 : 21, for "endure," 
"last." "During," which is still com- 
mon, is the participle of the same verb. 

DUST. " To shake off the dust of 
one's feet" against another, Matt. 10 : 
14 ; Mark 6:11; Acts 13 : 51, was ex- 
pressive of entire renunciation, because 
it conveyed the idea that " those against 
whom it was directed were so unworthy 
that it was defiling to one to allow so much 
as a particle of the soil to cleave to his 
garments." The custom is supposed to 
have been common among the Jews, 
when they had set a foot on heathen 
ground, to shake off the dust, so as to 
carry nothing unclean or polluting into 
their own land. Dust thrown into the 
air, 2 Sam. 16 : 13 ; Acts 22 : 23, was an 
expression of rage and threatening, 
while the very act probably increased 
the passionate hatred. " Dust and 
ashes " are coupled together as a phrase 
describing man's feebleness as con- 
trasted with divine strength. Gen. 18 : 
27; Job 30: 19. 

Dust, Rain of. Deut. 28 : 24. In Ju- 
daea or its immediate vicinity are 
plains or deserts of fine sand, which 
when agitated by a violent wind makes 
most terrific and desolating storms. 
Eastern travellers describe them par- 
ticularly, and think them much more 
dreadful than storms at sea. This fact 
affords us a striking illustration of the 
nature and horrors of the plague men- 
tioned in Ex. 8:16. 

DWELLINGS. The most com- 
mon dwellings in the earlier ages of the 
world were tents, formed by setting 
poles in the ground and stretching over 
them a covering of cloth or skin, which 
was fastened to stakes by means of 
cords. Isa. 54:2. Sometimes they were 
divided into apartments by means of 
curtains, and the ground was covered 
with mats or carpets. The door was 
formed of a fold of cloth, which was 
dropped or raised. The fire was kin- 
dled in an excavation in the middle of 
the tent-ground, and the cooking-uten- 
sils, which were very few and simple, 
were easily moved from place to place. 
Isa. 38 : 12. 

When the habits of mankind changed 
and their pursuits fixed them to one 
spot, their dwellings were built with a 
16 



view to permanency, and we may sup- 
pose that the science of building was 
well understood at a very early period. 
But while the Canaanites and Assyrians 
built cities, the Hebrews dwelt in tents; 
and it was not until they went down to 
Egypt, or more likely not until the con- 
quest of the Promised Land, that they 
abandoned their simple habits ; then 
they entered the houses the Canaanites 
left. It thus appears that the science 
of architecture first developed itself 
among the idolatrous peoples. 

That large and costly houses were 
often built in Judaea we have scriptural 
evidence, Jer. 22 : 14 ; Am. 3:15; Hag. 
1 : 4, though doubtless those which were 
occupied by the mass of the people were 
rude and inconvenient. 



z 


DIVAN 


z 


A 




A 


< 
> 


A 


' OPEN 

COURT 

■ 

e" ■ D " " 


■ 
■ 

D 

■ 

ill! 






A 


B 



Plan of an Eastern House, 
c, Entrance. A, Family-room. E, Walls, or gal- 
leries, between the open court and the rooms. G, 
Stairs to the upper stories and roof. h, Private 
staircase. 

The above cut represents the ground- 
plan of an Eastern house of the better 
class. The house is built in the form 
of a cloister, surrounding the area or 
open court. The entrance is by a door, 
which was commonly locked, and at- 
tended by some one who acted as por- 
ter. Acts 12 : 13. This door opens into 
a porch, which is furnished with the 
conveniences of sitting, and through 
which we pass, both to the flight of 
stairs which leads up to the chambers 
and also to the open quadrangular 
court. 

AVe will first examine the court and 
its uses. It is called the middle of the 
house, or " midst," Luke 5 : 19, and is 
241 



DWE 



DWE 



designed to admit light and air to the 
apartments around it. It is covered 
with a pavement more or less costly, 
which receives and sheds rain, and is 
often supplied with fountains or wells 
of water. 2 Sam. 17 : 18. In Damascus 
every house has a court of this kind, 
and often several, and the wealthier 
citizens spare no expense in making 
them places of delightful resort in the 
hot season. A veranda or colonnade 
such as is often seen in modern houses 
surrounds the court and supports a gal- 
lery or piazza above. In this court large 
companies assemble on festive and oth- 
er occasions, Esth. 1:5; and it is then 
furnished with carpets, mats, and set- 
tees or sofas, and an awning or roof of 
some suitable material is stretched over 
the whole area. It is alluded to in the 
beautiful figure of the Psalmist. Ps. 
104:2. Around the court, over the 
doors and windows of the house, 
each apartment has a door open- 
ing into the court or gallery, and 
the communication with each is 
only on the outside, so that to go 
from room to room it is necessary 
to come out into the court or gal- 
lery. These galleries are guard- 
ed by a balustrade or lattice- 
work in front, to prevent acci- 
dents. 

"The stairs are frequently 
placed in the corner of the court, 
and sometimes at the entrance. 
In large houses there are often ^§fj 
two or more sets of steps from "^ 
the court, but there is seldom Uppei Room or Guest-Chamber. {From Schaff's" Popular 



of the ground floor often include a whole 
side of the court, and are eniered by 
spacious doors from the piazza. The 
rooms on the farther side of the court, 
both above and below, are assigned to 
the females of the family, and upon 
them is bestowed the greatest expense. 
Hence, as some suppose, these rooms 
are sometimes called " palaces." 1 Kgs. 
16 : 18; 2 Kgs. 15 : 25 ; Isa. 32 : 14. 
The " house of the women," Esth. 2 : 3, 
was what is now so well known as the 
" harem," a part of the royal residence, 
and like that referred to in 1 Kgs. 7 : 
8-12. It is supposed that in the houses 
of Judaea, as in those of the East at the 
present day, the ground floor was ap- 
propriated principally to domestic uses, 
such as storing provisions, oil, baggage, 
lodgings for servants, etc., etc. 

If we ascend to the second story by 
the stairs before mentioned, we find the 




more than one from the gallery 
to the roof. They are usually of simple 
Structure, and of stone or wood." The 
kind of stairs mentioned in 1 Kgs. 6 : 8 
was more complicated. 

On the side of the court which faces 
the entrance is the reception-room of 
the master of the house. It is generally 
fitted up handsomely, has a raised plat- 
form and a divan on three sides, which 
is a bed by night and a seat by day. The 
guests on entering takeoff their sandals 
before stepping upon the raised portion. 

The rooms assigned to the women are 
up stairs if the house has only one court. 
but if there are two they are around the 
inner one. These apartments, known 
as " the harem." are never entered by 
any man save the master. The rooms 
242 



Commentary.") 

chambers are large and airy, and often 
finished and furnished, with much ex- 
pense and elegance, with mats, curtains, 
and divans. Mark 14 : 15. This room 
or story is higher and larger than those 
below, projecting over the lower part 
of the building, so that the window of 
the apartment, if there is one, consid- 
erably overhangs the street. Secluded, 
spacious, and commodious as such a 
room must have been, Paul would be 
likely to preach his farewell sermon 
there. And in a large company it is 
common to have two circles or ranks, 
the outer circle being next to the wall 
and elevated on cushions, so as to be 
on a level with the lower part of the 
window -casement. In this situation 



DWE 



DWE 



we may suppose Eutychus fell asleep, 
and was thence precipitated to the 
street. Acts 20 : 9. 

A structure called an alliyeli is some- 
times built over the porch or gateway. 
It usually consists only of one or two 
rooms, and rises one story above the 
main house. It is used to enter- 
tain strangers, also for wardrobes and 
magazines, or for places of retire- 
ment, repose, and meditation. Matt. 6 : 
6. There is an entrance to it from the 
street without going into the house, but 
there is also a communication with the 
gallery of tlie house when it is needed. 
It is observed that its terrace afforded a 
much more retired place for devotional 
exercises than the roof of the main house, 
which was liable to be occupied at all 
times and for various purposes by the 
whole family. The "little chamber" 
for Elisha, 2 Kgs. 4 : 10, the "summer 
chamber" of Eglon, from which Ehud 
escaped by a private stairway, Jud. 3 : 
20-23, the "chamber over the gate," 
2 Sam. 18 : 33, the "upper chamber," 2 
Kgs. 23 : 12, the " inner chamber," 1 
Kgs. 20 : 30 (see Chamber), may des- 
ignate this part of the house. 

But the roof is one of the most im- 
portant parts of an Eastern house. We 




An Eastern Housetop. 

ascend to it by a flight of steps, as al- 
ready mentioned, which are entirely 
unconnected with the interior of the 



house. Matt. 24 : 17. It is made in 
most cases flat, but sometimes with 
domes over some of the rooms, and is 
surrounded by a parapet, battlement, or 
balustrade, lest one should heedlessly or 
unwittingly fall from it. This was a 
matter of divine command. Deut. 22 : 
8. A wall on the roof designates the 
limits of contiguous houses, but it is so 
low that a whole range of buildings, and 
even a street, may be passed over with- 
out coming down. The roof is covered 
with a kind of cement, which hardens 
by exposure to the weather, and forms 
a clean, smooth, and very agreeable 
floor. If the cement be not put on at 
the proper season, it will crack under 
the sun, and hence must be rolled,- and 
rollers are found on many roofs. On 
ill-packed roofs grass is often seen, and 
hence the frequent allusion to " grass 
upon the housetops." 2 Kgs. 19 : 26 ; Ps. 
129 : 6. Sometimes tiles or broad bricks 
were used. The roof was a place of re- 
pose, Neh. 8 : 16, and of resort. 2 Sam. 
11 : 2 ; Isa. 15 : 3 ; 22 : 1 ; Jer. 48 : 38 ; 
Luke 12 : 3. It was also used for dry- 
ing linen and flax, corn and figs. Josh. 
2 : 6. Sometimes a tent was spread to 
protect the sleeper from the cold and 
damp of the night. 2 Sam. 16 : 22. It 
was a place of conference, 
3|H|=^gj 1 Sam. 9 : 25, and worship, 
also of public wailing, Isa. 
15:3; Jer. 19: 13; 48:38; 
2 Kgs. 23:12; Zeph.l:5; 
Acts 10 : 9. 

The windows of Eastern 
houses, as already intima- 
ted, open into the court. 
Hence the appearance of 
Eastern cities, in passing 
through the streets, is very 
gloomy and inhospitable. 
Sometimes latticed win- 
dows or balconies are open 
upon the streets, but they 
were used only on some 
public day. 2 Kgs. 9 : 30. 
See Window. 

The doors of Eastern 
houses are not hung with 
hinges. The jamb, or in- 
ner side-piece of the door, 
projects, in the form of a 
circular shaft, at the top and bottom. 
The upper projection is received into a 
socket in the lintel or head-piece, and 
243 



DYE 



DYE 



the lower projection falls into a socket 
in the threshold or sill. 

Chimneys were unknown, though the 
word occurs in Hos. 13 : 3. What we 
call chimneys were not invented till 
the fourteenth century. The snvjke of 
ancient houses escaped through aper- 
tures in the wall. 

The hearth, Jer. 36 : 22, was afire-place 
or portable furnace, such as is still used 
in Eastern countries. 

The materials for building were abun- 
dant. Stone and brick and the best spe- 
cies of timber, for the strong and heavy 
as well as the light and ornamental work, 
were easily obtained. Hewn stone was 
often used, Am. 5:11, and marble of 
the richest vein and polish. 1 Chr. 29 : 
2 ; Esth. 1 : 6. Cedar was used for 
wainscots and ceilings, Jer. 22 : 14; 
Hag. 1 : 4, which were of carved panel- 
work, with mouldings of gold, silver, or 
ivory. Perhaps the profusion of ivory 
in them may account for the expressions 
1 Kgs. 22 : 39 ; Ps. 45 : 8 ; Am. 3:15. 

The houses of the class described are 
entirely different from those inhabited 
by the common people, which are mere 
hovels of only one room, built with mud 
walls, reeds, and rushes, and sometimes 
only stakes plastered with clay. Hence 
they were very insecure, Matt. 6:19, 20, 
and afforded place for serpents and ver- 
min. Family and animals occupy the 
same room, although the former some- 
times were raised over the latter by a 
platform. The windows were mere holes 
high in the wall, perhaps barred. Am. 
5:19. 

In addition to what we have before 
said in treating of the alliyeh, it may be 
remarked that the winter- and summer- 
houses or parlors, Am. 3 : 15, were con- 
structed with particular reference to the 
season. The summer-houses were built 
partly under ground and paved with 
marble. The fountains which gush out 
in the courts, and the various contri- 
vances to exclude heat and secure a cur- 
rent of fresh air, render them exceed- 
ingly refreshing amid the torrid heats of 
summer. The winter-houses might have 
had accommodations corresponding to 
the season. 

We are told that it was customary 
among the Hebrewe to dedicate the 
244 



house when it was finished and ready 
to be inhabited. The event was celebra- 
ted with joy, and the divine blessing and 
protection implored. Deut. 20 : 5. 

The doors of Eastern'houses are made 
low, especially when they are in an ex- 
posed situation, and one must stoop, or 
even creep, to enter them. This is done 
to keep out wild beasts or enemies, or 
as some say, to prevent the wandering 
Arabs from riding into them. 

The Eastern mode of building is 
brought to our view in the case of the 
destruction of the temple of Dagon 
by Samson. It is probable that the 
place where Samson made sport for 
many thousand spectators, Jud. 16 : 27, 
was a court or area consecrated to the 
worship of Dagon ; that this was sur- 
rounded by a range of galleries, Eze. 
41: 15, 16, or cloisters, which were sup- 
ported chiefly by one or two columns in 
front or at the centre. The palace of the 
dey of Algiers has such a structure. It 
is an advanced or projecting cloister 
over against the gate of the palace, 
Esth. 5:1, where the officers of state 
assemble and transact public business, 
and where public entertainments are 
given. The removal of one or two 
contiguous pillars would involve the 
building and all that were upon it in 
one common destruction. 

Leprosy in the House was probably 
a nitrous efflorescence on the walls which 
was injurious to the health of the house- 
hold, and therefore it was imperatively 
ordered to be removed. Lev. 14 : 34-53. 
DYE'ING was a familiar art in 
Bible-times. The Phoenicians and 
Egyptians were skilful in it. From 
Ex'. 26 : 1, 14; 35 : 25 it is evident 
that at the Exodus the Israelites un- 
derstood the art, and we are the better 
able to picture the process because we 
find so minute an account of it on the 
Egyptian monuments. There is, how- 
ever, no precise mention of dyers in the 
0. T. In the N. T., Lydia is spoken of 
as " a seller of purple of the city of 
Thyatira." Acts 16 : 14. This city was 
famed for its dyers ; inscriptions testify 
to the existence of a guild of them, and 
Lydia probably dealt in the cloth thus 
colored, or po'ssibly in the dye itself, 
which is procured from a shell-fish. 



EAG 



EAG 



E. 



EA'GLE (Hebrew nesher ; i. e. a 
tearer with the beak). There can be 
little question that the eagle of Scrip- 
ture is the griffon (Gyps fulvns), or great 
vulture, a bird very abundant in Pales- 
tine and adjacent countries. In spite 




Griffon Vulture, the Eagle of Scripture. {Gyps fulcus. After Tris 
tram.) 

of its name, it is a much nobler bird 
than a common vulture, and is little 
more a carrion-feeder than are all eagles. 
Indeed, the griffon is used by the Ori- 
entals as the type of the lordly and the 
great. 



This well-known bird of prey was un- 
clean by the Levitical law. Lev. 11 : 13 ; 
Deut. 14 : 12. The habits of the eagle 
are described in Num. 24 : 21 ; Job 9 : 
26; 39:27-30; Pro v. 23 : 5 ; 30 : 17, 19; 
Jer. 49 : 16 ; Eze. 17 : 3 ; Ob. 4 ; Hab. 1 : 
8 ; 2 : 9 ; Matt. 24 : 28 ; 
Luke 17 : 37. 

In these last pas- 
sages the Jewish na- 
tion is compared to a 
decaying body expos- 
ed in the open field, 
and inviting the Ro- 
man army, whose 
standard was an 
eagle, to come to- 
gether and devour it. 
The eagle was also on 
the Persian standard. 
The tenderness of the 
eagle toward its young 
is characteristic, and 
is beautifully and ac- 
curately described in 
Ex. 19 : 4; Deut. 32 : 
11. The rapidity of 
the eagle's flight is al- 
luded to in Deut. 28 : 
49; 2 Sam. 1:23; Jer. 
4:13; 48: 40; Lam. 4: 
19 ; its destructive 
power in Isa. 46 : 11 ; 
Hos. 8:1; and its great 
age, and the popular 
opinion that it renews 
its plumage in ad- 
vanced life, are inti- 
mated in Ps. 103 : 5 
and Isa. 40 : 31. 

Many Scripture ref- 
erences are much more 
clear and forcible if 
by "eagle" we under- 
stand the griffon. The 
head and neck of this 
bird are bald. Mic. 1 : 16. Although 
eagles are attracted by carcasses, it is 
the griffons which, from their great 
numbers and superior strength, are 
pre-eminently the scavengers of the 
East. Matt. 24 : 28. Of all rapacious, 
245 



EAK 



EAR 



birds, these select the loftiest and most 
inaccessible cliffs. Jer. 49 : 16. 

" The griffon is found in all the 
warmer parts of the Old World, from 
the Himalaya to Spain and Morocco, 
and throughout Africa to the Cape of 
Good Hope. It measures about 4 feet 
8 inches in length, and 8 feet in ex- 
panse of wing. The nest is sometimes 
large, but frequently scanty, formed of 
sticks and turf, and it lays one egg in 
February or March. Its plumage is a 
uniform brown, with a fine ruff of whit- 
ish down round the lower part of its 
neck, at the termination of the bare por- 
tion. Its beak is hooked and of great 
power, but its claws and feet are much 
weaker than those of the eagle, and are 
not adapted for killing prey." — Tris- 
tram. 

The pains which such birds take in 
teaching their young to fly, as well as 
such passages as Isa. 40:31, are illus- 
trated by the following narrative : " I 
once saw a very interesting sight above 
the crags of Ben Nevis. Two parent 
eagles were teaching their offspring, two 
young birds, the manoeuvres of flight. 
They began by rising from the top of 
the mountain in the eye of the sun. It 
was about midday, and bright for the 
climate. They at first made small cir- 
cles, and the young birds imitated them. 
They paused on their wings, waiting 
till they had made their flight, and then 
took a second and larger gyration, al- 
ways rising toward the sun. and enlarg- 
ing their circle of flight so as to make a 
gradually-ascending spiral. The young 
ones still and slowly followed, apparent- 
ly flying better as they mounted ; and 
they continued this sublime exercise, 
always rising, till they became mere 
points in the air, and the young ones 
were lost, and afterward their parents, 
to our aching sight." — Sir Humphry 
Davy. 

EAR'ING is an old English word 
for ploughing. Gen. 45 : 6 ; Ex. 34 : 21 ; 
Dent. 21:4: 1 Sam. 8:12. 

EAR'NEST. This is something 
going before or given in advance 
as a pledge of more in reserve : thus, 
earnest, or earnest-money, is a sum paid 
in advance as a pledge of full payment J 
at a future time. In a spiritual sense, I 
it denotes those gifts and graces which 
the Christian receives as a pledge or | 
246 



earnest of perfect holiness and happi- 
ness in the future world. 2 Cor. 1 : 22 ; 
Eph. 1 : 14. 

EAR-RINGS. The ordinary He- 
brew word for "ear-ring" means also 
" nose-ring," and the context must 
decide between these interpretations. 
There are two other words which mean 
more specifically an ear-ring. The one 
occurs Num. 31 : 50 j Eze. 16 : 12. This 
word describes a circle of gold, such as 
is found portrayed upon the sculptures 
of Egypt and Persepolis ; the other 
word, though literally translated a 
" charm," seems to indicate ear-rings, 
which were worn as amulets. They 
were given up to Jacob at his request, 
along with the " strange gods," when, 
at the divine command, he went to 
Bethel from Shechem. Gen. 35 : 4. This 
fact proves their superstitious use. Such 
ear-rings, bearing talismanic characters 
and figures, are found to-day in the 
East. Ear-rings were made of gold, 
were usually, though by no means al- 
ways, circular, sometimes had jewels 
hanging from them, and were larger 
and heavier than those worn with us. 
In Bible-times ear-rings were orna- 
ments for both sexes. Ex. 32 : 2. The 
same is true to some extent to-day. 
See Amulet. 

EARTH. The word first occurs 
Gen. 1 : 2. The Hebrews made the 
usual distinction between the earth as 
the planet which we inhabit and the 
earth as the soil which we cultivate, by 
employing altogether different words 
for these different ideas. But like other 
ancient nations, they had vague and in- 
accurate ideas in regard to the size of 
the earth. The phrases "the ends of 
the earth," all the "kingdoms of the 
earth," " the whole world," really took 
in only a limited extent. Geographical 
terms were loosely used. For example, 
the same word (y>m, which means 
"sea") is applied to the Mediterranean, 
to the lakes of Palestine, and to great 
rivers such as the Nile. But they were 
much more definite when describing lo- 
calities with which they were intimately 
acquainted, and these descriptive words 
for the minor features of the country are 
often singularly correct, and at the same 
time poetical. We can mark a progres- 
sion in geographical knowledge from 
the days of the patriarchs to those of 



EAR 



EAT 



the N. T. Jews. As nation after nation 
was brought into contact with them 
their notions of the character and ex- 
tent of the world enlarged. 

Owing to the highly poetic nature of 
the language in which descriptions of 
the earth as a whole are given, it is im- 
possible to decide upon the ordinary 
ideas on this subject. Like other na- 
tions of antiquity, and like most people 
in all ages, the Hebrews viewed the 
world from a geocentric standpoint, as 
if the earth were the centre of the uni- 
verse, every other heavenly body being 
formed for it and playing a subsidiary 
part. The heavens were conceived of 
as an inverted bowl, which rested on the 
flat earth at its edges, holding up the 
snow and rain, which came through 
when a window was opened. Gen. 7 : 
11 ; Isa. 24: 18. All natural phenomena 
are traced directly to the almighty will 
of God, without taking into account 
(yet without denying) secondary causes. 
The thunder is his voice, the lightning 
his arrows, the storm and the wind his 
messengers. Job 37 : 5 ; Ps. 77 : 17 ; 
148 : 8. When he drew near, the earth- 
quake, the eclipse, and the comet were 
the signs of his presence. Joel 2: 10; 
Matt. 24 : 29 ; Luke 21 : 25. We should 
remember that this is to this day the 
language of poetry and religion, and 
that it represents one and the most im- 
portant aspect of truth, the primary 
cause; while prose and science view the 
other aspect, the secondary and finite 
causes — that is, the laws of nature, 
which are the agencies of the almighty 
will of God. 

If all things in heaven above and 
earth beneath were created by the word 
of God, they were as certainly created 
for the sons of God — for man. To the 
Hebew nothing existed independent of 
some effect, good or bad, upon man. Ps. 
104: 11, 23 expie.^ses in poetry his sober 
opini m. 

The earth spoke to him likewise of 
orderly and preconce "ted progress. 
From one day to the other, as he read 
the account in Genesis, there was devel 
opment of higher from lower forms, 
until, as the crown and lord of all cre- 
ation, man stood in Eden. 

EARTHQUAKE. Korah and 
his companions were destroyed by the 
rending asunder of the ground where 



they stood, thus engulfing them in the 
cavity, Num. 16 : 32 ; in other words, by 
an earthquake. The earthquake men- 
tioned in Am. 1:1; Zech. 14 : 5 is also 
mentioned by Josephus, who adds that 
it divided a mountain near Jerusalem, 
and was so violent as to separate one 
part some distance from the other. The 
earthquake was among the fearful signs 
which attended the crucifixion of our 
Saviour. Matt. 27 : 51-54. 

Earthquakes are mentioned among 
the calamities which should, and did, 
precede the destruction of Jerusalem. 
Matt. 24:7. Earthquakes, in prophet- 
ical language, denote revolutions and 
commotions in states and empires. 

An earthquake, " conveying the idea 
of some universal and unlimited dan- 
ger," as Humboldt says, was an appro- 
priate illustration of the awe which 
strikes the soul when God seems to 
draw nigh. It is therefore a fitting 
token of his presence, 1 Kgs. 19 : 11, 
and is used in Scripture, poetry, and 
prophecy in descriptions of the coming 
of Jehovah. Jud. 5:4; 2 Sam. 22 : 8; 
Ps. 77: IS; 97:4; 104:32; Am. 8 : 8; 
Hab. 3:10. 

EAST, EAST COUNTRY. 
Gen. 11 : 2 ; Job 1 : 3 ; Eze. 47 : 8 ; Matt. 
2 : 1. The Hebrews used the word kedem, 
or "east," to describe any country which 
was before or in front of another — that 
is, to the east of it ; and it generally re- 
fers to the region around and beyond 
the rivers Tigris and Euphrates, includ- 
ing portions of Arabia, Mesopotamia, 
and Babylonia. 

EASTER (originally the festival 
of the Anglo-Sixon goddess Eostre), a 
mistranslation for " Passover," the Jew- 
ish feast. Acts 12 : 4. See Fkast. 

EAST SEA. Eze. 47:18; Joel 2 : 
20. See Salt Sra. 

EAST WIIVD. See Wind. 

EAT, EATING. The Hebrews 
were scrupulous about eating and drink- 
ing with those of another religion or 
another nati nalitv. - They would not 
eat with the Egyptians, any more than 
the Egyptians would with them, Gen. 
43 : 32, nor with the Samaritans. John 
4 : 9, nor with " publicans and sinners," 
Matt. 9 : 1 1, and the refusal to eat with one 
implied an entire separation. 1 Cor.5:Tl. 

Anciently, the Jews sat at table; but 
when they encountered the practice of 
247 



EBA 



EBA 



reclining upon couches during meals, 
resting the body on the left elbow and 
using chiefly the right hand, they ap- 
pear to have adopted it. This peculiar 
position makes the scene described in 
Luke 7 : 36-50 perfectly natural, and 
also shows how one of the guests could 
repose his head on another's bosom. 




Roman Triclinium, illustrating Jewish Method of Eating. 



John 13 : 23. Women were never pres- 
ent at Jewish meals as guests. 

The Jews, in 0. T. times, appear to 
have taken their principal meal at 
night, after the heat of the day was 
over. This, to be sure, is largely con- 
jecture, since we have no detailed in- 
formation given us in the Bible. See 
Ruth 3:7; Ex. 16 : 12 : 18 : 12, 1 3. The 
institution of the paschal feast in the 
evening likewise helps to confirm the 
opinion. Ex. 12 : 6, 18. They made 
tlfeir other meal in the morning. In 
N. T. times they did not ordinarily 
breakfast until 9 o'clock, Acts 2:15, 
and on the Sabbath, as Josephns says, 
not before noon, because not till then 
was the service of the synagogue com- 
pleted. In the evening the more sub- 
stantial meal took place. In general, 
the Jews led the simple, abstemious 
life of the modern Oriental, eating the 
fruits of the earth in the morning, and 
meat only once a day, if at all. But 
besides this occasional reference to the 
ordinary life of the Jews, the Bible con- 
tains notices of numerous feasts in hon- 
or of all the events which broke the mo- 
notony of their existence. Leaving out 
of account the religious festivals and 
the formal banquets at the ratification 
248 



of treaties and on other public occa- 
sions, we read of feasts given at mar- 
riages, Gen. 29:22; Jud. 14:10, etc., 
on birthdays, Gen. 40 : 20 ; Job 1 : 4, 
etc., burials, 2 Sam. 3 : 35 ; Jer. 16 : 7, 
sheep-shearing, 1 Sam. 25 : 2, 36 ; 2 Sam. 
13 : 23, and at other times. According 
to the means of the host, an elaborate 
meal was prepared. The 
guests were formally in- 
vited, and when the day 
came they were invited a 
second time. Prov. 9 : 23 ; 
Matt. 22 : 3. The guests 
were received with a kiss, 
their feet and hands were 
washed, their person was 
perfumed with ointment. 
Luke 7 : 44-46. The par- 
able of the Man without 
the Wedding-garment has 
led to the conjecture that 
it was customary, or at 
least usual, in certain 
cases for the host to pro- 
vide robes. Matt. 22:12. 
The present mode of 
eating among Eastern nations illustrates 
some passages of the N. T. In Syria the 
guests use their fingers, a knife, spoon, and 
plate being used only by foreigners, and 
that as a special privilege. The bread, 
which is very thin, is dipped in the 
vegetable soup ; and if there is a 
dainty morsel on the table, the master 
of the house takes it in his fingers and 
presents it to the mouth of his guest. 
From Matt. 26 : 23 we presume that 
Judas was near enough to our Lord to 
use the same dish and receive the sop 
from our Lord's hand, according to the 
custom above described. John 13 : 26, 
27. See Feast. 

To eat a meal together is regarded in 
the East as a pledge of mutual confi- 
dence and friendship; hence the force 
of the expression Ps. 41 : 9. 

The expression John 6 : 53-58 is evi- 
dently metaphorical. " Eating and 
drinking " here means believing, or 
appropriating the life of our Lord by 
faith. He is the Bread of life for our 
souls. 

E'BAL {stone). 1. A descendant 
of Seir the Horite. Gen. 36 : 23 ; 1 Chr. 
1 : 40. 

2. A descendant of Eber, 1 Chr. 1 : 22; 
called Obal in Gen. 10 : 28. 



EBA 



ECC 



E'BAL (stone, stony), one of the two 

mountains upon which Israel stood pro- 
nouncing blessings and cursings. Deut. 
11 : 29 ; Josh. 8 : 30-35. Ebal and Ger- 
izini are opposite each other, nearly meet- 
ing at their bases, but are a mile and a 
half apart at their summits. Mount 
Ebal, the northern peak, is rocky and 
bare: it rises 3077 feet above the sea 
and 1200 feet above the level of the val- 
ley, which forms a natural amphitheatre. 
From repeated experiments it has been 
found that the voice can be heard dis- 
tinctly from the top of one mountain 
to the other and in the valley between. 
In the valley lay ancient Shechem, now 
Nablus. The summit of Ebal is a pla- 
teau of some extent, reaching its great- 
est height toward the west, from which 
there is an extensive view of the coun- 
try from Hermon on the north to the 
heights of Bethel on the south, and 
from the plain of the sea on the west to 
the Hauran plateau on the east. Con- 
der suggests that the site of Joshua's 
altar may be represented by the modern 
sacred place called Amad ed-D%n, " mon- 
ument of the faith," on the top of Ebal. 
See Grrizim and Shechem. 

E'BED (slave). 1. The father of 
Gaal, who conspired with the Shechem- 
ites against Abimeleeh. Jud. 9 : 26, 28, 
30, 31, 35. 

2. A companion of Ezra on the Re- 
turn. Ezr. 8:6. 

E'BED-ME'LECH (slave of the 
king), an Ethiopian eunuch of Zedekiah, 
king of Judah, who was instrumental in 
saving the prophet Jeremiah from death 
by famine, and who for his kindness in 
his behalf was promised -deliverance 
when the city should fall into the ene- 
my's hands, Jer. 38 : 7 ; 39 : 15-18. His 
name seems to have been an official title. 

EB'EjV-E'ZER (stone of help), set 
up as a memorial by Samuel, 1 Sam. 4 : 
1 ; 5 : 1 ; 7 : 12, between Mizpeh and Sben. 
The curious fact that the name of this 
place occurs twice, 1 Sam. 4:1; 5:1, be- 
fore the account of the naming of it, is ex- 
plained by the familiarity of the place to 
the writer of the narrative, who of course 
lived sometime subsequent to the battle. 
While the Israelites were worshipping 
God at Mizpeh they received intelli- 
gence that the Philistines were ap- 
proaching them with a formidable 
army. In this emergency they betook 



| themselves to sacrifice and prayer, and 

; God interposed in a most signal manner 

for their deliverance. 1 Sam. 7 : 5-12. 

! In commemoration of this event, Sam- 

' uel erected a monument near the field 

of battle, and called it " Eben-ezer," or 

the'stone of help, saying, " Hitherto hatl 

Jehovah helped us." Hence it is often 

! said, "Here we will set up our Eben- 

1 ezer." Conder places Ebenezer at Deir 

; Abdn, 3 miles east of 'Ain Shems. Birch 

disputes this, and proposes Khurbet 

Samioil. 

E'BER (beyond). 1. The great- 
grandson of Shem, Gen. 10 : 21, 21; 11 : 
14—17 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 19, and the ancestor 
of Abraham in the seventh generation. 
See Hebrews, Heber. 

2. Son of Elpaal, and one of the build- 
ers of Ono and Lod, with the adjacent 
villages. 1 Chr. 8:12. 

3. A priest of the days of Joiakim. 
Neh. 12 : 20. See also Heber. 

EBI'ASAPH ( father of gathering), 
a Levite. 1 Chr. 6 : 23, 37; 9 : 19. See 
Abiasaph and Asaph. 

EBONY. Eze. 27 : 15. A black, 
heavy, and very hard wood, which was 
brought to ancient Tyre from India. It 
is susceptible of a fine polish, and is 
used for musical instruments and orna- 
mental work. Ebony is the heart-wood 
of a tree (Diospyros ebenus) of the same 
genus with the persimmon of our warm- 
er States, and, like that tree, bears an 
{ edible fruit. 

EBRO'NAH (passage), a station of 
! the Israelites near Ezion-geber, Num. 
33:34,35; site not known. 

ECBAT'ANA. Ezr. 6:2, margin. 
The name of two cities. 

1. The capital of northern Media, now 
known as the ruins Takht-'i- Suleiman, 
about 75 miles south-west of the Caspian 
Sea. 

2. The larger city was the metropolis 
of lower Media, now called Hamadan, 
one of the most important cities of Per- 
sia, having from 30,000 to 40,000 in- 
habitants. Both cities are referred to 
in the Apocrvphal books. 

ECCLESIASTES (Koheleth), 
or (as the name signifies) THE 
PREACHER, was written by Sol- 
; omon toward the close of his splendid 
I and eventful career as monarch of Is- 
rael, or by a later author, who imper- 
sonates Solomon and gives us the prac- 
249 



ECC 



EDE 



tical lesson of his sad experience. It 
corresponds to the old age of Solomon, 
as the Canticles to his youth and the 
Proverbs to his mature manhood. The 
design of the author evidently is, (1) 
To demonstrate the folly and mad- 
ness of making this world, its pleas- 
ures, or its pursuits the objects of af- 
fection or hope; (2) To show the cha- 
racter, influence, and advantages of true 
wisdom or religion. The key-note is 
struck in the opening lines, repeated 
at the close, 12 : 8 : 

" O vanity of vanities ! the Preacher saith; 
O vanity of vanities ! all is vanity." 

The practical lesson of the book is 
summed up in the concluding words, 
12 : 13, 14, which, literally rendered, 
read thus : 

"Fear God and keep his commandments, 
For this is all of man." 

The writer looks from the vanity be- 
neath the sun to the eternal realities 
above the sun, and from the shifting 
scenes of this life to the judgment-seat 
of God, who will judge "every work, 
yea, every secret deed, both good and 
evil." The book represents Hebrew 
scepticism subdued and checked by the 
Hebrew fear of God and reaping lessons 
of wisdom from the follies of life. It is 
an ethical or philosophical treatise in 
prose, with regular logical divisions, 
but full of poetic inspiration, and in 
part also poetic in form, with enough 
of rhythmical flow to awaken a deep 
and emotional interest in these sad so- 
liloquies of the author. 

ECCLESIASTICUS, the title, 
in the Latin Vulgate, of the Apocryphal 
book called in the Septuagint " The Wis- 
dom of Jesus the Son of Sirach." Both 
titles are given in the English transla- 
tion. The Latin title, " The Eccfesias- 
tical Book," designates it as a book that 
was read for edification in the churches. 
The original Hebrew is not now extant, 
although Jerome asserts he saw a copy 
of it. The Hebrew text was composed 
by Jesus, the son of Sirach, between b. c. 
290-270. His grandson translated it 
into Greek about the beginning of the 
second century. 

In general, its contents resemble the 
Proverbs of Solomon, only with much 
greater particularity of detail, extend- 
ing to all spheres of religious, civil, and 
domestic life, and giving rules for the 
250 



conduct of the same. Along with the 
maxims are discussions and prayers. 
The book closes with two discourses, 
one, chs. 42 : 15-43, etc., " the praise 
of God for his works;" the other, chs. 
44-50, "the praise of famous holy 
men," from Enoch to Simon the high 
priest, the son of Onias. The final 
chapter is a thanksgiving and a prayer. 
The book is of great value as an indica- 
tion of the current Jewish theology and 
ethics at the time of its composition. 

ED (witness). This word printed in 
italics, is inserted in Josh. 22 : 34 as the 
name given to the altar set up by the 
trans-Jordanic tribes, but it does not 
occur in the received Hebrew text, 
which, literally translated, reads, "And 
the children of Reuben and the children 
of Gad named the altar: 'It [i. e. the 
altar] is a witness between us that Je- 
hovah is God.'" Some place the altar 
on the east or Moab side of the Jordan. 
Conder put it on the west side, at Kitm 
Surtabeh, 11 miles north-east of Shiloh, 
but this identification is disputed. 

E'DAR (tower of the flock). Gen. 35 : 
21. Conder would place it on the Shep- 
herds' plain, about 1 mile east of Beth- 
lehem : Jerome states that it was 1000 
paces from that city. 

E DEN (pleasantness). 1. The home 
of Adam and Eve before their fall. Gen. 
2:15. Its site has not been fixed. Two 
of its rivers are identified, the Euphra- 
tes, and the Hiddekel or Tigris; the 
others are disputed. Some say Gihon 
was the Nile and Pison the Indus. The 
best authorities agree that the " garden 
of Eden eastward " was in the highlands 
of Armenia, or in the valley of the Eu- 
phrates, but its precise location cannot 
be determined. The Bible, after the 
history of the fall of our first parents, 
withdraws paradise lost from our view, 
and directs our hope to the more glori- 
ous paradise of the future, with its river 
of life and tree of life. Rev. 22:2. 

2. A region conquered by the Assyri- 
ans, 2 Kgs. 19 : 12 : Isa. 37:12: prob- 
ably in Mesopotamia, near modern Ba- 
lis, and same as the Eden of Eze. 27 : 23. 

3. The house of Eden. Am. 1 : 5. See 
Bkth-edex. 

E'DEN (pleasantness), a Levite in 
the days of Hezekiah. 2 Chr. 29:12; 
31:15. 

E'DER (flock), a Merarite Levite in 



EDE 



EDU 



the days of David. 1 Chr. 23 : 23 j 24 : 
30. 

E'DER {flock), a town of Judah 
near Edoin. Josh. 15: 21. Not the same 
as Arad : modern site is ' Addr. 

E'DOM {red), called also Idumaea 
and Mount Seir. The country extended 
from the Dead Sea southward to the 
Gulf of Akabah, and from the valley of 
the Arahah eastward to the desert of 



Arabia, being about 125 miles long and 
30 miles wide. 

Physical Features. — A mountain-range 
of porphyritic rock forms the backbone 
of the country ; above this rises sand- 
stone, assuming fantastic forms, while on 
either side of these formations are lime- 
stone hills. On the west, along the val- 
ley of the Arabah, the hills are low; on 
the east the mountains attain their high- 




est elevation, and border on the great 
plateau of Arabia. The country is well 
watered, rich in pasturage, abounding 
with trees and flowers, reminding us of 
Isaac's prophecy : " Thy dwelling shall be 
the fatness of the earth." Gen. 27 : 39. 

Cities. — Its principal towns were Boz- 
ra, Elath, Maon, Ezion-geber, Selah, or 
Petra. A description of them will be 
found under their proper titles. For 
a history of the people see Esau and 

IdUMjEANS. 

ED'REI {strength, stronghold). 1. 
A capital city of Bashan. Num. 21 : 33 ; 
Deut. 3:1-10. It was in the territory 
of Manasseh beyond (east of) Jordan. 
Num. 32 :33. It is not noticed in later 
Bible history, although it was an im- 
portant city until the seventh century 
of the Christian era. Its ruins, called 
Edhra, cover a circuit of 3 miles. 
Without a spidng, river, or stream, with- 
out access except over rocks and through 
nearly impassable denies, without tree 
or garden, it is a place of security and 



strength. Among the ruins are remains 
of churches, temples, and mosques. 
The place has now about 500 popu- 
lation. 

2. A town of Naphtali. Num. 19 : 37. 
Porter identifies it with Tell Khuraibeh, 
near Kedesh ; Conder with Yater. 

EDUCATION. Of secular edu- 
cation, in our sense of the word, the 
Jews knew little, but they enjoined the 
duty and enjoyed the privilege of relig- 
ious and moral training at home and 
in public worship far more than any 
nation of antiquity. They learned 
from their parents and their public 
teachers, the Levites, and later the Rab- 
bins, to read and write and commit the 
Law. During the Captivity they were 
brought into contact with the extensive 
learning of the Chaldaeans. Moses de- 
rived his knowledge from Egyptian 
priests, and Solomon was both a schol- 
ar and a wise man, to whose open mind 
the gathered treasures of instruction 
and the books of nature and human 
251 



EGL 



EGY 



life brought lessons of priceless wisdom. 
The people at large must have been ig- 
norant of things outside of religion, and 
their religious exclusiveness would 
tend to keep them so, but there were 
men among them acquainted with men- 
suration, Josh. 18 : 8, 9, and with for- 
eign languages, 2 Kgs. 18 : 26, and who 
were skilled in writing, like the chron- 
iclers of the various kings, and in keep- 
ing accounts, like the scribes who are 
often mentioned. In the days of the 
monarchy the advantages of education 
were secured by many in the so-called 
"schools of the prophets." After the 
Captivity the Rabbins regularly gave 
instruction in the synagogues upon the 
Bible and the Talmud. In the entire 
history it holds good that boys remain- 
ed up to their fifth year in the women's 
apartments and then their fathers began 
to instruct them in the Law. Later, the 
boys began at this age the Rabbinical 
books. The Captivity was. in many re- 
spects an incalculable blessing to the 
Jews. It taught them that there was 
something worth learning outside of the 
Mosaic books. Hence, alter their re- 
turn, they were a greatly-improved peo- 
ple. It was then that synagogues sprang 
up, furnishing practical instruction. 
After Jerusalem fell the Jews kept up 
these schools, and they exist even in 
this day. One valuable custom was the 
learning of a trade on the part of each 
one. Well known is the instance of 
Paul, who, although well trained, a pu- 
pil of Gamaliel, still could, and did, 
make tents. Acts 18 : 3 ; 22 : 3. 

Girls were generally without much 
more education than the rudiments, yet I 
they could attend the schools and learn j 
more than to do needle-work, keep j 
house, and care for the children. Wo- j 
men were far higher in the social scale I 
among the Jews than at present among j 
the Orientals. 

The sect of the Essenes, by preference | 
celibates, took great pains to instruct I 
children, but confined their attention 
chieflj 7 to morality and the Law. The j 
Rabbins taught the physical sciences, j 
In these schools the teachers sat on 
raised seats ; hence Paul could say lit- 
erally that he was brought up at the 
feet of Gamaliel. Luke 2 : 46 ; Acts 22 : 
3. Unmarried men and women were 
forbidden to teach bovs. 
252 



The ancient Jews enjoyed more ad- 
vantages in mental training than other 
contemporary nations. And if they 
knew little about matters of common 
information among us, they knew more 
than did the great mass of people living 
outside of Judaea. 

EG'liAH (a heifer), one of David's 
wives. 2 Sam. 3 : 5. 

EG'LAOI (two ponds), a place on 
the border of Moab, Isa. 15 : 8 ; prob- 
ably the same as En-eglaim. 

EGLON (calf -like), king of the 
Moabites, who held the Israelites in 
bondage 18 years. Jud. 3 :14. He form- 
ed an alliance with the Ammonites and 
Amalekites, and took possession of Jer- 
icho, where he resided, and where he 
was afterward assassinated by Ehud. 
See Ehud. 

EG'LON (calf), an Amorite town in 
Judah, Josh. 10 : 3-5 ; 15 : 39 ; now 
'Ajlan, a hill of ruins, 10 miles north- 
east of Gaza. 

EGYPT, the valley of the Nile, in 
the north-eastern part of Africa, and one 
of the most remarkable countries in an- 
cient history, famous for its pyramids, 
sphinxes, obelisks, and wonderful ruins 
of temples and tombs. It figures large- 
ly in the Bible as the cradle of the peo- 
ple of Israel, and the training-school of 
its great leader and legislator. 

Names. — In Hebrew, Egypt is called 
Mizraim, a dual form of the word, indi- 
cating the two divisions, Upper and 
Lower Egypt, or (as Tayler Lewis sug- 
gests) the two strips on the two sides of 
the Nile. It is also known as the Land 
of Ham, Ps. 105:23. 27, and Rahab, 
('• the proud one "). Ps. 89 : 10 ; 87 : 4 ; 
Isa. 51 : 9. The Coptic and older title 
is Kemi, or Chemi, meaning " black," 
from the dark color of the soil. The 
name " Egypt" first occurs in its Greek 
form in Homer, and is applied to the 
Nile and to the country, but afterward 
it -is used for the country only. 

Situation and Extent. — Egypt lies on 
both sides of the Nile, and in ancient 
times included the land watered by it, 
as far as the Eirst Cataract, the deserts 
on either side being included in Arabia 
and Libya. Ezekiel indicates that it 
reached from Migdol (now Telles-Semut, 
east of the Suez Canal) to Syene (now 
Aswan or Asuouan), on the border of 
Nubia, near the First Cataract of the 



EGY 



EGY 



Xile. Eze. 29: in. margin. The Delta 
and the valley of the Nile are estimated 
to have an area of about 960(1 square 
miles (or a little more than the State 
of Xew Hampshire), of which only 5626 
miles are fit for cultivation. In the more 
extended sense of later times. Egypt is 
bounded on the north by the Mediter- 
ranean, on the east by the Red Sea and 
Arabia, on the south by Xubia, and on 
the west by the Great Desert. The 
length of the country in a straight line 
from the Mediterranean to the First 
Cataract is about 520 miles : its breadth 
is from 300 to 450 miles, and its entire 
area is about 212.000 square miles. 
Nubia. Ethiopia, and other smaller dis- 
tricts bordering on the Nile to the south 
of Egypt, have been brought under its 
sway. 

The following statement of the area 
and population of Egypt and dependen- 
cies is from the official report of 1876 : 



Divisions. 



Esypt 

Xubia 

Ethiopia... 

Darfur, etc 

Total 



Area. 


Population. 


Square Square 
kilometres. ni'les. 

550.630 = 212.543 

864,500 = 333.697 
2,918,000 = 1,146,348 

444.700= 171.674 


5,252,000 

1.000,000 
5,000.000 
5.700.000 


4.777 830 = 1,864,262 


16,952, l 



Egypt proper has thus an area almost 
as large as that of Xew York. Pennsyl- 
vania. Illinois, Ohio, and Indiana com- 
bined, and the present ruler of Egypt 
controls a territory nearly half as large 
as the United States of America. 

Physical Features. — The country 
has three great natural divisions: (1) 
the Delta : (2) the Nile valley; (3) the 
sandy and rocky wastes. The Delta is 
one vast triangular plain, watered by 
the branches of the Xile and numerous 
canals, and covered with remains of an- 
cient cities and villages and groves of 
palm trees, which stand on mounds of 
great antiquity. The Delta extends 
along the Mediterranean for about 200 
miles and up the Xile for 100 miles. 
The Tanitic branch of the Xile is on 
the east of the Delta, and the Canopic 
branch on the west, though the Delta is 
now limited chiefly to the space between 
the Rosetta and the Damietta branches, 
which is about 90 miles in extent. The 
valley of the Xile extends to the lower 
or First Cataract, near the island of 



Philte. which is about 500 miles south 
of Cairo. It is in a rich state of culti- 
vation, but is very narrow, and hemmed 
in by low mountains or rocky table-land, 
rarely rising into peaks, though often 
approaching the river in bold promon- 
tories. Eehind the rocky range, which 
varies from 300 to 1000 feet in height, on 
either side of the Nile, are deserts rocky 
and strewn with sand. The valley is 
scarcely more than 10 miles wide, and 
there is little fruitful land beyond its 
limits, or such portions as are reached 
by its fertilizing waters on the rise and 
overflow of the river. See Xile. 

C Kite and Productions. — The climate 
of Egypt is remarkably equable, the at- 
mosphere dry and clear except on the 
sea-coast : the summers are hot and sul- 
try, the winters mild : rain, except along 
the Mediterranean, is very rare, the fertil- 
ity of the land depending almost entire- 
ly upon the annual overflow of the Xile, 
or upon artificial' irrigation by canals, 
water-wheels, and the shadoof. Winds 
are strong, those from a northerly source 
being the most prevalent, while the si- 
moon, a violent whirlwind and hurricane 
of sand, is not infrequent. The chief 
fruits are dates, grapes, figs, pomegran- 
ates, oranges, apricots, peaches, lemons, 
bananas, melons of various kinds, mul- 
berries, pears, and olives. Among the 
vegetables are beans, peas, onions, leeks, 
lentils, gourds, cucumbers, caraway, 
coriander, cummin, anise, and pepper; 
and of grains, wheat, barley, millet, 
maize, and rice. Among plants are 
the indigo-plant, cotton, flax, poppv. 
madder, and a species of saffron. Many 
kinds of reeds were found in the coun- 
try, but they have wasted away, as pre- 
dicted. Isa. 19 : 6. 7 : even the famous 
papyrus, or byblus, from which paper 
was made, has nearly, if not quite, dis- 
appeared. Of animals, the camel, horse, 
mule. ass. sheep, and goat are common, 
and the wolf. fox. jackal, hyena, weasel, 
jerboa, hare, gazelle, hippopotamus, and 
crocodile were all found in considerable 
numbers; but the last two are now found 
only in the upper Xile. Of birds, the 
vulture (Pharaoh's hen^. eagle, falcon, 
hawk, kite, crow, lark, sparrow, hoopoe 
a sacred bird), and the ostrich were the 
most common : and of reptiles, the co- 
bra, cerastes, and other species of ven- 
I omous snakes abounded, and are yet 
253 



EGY 



EGY 



the dread of native and of traveller. 
Fish abound in the Nile and in Lake 
Menzaleh. Insects are well represented, 
the scorpion being among the most dan- 
gerous, -while swarms of flies, fleas, bee- 
tles (the scarabEeus being held sacred by 



the ancient Egyptians), and bugs of 
various kinds attack man and beast, 
and occasionally swarms of locusts sweep 
over the land, reminding one of the plague 
preceding the Exodus, and of the descrip- 
tion of the invading army by the prophet 




Joel. Ex. 10: 12-15; Joel 2:1-11. The 
principal minerals are granite, syenite, 
basalt, porphyry, limestone, alabaster, 
sandstone, and emeralds. The first four 
were formerly prized for the purposes of 
architecture and sculpture. 

Language. — The sources of knowledge 
254 



respecting ancient Egypt are chiefly 
four: (1) the Pentateuch : (2) the writ- 
ings of Manetho, b. c. 300-250, whose 
work is lost, but fragments of which 
have come down to us through Jose- 
phus, Julius Africanus, and Eusebius; 
(3) the accounts of Greek travellers — 



EGY 



EGY 



Herodotus, b. c. 454, Diodorus Siculus, 
B. c. 58, and Strabo, B. c. 30 ; (4) the 
monumental inscriptions and papyrus 
rolls in the temples and tombs or about 
mummies. Copies of the inscriptions 
and many of the papyrus rolls have been 
discovered during the present century 
and transferred to museums in London, 
Paris, Berlin, Leyden, Turin, and Bulak, 
and have been deciphered by Egyptolo- 
gists. The hieroglyphic signs on the 
monuments are partly ideographic or 
pictorial, partly phonetic. The hiero- 
glyphic, the shorter hieratic, and the 
demotic alphabets were deciphered by 
Champollion and Young by means of 
the famous trilingual Rosetta Stone, dis- 
covered in 1 799, and the Coptic language 
■which is essentially the same with the 
old Egyptian. For a summary of the 
respective merits of Young and Cham- 
pollion with regard to the interpreta- 
tion of Egyptian hieroglyphic, see Al- 
libone's Dictionary of Authors, vol. iii. 
p. 2902. 

The process of decipherment was, 
briefly, as follows: The Rosetta Stone 
had an inscription in three characters, 
hieroglyphic, demotic, and Greek. The 
Greek, which was easily read, declared 
that there were two translations, one in 
the sacred, the other in the popular, lan- 
guage of the Egyptains, adjacent to it. 
The demotic part was next scrutinized, 
and the groups determined which con- 
tained the word Ptolemy. These were 
compared with other framed symbols 
on an obelisk found at Phila>. The 
symbol on the obelisk which occurred 
in connection with the name Ptolemy 
was conjectured to be Cleopatra, as the 
number of letters also indicated. The 
two groups were then compared : 



were afterward verified by comparing 
them with the names of other kings, 
and particularly with that of Alex- 
ander the Great as below: — 



_^> 



1 



G15MD 



A 

_^6 



The second symbol in the second group. 
a lion, Champollion took to be /, and the 
same symbol has the fourth place in the 
first group. By a similar process of com- 
parison, the nine letters of Cleopatra's 
name were ascertained, while the dif- 
ferent letters in the case of Ptolemy 



The prevailing opinion is that the 
ancient Egyptians were of Asiatic 
rather than of African origin. Their 
language was Egyptian, and was re- 
lated, though it has not yet been proved 
as belonging, to the Semitic family. It 
had two dialects, that of Upper and that 
of Lower Egypt, and by degrees a vul- 
gar dialect was formed, which became 
the national language not long before 
the formation of the Coptic. The writ- 
ten character of the Egyptian language 
was the hieroglyphic — a very complex 
system, which expressed ideas by sym- 
bols or by phonetic signs, syllabic and 
alphabetic, or else by a combination of 
the two methods. From this combina- 
tion was formed the hieratic, a running- 
hand, or common written form of the 
hieroglyphic, principally used for docu- 
ments written on papyrus. The later 
Coptic language was written in Greek 
letters, with the addition of six new 
characters to that alphabet. The writ- 
ings of the ancient Egyptians which 
have come down to our times are dis- 
jointed, and, from a literary point of 
view, have disappointed the expecta- 
tions even of warm admirers of Egyp- 
tian civilization. See Poole in Ency- 
clopedia Britannica, 9th Ed., vol. vii. 
(1878). 

Learning and Art. — The progress of 
the Egyptians in the various sciences 
was equalled by that of no other 
he took to be ancient people except the Greeks, 

Ptolemais. and perhaps the Babylonians and 

the Assyrians. In astronomy, ge- 
d the arts 
ttested by the 
for the ad- 
justment of different reckonings 
of time, and by their skill in shaping and 
moving vast blocks of stone used in 
building, which, considering their want 
of iron and the very simple mechanical 
appliances at the command of Egyptian 
builders, are an enigma to modern en- 
The hardening of bronze tools 
255 



7~— — ^^^ ^ ZT^\ 9 ometr y> chemistry, and 

4o □ V\ ^\ | | their knowledge is attest 

^ _g^\ <-— ^ j^ Q} l\ 5. cycles they formed for 

' ? iustment of different re 



gineers. 



EG? 



EGY 



with which they cut granite and the mode 
in which Moses destroyed the golden calf 
indicate the progress they had made in 
using metals. In medicine also they 
were inferior only to the Greeks. 

In architecture the Egyptians occupy 
the most distinguished place among the 
nations of antiquity. None have equalled 
them in the grandeur, massiveness, and 
durability of their structures. Mr. Fer- 
gusson says : "Neither Grecian nor Gothic 
architects understood more perfectly all 
the gradations of art and the exact cha- 
racter that should be given to every form 
and every detail. They understood also, 
better than any other nation, how to use 
sculpture in combination with architec- 
ture, and to make their colossi and ave- 
nues of sphinxes group themselves into 
parts of one great design, and at the 
same time to use historical paintings, 
fading by insensible degrees into hier- 
oglyphics on the one hand and into 
sculpture on the other, linking the 
whole together with the highest class 
of phonetic utterance and with the 
most brilliant coloring, thus harmoniz- 
ing all these arts into one great whole 
unsurpassed by anything the world has 
seen during the 30 centuries of struggle 
and aspiration that have elapsed since 
the brilliant days of the great kingdom 
of the Pharaohs." — Handbook of Archi- 



tecture. And Poole observes : " In the 
whole range of ancient art Egyptian 
may take its place next after Greek. 
Indeed, in some instances it excels 
Greek, as when in animal forms the 
natural is subordinated to the ideal. 
The lions from Gebel Barkel . . . are 
probably the finest examples of the 
idealization of animal forms that any 
age has produced." — Encyclopaedia Bri- 
tannica, vol. vii. The pyramids and 
sphinxes, the immense temples, tombs, 
and remarkable obelisks, have called 
forth the admiration alike of the past 
and of the nineteenth century. 

Religion. — In religion the ancient 
Egyptians had an idea of one supreme, 
self-existent creator, but this idea was 
mixed with the basest forms of poly- 
theism and idolatry. Every town had 
its local divinities and its sacred ani- 
mal or fetish. Herodotus remarked 
that it was easier to find a god than a 
man on the Nile. Seth, the destructive 
power of Nature, was for many centu- 
ries the special divinity of Lower 
Egypt, but he was at length displaced. 
There appear to have been various or- 
ders of gods, each town having a cycle 
called a society of the gods, or "the 
nine gods." The Egyptians explained 
this cycle as the self-development of 
Ra, the chief or supreme god, already 




Tlie Principal Egyptian Triad, Osiris, Isis, and Horus. (Ajtcr Eiehm.) 



mentioned, and who appears to be iden- 
tified in Egyptian history of the "eigh- 
teenth dynasty " with the sun and sun- 
worship. 
256 



Two lists of their deities are given: 
the first is according to the system of 
Memphis, the earlier capital, whos» 
chief gods were Ptah, Ha, Shu or Mu, 




Temple at Karnak. Columns in the Great Hall. (After Photographs by Sebah.) 




Temple of Medinet Abou at Thebes. (Ajter Photographs by beoah,.) 



17 



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Seb, Hesiri or Osiris, Hes, Seth or Sethos, 
and Har. Those of the system of Thebes, 
the later capital, were, according to Lep- 
sius, Amen, Mentu, Atmu, Shu, Seb, He- 
siri, Set, Har, and Sehek. These two 
systems, however, may be treated as one, 
consisting of male divinities with whom 
are associated goddesses. Wilkinson 
gives a list of thirteen triads of gods, 
two of whom were usually of equal rank 
and the third subordinate. At Philae 
was the triad of Osiris, Isis, and Horus. 
Sun-worsbip was the primitive formof the 
Egyptian religion. Ra was represented 
as a hawk-headed man, generally bear- 
ing on his head the solar disk. Osiris (in 
Egyptian Hesiri) was usually repre- 
sented as a mummy with a royal cap 
having ostrich plumes; he is the good 
being, the judge of all the dead, and is 
opposed to Seth, the evil being. The 
worship of these gods required priests, 
sacrifices, offerings of fruits, libations, 
and at some early periods human vic- 
tims. Vast temples were built in honor 
of the deities, each town usually hav- 
ing at least one temple, and immense 
tombs were also constructed as a relig- 
ious duty and connected with the wor- 
ship of some of the gods, usually that 
of Osiris or a divinity of that group. 

The Egyptians had a very strong be- 
lief in a future life, and were taught to 
consider their abode here merely as an 
inn upon the road to a future existence 
where there was no distinction in rank. 
After death the body was embalmed 
and often kept in the house for months 
or a year before the burial. See Embalm. 
The mummy of a deceased friend was 
sometimes introduced at their parties 
and placed in a seat at the table as one 
of the guests. Herodotus says that the 
Egyptians were the first to maintain the 
immortality of the soul. They also be- 
lieved in the transmigration of souls. 
Though " Moses was learned in all the 
wisdom of the Egyptians," the system 
of worship and religion which was given 
to the Hebrews under him is in marked 
contrast to the polytheistic and idola- 
trous forms of Egypt, and attests its 
divine origin. 

Chronoloyy and History.^ As the 
father of nations, Egypt in its early 
history antedates all records, and is 
lost in obscurity. Egyptian history 
may be divided into 6 great periods : 
258 



(1) The Pharaohs or native kings, to 
B. c. 525; (2) the Persian, to B. c. 332 ; 
(3) the Ptolemies, to B. c. 30 : (4) the 
Roman, to A. d. 640 ; (5) the Arab; (6) 
the Turk. Egyptian chronology is in 
a confused and unsettled condition. 
New information from the monuments 
has simply increased the difficulty of 
settling the many conflicting statements 
and establishing dates on a satisfactory 
basis. The principal facts that appear to 
be generally accepted are: (1) Menes is 
an historical person, and the first known 
king of Egypt. (2) The Great Pyramid, 
at Gizeh, dates from the fourth dy- 
nasty, and is an imperishable monu- 
ment of the skill and resources of the 
people at that very remote period. (3) 
Manetho's lists of dynasties were chief- 
ly, though not entirely, consecutive, as 
appears from the two lists of the first 
Pharaohs found in the temple of Aby- 
dos, the lists at Sakkarah, and another 
in Thebes : the duration of these dy- 
nasties, however, is not settled. (4) 
The Hyksos, or Shepherd- kings of 
Manetho, conquered and ruled Lower 
Egypt for centuries, breaking the con- 
tinuity of the empire, but they were 
expelled by Amasis I. These H.vksos 
are not to be confounded with the 
Hebrews, whom Manetho deridingly 
calls "lepers." (5) During the eigh- 
teenth dynasty the empire of Egypt 
was in the height of its splendor, its 
conquests reaching to Babylon and 
Nineveh on the Euphrates, and over 
Nubia in the south. (6) No dates can 
be definitively fixed before the begin- 
ning of the twenty-second dynasty. 
The two noted authorities on this sub- 
ject — M. Marietfe and Prof. Lepsius — 
differ over 1100 years in their tables as 
to the length of dynasties I.-XVII. See 
J. P. Thomson in liihliotheca Sacra, 
1877, and Poole in Mncyclopsedfa Bri- 
tannica, vol. vii. Some have conjec- 
tured that Menes. the founder of Egypt, 
was identical with Mizraim, a grandson 
of Noah. Gen. 10 : 6. 

E'.mpt and the Bible.— To the Bible- 
reader the chief points of interest in 
Egvp'ian history are those periods 
when that country came in contact with 
the patriarchs and the Israelites. 

1. The first point is the chronology 
of Egypt as compared with that of the 
Bible. On this it may be said that the 



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chronologies of both are in such an un- 
settled state that there cannot fairly be 
said to be an irreconcilable difference 
between them until both are more fully 
and definitively established. The ablest 
Egyptologists vary in their estimates of 
the duration of the empire about 3000 
years. Menes, the first Pharaoh, began 
to reign, according to Boeckh, b. c. 5702 ; 
Mariette, B.C. 5004; Brugsch, B.C. 4455- 
4400 ; Chabas, b. c. 4000 ; Lepsius and 
Ebers, b. c. 3892 ; Bunsen, b. c. 3623- 
3039; Birch, b. c. 3000: Poole, B. c. 
2700 : Wilkinson, b. c. 2691 ; G. Eaw- 
linson, b. c. 2450. Egyptologists gen- 
erally agree that the chronology is 
wholly uncertain, and that we must 
wait for further light and better agree- 
ment among scholars. Bible chronol- 
ogy is likewise unsettled, some theo- 
logians holding to the "long" system 
of the Septuagint, which dates the Cre- 



ation b. c. 5400 (Hales, 5400 ; Jackson, 
5426), and others to the shorter system 
of the Hebrew text (Ussher, 4004; Pe- 
tavius, 3983) ; hence no agreement can 
be attempted until the age of Solomon. 
From his time down there is no ma- 
terial disagreement in the two chro- 
nologies of Egypt and the Hebrew 
records. 

2. The second point is the visit of 
Abraham to Egypt. Gen. 12 : 10-20. 
This visit took place, according to the 
shorter Hebrew chronology, about b. c. 
1920, which would bring it, according 
to some, at the date of the Hyksos, or 
Shepherd-kings : others regard this as 
too late a date, and put it in the begin- 
ning of the twelfth dynasty ; and his 
favorable reception is supposed to be 
illustrated by a picture in the tombs at 
Beni-Hassan (where are many remark- 
able sculptures), representing the arrival 




Entrance to Tomb at Beni-Hassan. (From a Photograph.) 



of a distinguished nomad chief with his 
family, seeking protection under Osirta- 
aen II. 
3. The third point of contact with 



Scripture is Joseph in Egypt. Gen. 37 : 
36. This beautiful and natural story 
has been shown to be thoroughly in ac- 
cord with what is known of Egyptian 
259 



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customs of that age. Inscriptions on 
the monuments speak of the dreams of 
Pharaoh : the butler's and baker's du- 
ties are indicated in pictures ; one of 
the oldest papyri relates the story that 
a foreigner was raised to the highest 
rank in the court of Pharaoh ; and Dr. 
Brugsch believes an inscription on a 
tomb at el-Kab to contain an unmis- 




Profile of Barneses II.. the Pharaoh of the Oppres 
sion. {After Lepsius.) 

takable allusion to the 7 years of famine 
in Joseph's time, as follows : " I gath- 
ered grain, a friend of the god of har- 
vest. I was watchful at the seed-time. 
And when a famine arose through many 
years I distributed the grain through the 
town in every famine." 

4. The fourth point of interest is the 
oppression of the Israelites in Egypt, 
and the Exodus. Ex. 1 : 8-22 ; 12 :' 41. 
Who was the Pharaoh of the oppression, 
and who the Pharaoh of the Exodus ? 
To this two answers are given by differ- 
260 



ent scholars : (1) Amosis or Aahmes I., 
the first ruler of the eighteenth dynasty, 
is identified with the Pharaoh of the 
oppression, and Thothmes II., about 100 
3 T ears later, as the Pharaoh of the Ex- 
odus, by Canon Cook in Speaker's Com- 
mentary on Exodus, p. 443. (2) That 
Raineses II., the third sovereign of the 
nineteenth dynasty, is the Pharaoh of 
the oppression, and Menephthah the 
Pharaoh of the Exodus, is the view 
now held by a majority of Egyptolo- 
gists — as De Rouge, Chabas, Lenor- 
mant, Vigoroux, Bunsen, Lepsius, 
Ebers, and Brugsch. Rameses II. is 
the Sesostris of the Greeks, who blend- 
ed him with his father, Sethi I., or 
Sethos. He ruled 67 years and was 
the great conqueror and builder, cov- 
ering his empire with monuments in 
glory of himself. " His name," says 
Dr. Ebers, "may be read to-day on 
a hundred monuments in Goshen." 
Among his many structures noted on 
monuments and in papyri are fortifi- 
cations along the canal from Goshen 
to the Red Sea, and particularly at 
Pi-tum and Pi-rameses or Pi-ramessu ; 
these must be the same as the treas- 
ure-cities Pi-thom and Rameses built 
or enlarged by the Israelites for Pha- 
raoh. Ex. 1 : 11. It is also said that 
under the reign of Rameses III., 
nephew of Rameses II., the name jen 
Mosche — i. e. "island" or "bank of 
Moses" — occurs among the towns of 
Middle Egypt. It is noted that Men- 
ephthah, the Pharaoh of the Exodus, 
lost a son, who is named on a monu- 
ment at Tanis, which Brugsch connects 
with the loss of the first-born. But 
another fact is of more weight. Herod- 
otus tells us that a son and successor 
of Sesostris undertook no warlike ex- 
peditions and was smitten with blind- 
ness for 10 years because he "impiously 
hurled his spear into the overflowing 
waves of the river, which a sudden 
wind caused to rise to an extraordinary 
height." Schaff says: "This reads like 
a confused reminiscence of the disaster 
at the Red Sea." The chief objection to 
this view is that it allows less than 315 
years between the Exodus and the 
building of Solomon's temple ; but the 
present uncertainties of the Hebrew 
and Egyptian chronologies deprive the 
objection of great weight. 



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5. After the Exodus the Israelites 
frequently came into contact with Egypt 
at various periods in their history. 
Through an Egyptian, David recovered 




Portrait of Menephthah II., the Pharaoh of the 
Exodus. (From Eiehm.) 

the spoil from the Amalekites, 1 Sam. 
30:11, etc.; Solomon made a treaty 
with Pharaoh and married his daughter, 
1 Kgs. 3:1; Gezer was spoiled by 
Pharaoh and given to Solomon's wife, 

1 Kgs. 9:16; Solomon brought horses 
from Egypt ; Hadad fled thither for 
refuge, as did also Jeroboam, 1 Kgs. 
10 : 28 ; 11 : 17 ; 12 : 2 ; Shishak plun- 
dered Jerusalem and made Judsea trib- 
utary, 1 Kgs. 14 : 26, and a record of 
this invasion and conquest has been de- 
ciphered on the walls of the great tem- 
ple at Karnak, or el-Karnak. In this 
inscription is a figure with a strong 
resemblance to Jewish features, which 
bears Egyptian characters that have 
been translated "the king of Judah." 
Pharaoh-necho was met on his expe- 
dition against the Assyrians by Josiah, 
who was slain. 2 Kgs. 23 : 29, 30. Pha- 
raoh-hophra aided Zedekiah, Jer. 37 : 
5-11, so that the siege of Jerusalem 
was raised, but he appears to have 
been afterward attacked by Nebu- 
chadnezzar. The sway of Egypt was 
checked, and finally overcome, by the 
superior power of Babylonia, and its 
entire territory in Asia was taken away. 

2 Kgs. 24 : 7 : Jer. 46 : 2. The books 



of the prophets contain many declara- 
tions concerning the wane and destruc- 
tion of the Egyptian power, which have 
been remarkably fulfilled in its subse- 
quent history. See Isa. 19 ; 20 ; 30 : 
3 j 31 : 3 ; 36 : 6 ; Jer. 2:36; 9 : 25, 26 ; 
43 : 11-13 ; 44 : 30 ; 46 ; Eze. 29 ; 30 ; 
31 ; 32 ; Dan. 11 : 42 ; Joel 3 : 19 ; and 
" the sceptre of Egypt shall depart 
away." Zech. 10 : 11. 

6. In the N. T. there are several ref- 
erences to the relations of the Israelites 
to Egypt as they existed in 0. T. times; 
see Acts 2:10; 7 : 9-40 ; Heb. 3:16; 
11: 26, 27; but the interesting fact in 
the N. T. period was the flight of the 
holy family into Egypt, where the in- 
fant Jesus and his parents found a ref- 
uge from the cruel order of Herod the 
Great. Matt. 2:13-19. 

7. Among the various other allusions 
to Egypt in the Bible are those to its 
fertility and productions, Gen. 13 : 10; 
Ex. 16 : 3 ; Num. 11 : 5 ; to its mode 

| of irrigation as compared with the 
j greater advantages of Canaan, which 
had rain and was watered by natural 
streams, Deut. 11 : 10 ; its commerce 
with Israel and the people of western 
Asia, Gen. 37 : 25, 36 ; 1 Kgs. 10 : 28, 29 ; 
Eze. 27 : 7 ; its armies equipped with 
chariots and horses, Ex. 14 : 7 ; Isa. 31 : 
1 ; its learned men and its priests, Gen. 
41 : 8, 45 ; 47 : 22 ; Ex. 7 : 11 j 1 Kgs. 4 : 
30 ; its practice of embalming the dead, 
Gen. 50:3; its aversion to shepherds, 
and its sacrifices of cattle, Gen. 46 : 34; 
Ex. 8:26; how its people should be ad- 
mitted into the Jewish Church, Deut, 
23 : 7, 8; the warnings to Israel against 
any alliance with the Egyptians, Isa. 
30 : 2 ; 36 : 6 ; Eze. 17 : 15"; 29 : 6 ; and 
to the towns of the country. Eze. 30 : 
13-18. The records on existing monu- 
ments have been found to confirm the 
accuracy of all these allusions to the 
customs of the people. 

History. — The history of Egypt, as 
drawn from other sources than the 
Scriptures, is confused, like the chron- 
ology upon which it depends for clear- 
ness and order. Of the thirty dynasties 
from Menes to the second Persian con- 
quest, B. c. 340, some of the most noted 
earlier kings were Thothmes I. and III., 
Amenoph II. and III., Sethos or Sesos- 
tris, and Rameses II. and III. These 
built many of the vast and grand tem- 
261 



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pies and palaces at Karnak and Luxor, 
and carried their conquests to Assyria 
and Ethiopia. Among the later rulers 
were Shishak or Sheshonk, Pharaoh- 
necho, Pharaoh-hophra, and Psammet- 
ichus. Its most populous cities were 
Thebes, Latopolis, Apollinopolis, Syene, 
Memphis, Heraclopolis, Arsinoe, Heli- 
opolis, Bubastis, Sais, Busiris, Tanis, 
and Pelusium. The statements of some 
Greek and Roman writers that Egypt in 
its prosperity had 7,000,000 population 
and 20 7 000 cities are believed to be 
greatly exaggerated. This would re- 
quire it to have sustained an average 
population to the square mile, exclusive 
of the desert, twice as great as the most 
densely-peopled lands of modern times. 
Egypt was conquered by Cambyses the 
Persian about b. c. 525 ; regained its 
independence under Amyrteus, of the 
twenty-eighth dynasty of native kings; 
was again conquered by the Persians un- 
der Darius Ochus, b. c. 340 ; by Alexan- 
der the Great, B. c. 332, when he founded 
Alexandria. After Alexander's death it 
formed a kingdom under the Grecian and 
Macedonian Ptolemies, the Greeks be- 
coming the dominant class (the last of 
the Ptolemies reigned jointly with his 
sister and wife, the famous Cleopatra). 
After the battle of Actium, b. c. 30, Egypt 
became a Roman province. Under the 
Roman rule Alexandria continued to be 
the great mart of trade and the centre 
of learning and philosophy ; for three 
centuries it was under Roman rule, and 
during that period Egypt was account- 
ed the granary of Rome. On the trans- 
fer of the seat of empire to Constantino- 
ple, the Christians, who had been se- 
verely persecuted under its Roman 
rulers, gained the sway over the pagans, 
and for three centuries theological con- 
troversies raged with great fiei-ceness. 
The Arab conquest under Caliph Omar 
came A. r>. 640, followed by the Fatimite 
dynasty, A. D. 970, when Cairo was 
founded and made the capital. Saladin, 
the noted prime minister of the last of 
the Fatimites, assumed the sovereignty, 
with the title of sultan, a. r>. 1170, and 
was a vigorous opposer of the Crusaders. 
The government was overturned by the 
Mamelukes about A. r>. 1250 ; again con- 
quered by Seliin I., a. d. 1517.; by Na- 
poleon in 1798; by the combined forces 
of the English and the Turks in 1801 ; 
262 



and, soon after, Mehemet Ali, an Alba- 
nian adventurer, was made pasha, being 
nominally a vassal of Turkey, but his 
power was nearly absolute. Under the 
reign of his grandson, the present khe- 
dive or viceroy (since 1863), Egypt has 
been restored to some extent from its 
low condition, schools and colleges have 
been founded, commerce and manufac- 
tures encouraged, numerous reforms in- 
troduced, the Suez Canal completed and 
opened to the commerce of the world, 
railways and telegraphs have been con- 
structed; but the condition of the people 
has not been improved, and poverty and 
misery prevail. The treasury of the 
khedive is nearly bankrupt. Egypt is 
" the old house of bondage under new 
masters." 

The Presbyterian Church has estab- 
lished flourishing mission schools in 
Alexandria, Cairo, and Osiout, among 
the Copts. 

Monuments and Ruins. — "Egypt is the 
monumental land of the earth," says Bun- 
sen, " as the Egyptians are the monu- 
mental people of history." Among 
the most interesting ancient cities 
are: (1) On or Heliopolis, "the city of 
the Sun," 10 miles north-east of Cairo, 
where are traces of massive walls, frag- 
ments of sphinxes, and an obelisk of 
red granite, 68 feet high, beai-ing an in- 
scription of Osirtasen I. of the twelfth 
dynasty, and erected, therefore, previ- 
ous to the visit of Abraham and Sarah 
to the land of the Pharaohs. Formerly 
the two "Needles of Cleopatra" stood 
here also, but were removed to Alexan- 
dria during the reign of Tiberius ; and 
one of them has lately been transported 
to London, and now stands on the banks 
of the Thames. Joseph was married at 
Heliopolis, Gen. 41 : 45, and there (ac- 
cording to Josephus) Jacob made his 
home; it was probably the place where 
Moses received his education, where He- 
rodotus acquired most of his skill in writ- 
ing history, and where Plato, the Greek 
philosopher, studied. (2) Thebes "of the 
hundred gates," one of the most famous 
cities of antiquity, is identified with No 
or No- Amnion of Scripture. Jer. 46 : 25 ; 
Eze. 30 : 14-16 : Nah. 3 : 8. The ruins 
are very extensive, and the city in its 
glory stretched over 30 miles along the 
banks of the Nile, covering the places 
now known as Luxor, Karnak. and 



Ascent of the Geeat Ptkamid oe Egypt. {From a recent Photograph.) 



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Thebes. (3) Memphis, the Noph of 
Scripture, Jer. 46:19. "Nothing is 
left of its temples and monuments but 
a colossal statue of Rameses II., lying 
mutilated on the face in the mud.'' 

Only a very brief notice of the wonder- 
ful monuments can be given here. For 
convenience these may be grouped into 
two classes: (a) The pyramids, obelisks, 
and statues; (b) the palaces, temples, 
and tombs. 




The Obelisk of On. (Heliopolis. From a Photo- 
graph by Good.) 

(a) The number of pyramids still ex- 
isting in Egypt is variously stated at 
from 45 or 65 to 130. Brugsch says 
" more than 70 ;" Lepsius speaks of no 
less than 30 that had escaped the notice 
of former travellers (1842-1844); others 
count as many as 130, including all pyr- 
amidal structures, ancient and modern. 
Piazzi Smyth (1874) reduces them all to 
38, and gives a list of them. The largest 
and most remarkable are those near 
264 



Memphis, at Sakkara, Aboosir, Dashoor, 
and Gizeh. The three at Gizeh are the 
most interesting of all. The largest 
of these is that of Cheops, which was 
erected from 2000 to 3000 years before 
Christ. It was old when Rome was 
built, when Homer sang, when David 
reigned, and even when Moses led out 
the Israelites. This pyramid, accord- 
ing to General Vyse, is 450 feet 9 inches 
high (it was formerly about 30 feet high- 
er), the present length of its base is 746 
feet (it was formerly 764 feet), and it 
covers an area of about 13 acres. It 
has been stripped of its polished stone 
casing in centuries past to adorn the 
palaces of Greeks, Romans, and Sara- 
cens. It is the largest, and probably 
the oldest, structure in the world. The 
second pyramid is scarcely inferior to 
the first in height, being 447 feet 6 
inches high and having a base 690 feet 
9 inches square. A great part of its 
casing has been preserved. The third 
pyramid is smaller than either of the 
other two, but in beauty and costliness 
of construction is unexcelled by any 
other pyramid. These colossal struc- 
tures were erected as monuments and 
tombs of the kings. The body of the 
dead monarch was embalmed, placed in 
a stone sarcophagus, put into the mas- 
sive tomb, and the entrance closed. See 
Schaff's Bible Lands, p. 40. Near the 
pyramids is the great Sphinx, a massive 
man-headed lion in a recumbent posture, 
nearly 190 feet long, with immense paws, 
formerly 50 feet in length. The vast 
figure is buried in the sand, except his 
colossal head. There are also six other 
smaller pyramids near the three here 
described, three standing to the east of 
the Great Pyramid and three to the 
south of the third one. Southward of 
those at Gizeh are the pyramids at 
Aboosir, and about 2 miles still far- 
ther are those of Sakkara, while about 
5 miles beyond are those of Dashoor, 
two of which are built of stone and three 
of brick. 

(b) Of the palaces, temples, and tomb- 
structures, the most remarkable is the 
famous Labyrinth, in the Feiyoom dis- 
trict, which Bunsen calls the most gor- 
geous edifice on the globe; it includes 
12 palaces and 3000 saloons. The tem- 
ples at Karnak and Luxor are the most 
interesting, the grandest among them 




Front of Temple at Aboo Simbel, Nubia. (Ajter Photographs.) 




Avenue of Sphinxes and Propylon at Karnak, {After Photographs.) 



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all being the magnificent temple of 
Rameses II. See No and No-Ammon. 
There are ruins of temples at Denderah, 
Abydos, Philae, Heliopolis, and at Ipsam- 
boul, 170 miles south of Philae, in Nu- 
bia. Among the noted tombs are those 
at Thebes, Beni-Hassan, and Osiout, 
and among the obelisks are those at 



Luxor, Karnak, Heliopolis, and Alex- 
andria. These wonderful ruins attest 
the magnificence and grandeur, but also 
the absolute despotism and slavery, of 
this land in the earliest ages and as far 
back as before the days of Abraham, 
and they also attest in the most impres- 
sive manner the fulfilment of prophecy. 




In a cave near Thebes 39 royal mum- 
mies and various other objects were dis- 
covered in 1881. Among the mummies 
was that of Rameses II., the Pharaoh 
of the oppression, which has been fully 
described by Maspero. A trilingual 
inscription, perhaps a century older than 
the Rosetta Stone, has aiso been lately 
found, and one of the oldest pyramids 
opened. 

The Egyptians believed in the immor- 
tality of the soul, and that when the 
soul reached the Hall of Double Justice, 
the heart in its vase was placed in one 
scale, and the goddess of Truth in the 
other. Horus and a cynocephalus con- 
ducted the process of weighing, Anubis 
superintended, Thoth recorded the re- 
sult, and Osiris, with 42 counsellors, pro- 
nounced sentence. If the heart was 
light, the soul suffered the torments of 
hell, or was sent into a pig or some un- 
clean animal, then returned to begin life 
anew, and have another trial by judges. 
If the heart was heavy, the soul was 
sent to the regions of the blest. (See 
Baedeker's Lower Egypt, p. 137.) 

For ancient Egypt see the following 
works : Caylus, Comte de, Recueil d'An- 
tiquites Eyyptiennes, etc., Paris, 1761— 
67, 7 vols. 4to ; Alexander, Egyptian 
Monuments now in the British Museum, 
266 



Judgment of the Dead. (After Eiehm.) 

collected by the French Institute, 1805-7, 
5 parts roy. fol. ; Birch, S., Facsimiles 
of the Eyypt inn Belies discovered at 
Thebes in 'the Tomb of Aah Hotep, 1820, 
oblongfol. : Rosellini, I Monumenti dell' 
Egitta e dell a Nubia, Pisa, 1832-44, 3 
vols, atlas fol. and 9 vols. 8vo of text; 
Sharpe, Egyptian Inscriptions from the 
British Museum, etc., London, 1835-65, 
2 series roy. fol. ; Bonomi and Arun- 
dale, Gallery of Antiquities in the Brit- 
ish Museum with Inscriptions by Birch, 
1844, 2 parts; Bunsen, Egypt's Place 
in Universal History, 1848-67, 5 vols. 
Svo, vol. v. being a hieroglyphical lex- 
icon and grammar by S. Birch ; Lep- 
sius, Chronologie der Egypter, etc., Ber- 
lin, 1849, imp.4to; Lepsius, Benkmaeler 
mis ^Eqypten vnd jEthiopien, Berlin, 
1849-59, 12 vols, eleph. fol. and 1 vol. 
of introductory text, imp. 4to ^ Rouge, 
Bituel Funeraire de And ens Egyptiens, 
Paris, 1861-66, 5 y> livraisons, imp. fol. ; 
Pleyte, Etudes Egyptnlogiques, Leide, 
1866-69, 7 parts 4to; Brugsch, Diction- 
naire Hieroglyphiqne, Leipzig, 1867, fol. ; 
Ebers, jEqypten uud die Bucher Mose's, 
vol. i., Leipzig, 1868, 8vo : Pleyte, Lea 
Papyrus Rollin de la Bibliotheque Im- 
ped ale de Paris, 1868, atlas 4to ; Frith, 
Eqypt and Palestine Photographed and 
Described, 1870, 2 vols. roy. fol. ; Wil. 



EHI 



ELA 



kinson, Sir J. G., The Manners and Cus- 
toms of the Ancient Egyptians, new edi- 
tion by S. Birch, LL.D.. London, 1879, 
3 vols. 8vo ; Brugsch-Bey, Geschichte 
Aegypten's unter den Pharaonen. Nach 
den Denkm'dlern, Leipzig, 1877 ; Engl, 
translation, London, 2d ed., 1881, 2 vols. ; 
F. Vigouroux, La Bible et les deconvertes 
modernes en Eyypte et en Assyrie, Paris, 
1877,2 vols.; Ebers, Aegypten im Bild 
und Wort, Leipzig, 1879. On modern 
Egypt: Lane, The Modern Egyptians, 2 
vols., London, 5th ed., 1871; Zinke, 
Egypt of the Pharaohs and the Khedive, 
Lond., 1873; Klunzinger, Upper Egypt, 
London, 1878. 

E'HI {my brother), a son of Benja- 
min, Gen. 46 : 21 ; called Ahiram, Num. 
26 : 38 ; Aher, 1 Chr. 7 : 10 ; Aharah, 
8:1. 

E'HUD (union). 1. A great-grand- 
son of Benjamin. 1 Chr. 7:18; 8:6. 

2. A son of Gera, of the tribe of Ben- 
jamin, who delivered the Israelites from 
the oppression which they suffered un- 
der Eglon, king of Moab. Jud. 3 : 15. 
The Israelites sent Ehud to pay some 
tax or tribute to Eglon as a token of 
their allegiance. Under the pretence 
that he had some secret message to the 
king, he obtained a private audience ; 
and while they were together, Ehud 
drew a dagger which he had made ex- 
pressly for the purpose, and gave him 
a mortal wound. The custom of deliv- 
ering confidential messages in secret 
appears to have been so common that 
the attendants of Eglon left his pres- 
ence as soon as Ehud's wish was known. 
Such is the custom in Eastern courts at 
this day ; as soon as a confidential mes- 
sage is announced the audience-cham- 
ber is cleared of all but the messenger. 
Ehud fled toward Mount Ephraim ; and 
summoning the oppressed Israelites to 
his help, they secured the fords of the 
Jordan, so that the Moabites, by whom 
their land was garrisoned, might not 
escape. As soon as he had collected a 
sufficient force he fell upon the Moab- 
ites, and cut them off in every direction. 
" And the land had rest fourscore years." 
Jud. 3 : 26-30. 

E'KER (a rooting up), a descendant 
of Judah. 1 Chr. 2:27. 

EK'RON (emigration), the most 
northerly of the five cities of the Phil- 
istines, Josh. 13 : 3 ; in the lowlands of 



Judah, 15 : 11 ; conquered by Judah 
15 : 45 ; allotted to Dan, 19 : 43 ; recon 
quered by Samuel, 1 Sam. 5 : 10 ; 7 : 14 
again a Philistine city, 1 Sam. 17 : 52 
2 Kgs. 1:2; Jer. 25 : 20 ; Am. 1:8 
Zech. 9:5; now called Akir, on a hill 
12 miles south-east of Joppa, a wretched 
village of about 50 mud hovels. The 
prophecy has been fulfilled, " Ekron 
shall be rooted up." Zeph. 2:4. 

JEL, which often occurs as an ele- 
ment of Hebrew words and names, sig- 
nifies " strength," and is applied not 
only to Jehovah, but to heathen gods. 

EL'ADAH, an Ephraimite. 1 Chr. 
7:20. 

E'LAH (terebinth). 1. An Edomite 
chieftain. Gen. 36 : 41 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 52. 

2. The father of one of Solomon's 
provision officers. 1 Kgs. 4:18. 

3. The son and successor of Baasha, 
king of Israel. He reigned 2 years, 
B. c. 930-928, and was assassinated by 
Zimri, one of his military officers, while 
revelling at the house of his steward, 
Arza, at Tirzah. 1 Kgs. 16 : 6-10. 

4. The father of Hoshea, the last 
king of Israel. 2 Kgs. 15 : 30 ; 17 : 1 ; 
18 : 1, 9. 

5. A son of Caleb, the son of Jephun- 
neh. 1 Chr. 4: 15. 

6. A Benjamite. 1 Chr. 9:8. 

EL A.H. (terebinth), VALLEY OF, 
where David slew Goliath. I Sam. 17 : 
2, 19; 21:9. It is now called Wady 
es-Sunt, or "Acacia Valley," 14 miles 
south-west of Jerusalem. The valley is 
about a quarter of a mile wide, and has 
steep sides rising to a height of about 
500 feet. The torrent or brook has a 
deep channel in the middle of the val- 
ley, and its course is strewn with smooth 
white stones. Terebinth trees, which 
gave the original title to the valley, 
are still found there. 

E'LAM (age). 1. The eldest son of 
Shem, and ancestor of the Elamites 
and Persians. Gen. 10 : 22 ; 1 Chr. 1: 
17. 

2. A Korhite Levite in the time of 
David. 1 Chr. 26:3. 

3. A chief man of Benjamin. 1 Chr. 
8:24. 

4. " Children of Elam" returned from 
Babylon. Ezr. 2:7; 8:7; Neh. 7 : 12. 

5. Children of " the other Elam " like- 
wise returned. Ezr. 2 : 31 ; Neh. 7 : 34. 
Their representative sealed the cove- 

267 



ELA 



ELD 



nant. N eh. 10:14. Some had foreign 
wives. Ezr. 10 : 26. 

6. A priest who helped to dedicate 
the wall. Neh. 12:42. 

E'LAM, a country peopled by the 
descendants of Shem, and called, after 
his son, Elam. Gen. 10 : 22. It lay 
south of Assyria and west of Persia 
proper, and reached to the Persian 
Gulf. Herodotus called it Cissia. It 
was a province of Persia, of which 
Susa was capital. Ezr. 4:9; Dan. 
8:2. 

History. — Elam was a strong power 
in Abram's time. Gen. 14: 9. Its peo- 
ple aided in the destruction of Babylon, 
Isa. 21 : 2 ; invaded Israel, 22 : 6. Its 
destruction was foretold. Jer. 49 : 34- 
39 ; 25 : 25 ; Eze. 32 : 24, 25. A re- 
markable statement illustrating the 
truth of the Scriptures in respect to 
Elam has lately been deciphered from 
Assyrian cylinders in the British Mu- 
seum. Assur-banipal records, B.C. 668- 
626, " In my fifth expedition, to Elam 
I directed the march. ... I over- 
whelmed Elam through its extent. I 
cut off" the head of Te-umman, their 
wicked king, who devised evil. Beyond 
number I slew his soldiers. . . . For a 
month and a day Elam to its utmost 
extent I swept." There are other rec- 
ords equally remarkable, but there is 
not space to quote them. 

EI/ASAH {whom God made). 1. 
The son of Shaphan. Jer. 29:3. 

2. A priest who had a foreign wife. 
Ezr. 10 : 22. 

E'LATH, or E'LOTH {trees), a 
seaport-town of Edom, at the northern 
end of the eastern arm of the Red Sea. 
Deut. 2:8; 2 Chr. 8:17. It is usually 
associated in Scripture with Ezion-geber. 
The children of Israel passed by it; it 
was a part of David's conquest, Deut. 
2:8; 2 Sam. 8 : 14; was a place of im- 
portance in Solomon's time, 1 Kgs. 9 : 
26, 28 ; was recaptured by the Edom- 
ites, 2 Kgs. 8 : 20 : was retaken by Uz- 
ziah, 2 Kgs. 14 : 22 ; 2 Chr. 26 : 2, who 
rebuilt it ; was afterward taken by the 
king of Damascus, 2 Kgs. 16 : 6, and 
later by Assyria. 2 Kgs. 16 : 7-9. Stan- 
ley thinks that Elath was on the site of 
modern Aknba, and Robinson placed it 
on a mound near A/caba. Palm-groves 
still exist there. 

EL-BETHEL (the Godof Bethel), 
268 



the name given by Jacob to the place 
where he built an altar, or to the altar 
itself. Gen. 35 : 7 ; comp. 33 : 20. See 
Bethel. 

EL'DAAH (whom God calls), the 
last named son of Midian, and a grand- 
son of Abraham by Keturah. Gen. 25 : 
4; 1 Chr. 1:33. 

EL'DAD (whom God loves), and 
ME'DAD (love), were of the 70 elders 
of Israel appointed by Moses to assist 
jim in the government of the people. 
Num. 11 : 26. When the elders were 
assembled around the tabernacle to 
seek wisdom from God on a particular 
occasion, Eldad and Medad were ab- 
sent. The Spirit of God was, how- 
ever, poured out on them in the camp, 
and they prophesied. Their proceed- 
ing was represented to Moses, and he 
was asked to prohibit them, but he de- 
clined, and, so far from wishing them 
to be silenced, he uttered a prayer that 
all the people might receive the same 
spirit which was upon Eldad and Me- 
dad. 

The passage is important as proving 
the distribution of the spirit of proph- 
ecy, which had been concentrated in 
Moses. The mode of prophecy of these 
men was perhaps the extempore produc- 
tion of hymns chanted forth to the peo- 
ple. Compare the case of Saul. 1 Sam. 
10:11. 

ELD'ERS, a comprehensive title, 
the peculiar force of which must be de- 
termined by the connection. Ex. 3 : 16. 

1. Old Testament Usage. — During the 
sojourn of Israel in Egypt the elders, 
Ex. 4 : 29-31, were probably either the 
heads of tribes or the oldest and most 
judicious of the people. And though 
their authority was in its nature pater- 
nal, they were regarded to a certain ex- 
tent as the representatives of the na- 
tion. In the Hebrew commonwealth 
every city had its elders. Deut. 19 : 12 ; 
21:2-9; Josh. 20:4; Jud. 8:14; Ezr. 
10:14. 

There was a body of elders, however, 
selected and appointed for special duties, 
Num. 11 : 16, 17, 24, 25, and they seem to 
have been taken from the general class 
of elders. The expression is." Gather unto 
me seventy men of the elders of Israel, 
whom thou knowest to be elders of the 
people, and officers over them." The 
70 men who were with Moses at Mount 



ELE 



ELE 



Sinai were also 70 of the elders of Is- | 
rael. Ex. 24 : 1, 9. At a subsequent 
period of Jewish history we find a tri- 
bunal of 70 elders, known as the San- 
hedrin, which the Rabbins maintain 
was a continuance of the original ap- ] 
pointment of elders by Moses. Elders 
are mentioned in the Maccabaean times, i 
about B. c. 175, 1 Mace. 7:33; 12:6; i 
and in the N. T. are associated, but not 
to be confounded, with the chief priests 
and scribes. Matt. 16 : 21, etc. See San- 

HEDRIN. 

2. New Testament Usage. — The name 
elder or presbyter is no doubt of Jewish- 
Christian origin, a translation of the 
Hebrew title applied to the rulers of 
the synagogues, on whom devolved the 
conduct of religious affairs. Referring 
originally to age and dignity, it came 
to apply to office. The term bishop 
(borrowed, in all probability, from the 
political relations of the Greeks), while 
applied to the same office of elder or 
presbyter, refers to the official duty and 
activity of these rulers of congregations. 
In Acts 20 : 28, Paul addresses as " bish- 
ops" ("overseers" in our version) the 
very same rulers of the Ephesian church 
who had just before (v. 17) been called 
"elders." In Phil 1 : 1 he salutes the 
saints in Pbilippi, with the "bishops 
and deacons," without mentioning the 
elders, which has been explained by 
supposing the latter to have been iden- 
tical with the bishops. The plural form 
is further evidence, since there cannot be 
more than one diocesan " bishop," in the 
latter sense, in any one church. Tit. 1 : 
5 and the other appropriate passages in 
the pastoral Epistles prove the same fact. 

As to the time and manner of the in- 
troduction of eldership we have no such 
information as is given respecting the 
diaconate. Acts 6. But we conjecture 
that it came early in the Church — per- 
haps was even co-eval with it ; in which 
case it is no wonder that its introduc- 
tion is not mentioned. As the office 
was a Christian imitation of the Jew- 
ish "rulers of the synagogues," who 
conducted the prayer, reading, and ex- 
position which constituted the service, 
every church had a number of elders. 
There is in the N. T. no set distinction 
made between the teaching and the rul- 
ing elder; both offices were united in 
the same person. See Bishop. 



Elders, Estate of the. Acts 22 : 5. 
See Estate of the Elders. 

E'JLJEAD (whom God praises), an 
Ephraimite. 1 Chr. 7 : 21. 

ELEALEH (whither God ascends), 
a city east of Jordan ; given to the Reu- 
benites, Num. 32 : 3, 37 ; afterward pos- 
sessed by Moab, Isa. 15 : 4; 16 : 9 ; Jer. 
48:34; now el-A'al ("the high"), 1 
mile north-east of Heshbon. 

ELE'ASAH (whom God made). 1. 
A descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 39. 

2. A descendant of Saul. 1 Chr. 8: 
37 ; 9 : 43. The name elsewhere in the 
A. V. is Elasah. 

ELEA'ZAR (God's help). 1. The 
third son of Aaron, Ex. 6 : 23, and his 
successor in the office of high priest, 
which he held for upward of 20 years, 
and his family after him till the time of 
Eli. Nadab and Abihu, Eleazar and 
Ithamar, together with their father, 
Aaron, were consecrated to the sacer- 
dotal office. The first two were struck 
dead for offering strange fire. See 
Abihu. Eleazar, being the eldest sur- 
viving son, succeeded his father, and 
was himself succeeded by his eldest 
son, Phinehas, according to the cove- 
nant. Num. 25: 10, 13. The time of 
Eleazar's death is not given, but Jo- 
sephus, probably representing Jewish 
tradition, says it was at the same time 
as Joshua's, or 25 years after Moses. 
The office continued in Eleazar's line 
through seven successions, and then 
passed into the line of Ithamar in the 
person of Eli, who was both high priest 
and judge, but was restored to the fam- 
ily of Eleazar in the person of Zadok. 
Comp. 1 Sam. 2 : 35; 1 Kgs. 2 : 27. 

2. The son of Abinadab, to whose care 
the ark was committed when it was sent 
back by the Philistines. 1 Sam. 7 : 1. 

3. A warrior of distinguished courage, 
two of whose exploits are recorded in 1 
Chr. 11 : 11-18 and 2 Sam. 23 : 9. 

4. A Levite, son of Merari, who is 
mentioned as having no sons ; but his 
daughters were married by their " breth- 
ren " — i. e. cousins. 1 Chr. 23 : 21. 

5. A priest who took part in Nehe- 
miah's dedicatory feast. N eh. 12 : 42. 

6. One with a foreign wife. Ezr. 10 : 
25. 

7. A Levite. Ezr. 8 : 33. 

8. An ancestor of Joseph. Matt. 1 : 
15. 

269 



ELE 



ELI 



ELECT', ELECTION. The I ELEPH (the ox), a city of Benja- 
Greek word (eklektos) for "elect" or J min. Josh. 18:28. The Pal. Memoirs 
"chosen" comes from a verb meaning suggest Lifta, a village about 2 miles 
"to choose." It is applied to persons north-west of Jerusalem, as its site, 
or things. Luke 14 : 7 : John 6 : 70. The EL'EPHANT. See Ivory. 
verb is uniformly translated in A. V. ' ELHA'NAX {whoyn God bestoiced). 



"choose," but the adjective both "cho- 
sen " and " elect." Luke 23 : 35 : cf. 18 : 
7. Choice implies preference, hence ap- 
proval, favor, delight, as in Luke 23 : 35 
the Messiah is called " the chosen of 
God " — i. e. the One in whom God takes 
pleasure. 

The elect in N. T. usage are those 
chosen of God unto salvation, who there- 
fore enjoy his favor and lead a holy 
life in communion with him. Matt. 24 : 
22 ; Mark 13 : 27 ; Luke 18 : 7 ; Rom. 8 : 
33 ; Tit. 1 : 1. Paul once speaks of "the 
election," Rom. 11 : 7, instead of " the 
elect," just as he says "the circumcis- 
ion" instead of "the circumcised." 
Rom. 2 : 26. In Matt. 22 : 14 the call- 
ing of God is distinguished from the 
choosing of God : " Many are called, 
but few are chosen." All are called 
who hear the sound of the gospel and 
are invited to accept its terms of salva- 
tion, but those onlv are chosen who re- 



1. One of David's warriors, who slew a 
Philistinian giant. 2 Sam. 21 : 19 j 1 Chr. 
20:5. 

2. Another of David's warriors. 2 
Sam. 23:24: 1 Chr. 11 : 26. 

E'LI (ascent, elevation), a descendant 
of Ithamar, the fourth son of Aaron, and 
successor of Abdon as high priest and 
i judge of Israel. 1 Sam. 2 : 11. In con- 
sequence of his negligence or injudi- 
; cious management of his two sons, 
'\ Hophni and Phinehas, he suffered se- 
j vere chastisement. Samuel was direct- 
ed to disclose to Eli the judgments that 
! would come upon his family, 1 Sam. 3 : 
I 13, 14, chiefly because of his neglect of 
i paternal duty. The old man received 
the intelligence with remarkable sub- 
mission, but it was not until 27 years 
! after that God fulfilled his threatenings. 
Then his two sons were both slain in the 
j same battle with the Philistines, into 
whose hands the ark of God fell. The 



pent and believe and persevere to the end. I aged priest, then in his 9Sth year, was 

Elect Lady. 2 John 1. This title is j 
applied by John to some eminent Chris- 
tian woman, or else it was a figurative 
expression denoting a Christian church. 
EL-ELO'HE-IS'RAEL(*fre^/i 
of God), the name which Jacob gave to 
an altar near Shechem, Gen. 33 : 18-20 ; 
probably the place where Abraham had 
built an altar. Gen. 12 : 7. The el des- 
ignates God as the mighty One. able to 
do whatsoever he pleased. He delivered 
Jacob, whose other name — "Israel" — 
denoted his power with God. 

ELEMENTS, Gal. 4 : 3. 9. else- 
where rendered RUDIMENTS, Col. 
2 : 8. 20, or the first principles of an art or 
science, is a term applied to the ceremo- 
nial ordinances of the Mosaic law, which 
were weak, and beggarly, inasmuch as 
they consisted very much in outward 
observances, Heb. 9:1, and were of 
temporary and partial service, when 
compared with the disclosures of grace 
and mercy which they were designed 
to shadow forth. In the case of the 
Colossians. probably, these rudiments 
of the world embraced the doctrines of 
some vain and deceitful philosophy. 
270 



so overwhelmed when these calamities 
were made known to him that he fell 
backward from his seat and broke his 
neck. He had governed the Hebrews in 
all their concerns, civil and religious, 
for the long period of 40 years. 1 Sam. 
4 : 18. See Eloi. 

ELI, ELI, LAMA SABACH'- 
THANI {my God, my God, why hast 
thou forsaken me), our Lord's cry upon 
the cross. Matt. 27 : 46. The words are 
Syro-Chaldaic, but are more correctly 
given in Mark 15 : 34. 

ELI'AB (to whom God. is father). 1. 
The name of the prince of Zebulun when 
the census at Sinai was taken. Xum. 1 : 
9; 2:7: 7 : 24, 29 ; 10:16. 

2. The father of Dathan and Abiram. 
Num. 16 : 1. 12 ; 26 : 8, 9 ; Deut. 11 : 6. 

3. The eldest brother of David. 1 Sam. 
16 : 6 : 17 : 13, 28 ; 1 Chr. 2 : 13 : 2 Chr. 
11 18. 

4. A Levite, ancestor of Samuel. 1 
Chr. 6 : 27. In 1 Sam. 1:1 he is called 
Elihu. and in 1 Chr. 6 : 34, Eliel. 

5. A Gadite leader who joined David 
when in hold. 1 Chr. 12 : 9. 

6. A Levite who was both a porter 



ELI 



ELI 



and a musician. 1 Chr. 15 : 18, 20 ; 
16:5. 

ELI'ADA (whom God knows). 1. A 
son born to David in Jerusalem. 2 Sam. 
5:16: 1 Chr. 3:8. In 1 Chr. 14 : 7 he 
is called Beeliada — Baal substituted for 
El, the true God. 

2. A Benjamite, one of Jehoshaphat's 
captains. 2 Chr. 17 : 17. 

ELI'ADAH (lohom God knows), the 
father of Rezon. 1 Kgs. 11 : 23-25. 

ELF AH [my God is Jehovah). 1. A 
Benjamite chief. 1 Chr. 8 : 27. 

2. One who had a foreign wife. Ezr. 
10:26. 

ELI'AHBA (whom God hides), one 
of David's mighty men. 2 Sam. 23 : 32 ; 
1 Chr. 11 : 33. 

ELFAKIM (whom God establishes). 
1. The master of the household of Hez- 
ekiah. and one of the commissioners ap- 
pointed to treat with the king of Assyr- 
ia. 2 Kgs. 18 : 18, 26, 37 ; 19 : 2 ; Isa. 
22:20; 36:3, 11, 22; 37:2. 

2. The son and successor of Josiah, 
king of Judah. His name was changed 
to Jehoiakim. 2 Kgs. 23:34; 2 Chr. 
36:4. 

3. A priest who helped to dedicate the 
wall. Neh. 12:41. 

4. 5. Two persons in Christ's gene- 
alogy. Matt. 1:13; Luke 3 : 30. 

ELFAM (God's people). 1. The 
father of Bath-sheba, 2 Sam. 11 : 3 ; 
called Ammiel in 1 Chr. 3:5; the names 
mean the same. 

2. One of David's warriors. 2 Sam. 
23 : 34. 

ELFAS, the Greek form of Elijah, 
used in the N. T. See Elijah. 

ELFASAPH (whom God added). 
1. The chief of Gad when the second 
census was taken. Num. 1 : 14 ; 2:14; 
7:42,47; 10:20. 

2. A Levite. Num. 3 : 24. 

ELFASHIB (whom God restores). 
1. A priest in the time of David. 1 Chr. 
24:12. 

2. A descendant of David. 1 Chr. 3: 24. 

3. The high priest in the time of Ne- 
hemiah. Ezr. 10 : 6 : Neh. 3 : 1, 20, 21 : 
12 : 10. 22, 23 ; 13 : 4, 7, 28. 

4. A Levite who had a strange wife. 
Ezr. 10 : 24. 

5. 6. Two similar offenders. 10 : 27, 36. 
ELIATHAH (to whom God 

comes), a Levite musician in the time of 
David. 1 Chr. 25 : 4, 27. 



ELFDAD (whom God loves), the 
Benjamite representative in the allot- 
ment of Canaan. Num. 34 : 21. 

E'EIEL (to whom God is strength). 
1. A chief of cis-Jordanic Manasseh. 1 
Chr. 5 : 24. 

2. An ancestor of Samuel. 1 Chr. 6 : 
34. 

3, 4. A Benjamite chief. 1 Chr. 8:20, 
22. 

5, 6. Warriors under David. 1 Chr. 
11 : 46, 47. 

7. A Gadite chief who joined David 
in the hold. 1 Chr. 12:11. 

8. A Kohathite Levite in David's 
time. 1 Chr. 15:9, 11. 

9. An overseer of offerings in Heze- 
kiah's reign. 2 Chr. 31 : 13. 

ElilE'NAI (toward Jehovah are my 
eyes), a Benjamite chief. 1 Chr. 8 : 20. 

ELIE'ZER (God is help). 1. 
Abraham's steward and confidential 
servant. Gen. 15 : 2. 

2. The second son of Moses and Zip- 
porah. Ex. 18 : 4; 1 Chr. 23 : 15, 17; 
26:25. 

3. A Benjamite chief. 1 Chr. 7 : 8. 

4. A priest in David's reign. 1 Chr. 
15 : 24. 

5. A ruler of the Beubenites in Da- 
vid's time. 1 Chr. 27 : 16. 

6. A prophet who rebuked Jehosha- 
phat. 2 Chr. 20 : 37. 

7. A prominent Jew sent by Ezra to 
fetch Levites. Ezr. 8:16. 

8. 9, 10. Those who had foreign wives. 
Ezr. 10 : 18, 23, 31. 

11. One of Christ's ancestors. Luke 
3:29. 

ELIHOE'NAI (toward Jehovah 
are my eyes), one who returned with 
Ezra. Ezr. 8:4. 

ELIHO'REPH (God his recom- 
pense), one of Solomon's scribes. 1 Kgs. 
4:3. 

ELFHU (God is he; i. e. Jehovah). 
1. An ancestor of Samuel the prophet. 
1 Sam. 1:1. 

2. The eldest brother of David. 1 Chr. 
27 : 18. 

3. A chief of Manasseh who followed 
David to Ziklag. 1 Chr. 12 : 20. 

4. A Korhite Levite in the time of 
David. 1 Chr. 26 : 7. 

5. The son of Barachel the Buzite, a 
friend of Job, and a kind of arbitrator in 
the controversy between him and three 
other of his acquaintances, who had come 

271 



ELI 



ELI 



to sympathize with him in his calamities. 
Job 32 : 2. Elihu was the youngest of 
them all, and therefore diffident about 
giving his opinion in the presence of 
such old men, but still, in opposition to 
the three friends, who accused Job of 
secret sins, he sets forth in soothing 
and yet faithful discourse the idea of 
the disciplinary nature of suffering, 
and therefore tells Job to submit him- 
self in loving confidence unto Jeho- 
vah's chastening hand. See Job. 

ELI' J AH (my God is Jehovah), OR 
ELI'AS (which is the Greek form of 
the name). Matt. 17 : 3. A native of Gil- 
ead, and called the " Tishbite," proba- 
bly from the name of the town or dis- 
trict in which he lived. 1 Kgs. 17 : 1. 
He was one of the greatest of prophets. 
He is first introduced to our notice as a 
messenger from God to Ahab, the wick- 
ed king of Israel, probably in the tenth 
year of his reign. He was sent to ut- 
ter a prophecy of a three years' drought 
in the land of Israel. After delivering 
this startling and distressing prophecy, 
he was directed to flee to the brook Cher- 




Place of Elijah's Sacrifice. 
ith, where he was miraculously fed by 
ravens. When the brook had dried up 
he was sent to a widow-woman of Zare- 
phath, and again the hand of the Lord 
supplied his wants and those of his 
friends. He raised the widow's son to 
life. 1 Kgs. 17. After the famine had 
lasted the predicted period, Elijah en- 
countered Ahab, and then ensued the 
magnificent display of divine power 
and of human trust upon the ridge of 
Carmel. ch. 18. See Ahab. 

The reaction from such a mental 
strain left the prophet in a weak, ner- 
vous condition, and in a fit of despond- 
ency he fled from Jezebel into the 
" wilderness " and desired death. But 
by angel-food nourished and inspirited, 
272 



he journeyed 40 days, until he reached 
Mount Sinai. There the downcast man 
of God was witness of Jehovah's strength 
and experienced Jehovah's tenderness 
in a very remarkable vision. 1 Kgs. 
19 : 9-18. Encouraged by the assur- 
ance that contrary to his supposition he 
did not stand alone as the onjy worship- 
per of the Lord in Israel, and, more- 
over, having a fresh commission grant- 
ed him, forth from Mount Sinai he was 
sent with renewed zeal and confidence. 
He anointed Elisha to be prophet in his 
room, ch.19. He then retired into pri- 
vacy, but after the dastardly murder of 
Naboth he suddenly appeared before 
the guilty king and announced the 
judgment of Jehovah against the roy- 
al pair. ch. 21. Several years after oc- 
curred the prophecy of Ahaziah's death. 
2 Kgs. 1 : 3. See Ahaziah. The slaughter 
by fire of the two companies of troops 
sent to take Elijah must have greatly in- 
creased the popular awe of the prophet. 

After executing the prophetic office 
for probably 15 years Elijah was trans- 
lated to heaven in a miraculous man- 
ner. Elisha had persisted in accompa- 
nying him across the Jordan, and it was 
while they were talking together that 
with a "chariot of fire" Elijah was car- 
ried up. Fifty men of the sons of the 
prophet were witnesses of the extra- 
ordinary scene, although they only be- 
held it afar off. A fruitless search was 
made for the body of Elijah, under the 
impression that the Spirit had depos- 
ited it somewhere. 2 Kgs. 2. B. c. 896. 

Malachi prophesied, 4:5, that Elijah 
would reappear as the forerunner of the 
Messiah. Our Lord explained to his dis- 
ciples that Elijah did really appear in 
the person of John the Baptist. Elijah, 
with Moses, appeared on the Mount of 
Transfiguration, conversing with Jesus. 
Luke 9:28-35. 

Elijah was th&prophetof deeds. He 
left no writings save the letter to Jeho- 
rarn, king of Judah, 2 Chr. 21: 12-15, 
delivered after his translation. But he 
made a profound impression upon his 
contemporaries as a bold man, faithful, 
stern, self-denying, and zealous for the 
honor of God. 

2. A priest who had married a for- 
eign wife. Ezr. 10 : 21. 

EL'IKA (God is rejecter?), one of 
David's warriors. 2 Sam. 23 : 25. 



ELI 



ELI 



E'LIM (trees), the second station of 
Israel after crossing the Red Sea. Ex. 
15 : 27 ; Num. 33 : 9. It had 12 wells 
and 70 palm trees, and has been identi- 
fied with Wady Gharandel, which is the 



first pleasant spot in the wilderness after 
leaving 'Ayun Musa. The water is the 
best on the whole route from Cairo to 
Sinai. A few palm trees still remain. 
Others locate Elim a little farther south, 




Elim, Sinai ( Wady Gharandel. 

in Wady Useit or in Wady Taiyibeh. It 
certainly must have been in this neigh- 
borhood of running brooks, feathery 
tamarisks, wild acacias, and stately 
palm trees. 

ELIMELECH (God is his Icing), 
a Bethlemite, and the husband of Na- 
omi, Ruth's mother-in-law. Ruth 1:2, 
3: 2:1, 3; 4:3, 9. 

ELIOE'NAI (toward Jehovah are 
my eyes). 1. Head of a Benjamite fam- 
ily. 1 Chr. 7 : 8. 

2. Head of a Simeonite family. 1 Chr. 
4:36. 

3. A Korhite Levite. 1 Chr. 26 : 3. 

4. One of David's descendants. 1 Chr. 
3:23, 21. 

5. A priest who had a foreign wife. 
Ezr. 10:22; Neh. 12:41. 

6. Another who had a foreign wife. 
Ezr. 10:27. 

EL'IPHAL (whom God judges), 
one of David's warriors, 1 Chr. 11: 35; 
called Eliphelet in 2 Sam. 23 : 34. 

ELIPHALET (God his deliver- 
ance), one of David's sons, 2 Sam. 5: 
18 ; 1 Chr. 14 : 7 ; called Eliphelet in 1 
Chr. 3:8. 

ELIPHAZ, or ELIPHAZ (God 
18 



After a Photograph by Frith.) 

his strength). 1. The son of Esau and 
Adah, and father of Teman. Gen. 36 : 4, 
10-16; 1 Chr. 1:35, 36. 

2. One of Job's three friends. Job 2 : 
11. He is called the Temanite; hence 
it has been inferred he was a descend- 
ant of the Teman mentioned above. 
His part in the discussions with Job is 
marked by dignity and ability. His 
theme is the unapproachable majesty 
and purity of God. 4 : 12-21 ; 15 : 12- 
16. See Job, Book of. 

ELIPH'ELEH (whom God makes 
distinguished), a Levite porter and mu- 
sician. 1 Chr. 15:18, 21. 

ELIPH'ELET (God his deliver- 
ance). 1. One of David's warriors, 2 
Sam. 23:34; called Eliphal in 1 Chr. 
11:35. 

2. A son of David, 1 Chr. 3:6; call- 
ed Elpalet in 1 Chr. 14 : 5. 

3. Another, and apparently the last, 
of David's sons, 1 Chr. 3:8; called 
Eliphalet, in 2 Sam. 5:16; 1 Chr. 14 : 7. 

4. A descendant of Saul. 1 Chr. 8 : 39. 

5. One who returned with Ezra. Ezr. 
8 : 13. 

6. One who had a foreign wife. Ezr. 
10 : 33. 

273 



ELI 



ELK 



ELISABETH (God her oath; i.e. 
worshipper of God), the wile of Zacha- 
rias, and mother of John Baptist. Luke 
1:5. 

ELISE'US, the Greek form of 
Elisha: used in Luke 4 : 27. 

ELl'SHA ( God is salvation), the 
disciple and successor of Elijah. He 
was the son of Shaphat, and a native 
of Abel-meholah. 1 Kgs. 19:16. Eli- 
jah anointed him, by divine command, 
at Abel-meholah, where he found Elisha 
ploughing. He threw his mantle over him 
as they stood in the held, thus signifying 
the service to which he was called. Eli- 
sha promptly obeyed the call, and leav- 
ing his oxen in the field took leave of 
his father and mother and followed Eli- 
jah. He did not perform any independ- 
ent service until Elijah"s translation, 
which took place some 8 years afterward. 
He then became the head of the school 
of the prophets. He was the counsellor 
and friend of successive kings. He was 
the opposite to Elijah in most things. 
He lived in the city or with his stu- 
dents, honored and sought for, a wel- 
come guest in the homes he graced by 
his presence. And yet he was filled 
with a "double" — i. e. an elder brother's 
■ — portion of Elijah's spirit, both to work 
miracles and to give counsel for pres- 
ent and future emergencies. He multi- 
plied the widow's oil. and when the 
son of the good Shunammite — God's 
reward to her for her kindness to his 
prophet — died, he raised him to life. 
He cured Naainan, smote Gehazi with 
leprosy, misled the Syrians, foretold 
abundant food, and when dying gave the 
king the promise of victory. Strangely 
enough, a year after his burial, during 
the guerrilla-warfare kept up between 
tbe Israelites and the Moa bites, when 
a dead man was accidentally put in his 
tomb, no sooner had the two dead bod- 
ies touched than the later dead revived 
and lived. But God did not recall his 
beloved back to earth. 2 Kgs. 13:21. 

We find the history of Elisha record- 
ed in 2 Kgs. 2-9 and 13: 14-21. He 
exercised the prophetic office upward 
of fid yen's, b. c. cir. S92-832. 

ELI'SHAH {God is salvation), a 
son of Javan, who is supposed to have 
settled upon some islands of the sea. 
Gen. 10 : 4 : Eze. 27 : 7. 

ELI'SHAH {God is salvation), 
274 



THE ISLES OF, from whence Tyre 
obtained her blue and purple. Eze. 27: 
7. They are generally identified with 
^Eolis, Lesbos, Tenedos, and other isl- 
ands of the Grecian Archipelago. 

ELISH'AMA (whom God hears). 
1. The prince of Ephraim in the wilder- 
ness of Sinai. Num. 1:10; 2:18; 7:. 
48, 53 : 10 : 22 : 1 Chr. 7 : 26. 

2, 3. Sons of David. 2 Sam. 5:16; 1 
Chr. 3 : 6, 8 ; 14 : 7. 

4. A priest in Jehoshaphat's day. 2 
Chr. 17:8. 

5. A descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 
2:41. 

6. The grandfather of Ishmael, who 
killed Gedaliah. 2 Kgs. 25 : 25 ; Jer. 
41:1. 

7. A scribe to Jehoiakim. Jer. 36 : 12, 
20, 21. 

ELISHAPHAT (whom God 
judges), a captain employed by Jehoi- 
ada at Joash's accession. 2 Chr. 23 : 1. 

ELISH'EBA {God is her oath), the 
wife of Aaron. Ex. 6 : 23. She was the 
daughter of Amminadab, and sister of 
Naashon. 

ELISHU'A {God his salvation), 
a son of David, 2 Sam. 5:15; 1 Chr. 
14: 5 ; called Elishama in 1 Chr. 3 : 6. 

ELI'UD {God his praise), one of 
Christ's ancestors. Matt. 1:14. 15. 

ELIZ'APHAN (whom God pro- 
tects). 1. The chief of the Kohathite 
Levites, Num. 3:30; 1 Chr. 15:8; 2 
Chr. 29 : 13 : called Elzaphan in Ex. 6 : 
22 ; Lev. 10 : 4. 

2. A chief of Zebulun, commissioner 
in the allotment of Canaan. Num. 34:25. 

ELI'ZIR i God his rock), the prince 
of Reuben during the census. Num. 1 
5: 2:10: 7:30. 35: 10:18. 

EL'KAXAH (God creates),^ the 
name of several descendants of Korah 
mentioned in the 0. T., for we are ex- 
pressly told that " the children of Korah 
died not " in the rebellion of Korah. 
Num. 26:11. 

1. The only one of the name of any 
interest is the husband of Hannah and 
father of Samuel. 1 Sam. 1 : 1 ff . ; 2:11, 
20 ; 1 Chr. 6 : 27, 34. The few words 
that are spoken of him set him in a 
very favorable light. He was a kind 
and faithful husband, a pious Hebrew r 
and a self-sacrificing father. Although 
he was a Levite. he did not apparently 
perform any of the usual offices. Judg- 



ELK 



EMB 



ing from the sacrifices he offered annu- 
ally, 1 Sam. 1 : 4, and from the present, 
he brought to the Lord when Samuel 
Was dedicated, he was a man of wealth. 

2. The son of Korah. Ex. 6:24; 1 
Chr. 6 : 23. 

3. A Korhite. 1 Chr. 6 : 26, 35. 

4. A Levite. 1 Chr. 9 : 16. 

5. A Korhite. 1 Chr. 12 : 6. 

6. An officer of the household of 
Ahaz, probably the second in command. 
2 Chr. 28 : 7. He was killed by Zichri 
the Ephraimite. 

EL'KOSH (God my bow). Nahum 
is called " the Elkoshite," Nah. 1 : 1, 
from which it is inferred that Elkosh 
was his birthplace. The traditional 
tomb of that prophet is in Assyria, 
about 2 miles north of Mosul, at a 
place called Alkush, a town of 300 fam- 
ilies. Grove and others, however, place 
Elkosh in Galilee. 

EL'LASAR (oak, or heap), the coun- 
try of which Arioch was king, Gen. 14 : 
1-9 ; probably Larsa, in lower Babylo- 
nia, on the Euphrates, between Ur and 
Ereeh. Its inscriptions indicate an 
earlier date than Babylon, in which it 
was afterward absorbed. 

ELM. Hos. 4:13. The original is 
elsewhere translated "oak." See Oak. 

ELMO'DAM (extension?), one of 
our Lord's ancestry. Luke 3 : 28. 

EL'tfAAM (God his delight), a man 
two of whose sons were of David's 
guard. 1 Chr. 11 : 46. 

EI/NATHAN (whom God hath 
yiven). 1. The maternal grandfather of 
Jehoiachin. 2 Kgs. 24 : 8. 

2, 3, 4. Three persons in Ezra's time. 
Ezr. 8:16. 

ELO'I, a Syro-Chaldaic form of 
Eli. Mark 15 : 34, 35. 

E'LOX (an oak). 1. The Hittite, 
father of one of Esau's wives. Gen. 
26:31; 36:2. 

2. A son of Zebulun. Gen. 46:14; 
Num. 26 : 26. 

3. A judge of Israel, who is called 
the Zebulonite in Jud. 12 : 11, 12. 

E'LOX (oak), a town in Dan, Josh. 
19 : 43 ; the Pal. Memoirs propose Beit 
JEllo as its site. 

E'LON-BETH'-HA'NAN (oak 

■of home of grace), one of Solomon's 
provision -districts. 1 Kgs. 4:9. Drake 
places it at Reit 'Andn. 
ELOTH. SeeELATH. 



ELTAAL (God his wages), a Ben- 
jamite whose descendants built some 
towns. 1 Chr. 8:11, 12, 18. 

ELTALET (God his deliverance), 
a son of David, 1 Chr. 14: 5; called in 
1 Chr. 3 : 6, Eliphelet. 

EL-PA'RAN, literally "the oak 
of Paran." Gen. 14:6. See Paean. 

EL-TEKEH (God its fear), a 
place in Dan ; given to the Levites. 
Josh. 19 : 44 ; 21 : 23. Whitney iden- 
tifies it with " el-Mansurah, between 
Ramleh and Akir." There is an el- 
Mansurah between Akir and 'Ain Shems, 
which may be the one intended, as there 
is no place of this name between Ram- 
leh and Akir. Conder places El-tekeh 
at Beit Likia, north-east of Latrum. 

EL'-TEKON (God its foundation), 
a town in the hills of Judah. Josh. 15 : 
59. Grove places it 3 or 4 miles north 
of Hebron. 

EL-TO'LAD, or EL'-TOLAD 
(God's kindred), a town in the south of 
Judah ; given to Simeon, Josh. 15 : 30 ; 
19 : 4 ; called Tolad in 1 Chr. 4 : 29. 
Wilton and Grove think it was about 
40 miles south of Beer-sheba, in the 
Wadif el-Thonla. 

E'LUL (naught). Neh. 6 : 15. See 
Months. 

ELiU'ZAI (God is my praises), a 
Benjamite warrior. 1 Chr. 12 : 5. 

ELYMAS. See Bar-jesus, Ser- 
gius Paulas. 

ELZABAD (whom God hath giv- 
en). 1. A Gadite warrior who joined 
David. 1 Chr. 12:12. 

2. A Levite. 1 Chr. 26 : 7. 

EI/ZAPHAN (whom Godprotects), 
a Levite, chief of the Kohathites, Ex. 
6:22; Lev. 10:4; called Elizaphan, 
Num. 3 : 30 ; 1 Chr. 15 : 8 ; 2 Chr. 29 : 
13. 

EMBALM 7 . Gen. 50:2. The prac- 
tice of embalming prevailed at a very 
early period. The Hebrews learned it 
from the Egyptians, by whom it was 
understood very perfectly, for embalm- 
ing entered into their religious life, in- 
asmuch as they maintained it pre- 
served the body for the dwelling-place 
of the soul after it had completed its 
various transmigrations. The embalm- 
ers or physicians were regarded as sa- 
cred officers. 

" The process of embalming was car, 
ried on in various ways. In the most 
275 



EMB 



EMB 



expensive method the brain and viscera ] with bitumen and aromatic substances ; 
were removed, their place being filled I the body was washed in oil or the tar 




Bandaging Mummies and making the Cases. (After Wilkinson.) 

Fig. 1, sawing wood ; a. timber fastened to a stand. 2, cutting the leg of a chair, on a stand. 6, indicating 

the trade of a carpenter. 3, a man falleu asleep, c, c, wood ready for cutting, d, onions and other provisions, 

which occur again at g, with vases, /,/. 4, 5, and 7, binding mummies. 6, brings the bandages. 9, using the 

drill. 8, 10, and 11, painting and polishing the cases, e, h. i, mummy-cases. 

of cedar, bound up in linen smeared I cheap method dispensed with the evis- 
with spices, asphalt, and various gums ; I ceration, but all methods contained the 

steeping in natron. It ap- 



pears also that salt was freely 
used ; and some authors be- 
lieve that heat was employ- 
ed." — Johnson's Encyclopae- 
dia. After this process the 
body was swathed in linen 
bandages, with a profusion 
of aromatics. The price of 
embalming a single body was 
sometimes upward of $1500, 
and from that down to $200 
or $300. The process lasted 
6 in earlier times 40, Gen. 50 : 
3, but in later times TO, days, 
and afterward the body was 
placed in a coffin of syca- 
more-wood or of stone, and 
then placed upright against 
the walls of the house, where 
it often remained for years, if 
the family did not wish to go 
to the expense of burial. Fi- 
nally, the bodies were placed 
in subterraneous vaults in 
the ground or in the rock, 
where they were often found, 
after the lapse of 2000 or 
3000 years, in a state of per- 
fect preservation. 

"We have no evidence that 




Different Forms of Mummy-Cases. (After Wilkinson.) 
1, 2, 4 9. Of wood. 3, 5, 6, 7, 8. Of stone. 10. Of burnt eartheuwarc. emDa l ul i n o- was practised by 

and the whole was placed in a solution | the Hebrews^ except in the cases of 
of natron (saltpetre) for 70 days 
276 



The I Jacob and Joseph, and then it was 



EMB 



EMM 



for the purpose of preserving their re- 
mains till they could be carried into the 
Land of Promise. It is true Asa was 
laid in a "bed 'which was filled with 




Stone Mummy-Case. {After Wilkinson.) 
sweet odors and divers kinds of spices 
prepared by the apothecaries' art," 2 
Chr. 16 : 14, and that mention is made 
of spices in the preparation for our 
Lord's formal burial, John 19 : 39, 40, 
but we cannot interpret these sentences 
as indicating any proper species of em- 
balming. See Bury. 

EMBROIDER, EMBROID- 
ERER, EMBROIDERY. These 
words occur in A. V. in Ex. 28 : 39: 
35 : 35; 38 : 23, but it is doubtful 
if they are used correctly. It seems 



probable that the production called 
" cunning work," Ex. 26 : 1, was more 
like embroidery than the needlework 
which the embroiderer is said to have 
made. But neither kind answers ex- 
actly to the notion of modern embroi- 
dery. 

EMERALD (perhaps the glow- 
ing), a very precious gem of a pure 
green color, to which it owes its chief 
value, as the deepest colors are the most 
esteemed. Ex. 28 : 18; Eze. 27 : 16 ; 28 : 
13. The emerald was anciently obtain- 
ed from Egypt. There is little question 
that the original word should have been 
translated "carbuncle." This gem is 
" a garnet cut with a convex face." See 
Stones, Precious. 

EM'ERODS. 1 Sam. 5:6, 9. The 
name of a painful disease sent upon the 
Philistines : probably it resembled the 
modern disease of the piles. It was 
customary with the heathens to offer to 
their gods figures of wax or metal rep- 
resenting the parts which had been 
cured of disease, whence it is inferred, 
in connection with 1 Sam. 6 : 5, that the 
priests and diviners of the Philistines 
recommended a similar course. 

E'MIMS (terrors), a race of giants 
living east of the Dead Sea; related to 
the Anakim. Gen. 14 : 5; Deut. 2 : 10, 
11. 

EMMANUEL. See Immanuel. 

EM'MAUS (hot springs), a village 
near Jerusalem. Luke 24: 13. Its site 
has been disputed ; among the places 
suggested are, 1. A little hamlet called 
'Amw&s, and known as Nicopolis in the 
third century. It is on the plain of 
Philistia, 22 miles from Jerusalem and 
10 miles from Lydda. This appears 
too far from Jerusalem, as Luke says it 
was only "threescore furlongs" distant, 
or less than 7 miles. 2. Robinson places 
Emmaus near Kuryet el 'Enab, 3 hours 
from Jerusalem, on the road to Jaffa. 
3. Lauge and Grove find Emmaus at 
Kulonieh, 2 leagues or 4^ miles west 
of Jerusalem. 4. Others have lately 
proposed Urt&s, a poor village about 2 
miles south-west of Bethlehem, as the 
site of Emmaus. 5. In the fourteenth 
century Emmaus was placed at Kubei- 
beh, a little over 7 miles north-west of 
Jei-usalem. This view is sustained by 
Dr. H. Zschokke of Jerusalem, who 
has made Emmaus a special study, but 
277 



EMM 



ENH 



Urtas seems to have the strongest argu- 
ments in its favor. 

EMMOR (an ass). Acts 7 : 16. See 
Hamor. 

ENABLED, in 1 Tim. 1 : 12, means 
"qualified." 

ENA'JIM (gate of tioo eyes), a mar- 
ginal reading in Gen. 38 : 14, 21, which 
some scholars understand to mean a 
place identical with Enam. Tayler 
Lewis regards the idea that it refers 
io a city as absurd. 

E'NAM (double spring), a town in 
the low country of Judah. Josh. 15 : 
34. Warren suggests Bier-en-Nahl for 
Enam ; Conder suggests a ruin called 
'Aim, near Thamnah, now Tibneh, as 
the ancient Enam. 

E'NAN {having eyes), the father of 
a prince of Naphtali. Num. 1 : 15 ; 2 : 
29: 7:78, 83: 10:27. 

ENCAMPMENT. See Camp. 

ENCHANTMENTS. This word 
is the translation of several Hebrew 
terms. It comprehends the tricks of 
the Egyptian magicians, Ex. 7 : 11, 22 ; 
8:7; the omens Balaam used, Num. 
24:1; the charming of serpents, Eccl. 
10 : 11 ; and also magical spells, Isa. 
47 : 9, 12. In Jer. 27 : 9 the " enchant- 
ers" were rather seers or augurs. Every 
species of enchantment fell under the 
ban of the Mosaic Law. Lev. 19 : 26 ; 
Deut. 18 : 1 0-1 2. See Divination. 

EN-DOR (spring of Dor), a place in 
Issachar, possessed by Manasseh, Josh. 
17 : 11. where Sisera and Jabin were 
slain, Ps. 83 : 9. 10, and where Saul con- 
sulted the witch, 1 Sam. 28 : 7. It is 
now a miserable village called Enddr, 
about 6£ miles from Jezreel. 

ENDOW'. See Dowry. 

EN-EGLAIM, or EN-EGLA'- 
IM (fountain of tiro heifers), apparent- 
ly a place near the Dead Sea, and pos- 
sibly 'Ain-Ajlah, as suggested by De 
Saulcv. Eze. 47:10. 

EN-GAN'NIM (fountain of gar- 
dens). 1. A place in the lowlands of 
Judah, between Zanoah and Tappuah. 
Josh. 15 : 34; now Umm Jina. 

2. A place in Issachar ; given to the 
Levites, Josh. 19 : 21 ; 21 : 29: probably 
identical with "garden-house" o** 2 Kgs. 
9 : 27. In the list of Levitical cities in 
1 Chr. 6 : 73. Anem seems to have taken 
the place of En-gannim. The latter has , 
been identified with modern Jenin, a I 
278 



flourishing village of 3000 inhabitants, 
on the south side of the great plain of 
Esdraelon. Near by is a large fountain, 
a source of the ancient river Kishon. and 
gardens and orchards surround the town. 
The people, mostly Moslems, are fanat- 
ical, rude, and rebellious, given to fight- 
ing among themselves or with their 
neighbors. En-gannim was also the 
same as Beth-haggan. 

EN-GE'DI (fountain of the kid), a 
place in Judah, on the west side of the 
Dead Sea, Josh. 15 : 62; Eze. 47 : 10, 
about midway between its northern and 
southern ends. 

History. — En-gedi was first called Ha- 
zezon-tamar, Gen. 14 : 7 ; 2 Chr. 20 : 2 ; 
it was David's hiding-place from Saul, 
1 Sam. 23 : 29 ; 24 : 1, and where David 
cut off the skirt of Saul's robe, 24:4; 
its vineyards are mentioned, Song Sol. 
1 : 14 ; now called ' Ain Jidy, near which 
there is a thermal spring, about 1 mile 
from the seashore and from 330 to 500 
feet above the sea, and about 1200 be- 
low the top of the cliffs. The ancient 
city was probably on the slope below 
the spring, where there are a few ruins. 

ENGINES. See War. 

ENGRAVE 7 . Engraved seals are 
spoken of at a very early period of the 
world. The names of the children of 
Israel were directed to be engraved on 
two stones, and the words " Holiness to 
the Lord " were also to be engraved on 
the high priest's breastplate, both to be 
like the engravings of a signet. Ex. 28 : 
11, 36. The signet is mentioned before 
Joseph was sold into Egypt. Job also 
speaks of engraving with an iron pen 
upon a rock. Job 19 : 24. The ten com- 
mandments were engraved, Ex. 32 : 16, 
and graven images were undoubtedly 
among the earliest objects of idolatrous 
worship. Ex. 20:4; 32:4. Allusion is 
also made to the engraver's art in Eze. 
23 : 14. The engraved lines were prob- 
ably filled in with coloring-matter. See 
also Acts 17 : 29. See Seal. 

EN-HAD'DAH (swift fountain), a 
place in Issachar. Josh. 19 : 21. Van 
de Velde and Thomson suggest as its 
site 'Ain Hand, on the western slope of 
Mount Carmel, 2 miles from the sea. 
Grove questions this view. Conder 
proposes Kefr 'Adan. 

EN-HAK'KORE (fountain of the 
crier), a spring opened for Samson. 



ENH 



ENS 



Jud. 15 : 19. Milton refers to it in 
Samson Ayonistes : 

" God, who caused a fountain at thy prayer 
From the dry ground to spring, thy thirst to 

allay, 
After the brunt of battle, can as easy 
Cause light again within thine eyes to spring." 

"Samson's Spring" was pointed out 
on the way from Sochoh to Eleutherop- 
olis from the time of Jerome to the four- 
teenth century, but Robinson rejects this 
site ; Van de Velde suggests a large 
spring near Tell el-Lekiyeh, 4 miles from 
Beer-sheba. This, however, is 30 miles 
from Gaza, while Samson's exploit was 
probably much nearer that city. Conder 
found near Zoreah a spring called ' Ayun 
Kara, which name seemed to resemble 
En-hakkore. 

EN-HA'ZOR {spring of the village), 
a city of Naphtali, near Kedesh, Josh. 
19 : 37 : now, perhaps, Hazireh, a ruin 
near Dibl. 

EN-MISH'PAT (fountain of judg- 
ment). Gen. 14 : 7. See Kadesh. 

ENOCH {initiating). 1. A son of 
Cain, after whom he named a " city," 
the first-mentioned city in the Bible. 
Gen. 4 : 17; Heb. 11 : 5. 

2. The son of Jared, and father of 
Methusaleh. Gen. 5 : 18, 21-24. He is 
called '• the seventh from Adam," Jude 
14, to distinguish him from the son 
of Cain, third from Adam. We are 
told that he " walked with God" — an 
expressive figure to denote the closest 
communion with the divine Being and 
entire conformity to his will. And con- 
cerning his departure from the world, 
we are told that " he was not, for God 
took him " — a phrase which imports a 
mere change of residence, without suf- 
fering the ordinary dissolution of the 
body. In this case, as well as in Eli- 
jah's, the body was clothed with immor- 
tality, or endued with the immortal 
principle by the immediate power of 
God. 1 Cor. 15 : 50. 

Enoch, Book of. There is only one 
reference in the Bible, Jude 14, to 
Enoch as a prophet, but an Apocryphal 
book called after him was well known 
to the early fathers. It was then lost ' 
to the knowledge of Europe, except in 
fragments, until Bruce, in 1773. brought I 
from Abyssinia three manuscript copies \ 
containing the complete ^Ethiopic trans- 
lation. Archbishop Lawrence made an I 



English translation of the book, which 
was the basis of various subsequent edi- 
tions, which were rendered comparative- 
ly worthless when, in 1851, Dr. Dillinann 
published a new edition of the iEthiopic 
text, and in 1853 a German translation. 
" The book consists of a series of reve- 
lations supposed to have been given to 
Enoch and Noah, which extend to the 
most varied aspects of nature and life, 
and are designed to offer a complete 
vindication of the action of Providence." 
It was never received by the Jews nor 
by the fathers as inspired. The author- 
ship and date are unknown. 

ENOCH, a city built by Cain. Gen. 
4:17. 

E'NON, OR ^E'NON [springs), a 
place near Salim where John was bap- 
tizing. John 3 : 23. Three sites have 
been proposed for it : 1. The traditional 
one, by Jerome, about 8 miles south of 
Beisan; not confirmed by later authori- 
ties. 2. In WadyFdrah, 5 miles north-east 
of Jerusalem ; suggested by Dr. Barclay. 
3. The more probable site, pointed out 
by Robinson, Stanley, and Conder. This 
is east of Nablus, near the village Solim, 
} and north of the latter, in Wady Fdr'ah 
(but not the same valley as in No. 2), 
I where there are copious springs ; and 3 
or 4 miles north of the springs is a vil- 
lage called 'Ainun or iEnon. The site 
may therefore be regarded as settled 
with some degree" of certainty. 

E'NOS [man), the first-born of Seth. 
Gen. 4:26; 5 : 6, 7, 9-1 1 ; Luke 3 : 38. 

E'NOSH (man), a form of Enos. 1 
Chr. 1 : 1. 

EN-RIM'MON (fountain of the 
pomegranate), perhaps the same as Ain 
and Rimmon, Josh. 15 : 32, and Ain 
Remmon, Josh. 19 : 7, and Ain Rim- 
mon, 1 Chr. 4 : 32 ; Neh. 11 : 29. Van 
de Velde and Wilton place it at Urn er~ 
Rumdnnn, between Eleutheropolis and 
Beer-sheba, where there is a large spring. 

EN-RO'GEL (fountain of the ful- 
ler), a spring not far from Jerusalem, 
Josh. 15 : 7 ; 18 : 16 ; 2 Sam. 17 : 17, 21 ; 
1 Kgs. 1 : 9. Some place it at the "well 
of Job," in the valley of Hinnom. M. 
Garni eau would identify it with the Foun- 
tain of the Virgin. See Jerusalem. 

EN-SHEMESH (fountain of the 
Sun), a spring between Judah and Ben- 
jamin, Josh. 15 : 7 ; 18 : 17 ; probably 
the same as that now called the " Apos- 
279 



ENS 



EPH 



tie's Spring," about 1 h miles east of Beth- 
any, and the first halting-place for trav- 
ellers from Jerusalem to Jericho. 

EN'SIGN. See Banners. 

ENSUE' means, in 1 Pet. 8:11, "to 
follow after and overtake." 

EN-TAPPUAH (apple, or citron 
spring), a place in Manasseh. Josh. 17 : 
7. See Tappitah. 

ENTREAT', when spoken of con- 
duct, means '* to treat ;" as, " to entreat 
well." 

EP.EN ETUS (p ra ised), one whom 
Paul in Rom. 16 : 5 called his " well-be- i 
loved," and " the first fruits of Acha- | 
ia" — better, "of Asia" — unto Christ. 

EP'APHRAS [lovely, a contraction | 
of " Epaphroditus "), a distinguished 
disciple of Colossaa, and a faithful min- j 
ister of the gospel. Col. 1: 7. His cha- ' 
racter is described by the apostle Paul, j 
Col. 1:7.8; 4 : 12, whose fellow-pris- J 
oner he was at Rome. Phile. 23. 

EPAPHRODITUS {lovely), an 
eminent disciple who resided at Philip- 
pi, and was commissioned by the church 
in that city to visit the apostle Paul 
during his imprisonment at Rome; to 
which circumstance, and the procuring 
cause of it, the apostle alludes with 
strong commendation. Phil. 2:25; 4:18. 

E'PHAH (darlcness). 1. A son of 
Midian, and grandson of Abraham, 
Gen. 25:4; 1 Chr. 1:33; descendants 
mentioned in Isa. 60 : 6. 

2. A concubine of Caleb, the son of 
Hezron. 1 Chr. 2:46. 

3. One of Judah's descendants. 1 Chr. 
2:47. 

E'PHAH (from the Egyptian, a 
measure, especially of corn). See Meas- 
ures. 

E'PHAI (weary), a Netophathite 
whose sons repaired unto Gedaliah. Jer. 
40:8. 

ETHER (a calf). 1. A son of Mid- 
ian. Gen..25:4: 1 Chr. 1 : 33. 

2. A descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 
17. 

3. A chief of the trans-Jordanic Ma- 
nasseh. 1 Chr. 5:24. 

E'PHES-DAM'MIM (boundary 
of bloodshed), called also PAS-DAM'- 
MIM. 1 Sam. 17 : 1 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 13. 
Van de Velde locates it at a ruin in 
Wady Sunt called Damim, but Conder 
thinks we have a trace of the ancient 
Ephes-dammim in the modern Beit 
280 



Fased, or " House of Bleeding," near 
Shochoh. ( Tent-Life, ii. p. 160.) 

EPHE'SIANS, the citizens of 
Ephesus. Acts 19:28. 

Epistle to, was written by Paul to 
the Christians at Ephesus. The church 
in that renowned city was established 
and JDuilt up under Paul's ministry, 
Acts 18: 19, 21 ; 19, during the years 
54-57. This letter was written by the 
apostle about a. d. 62, while he was in 
prison at Rome, and forwarded by 
Tychicus, a beloved bi other and faith- 
ful minister. Eph. 6:21. While other 
Epistles of Paul were evidently called 
forth by the circumstances of the church 
to which they were addressed, this Epis- 
tle is of a general character, and was 
intended for a number of congregations 
in Asia Minor. He expatiates with 
great fervor and eloquence upon the 
doctrine of election, upon the richness 
of the Christian inheritance, upon the 
new relationship between God and us — 
that in Christ Jesus we become " fellow- 
citizens with the saints, and of the 
household of God." The succeeding 
prayer is surely one of the most mar- 
vellous outbursts of the apostle's piety, 
under the guidance of the Holy Spirit. 
The main doctrinal thought of the Epis- 
tle is the Church in Christ Jesus, the 
eternal principles of her life, her unity 
of many members, her warfare and her 
victory, her steady growth, and her 
glorious end. Hence, in the hortatory 
portion, or last three chapters, he urges 
the duty of preserving unity, and makes 
the relation of Christ to bis Church and 
of the Church to Christ the ideal stand- 
ard of the domestic relation between 
man and wife and parents and chil- 
dren. 

The Epistle to the Colossians was 
written at the same time. Hence there 
is great similarity between them. See 
Colossians, Epistle to. 

EPHESUS, the most important 
commercial city of Asia Minor, "one 
of the eyes of Asia," Smyrna, 40 miles 
to the north, being the other. Ephesus 
stood upon the south side of a plain, 
with mountains on three sides and the 
Icarian Sea on the west. The river 
Cayster ran across the plain. 

Scripture History.— Paul visited Ephe- 
sus on his second tour, Acts 18 : 19-21 ; 
Apollos was instructed there by Aquila 



■ " : 




..-____. 



EPH 



EPH 



and Priscilla, 18 : 24-26 ; Paul dwelt 
there 3 years, Acts 19 ; charged the 
elders of the church, 20:16-28; the 
angel of the church of Ephesus is 
named in Rev. 2:1-7. The city is a 
complete desolation ; the ruins of the 
Stadium and theatre remain, but wild 
beasts haunt them. On the plain is a 
little Turkish village called Ayasalouk, 
from St. John, who is supposed to have 
ended his days at Ephesus. The an- 
cient city often changed its name and 
its site. In the time of the Trojan war 
it was called Alopes, then Orthygia, next 
Morges, then Smyrna, Trachae, and 
Samornion, then Ptela?, then Ephesus, 
and now Ayasalouk. 

Building*. — In apostolic times Ephe- 
sus contained three remarkable build- 
ings : 1. The Temple of Diana, one of 
the Seven Wonders of the world. It was 
erected at the joint cost of all Asia, and 
was 220 years in building. Its length 
was 425 feet, and its breadth 220 feet. 
Built of purest marble, it is said to have 
gleamed like a meteor. Columns of 
Parian marble, 60 feet high and 127 in 
number, supported the roof. Its doors 
were of carved cypress. The jambs 
were of marble, and the transom above 
was a single block of vast dimensions, 
reputed to have been put in place by 
the goddess herself. The hall contained 
famous pieces of sculpture by Praxit- 
eles, Phidias, and other masters ; in 
the gallery, hung with master-pieces of 
paintings, one by Apelles is estimated 
to have cost upward of $190,000. In 
the centre of the court was an image of 
the goddess, which the superstitious 
people believed fell down from heaven. 
Acts 19 : 35. See Diana. Ephesus fell 
a prey to the Goths, A. d. 262, and the 
remains of its magnificent temple were 
hidden from the world until brought to 
light, in 1869, by Mr. J. T. Wood, who 
spent eleven years, from 1863 to 1874, 
in exploration about the ancient city. 
He found two large stones containing 
inscriptions in Greek and Latin record- 
ing that certain walls were built by order 
of Augustus, b. c. 6. Twenty feet below 
the surface was found a pavement be- 
longing to the most ancient of the three 
temples which rose successively to Diana. 
The first femple, enlarged and beautified 
and called the second temple, was set on 
fire b. c. 356, on the night Alexander the 
282 



Great was born. Some 2000 mediaeval 
coins were discovered in 1871, which are 
now in the British Museum. 

2. The Theatre, Acts 19 : 29, the largest 
structure of its kind built by the Greeks, 
and claimed to be capable of seating 
50,000 spectators. Mr. Wood estimated 
its seating capacity at 24,500 persons. 

3. The Stadium, or Circus, 685 feet 
long by 200 feet wide, an arena in which 
the Ephesian people witnessed foot-ra- 
cings, wrestlings, and fights with wild 
beasts. The combatants were usually 
condemned criminals, who were sent 
naked into the arena to be torn in 
pieces by the wild beasts. 1 Cor. 15 : 32. 
The victims were sometimes exposed at 
the end of the combat, which gives 
great vividness to the apostle's figure 
in 1 Cor. 4 : 9. Some of these games 
were held in honor of Diana, and the 
silver shrines or images of the goddess 
made by Demetrius and his fellow-crafts- 
men were eagerly purchased for house- 
hold idols by visitors. Acts 19 : 24. A 
railroad has been built from Ephesus 
to Smyrna by an English company. 

EPH'LAL {judgment), a descend- 
ant of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 37. 

EPHOD (ephod, or image), the 
father of one who helped in apportion- 
ing the land under Joshua and Eleazar. 
Num. 34 : 23. 

EPHOD, one of the articles of the 
priest's official dress. Ex. 28 : 6. It was 
made of plain linen, 1 Sam. 2:18; 2 
Sam. 6:14, except the ephod of the 
high priest, which was embroidered 
with various colors. It consisted of 
two parts, one covering the back and the 
other the breast, clasped together upon 
each shoulder with a large onyx stone, 
upon which were engraved the names 
of the twelve tribes, six on each stone; 
and upon the place where it crossed the 
breast was the breastplate. See Breast- 
plate. It was further fastened by a 
" curious girdle of gold, blue, purple, 
scarlet, and fine twined linen." The 
ephod, or something resembling it and 
called by the same name, was worn by 
others besides the priests. 1 Chr. 15 : 27 
and passages before cited. See High 
Prikst. 

E'PHRAIM (double fruit/ulneas), 
the second son of Joseph. Gen. 41 : 52. 
Though younger than Manasseh, he was 
the object of peculiar favor, and the pre- 



EPH 



EPI 



diction of their grandfather, Jacob, was 
literally fulfilled. Comp. Gen. 48 : 8-20 ; 
Num. 2:18-21. 

E'PHRAIM (double fruitfulness), 
a territory named after Joseph's second 
son, Gen. 41 : 50-52 ; its boundaries are 
given in Josh. 16 : 1-10. It lay in the 
centre of Canaan, south of Manasseh 
and north of Benjamin and Dan, ex- 
tending from the Jordan to the Medi- 
terranean Sea. It was about 55 miles 
long, and about 30 miles in its greatest 
breadth. 

Physical Features. — It may be divi- 
ded into three groups : 1. The valley of 
the Jordan ; 2. The hill-country ; 3. The 
plain of Sharon, on the sea-coast. All 
these were well watered and fertile, ful- 
filling the blessing of Moses in Deut. 
33 : 13-16. 

History. — For the early history of this 
territory, see Canaan. For more than 
400 years Ephraim, with Manasseh and 
Benjamin, exercised undisputed pre- 
eminence. Joshua and Samuel were 
Ephraimites. In its territory, at Shi- 
loh, the tabernacle was set up. Josh. 
18 : 1. The territory was prominent 
during the reigns of David and Solo- 
mon ; but after the revolt of the ten 
tribes from Rehoboam, Jeroboam select- 
ed Shecbem in Ephraim as his capital, 
1 Kgs. 12 : 25, when this territory be- 
came the chief portion of the northern 
kingdom of Israel. See Israel. King- 
dom of. It was desolated by the Assyr- 
ians at the time of the Babylonish Cap- 
tivity, and the country was repeopled 
by colonists, and later its name was 
changed to Samaria. See Samaria. 

Ephraim, Gate of, one of the gates 
of ancient Jerusalem, 2 Kgs. 14: 13; 2 
Chr. 25 : 23 ; Neb.. 8 : 16 ; 12 : 39 ; prob- 
ably on the north side, as the present 
Damascus gate is. 

Ephraim, Mount, a name applied to 
the hill-country of Ephraim, extending 
from Bethel to the plain of Jezreel ; 
called also the " mountains of Israel," 
Josh. 11 : 21, and " mountains of Sama- 
ria." Jer. 31 : 5, 6 : Am. 3 : 9. 

Ephraim, Wood of, a forest in which 
the great battle was fought when Absa- 
lom was killed. 2 Sam. 18 : 6. It lay 
east of the Jordan, in Gilead, near Ma- 
hanaim. Thick woods of oaks and tere- 
binths still exist in that region. 

E'PHRAIN (Hebrew, Ephron, two 



fawns), one of the places taken from Is- 
rael by Judah, 2 Chr. 13 : 19: perhaps 
Ophrah is meant, though some think it 
is the same as the ''city called Ephra- 
im" to which Jesus retired. John 11: 
54. This was in the wilderness, per- 
haps at el-Taiyibeh, about 5 miles 
north-east of Bethel. 

EPHRATAH (fruitful), Caleb's 
wife, 1 Chr. 2:50; 4:4; called Eph- 
rath in 1 Chr. 2:19. 

EPHRATAH, and EPH'.- 
RATH (fruitful), the original name 
of Bethlehem. Ruth 4 : 11 ; Ps. 132 : 6 ; 
Gen. 35:16, 19; 48:7. See Bethle- 
hem. 
EPH'RATH. See Ephratah. 
E'PHRON (fawn-like), the son of 
Zohar the Hittite, of whom Abraham 
bought the field and cave of Machpelah. 
Gen. 23:8. 

E'PHRON, MOUNT (fawn-like), 
on the northern boundary of Judah, 
Josh. 15 : 19 : probably the range of 
hills west of Wady Beit-Hanina. 

EPICUREANS, or EPICU- 
REANS. This was a sect of Gentile 
i philosophers founded by Epicurus, B. c. 
i 342-271, who was born on the island of 
! Samos, but taught his philosophy at 
1 Athens. They were in high repute at 
i Athens in Paul's days. Acts 17 : 18. 
' Among their doctrines were these — that 
the world came into being and will be 
dissolved by chance, or by the effect of 
mechanical causes moved by chance ; 
that all events happen by chance or are 
occasioned by mechanical causes; that 
j the soul dies with the body ; that there 
is no future retribution ; and that man's 
chief happiness lies in pleasure or bod- 
I ily ease. This philosophy obtained a 
wide popularity in Asia Minor and in 
Rome as well as in the city and land 
j of its originator. It derided the my- 
! thology of the ancients, but proposed 
nothing better. It created a frame of 
; mind hostile to all religion, and par- 
ticularly to the serious doctrines of 
the gospel. 

EPIS'TLES, the word applied to 

| the apostolic letters in the N. T. The 

existence of letters among the Hebrews 

and the mode of their composition will 

be discussed under Letter, Writing. 

The Epistles of the N. T. arose from 

: the necessity of correspondence as a 

| substitute for the personal instruction 

283 



EE 



ERE 



of the apostles with the "widening of 
their field of labor. They may be di- 
vided into three classes : congregational, 
those addressed to a particular church 
and dealing with doctrinal or practical 
questions ; private, those directed to in- 
dividuals, but still containing exhorta- 
tion and advice fitted for many; and 
general, those intended for universal 
use. Paul contributes thirteen or four- 
teen : John, three; Peter, two; James 
and Jude, one each. 

In their outward form the Epistles 
are such as would be expected from 
Jews situated in the midst of a Greek 
civilization. They begin (the Epistle 
to the Hebrews and 1 John excepted) 
with the writer's name and the person 
or church to whom the letter is address- 
ed ; in the case of 1 and 2 Peter and 
Jude, with a more general address. 
The usual Greek and Hebrew saluta- 
tion ("grace" and "peace") follows. 
In the letter the first person, singular 
or plural, is used indiscriminately. The 
individual messages are reserved to the 
close. 

Since the Epistles of Paul are the 
most numerous and important, their form 
and method demand fuller treatment. 
His opening salutation combines the 
Greek "grace" with the Hebrew 
"peace," and transforms the prevail- 
ing ideas of physical health and tem- 
poral comfort into the deep meaning 
of the saving grace of God and peace 
in Christ. Paul employed an amanu- 
ensis. This fact explains many of his 
peculiarities ; his sentences are some- 
times involved and have the vehemence 
of a speaker, and not the calmness and 
control of a writer. In order, however, 
to authenticate his letters, Paul added a 
few words, a salutation, or a sentence in 
his own hand, probably employing larger 
letters than those in ordinary use, per- 
haps because of his defective eyesight. 
Ye see with how large letters I have 
written unto you with my own hand, 
he writes unto the Galatians, 6 : 11. 
Every one of his Epistles was written 
to meet some emergency ; hence they 
bear the imprint of a historical oc- 
casion. Each Epistle has a clearly-de- 
fined fundamental idea which governs 
every part of it. They are tracts for his 
time, and yet tracts for all times and all 
congregations, 
284 



The earlier Epistles antedate the Gos- 
pels. They arose out of the necessities 
of the young Church. Questions would 
constantly be submitted to the apostles 
for their decision. Then, too, there 
were Christians to be encouraged and 
dangers to be pointed out, and so there 
were multiform occasions for these let- 
ters. It is quite manifest that our N. 
T. contains only a portion of this corre- 
spondence. But every letter which was 
in its nature adapted for the universal 
Church has been preserved as part of 
her canon. See Canon. 



Thessalonians I.. 
Thessalonians II. 

Galatiaus 

Corinthians I 

Corinthians II... 

Romans : .. 

James 

Colossians 

Ephesians 

Philemon 

Philippians 

Hebrews 



Peter I > 

Timothy I 

Titus...' 

Timothy II 

Peter II 

Jude 

John I., II., III.. 



Corinth ) 
Corinth J **■ 

Ephesus 

Ephesus ; 
Macedouia > 

Corinth 

Jerusalem .. 
Rome ~) 
Rome I 
Rome [ *•*" 
Rome J 

Italy 

Babylon } 

or Rome j 

Macedouia . . 

Macedonia . . 

Rome 

Rome 

Unknown 

Ephesus .... 



Date 
{approximate). 



53 
56 or 57 
58 
59 
62 (?) 

61-63 

64(?) 
64(?) 

bet. 64 and 66 (?) 
bet. 64 and 66 (?) 
67 or 68 (?) 
67 or 68 
bet. 80 and 90 
bet. 96 and 100 



ER (watchful), Judah's first-born, 
slain for his wickedness. Gen. 38 : 3, 6, 
7; Num. 26:19; 1 Chr. 2:3. 

2. A son of Shelah. 1 Chr. 4:21. 

3. A name in the genealogical list of 
Christ. Luke 3 : 28. 

E'RAN (watchful), an Ephraimite. 
Num. 26:36. 

ERAS'TUS (beloved). 1. One of 
Paul's attendants, whom he sent with 
Timothy into Macedonia, Acts 19 : 22, 
and whom he salutes in his letter to 
Timothy. 2 Tim. 4 : 20. 

2. The "chamberlain" or treasurer 
of Corinth, and one of Paul's converts. 
Rom. 16 : 23. Some identify him with 
the preceding, but upon insufficient 
grounds : for in this case we should 
expect the mention of his office in the 
Acts and in Timothy, as in Romans — 
unless, indeed, he received the office after 
his conversion, which is very unlikely. 

E'RECH (enduring), a city of Nun- 
rod. Gen. 10:10. Its people are called 
Achevites and noticed in connection with 
the Babylonians. Ezr, 4:9, Jerome jden- 



EEI 



ESH 



tifies Erechwith Edessa,inMesopotamia; 
others identify it with Orchoe or Orech 
of the Greek and Roman geographers. 
It corresponded to modern Warka, 
about 120 miles south-east of Babylon, 
where there are ruins of ancient build- 
ings, and a rampart of earth nearly 6 
miles in circumference and some places 
40 ftet high. There are ruins of three 
considerable buildings, the most im- 
portant one being 200 feet square and 
about 100 feet high. Many of the 
bricks bear the name of Urukh, a king 
who is said to have lived about B. c. 
2250. Warka is desolate — a city of 
tombs which even the jackal and hyena 
appear to shun. 

E'RI (watching, i. e. icorshipping, 
Jehovah), one of the sons of Gad. Gen. 
46: 16; Num. 26:16. 

ESA'IAS, the same with Isaiah. 
Matt. 3 : 3, etc. 

ESAR-HAD'DON, son and sue 
cessor of Sennacherib, king of Assyria, 
and one of the greatest of her kings. 
2 Kgs. 19 : 37. He is the only Assyrian 
monarch who actually ruled in Baby- 
lon. He was the builder of magnifi- 
cent structures, including 3 palaces 
and 30 temples. His reign extended 
from b. c. 680 to 667, and during it 
Manasseh, the king of Judah, was taken 
prisoner by his captains and carried be- 
fore him at Babylon, and kept a captive 
for some time. 2 Chr. 33:11. 

E'SAU, or E'DOM, son of Isaac 
and Rebecca, and twin brother of Ja- 
cob. Gen. 25 : 25 j Gen. 36 : 1. The 
most important events of his life are 
so intimately connected with the life of 
Jacob that they will be considered under 
Jacob. His family settled on Mount 
Seir, east of Jordan, which was hence 
called Edom, and his descendants were 
the Edomites, one of the most powerful 
and formidable nations of that age. 
See Edom. 

ESCHEW 7 (from the old French 
eschever) means "to flee from." Job 
1:1, 8: 2:3: 1 Pet. 3:11. 

ESDRAELON, the great plain in 
Samaria. See Jezreel. 

ES'DRAS, THE BOOKS OF. 
These two Apocryphal books are not of 
any historical value. First Esdras is 
little more than a compilation, after the 
Septuagint, of the canonical Ezra, pref- 
aced by the last two chapters of 2 Chron- 



icles, with a piece of Nehemiah at the 
end. It contains a history of the tem- 
ple and its services from Josiah to 
Ezra. But chs. 3 and 4 are original, 
and contain a legend of a contest in 
wisdom between Zerubbabel and two 
others, held before Darius. The ques- 
tion in debate was, " Which is the 
strongest power?" The king was so 
much pleased with Zerubbabel's answer 
that he promised to give him anything 
he might ask, and, further, a seat next 
him and the name of " cousin." Zerub- 
babel took this occasion to ask that the 
Jews might have permission to rebuild 
their city and temple. The book breaks 
off abruptly ; indeed, the present First 
Esdras seems to be only a fragment of a 
much larger work. We do not know the 
name of the compiler. It was probably 
written in Egypt, some time in the sec- 
ond century b. c. Its object was to 
present a picture of the liberality of 
Cyrus and Darius toward the Jews as a 
pattern to the heathen rulers of Judaea 
in the author's time. 

Second Esdras is of less value than 
First. It exists in a Latin transla- 
tion. The Greek original has not been 
found. It is, however, curious as a rev- 
elation of the Jewish mind of the day 
upon their future. It purports to con- 
tain a series of visions vouchsafed to 
Ezra. They are. upon certain mysteries 
in the moral world and the final tri- 
umph of the righteous. The book was 
written in Egypt, probably before 
Christ, but interpolated by Christians. 

E'SEK (strife), a well in the valley 
of Gerar, dug by Isaac's herdsmen. 
Gen. 26 : 20. 

ESH-BAAL (Baal's man), the 
same with Ishbosheth. 1 Chr. 8 : 33 • 9 : 
39. See Ishbosheth. 

ESH'-BAN (wise man), a descend- 
ant of Seir the Horite. Gen. 36 :26 ; 1 
Chr. 1:41. 

ESH'COL (cluster), one of Abra- 
ham's allies. Gen. 14:13.24. 

ESH'COL f hunch, or cluster), THE 
VALLEY OF, a valley in the land 
of Canaan. Num. 13 : 23, 24; 32 : 9 ; 
Deut. 1 : 24. It has been placed at 'Ain 
el-Kliashkali, north of Hebron, but 
Palmer and Drake would place it at 
Tel Hat el-'Anab, or "grape-mounds," 
near Beer-sbeba. Van Lennep has found 
clusters of grapes 18 inches in length, 
285 



ESBT 



ESS 



and it is said that bunches weighing ! 
from 12 to 20 pounds are still found in 
southern Palestine. 

E'SHEAN, a place in the mountains 
of Judah. Josh. 15 : 52. Van de Velde 
suggests the ruins of Khursa, near He- j 
bron, as its site; Knobel would identify 
it with Shema, 1 Chr. 2 : 43 ; Conder 
identifies it with es-Simia. 

E'SHEK [oppression), a descendant 
of Saul. 1 Chr. 8 : 39. 

ESH'TAOL [recess, or hollow way), 
a town in the lowlands of Judah, Josh. 
15 : 33 ; given to Dan. 19 : 41. It was 
the region of Samson's boyhood and j 
burial. Jud. 13 : 25 ; 16 : 31. The Dan- 
ites went out from thence. 18 : 2-11. 
Kobinson and others suggest Yeshua as j 
its site ; Black proposes Eshu'a, 1 mile ] 
east of Sura [Zoreah) : and Grove pro- 
poses Knstul, east of Kuriet-el-Enab. 

ESHTEMO'A [obedience), a de- j 
soendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 19. 

ESHTEMO'A, or ESHTEM'- 
OA [woman of renown f), a town in the 
hill-country of Judah; given to the ' 
priests, Josh. 21 : 14; 1 Chr. 6 : 57 ; ! 
visited by David, 1 Sam. 30 : 31 ; now j 
called Semu'a a village of about 200 in- • 
habitants. Among its houses are ruins i 
and ancient hewn stones. It was also 
called Eshtemoh. Josh. 15 : 50. 

ESH'TEMOH. See Eshtemoa. 

ESH'TON [effeminate). It is usu- ! 
ally taken as the name of a descendant 
of Judah, but Grove thinks it was prob- 
ably a place in Judah. 1 Chr. 4:11, 12. \ 

ES'LiI [reserved by Jehovah), a per- 
son in Christ's genealogy. Luke 3 : 25. 

ESPOUSE'. See Betroth. 

ESR03I, Matt. 1:3; Luke 3 : 33. 
The same with Hezron. Gen. 46 : 12. 

ESSE'XES. This Jewish sect is 
not mentioned in the N. T., because they j 
lived in retired communities, and hence ! 
Christ and his apostles did not encoun- 
ter them. They represent the mystic 
and ascetic forms of Judaism, while the 
Pharisees represented the orthodox, and 
the Sadducees the rationalistic and lati- 
tudinarian, forms. Their origin is un- 
known. Some think they started in the j 
time of the Maccabees, about B. c. 150, i 
while others trace them back to the | 
Rechabites. Their name has never ' 
been satisfactorily explained. Some 
think it means ''the retiring" or ''the 
puritan ;" others, " the healers." Bishop 
286 



Lightfoot prefers the meaning "pious;" 
Philo makes it mean " holy;" Josephus 
considers it equivalent to "oracle." 

From the two last-mentioned authors 
we derive our information, which, though 
not extensive, is sufficient to give us a 
vivid picture of their mode of life. In 
Josephus's day most of the Essenes lived 
in small colonies or villages at long dis- 
tances from the towns, principally in the 
neighborhood of the Dead Sea, although 
some lived in the cities. They differed 
likewise in regard to marriage, the laxer 
practising it, but the stricter being celi- 
bates. Inasmuch as the latter were 
really the majority, our attention will 
be limited to them. 

"Ascetic communism expresses the pe- 
culiarity of the Essenic movement." 
They had all things common. Philo 
says : " There is no one who has a house 
so absolutely his own private property 
that it does not in some sense also belong 
to every one; for besides that they all 
dwell together in companies, the house 
is open to all those of the same notions 
who come to them from other quarters. 
There is one storehouse among them 
all ; their expenses are all in common, 
as are their garments and food. They 
do not retain their wages as their own, 
but bring it into the common stock. 
They take care of their sick and honor 
their elders." Each settlement had near 
it a room in which the members assem- 
bled at regular hours. Each Essene rose 
before sunrise, and said his morning 
prayer with his face turned toward the 
East. At daybreak they went to work: 
farming, cattle-raising, bee-keeping, and 
such-like peaceful operations, were thei: 
occupations. They shunned commerce, 
war, and trade. They dressed simply — 
not for show, but for decency and com- 
fort: in the winter in a hairy mantle, 
and in the warm season in an undergar. 
ment without sleeves. Besides, at all 
times, they wore a leathern apron and 
carried little spades. They worked un- 
til 11 a.m. — the fifth hour — then bathed, 
dressed themselves in white linen (the 
dress of the sect), and then assembled 
for the meal. A priest said grace before 
and after the meal, which was always 
extremely simple, since they abstained 
from meat and wine. Then, having 
sung a hymn, they resumed their work, 
and worked until sunset. The seventh 



EST 



EST 



day of the week was kept as an absolute 
rest, the time passed in the reading and 
exposition of the Law and their own pe- 
culiar books. While observing the Law 
in many points, they broke it in one im- 
portant particular: they did not go to 
the feasts to sacrifice in Jerusalem, 
though they regularly sent gifts. This 
anomaly has been explained by their 
circumstances : their asceticism pre- 
vented them from partaking of the 
feasts, their mode of worship .prevented 
them from entering the temple. 

Since they abjured marriage, they re- 
cruited their ranks by adopting chil- 
dren, whom they took great pains in 
teaching. But they were never numer- 
ous. Philo states that in his time they 
did not number more than 4000. He 
who would join them had to endure a 
three years' novitiate, during which he 
was excluded from their society, but 
was compelled all this while to live 
on their spare diet and observe their 
rules. In the first year the novice wore 
the apron and the white linen garment 
and carried the spade. At the end of 
the year he was made a " partaker of 
the waters of purification." At the end 
of the third, after he had bound himself 
with tremendous oaths — though at other 
times oaths were absolutely forbidden — 
to be worthy of the order and obedient 
to its rulers, and especially " to keep 
the books of the order and the names 
of the angels," he was admitted into 
full membership. The " books " contain- 
ed probably speculations in regard to the 
future, inasmuch as the Essenes enjoyed 
distinction from the number of their 
prophets. The "names of the angels" 
may have been magic formulae, since the 
Essenes practised magic. Banishment 
from the order was equivalent to starva- 
tion if the banished man desired rein- 
statement, since their peculiar notions 
would prevent him receiving food from 
any one not an Essene. 

In regard to theologv, the Essenes be- 
lieved in unconditional Providence, the 
immortality of the soul, but not in the 
resurrection of the body, in future re- 
wards to the righteous, and in future 
punishment to the wicked, who are 
''banished to a cold and dark corner, 
where they suffer unspeakable tor- 
ments." They believed they had among 
them prophets, and indeed this was the 



popular opinion. Their celibacy, sun- 
homage, and abstinence from sacrifice 
were their non-Jewish qualities, derived 
from the Zoroastrian religion; to these 
must be added their magical rites and 
intense striving after purity. 

In their life the Essenes were noted 
for their kindness to the sick and the 
poor. They opposed slavery. They 
made medicines from herbs which 
were healing. Modest and retiring, they 
shrank from participation in public af- 
fairs. According to Philo, their con- 
duct generally was directed by three 
rules — " the love of God, the love of 
virtue, and the love of man." 

It was the notion of some rationalists 
that Jesus derived his theology from 
them. But this opinion, which never 
had any foundation, is now given up 
by the rationalists themselves. 

Bishop Lightfoot {Com. on Colossians, 
"Introd." p. 98) maintains, with many 
German commentators, that the Colos- 
sian heresy which Paul combats in his 
Epistle was a form of Essene Judaism 
which was Gnostic in its character. The 
Essenes disappear from history after the 
destruction of Jerusalem. See De Quin- 
cey's Exsays on the Essenes. 

ESTATE' is the general name for 
an order or class of men in society or 
government, Mark 6 : 21, as in Great 
Britain the lords and commons are 
called the "estates" of the realm. 

ESTATE' OF THE ELD'- 
ERS, Acts 22 : 5, means the eldership, 
the elders of the Jews, a distinct body 
from the Sanhedrin, but co-operating 
with it. 

ESTHER {star), called also in He- 
brew HADAS'SAH {the myrtle), an 
eminent Jewess, wife of Xerxes. She 
was an orphan child of the tribe of Ben- 
jamin, and cousin to Mordecai, who 
adopted her and brought her up very 
tenderly. When Ahasuerus — who was 
Xerxes — put away Queen Vashti, he 
chose Esther, who had already been 
selected, on account of her beauty and 
her worth, to fill the vacant place, B. c. 
479. Having learned through her cou- 
sin, Mordecai, who held some office in the 
palace of Shushan, or Susa, the winter 
and favorite palace of the Persian kings, 
that Haman, the prime minister, had 
procured the royal permission to kill all 
the Jews in the kingdom, Esther had the 
287 



ETA 



ETA 



faith and the courage to carry out the plan 
suggested by Mordecai, and succeeded 
not only in executing the author of the 
infamous plot, but in getting permission 
for the Jews, upon the appointed day of 
slaughter, to defend themselves and take 
vengeance upon all who dared molest 
them, and for the Jews in Shushan to 
repeat the slaughter on the next day. 

Esther, Book of, a narrative of the 
startling deliverance of the Jews through 
the agency of Esther and her cousin, 
Mordecai, and of the origin of the Purim 
festival. Haman, prime minister of 
Ahasuerus, had formed the wicked de- 
sign to extirpate the Jews in the empire 
in revenge upon Mordecai, who refused 
to pay him the customary homage, and 
whom he had been compelled by the 
king to lead through the streets in 
recognition of Mordecai's services in 
saving the king's life. But his design 
was frustrated by the bravery of Esther, 
and the day fixed for the Jews' slaugh- 
ter was for them a day of revenge. In 
memory of this deliverance the festival 
of Purim ("lots") was instituted, and so 
called in remembrance of Hainan's cast- 
ing of lots. Esth. 3 : 7 ; 9 : 24, 26. It is 
annually observed on the 14th and 15th 
Adar, which month begins with the new 
moon of February and lasts till the new 
moon in March. At this festival the 
book is read, and it is the custom, in 
"some synagogues, whenever the name 
of Haman is pronounced, to hiss and 
stamp and clench the fist and cry, 'Let 
his name be blotted out ! May the name 
of the wicked rot !' It is said also that 
the names of Hainan's sons are all read 
in one breath, to signify that they all ex- 
pired at the same instant of time." 

The book is written upon a single roll. 
It is greatly admired by the Jews. This 
saying is attributed to one of their 
greatest men: " In the days of the Mes- 
siah the prophetical books and the Ha- 
giographa will be done away with, 
excepting only Esther, which will en- 
dure together with the Pentateuch." 
Its literary character is fully equal to 
the best of the other historical books of 
the canon. The style is lively, and 
almost dramatic. But the peculiarity 
of the book is that the name of God 
does not occur in any form. The omis- 
sion was probably intentional, and in 
order to permit the reading of Esther at 
288 



the joyous, even hilarious, festival of 
Purim. without irreverence. It is wor- 
thy of notice, in this connection, that in 
Solomon's Song the name of God occurs 
only once in the Hebrew, 8 : 6, where 
the A. V. translates " a most vehement 
flame." The book of Esther is full of 
a most intense Judaism, and incident- 
ally exhibits great familiarity with Per- 
sian manners and customs. Its inci- 
dents are thoroughly in keeping with 
the known character of Xerxes. 

The book furnishes a striking illustra- 
tion of an all-ruling Providence in con- 
trolling human passions, frustrating 
wicked designs, punishing sinners, and 
delivering God's people from their ene- 
mies even in a foreign land. This is 
the chief practical value of the book. It 
is likewise a divine sanction to the vir- 
tue of patriotism. 

The language of the book contains sev- 
eral Persian words, translated " satrap," 
" post," " edict," " royal " (not " camel;" 
8 : 10 and 14 read: "coursers of the 
royal stud"), "cotton," "crown," "no- 
bles," "a copy," and "lot." 

The circumstantial minuteness of de- 
tail, the vividness of the portraits, the 
Persian words, and the whole tone of 
the book indicate that the author was a 
Jew who lived about the time of the 
events recorded, at the court of Persia, 
where he had access to the official docu- 
ments of the kingdom. Professor Raw- 
linson assigns the book to a period from 
20 to 30 years after Xerxes's death, b. c. 
444-434. 

E'TAM. 1. A place in Simeon, 1 
Chr. 4 : 32 ; perhaps the modern Ai- 
tun. ■ 

2. A place in Judah, 2 Chr. 11 : 6 ; 
the source of the water for Solomon's 
gardens and the temple, according to 
Josephus. It has been identified with 
Urtas, near Bethlehem ; but Drake sug- 
gests the spring 'Ain 'Atdn, a few hun- 
dred yards south-east of Solomon's pools. 

E'TAM, THE ROCK, Samson's 
retreat after the slaughter of the Philis- 
tines. Jud. 15 : 8, 11. Conder locates it 
at Beit 'Atdb, a little north of Eshn'a 
(Eshtaol), which he thinks fully meets 
all the requisites of the case. It has 
cleft.*, caves, and a rock-tunnel which 
would so effectually conceal one that 
those not acquainted with the place 
might not find him, nor even the en- 



ETE 



ETH 



trance to the tunnel except by acci- i 
dent. {Tent-Life, vol. i. p. 275.) 
ETERNAL, ETERNITY. 

The word translated "eternity" is in 
Hebrew olam, which means " hidden ;" : 
in Greek, aion, which has primary ref- ' 
erence to a period as "a lifetime." The | 
difference between them consists in the 
fact that olam usually means the world 
in time, although the only place where 
it is so rendered in our version is Eccl. \ 
3:11. But Ps. 90 : 1 is literally " from 
world to world," Ps. 145 : 13, " kingdom 
of all worlds," Deut. 33 : 27 j " the arms 
of the world " (English Version, " ever- 
lasting arms"). The underlying thought 
in these passages is that of immense time- 
movements exhibiting God's great work. 

The Hebrew and Greek words both 
had plurals, which proves that they did 
not in themselves denote absolute end- j 
lessness. The}' are likewise applied to 
finite things. Gen. 17:8: 49:26: Ex. j 
12 : 14. When they are applied to God j 
and spiritual things they indicate the 
endless succession of ages, which is the 
popular and necessary conception of 
eternity. The idea of absolute eter- 
nity is impressed in the Bible by lan- 
guage which implies finality. It is this 
which renders Matt. 25:46 so impres- 
sive. The verse sets forth the last act 
of the great drama of human life, and 
the rewards and penalties are awarded 
irreversibly. Here the curtain falls. 

E'THA.1 (boundary of the sea), a 
Btation of the Israelites " in the edge of 
the wilderness." Ex. 13 : 20 ; Num. 33 : 
6. 7. Canon Cook would identify it ! 
with Pithom or ancient Hierapolis ; 
others with Seha Beer, " seven wells," 
about 3 miles west of the Red Sea ; 
Trumbull, with a " wall" from the Red: 
to the Great Sea. 

ETHAN {firm, strong). 1. The 
"Ezrahite," Ps. 89, title, was of the | 
tribe of Levi, and was remarkable for j 
his wisdom. 1 Kgs. 4:31 ; 1 Chr. 2 : 6. 
He is supposed to have written Ps. 89. \ 

2. Son of Kishi, a Merarite Levite, 
head of that family in the time of Da- 
vid, and spoken of as a " singer." 1 Chr. 
6:44; 15:17, 19. 

3. A Gershonite Levite, ancestor of | 
Asaph, the Psalmist. 1 Chr. 6:42. 

ETHANOI. See Months. 
ETHBAAL {with Baal; i. e. fa- 
vored by him), king of the Zidonians 
19 



and father of Jezebel. 1 Kgs. 16 : 31. 
In secular history he is known as Itho- 
balus, a priest of Astarte, as well as 
king. He usurped the throne of Tyre 
after having murdered the reigning 
king. He reigned 32 years, b. c. 940- 
908. 

E'THER (abundance), a town in 
the lowlands of Judah, Josh. 15 : 42 ; 
given to Simeon, 19 : 7. In 1 Chr. 4: 
32, Tochen is put in the place of Ether. 
Van de Velde suggested Tel! Athar, and 
Wilton, Attdrah. Conder proposes, as 
the corresponding name, 'Atr. 

ETHIOPIA {burnt-faces), called 
CUSH bv the Hebrews, a country 
south of Egypt, Ezr. 29 : 10, which em- 
braced in its more extended sense mod- 
ern Nubia, Sennaar, Kordofan, and 
northern Abyssinia. Sometimes it rep- 
resented the whole of Africa beyond 
Egypt. In the Scriptures "Ethiopia" 
usually refers to the region extending 
from Egypt southward beyond the junc- 
tion of the White and Blue Nile. This 
was Seba, Isa. 43 : 3, and known to the 
Romans as the kingdom of Meroe. The 
country is rolling and mountainous, the 
elevation increasing toward the south, 
until it reaches a height of about 8000 
feet in Abyssinia. 

Scripture History. — Frequent notices 
of this country and its people are found 
in the Bible. It was settled by the chil- 
dren of Ham, Gen. 10 : 6, dark-skinned 
men of stature. Jer. 13 : 23 : Isa. 45 : 14. 
They were selected as members of royal 
households. Jer. 38 : 7-13. The treas- 
urer of its queen, Candace, was bap- 
tized by Philip. Acts 8 : 27-38. It is 
noticed in connection with Egypt. Isa. 
20 : 4 : 43 : 3 : 45 : 14 ; with Libva 
(Phut), Jer. 46:9: Lydia and Chub 
(Lub and Lud), Eze. 30:5, and the 
Sukkiim. 2 Chr. 12 : 3. Moses married 
an Ethiopian, Num. 12:1; Ethiopians 
were in Shishak's army, 2 Chr. 12 : 3 : 
Zerah, an Ethiopian king, had an 
army of a million soldiers, 2 Chr. 14 : 
9-12 ; Job mentioned the precious stones 
of Ethiopia, Job 28:19; the Israelites 
were familiar with the merchandise of 
that country, Isa. 45:14; and Isaiah 
foretold the subjugation of Ethiopia 
by the Assyrians. Isa. 20 : 4, 5. Among 
the Assyrian inscriptions of Assur- 
banipal, now in the British Museum, 
George Smith deciphered several which 
289 



ETH 



EUP 



especially illustrate and confirm the ful- 
filment of this prophecy. Among other 
prophecies in respect to Ethiopia are 
Ps. 68:31: 87:4; Isa. 45:14: Eze. 
30 : 4-9 ; Dan. 11 : 43 ; Hab. 3:7; Zeph. 
2:12; Nah. 3:3-10. 

Secular History. — Ethiopia became 
one of the most powerful and civilized 
nations of the world as early as B. c. 
x 1000. The ruling class was of the 
priests. In the eighth century b. c. an 
Ethiopian dynasty reigned in Lower 
Egypt. Its first king was Sabaco, 
whose son was So of the Bible, 2 Kgs. 
17 : 4, an ally of Hoshea, king of Israel. 
It is said that in the reign of the Egyp- 
tian king Psammetichus, b. c. 630, 
240,000 of the military class migrated 
into Ethiopia. In b. c. 530, Cambyses, 
king of Persia, invaded Egypt, and, 
according to Josephus, conquered Me- 
roe or Ethiopia. The Romans, in the 
reign of Augustus Caesar, b. c. 22, de- 
feated Candace, queen of Ethiopia, and 
made the country tributary to Rome. 

ETHIOPIAN EUNUCH, 
THE, the Jewish proselyte who, re- 
turning from some feast in Jerusalem, 
was met by Philip the evangelist and 
baptized. Acts 8 : 26 ff. He was a eu- 
nuch in the strict sense, not in its offi- 
cial sense of " courtier," and the treas- 
urer of Candace, queen of the Ethio- 
pians. Candace was the name of a dy- 
nastv, and not of individual monarchs. 

ETHIOPIAN WOMAN, the 
name by which the wife of Moses is j 
called in Num. 12 : 1. She was prob- 
ably his second wife, married after the | 
death of Zipporah, who was a Midian- 
ite. 

ETH'NAN {lire ; e. g. of a harlot), 
a descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 4: 7. 

ETH'NI {munificent), a Gershonite 
Levite. 1 Chr. 6:41. 

EUBU'UUS {prudent), a Roman 
Christian who greete.l Timothy. 2 Tim. 
4*21. 

EUNICE, or EUNICE {happily 
victorious), the mother of the evangelist 
Timothy. She was by birth a Jewess, 
but married a Gentile. Acts 16 : 1 ; 2 
Tim. 1 : 5. 

EU'NUCH {bed-keeper, chamber- 
lain). Such persons have long been, 
and are still, employed about Eastern 
courts as guards and attendants in 
harems. 2 Kgs. 9:32; Esth. 2:3; and 
290 



! others of this class hold oftentimes the 
I principal offices. They are often cow- 
■ ardly, jealous, intriguing, the tool of des- 
I pots and libertines, ready for any evil 
| work, being shameless and remorseless. 
They are also peculiarly liable to be lnel- 
| ancholy, and, as the only way cf ridding 
themselves of the burden of life, to com- 
mit suicide. Eunuchs are the natural 
consequence of polygamy, and they are 
numerous in the Eastern cities. In 
ancient Rome there were many ; so in 
Greece during the Byzantine period. 
There are even to-day in Rome a few 
who sing soprano in the Sistine chapel 
— the only instance in Christian lands. 
According to the law of Moses, no eu- 
nuch could enter into the congregation 
of the Lord, Deut. 23 : 1 ; nor could a 
mutilated animal be offered in sacrifice. 
Lev. 22:24. Eunuchs existed in the 
various foreign courts of which we read 
in the Bible. Herod had them, and so 
Queen Candace. Acts 8 : 27. 

The word " eunuch " is employed by 
Christ, Matt. 19 : 12, in various senses 
to designate: 1. Those who are natu- 
rally incapacitated : 2. Those who have 
been mutilated; 3. Those who voluntar- 
ily abstain from marriage in order to de- 
vote themselves more exclusively to the 
interests of the kingdom of God. 

EUO'DIAS {fragrant), a Christian 
woman of Philippi. Phil. 4 : 2. 

EUPHRA'TES {the abounding), 
a noted river, the largest in western 
Asia, rises in Armenia in two sources. 
One, on the northern side of the moun- 
tain of Ararat, runs in a south- easterly 
course, receives many tributaries in its 
winding course along the borders of 
Syria, and skirting the Arabian desert 
passes through the middle of Babylon 
to the sea. Its whole length is 17S0 
miles. It is navigable for large ships 
to Bassora, 70 miles above its mouth : 
a steamer drawing 4 feet of water has 
ascended to Bir, 111)7 miles. It flows 
in a broad, deep current, filled to the 
level of its banks, and at Babylon is 
considerably less than a mile in width. 
For the last 800 miles of its course it 
does not receive a single tributary. 
The quantity of water discharged by 
the river at Hit is estimated at 72,804 
cubic feet per second. The Tigris flows 
in a narrower channel, with deeper banks 
and a less rapid current. The country 



EUR 



EVE 



between the two rivers slopes toward the 
Tigris, and thus greatly favors the drain- 
ing off of the superfluous waters of the 
Euphrates. 

The Euphrates overflows its banks in 
the spring of every year, when the snow 
of the Armenian mountains dissolves, 
and it sometimes rises 12 feet. It swells 
in March, and sinks in July. Dykes, 
lakes, and canals constructed at vast 
expense preserved the water for irriga- 
tion during the dry season, and pre- 
vented its carrying away the soil. 

History. — Euphrates is named as one 
of the rivers of Eden, Gen. 2:13; call- 
ed " the great river," Gen. 15 : 18 ; Deut. 
1:7; noted as the eastern boundary of 
the Promised Land, Deut. 11 : 24 ; Josh. 
1:4:1 Chr. 5:9; and of David's con- 
quests, 2 Sam. 8:3; 1 Chr. 18:3; of 
those of Babylon from Egypt. 2 Kgs. 
24:7; is referred to in prophecy, Jer. 
13 : 4-7 ; 46 : 2-10 ; 51 : 63, and in'Reve- 
lation, 9:14; 16 : 12. In upward of 26 
other passages it is spoken of as "the 
river." By this stream the captive Jews 
wept. Ps. 137 : 1. It is now called the 
Frat by the natives. For a sketch-map 
of the course of the Euphrates see As- 
syria. 

The Murad-cJtai, a branch of the 
Euphrates, was crossed by Xenophon, 
B. c. 410. After this unites with the 
other chief stream, forming the Eu- 
phrates, the river is 120 j^ards wide. 
It was used to irrigate the valley around 
Babylon by means of numerous canals, 
dykes, and aqueducts, making the plain 
one of the most fertile spots in the world. 
It was announced in 1879 that a railroad 
had been projected along the Euphrates 
from Damascus to Bagdad. See Baby- 
lon and Chat.d.'EA. 

EIROC'LYDON. Acts 27 : 14. 
A very tempestuous wind on the Med- 
iterranean ; now known under the name 
of a " Levanter." It blows from all 
points, and its danger results from its 
violence and the uncertainty of its 
course. 

EUTYCHUS (fortunate), the 
name of a young man who fell from 
the third story of a house where Paul 
was preaching in Troas, and was re- 
stored bv him to life. Acts 20 : 9. 

EVANGELIST (a messenger of 
good tidings). In the N. T. the word 
means a preacher of the gospel who 



was not fixed in any place, but who 
travelled as a missionary to preach the 
gospel and establish churches. Acts 21 : 
8 ; Eph. 4 : 11 ; 2 Tim. 4 : 5. The evan- 
gelists seem to have been an order of 
ministers standing between the apostles 
and the pastors and teachers. They 
could not impart the Holy Ghost. Acts 
8 : 15. They were liable to be sent 
upon sudden errands. Acts 8 : 26. They 
might be officers in a particular church, 
yet evangelists, as was the case with 
Philip, who is the best known of the 
class. Acts 6 : 5. We find the evan- 
gelists commonly in the service of the 
apostles as their " helpers " and " fel- 
low-laborers." Paul made most use of 
them, as was to be expected ; on his 
last journey to Jerusalem lie was ac- 
companied by no less than seven of 
them. Acts 20 : 4, 5. They were the 
"vicegerents" of the apostles. Thus, 
Timothy was sent by Paul to report the 
condition of the Philippian church, 
Phil. 2:19-23, completed the organiza- 
tion of the Ephesian church, and re- 
pressed the growth. of errors during the 
absence of Paul. 1 Tim. 1 : 3 ; 3 : 14, 15 ; 
4 : 13. The discourses of the evangel- 
ists were historical in their matter and 
turned chiefly upon the main facts 
of Christ's life. 

This fact gave rise to the later appli- 
cation of the term to the authors of our 
written Gospels, who are commonly call- 
ed " the four Evangelists." To Matthew 
is assigned as symbol the face of a man 
(because he traces the human descent of 
Christ, the Son of man) ; to Mark the lion, 
(because he sketches Christ as the con- 
quering Lion of the tribe of Judah) ; to 
Luke the ox (with reference to Christ 
as the Victim slain for the sins of the 
world) ; and to John the eagle (because 
of his bold flight and steady gaze at the 
eternal Son of God). 

EVE (fife). The name was applied 
by Adam to his wife because " she was 
the mother of all living." Gen. 3 :20. She 
was formed out of a rib of Adam, taken 
while he slept — a fact which teaches 
the identity of nature and the oneness 
of the origin of man and woman, and 
stamps the divine disapproval upon any 
degradation of women. In the lan- 
guage of Matthew Henry, "the woman 
was made of a rib out of the side of 
Adam ; not made out of his head to top 
291 



EVE 



EXC 



him, not out of his feet to be trampled 
upon by him, but out of his side to be 
equal with him, from under his arm to 
be protected, and from near his heart 
to be beloved." 

Eve was Adam's helpmeet and his 
equal in sinless purity. But her weak- 
er nature afforded Satan's opportunity. 
Overcome by his sophistry, she ate of 
the forbidden fruit, and then in turn 
became a tempter, by her persuasion 
inducing Adam to share her sin, and 
thus brought death into the world and 
all our woe. For her prominent part 
in the Fall, God said to her, " I will great- 
ly multiply thy sorrow and thy con- 
ception ; in sorrow thou shalt bring 
forth children ; and thy desire shall be 
to thy husband, and, he shall rule over 
thee." Gen. 3 : 16. But it was the seed 
of Eve which was to bruise the ser- 
pent's head, and thus the unhappy 
author of human sin was to be the 
blessed mother of sin's destroyer. The 
remarkable sayings of Eve's at the 
birth of her three known sons have 
been preserved, and make up all that is 
known of her. She welcomed the first, 
Cain (Heb. possession), as the prom- 
ised one : " I have gotten a man, even 
the Lord." But, soon undeceived, she 
said of Abel (vanity), " Vanity ;" and 
while her heart was made heavy by the 
experience of crime, she said of Seth 
(compensation): "God hath appointed 
me another seed instead of Abel, whom 
Cain slew." The Scripture account of 
Eve closes with the birth of Seth. She 
is twice mentioned by Paul, once as the 
subject of the serpent's guile, 2 Cor. 
11 : 3, and once as the second created, 
in an argument for the silence of women. 
1 Tim. 2:13. 

E'VENING, Ps. 55:17, E'VEN- 
TIDE. Gen. 24 : 63. The Hebrews 
reckoned two evenings, one commencing 
at sunset and embracing the period of 
twilight, and the other commencing at 
dark. Some suppose that the first even- 
ing commenced as early as 3 o'clock in 
the afternoon, and the second at sunset. 
It was in the interval between the two 
evenings, at whichever of these periods 
it occurred, that the passover was to be 
killed and the daily sacrifice offered. 
See marginal reading of Ex. 12 : 6 ; 
Num. 9 : 3 ; 28 : 4. " Eventide " is the 
same with "evening-time." 
£92 



E'VI (desire), a king of Midian 
plain by the Israelites. Num. 31 : 8 ; 
Josh. 13:21. 

EVIL-MERODACH, son and 

successor of Nebuchadnezzar, king of 
Babylon. 2 Kgs. 25 : 27. Soon after 
his accession to the throne he released 
Jehoiachin, king of Judah, from prison, 
and treated him with great regard 
through life. Jer. 52 : 31-34. He began 
his reign b. c. 561, but in b. c. 559 he 
fell a victim to a conspiracy formed 
among his own kindred, headed by his 
brother-in-law, Neriglissar — probably 
the Nergal-sharezer of Jer. 39 : 3, 13 — 
who succeeded him. 

EXCHANGERS. See Changers 
of Money. 

EXCOMMUNICATION. The 
writings of the Rabbins mention the 
various offences for which men were cut 
off from the privileges of the synagogue, 
and even from social life. Our Lord is 
supposed to refer to the excommunica- 
tions practised — " the simple separa- 
tion, the additional malediction, and 
the final exclusion " — when he said, 
" Blessed are ye when men shall hate 
you, and when they shall separate you 
from their company, and shall reproach 
you, and cast out your name as evil, for 
the Son of man's sake." Luke 6 : 22. 
Another and jet more evident reference 
to these Jewish ceremonies is that in 
John's story of the man born blind. 
John 9 : 22, 23, 34, 35. Rabbinical 
excommunication does not rest upon the 
Law of Moses. It is the natural out- 
growth of a well-organized society, 
which keeps itself clear of all obnox- 
ious persons. In its mildest form it was 
a prohibition from " the use of the razor, 
the bath, or the convivial table, and all 
who had to do with the offender were 
commanded to keep him at four cubits' 
distance." It lasted 30 days, but might 
be renewed for an equal period. In 
case of continued rebellion, the second 
step was taken. In a solemn manner 
the offender was cursed, and prohibited 
from teaching or being taught, hiring 
or being hired, and from "performing 
any commercial transactions beyond 
purchasing the necessaries cf life." 
The third and last step was entire ex- 
clusion from the congregation. 

It was to be expected that in the Chris- 
tian Church the practice of excommuni- 



EXE 



EXO 



cation would be continued. Its institu- 
tion by our Lord is recorded in Matt. 18 : 
15, 18, and the practice and commands of 
Paul are given in 1 Tim. 1 : 20 ; 1 Cor. 
5:11:2 Cor. 2 : 5-10 : Tit. 3 : 10. Chris- 
tian excommunication, as we gather 
from these Pauline Epistles, was a 
purely spiritual penalty, inflicted for 
the good of the sufferer and in order 
that the church might be protected. 
The sentence might be increased or 
lightened according to circumstances. 
Repentance was the condition of res- 
toration : and as the exclusion of the of- 
fender from the temporal body of Christ 
was a public and congregational act, so 
the reception of the excommunicated 
member was of the same character. 

EXECU TIONER. In 0. T. 
times the post was honorable. The 
executioner of Mark 6:27 belonged to 
the king's body-guard. 

EXODUS, the second book of the 
Pentateuch. The word is Greek for 
"going out" or " departing," and is an 
appropriate title to the book, which con- 
tains an account of the going out of the 
Israelites from the land of Egypt. It 
may be divided into two parts: 1. The 
historical, chs. 1-18 : 27 ; 2. The legis- 
lative, ch. 19 to the end. 

In the historical portion we have an 
account of the depressed condition of 
the people under the king "who knew 
not Joseph" (Rameses II.), the birth, 
education, flight, and return of Moses, 
the attempts, at first disastrous to the 
Hebrews, to secure the king's permis- 
sion to their temporary exodus, the 
plagues wrought by the Lord's power, 
culminating in the death of the first- 
born, the journey of the Israelites from 
Goshen to Sinai, with all the important 
incidents and miracles. This portion 
closes with the Israelites before Mount 
Sinai, encamped upon the ground they 
were to occupy for a year. 

2. In the legislative part are related 
the giving of the Law, and the sin of the 
golden calf; then follow the text of the 
ten commandments, the vax-ious laws 
for the governance of the people, the 
full directions for the priesthood and 
all their appointments. And lastly 
there are described the erection of the 
tabernacle and the inauguration of the 
service. In this book the Bible is 
brought into contact with Egyptology 



and much light has been thrown upon 
it from modern discoveries and re- 
searches confirming the Mosaic narra- 
tive. See Pentateuch. 

EXODUS, THE. The date, the 
geography, and the history of this 
" great turning-point in biblical his- 
tory " will be considered. 

1. Date. — There is a difference of 
opinion among biblical scholars as to 
the name of the two kings who oppress- 
ed the Israelites and are mentioned in 
the book of Exodus under the generic 
name of Pharaoh. 

(1) Some hold that Amosis or Aahmes 
I. was the Pharaoh of the Oppression, 
and that Thothmes or Tutmes II. was the 
Pharaoh of the Exodus, who perished 
in the Red Sea. The latter reigned 
about a century later, b. c. 1485. His 
reign is known to have been short and 
inglorious. But the difficulties in the 
way of this view are numerous. 

(2) According to the other theory, 
now held by the majority of Egyptolo- 
gists and biblical scholars, Rameses II., 
the Great — the Sesostris of the Greeks 
— was the Pharaoh who "knew not Jo- 
seph," Ex. 1 : 11 (b. c. 1388 to 1325), 
and his son, Menephthah II., was the 
Pharaoh of the Exodus. Menephthah 
was the thirteenth son of Rameses, 
and began to rule probably b. c. 1325 
or 1322. He marks a period of de- 
cline in which -the conquests of his 
two great predecessors were gradually 
lost. Eew monuments were erected in 
his reign, and even his father's tomb 
was left unfinished. This is just what 
we would expect after the catastrophe 
in the Red Sea. Herodotus tells us that 
the son of Sesostris (Rameses, whom 
he calls Pheron) undertook no warlike 
expeditions, and was smitten with blind- 
ness for 10 years because "he impiously 
hurled his spear into the overflowing 
waves of the river, which a sudden wind 
caused to rise to an extraordinary 
height." This reads like a confused 
reminiscence of the overthrow in the 
Red Sea. Taking this view, we may, 
with Lepsius and Ebers, set the Exodus 
in b. c. 1317, on the fifteenth day of the 
first month, Abib or Nisan, our April. 

2. Geography. — The Scripture data 
about the Exodus are as follows : The 
children, of Israel proceeded from Ram- 
eses to Succoth, Ex. 12 : 37 ; thence to 

293 



EXO 



EXO 



Etham, "in the edge of the wilderness," 
13 : 20 ; here they were to "turn and en- 
camp, before Pi-hahiroth, between Mig- 
dol and the sea, over against Baal-ze- 
phon." 14 : 2. With these notices must 
be compared the list of camping-stations 
which Moses gives. Num. 33 : 2-10. 
When the Egyptians came upon the track 
of the Israelites they said, " They are en- 
tangled in the land; the wilderness is 
closed against them," Ex. 14 : 3 — i. e. 
" They cannot get out of Egypt; they 
must either return or cross the sea." 
Moses intended to go by the way of the 
wilderness, but when he turned south- 
ward, by divine command, he was shut 
in by the waters of the lied Sea, which 
then probably extended farther north, 
to the Bitter Lakes. We may thus 
identify the places mentioned in the 
itinerary. Rameses, the place of gen- 
eral rendezvous, is Zoan ( Tunis). Suc- 
coth, which Ebers considers an Egyp- 
tian word {fields), must have been half- 
way between Rameses and Etham. 
Etham was probably Pithom (Pitum) ; 
Pi-hahiroth is AjrudovAgrurl, a fortress 
on the way from E chain to Suez ; Mig- 
dol is Bir Snivels, about 2 miles from 
Suez; Baal-zephon is perhaps identi- 
cal with Mount Atakah. Bnal was the 
chief deity of the Phoenicians, who^ 
had at a very early period a settle- 
ment in Lower Egypt. 

There are two prominent theories 
about the locality and mode of the 
miraculous passage of the Israelites 
through the Red Sea: (1) The usual 
theory, which locates the passage sev- 
eral miles south of Suez, where the 
sea is about 10 miles broad. This 
theory fits in best with the literal 
meaning of the narrative, for in this 
case the waters must have been actual- 
ly divided for several miles, and have 
stood like walls on either hand. But 
the difficulties the view raises are more 
numerous than those it solves. Could 
the host of Israel, encumbered as 
they were, have crossed in one night 
through such a channel ? Would tlie 
Egyptians have followed them through 
the deep sea, and in view of such an 
amazing interposition of God? Could 
any wind have had such an effect upon 
so wide a sea? And if not, why is it 
mentioned at all as an agent? An ac- 
cumulation of miracles is called for by 
294 



this theory. (2) The second theory puts 
the crossing at the head of the gulf, near 
or some distance north of Suez. In Mo- 
ses's time the gulf may have extended 
as a reedy marsh as far as the Bitter 
Lakes. The crossing was made possible 
by a special providence and a miraculous 
adaptation of the laws of nature. The 
east, or rather north-east, wind drove 
off the waters from the small arm of the 
sea which runs up by Suez; this would 
leave the water on the more northern 
part of the arm, so that there would be 
waters on both sides to serve as an en- 
trenchment. This would meet the exi- 







.fintn iimisci-i ) 

AJL'/V Ml'SA 

"/in '% L "H ^==) \*WELLi If MOSES) 



^«4 M 




Sr 5 = 



-JIFTEB EBBS 
-AFTER BMCSCH 



Sketch-map of the Route of the Exodus. 

gences of the narrative, Ex. 14 : 22. But 
even in this case the passage of two mil- 
lions of people, with all their cattle, was 
an astounding miracle. It has its coun- 
terpart in the crossing of the river Jor- 
dan at the end of the journey through 
the wilderness. For a third theory ad- 
vocated by Brugsch Bey, and more re- 
cently by Prof. A. II. Sayce, see Red Sea. 
3. History. — The Exodus was the ex- 
ecution of a divine plan. God sent ten 



EXO 



EZB 



plagues upon the land in punishment. 
The last was the severest : the first-born 
in every house lay dead. But while the 
destroying angel went through the midst 
of Egypt the Israelites were gathered in 
their respective houses, ready at any 
moment to hear the command, " Go ! be- 
gone !" their loins girded, their shoes on 
their feet,their staffs in their hands, 
eating hastily the lamb which they 
had roasted. Thus they observed 
the Passover. " Dimly we see and 
hear in the darkness and confu- 
sion of that night the stroke 
which at last broke the heart of 
the king and made him let Israel 
go." "And Pharaoh in the night, 
he and all his servants, and all 
the Egyptians; and there was a 
great cry in Egypt, for there was 
not a house where there was not 
one dead." Then followed in quick 
succession the midnight call of 
Pharaoh for Moses and Aaron, 
the command to depart, the ur- 
gent co-operation of the nation 
to hasten their departure., and the 
actual leaving of the house of 
bondage and start upon the mo- 
mentous journey. 

4. Practical Lesson. — The history 
of the exodus of the Israelites from 
the land of bondage — their wanderings 
through the dreary wilderness under 
the guidance of the Law of God, the 
pillar of cloud by day and fire by night, 
with many resting-places in delightful 
oases, and the constant services of the 
tabernacle, and their final entrance into 
the Promised Land — has always been 
regarded as a most instructive type and 
illustration of the history of the Chris- 
tian Church and of the individual be- 
liever, his deliverance from the bondage 
of sin, and his passage to the heavenly 
land of rest and peace. 

EXOR'CISTS, those who, by the 
use of the name of God, attempted to 
expel evil spirits from places or persons 
of whom they had possession. It was 
not an uncommon profession among the 
Jews, as we may infer from Matt. 12 : 
27; Mark 9:38; Acts 19 : 13. They 
were popularly believed to have gotten 
their power by their study of magic for- 
mula? written out by Solomon, of drugs 
and charms, by the use of spells and in- 
cantations, but they were impostors. 



EXPIA'TION, FEAST OF. 

See Feasts; Atonement, Day of. 

EYES. It was part of the cruelty 
which distinguished ancient warfare to 
put out the eyes of prisoners, particu- 
larly those who were prominent or dan- 
gerous. This custom is referred to in 
Jud. 16 : 21 ; 1 Sam. 11 : 2 ; 2 Kgs. 25 : 7. 




The eustom of adorning the e3 7 elids in 
any way for effect is not known among 
us, but is often alluded to in the 0. T., 
2 Kgs. 9 : 30 : Jer. 4 : 3u ; Eze. 23 : 40, 
and prevails extensively now among 
Eastern women,- especially among Mo- 
hammedans. The hair and edges of the 
eyelids are tinged with a fine black pow- 
der moistened with oil or vinegar, which 
causes a small black line to appear around 
the edge, and at a distance (and especial- 
ly by candlelight) gives a heavy, dark 
shade to the eyes. A smooth cylindri- 
cal piece of silver or ivory, shaped like a 
quill and about 2 inches long, is dipped 
into the composition and placed within 
the eyelashes, which are closed over it. 

The figurative use of the word " eye " 
to indicate alacrity and vigilance occurs 
Eze. 1: IS; 10:12; Rev. 4 : 6, 8. 

EYE-SERVICE, in Col. 3:22; 
Eph. 6 : 6, means " service performed 
only as it were under the master's eye — 
i. e. reluctant and mercenary." 

E'ZAR (treasure). 1 C.hr. 1 : 38. See 
Ezer. 

EZ'BAI (shining), the father of one 
of David's warriors. 1 Chr. 11 : 37. 

EZ'BON (splendor). 1. One of the 
295 



EZE 



EZE 



sons of Gad, Gen. 46: 16; called Ozni. 
Num. 28:16. 

2. A Benjamite. 1 Chr. 7:7. 

EZEKFAS, the Greek form of Hez- 
ekiah, used in Matt. 1:9, 10. 

EZE'KIEL {God will strengthen, 
or the strength of God), the son of a 
priest named Buzi, was born and spent 
his earlier years in Judaea. He was 
carefully educated, but carried by Neb- 
uchadnezzar into captivity with Jehoi- 
achin, king of Judah, b. c. 598, 11 years 
before the destruction of Jerusalem, 
and placed with a Jewish community 
by the river Chebar, in Chaldsea. See 
Chebar. He prophesied over 22 years, 
b. c. 595-573, till the fourteenth year 
after the final captivity of Jerusalem. 
Prom incidental allusions we learn that 
he had a house, 8:1, and had lost his 
wife very suddenly, 24:16-18. He was 
held in great esteem and frequently con- 
sulted by the elders, 8:1; 11:25; 14: 
1 ; 20 : 1. It is said that he kept 
up an intimate friendship with Jere- 
miah, and even that they exchanged 
prophecies. At all eventJ, they echo 
one another's grief and lament over 
the ruined city, and both pierce through 
the gloom of the present distress and see 
the light of a new dispensation when the 
Law shall be written in the heart. Eze. 
II : 19; 18 : 31 ; cf. Jer. 31 : 33. We do 
not know how or when his death occur- 
red. Tradition states he was murdered. 
His reputed tomb is shown near Bagdad. 

Ezekiel was stern, inflexible, an earnest 
Jewish patriot, devoted to the rites and 
ceremonies of his religion, and uncom- 
promisingly opposed to all forms of evil. 
He no doubt contributed much to the 
formation of the intense nationality of 
the Jews during that period. Prof. J. 
T. Hyde says : " He is not so much of 
a counsellor and seer as Isaiah, nor so 
much of a reformer and intercessor as 
Jeremiah, nor so much of a prince and 
statesman as Daniel, but more of a priest 
in his general spirit and bearing. More 
than a hundred times is he called ' son of 
man,' a title given to no other prophet 
except Daniel, and to him only once, 
Dan. 8 : 17, signifying, doubtless, that 
'to them of the captivity' he was not 
only a living witness for God, but a 
priestly mediator, with somewhat of the 
distant dignity of the great 'Son of 
man' himself." 
296 



Prophecy of. The book of Ezekiel 
is arranged in regular chronological or- 
der, and presents a great variety of vis- 
ions, symbolical actions, parables, prov- 
erbs, allegories, and direct prophecies. 
Many of the symbolic acts were proba- 
bly not literally performed by the proph- 
et, but described in this manner for rhe- 
torical effect. He is especially familiar 
with architecture, from which he often 
draws his illustrations. He is somewhat 
obscure by reason of the strange things 
he descnoes — "wheels within wheels, 
with living creatures wedded." The Jews 
reckoned his prophetical writings among 
those portions of Scripture which were 
not allowed to be read till the age of 30. 
His imagery and symbolism derive 
much light from the recently-discover- 
ed Assyrian monuments. We there 
find reproduced the strange forms he 
brings to our view — the eagle-winged 
lion and the human-headed bull. His 
visions give us "the last glimpse of 
these gigantic emblems, which vanished 
in the prophet's lifetime, only to reap- 
pear in our own age from the long-lost 
Nineveh." {Stanley.) 

The book is divided into two parts, 
of which the destruction of Jerusalem 
by Nebuchadnezzar is the turning-point. 
(1) Chs. 1-24 contain predictions 
before that event ; these are arranged 
in chronological order from the fifth 
year of the Captivity to the ninth. (2) 
Chs. 25-48 contain prophecies and vis- 
ions after Jerusalem's fall, including 
denunciations against Ammon, Moab, 
Edom, the Philistines, Tyre, Zidon, and 
Egypt, 30-32 ; predictions of the re- 
establishment of the theocracy, 35-48. 
Ch. 35 is the judgment of Seir. The 
second part is also arranged chronolog- 
ically. Ezekiel himself is the apparent 
editor of his book. 

There are no direct quotations of 
Ezekiel in the N. T., but many parallels 
and obvious allusions to the later chap= 
ters in the book of Revelation. 

The Vision of the Temple. — This sec- 
tion, the last nine chapters, 40-48, is so 
remarkable that it arrests the attention 
of every reader and constitutes the 
unique feature of Ezekiel's book. It 
is a magnificent vision and description 
of the new temple which Ezekiel saw 
from a high mountain in the twenty- 
fifth year of the Captivity and the 



EZE 



EZR 



fourteenth after the destruction of the 
holy city. Although a few commenta- 
tors maintain it was but a description 
from memory of Solomon's temple, the 
majority hold that it has to do with fu- 
ture events. These latter differ accord- 
ing as they see in it a mere prophetic 
picture of Zerubbabel's temple, or a 
vague announcement of some future 
blessing, or, as is altogether the best 
view, a Messianic prophecy. It is most 
probably a grand symbol of the future 
Church of God. Its historical founda- 
tion is undoubtedly the first temple and 
the hidden springs of the sacred mount, 
but upon this foundation the inspired 
prophet builds a glorious superstruc- 
ture of allegory which sets forth the 
whole scheme of redemption. 

EZEL (departure), THE STONE, 
near Saul's residence, and noted as the 
place where Jonathan and David parted. 
1 Sam. 20 : 19. 

E'ZEM (bone), a city of Simeon, 1 
Chr. 4 : 29 ; also called Azem. Josh. 
19 : 3. 

E'ZER (treasure), a "duke" of the 
Horites. Gen. 36 : 21, 27, 30 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 42. 

E'ZER (help). 1. A descendant 
of Judah. 1 Chr. 4:4. 

2. A son of Ephraim. 1 Chr. 7: 21. 

3. A Gadite chief who joined David. 
1 Chr. 12 : 9. 

4. A Levite who assisted in repairing 
the wall. Neh. 3:19. 

5. A priest who took part in its dedi- 
cation. Neh. 12 : 42. 

EZION-G A'BER, or GEBER 
(giant's backbone), a city on the Red 
Sea, the last station of the Israelites 
before they came to the wilderness of 
Zin, Num. 33 : 35 ; Deut. 2:8; the sta- 
tion of Solomon's navy, 1 Kgs. 9:26; 2 
Chr. 8 : 17, and of Jehoshaphat's navy. 1 
Kgs. 22:48. Probably it was at ' Ain 
el-Ghuchjdn, about 10 miles up what is 
now the dry bed of the Arabah. Kie- 
pert and Robinson suppose that the 
northern end of the gulf anciently 
flowed up to this point. 

EZRA (help). 1. A descendant 
of Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 17. 

2. A Jewish priest and scholar who 
lived in Babylon during the reign 
of Artaxerxes Longimanus, over whom 
he had such influence that in his sev- 
enth year he obtained permission to 
head a large company of persons and 



go to Jerusalem, b. c. 457. Ezr. 7. The 
journey was completed in four months. 
In addition to the treasure brought, 
Ezra had other supplies, for he had per- 
mission to draw on the king's treasures. 
In Jerusalem he carried through the re- 
forms he had intended, particularly the 
separation of the "strange wives." Ezr. 
10. With an account of this important 
measure the book of Ezra ends. The 
next notice is in Nehemiah, 8 : 1, thir- 
teen years after this. It is in every 
way likely that his first residence in 
Jerusalem was temporary, and that 
after effecting the various reforms and 
appointing proper persons to maintain 
them he returned to Babylon. Nehe- 
miah was governor when Ezra entered 
Jerusalem the second time ; accordingly, 
he attended only to priestly duties, such 
as teaching. Neh. 8:1. It is unknown 
when he died. 

Jewish tradition elevates him to a 
level with Moses and Elijah, and makes 
him the founder of the great synagogue, 
the collector of the books of the Bible, 
the introducer of the Chaldee character 
instead of the old Hebrew, the author 
of Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah, and 
lastly, the originator of synagogue-wor- 
ship. And it is very likely that he was 
the author of these changes, or at all 
events that they occurred in his time. 

Ezra, the Book of, covers about 79 
years, and should be read in connection 
with the prophecies of Haggai and 
Zechariah. It contains, (1) chs. 1-6, 
an account of the return of 50,000 Jews 
under Zerubbabel in the first year of 
Cyrus, the rebuilding of the temple, 
and the interference of the Samaritans ; 
(2) chs. 7-10, the history of Ezra's im- 
migration and his reforms, particularly 
in regard to the strange wives. 

The book of Ezra is written in Chal- 
dee from ch. 4 : 8 to 6 : 19, narrating the 
attempt of the Samaritans to hinder the 
building of the temple, and from the be- 
ginning of ch. 7 to the twenty-seventh 
verse. The people recently returned from 
the Captivity were more conversant with 
the Chaldee than even with the Hebrew 
tongue. Ezra is the author of at least 
the greater part of the book. The date 
may be given as b. c. 456. 

EZ'RI (help of Jehovah), David's 
superintendent of those who "did the 
work of the field." 1 Chr. 27:26. 
297 



FAB 



FAI 



F. 



FA'BLE is a foi*m of nai*rative in 
■which plants and animals, or even life- 
less objects, are represented as endowed 
with some of the attributes of man, as 
the gift of speech and rational action. 
Sometimes the fable is designed to teach 
moral and practical truths, and some- 
times only to interest and entertain. 
It differs from the parable in this : what 
the fable relates is not real and cannot oc- 
cur, as trees speaking, Jud. 9:8; while 
that which the parable relates may and 
does take place, as the sower sowing seed 
in soil of various degrees of productive- 
ness, Matt. 13 : 3. The fable was often 
used in ancient heathen as in modern 
Christian literature. In the Bible there 
is only one fable, Jud. 9: 7-15, where 
Jotham represents the trees as seeking 
a king and asking, one by one, the olive 
and others to reign over them, till the 
bramble finally consents. This is often 
erroneously called a parable. 

Fables are referred to in the N. T., 1 
Tim. 1:4, etc., as "cunningly devised," 
etc. Here " fables " mean false stories 
or foolish systems and opinions. 

FACE. Gen. 3 : 19. See Blackness. 
Whatever of a thing is most exposed to 
view is called its face : hence we read 
of the face of the country, field, gate, 
house, wilderness, water, sky, etc. 

" Face," when applied to God, de- 
notes, (1) His omniscience, 1 Sam. 28: 
20, and to ''provoke him to the face" 
is to act very openly and impudently. 
Isa. 65:3. (2) The brighter displays 
of his glory, which cannot be enjoyed 
in this world. Ex. 33:20; 1 Tim. 6 : 
16. (3) His favor and love, and the 
gracious displays thereof: this is al- 
ways meant when his face is said to 
" shine," or it is represented as a mercy 
to behold and enjoy it or a misery to be 
deprived of it. 2 Chr. 30:9; Ps. 31 : 
16 ; 80 : 7 j Dan. 9:17. (4) His wrath, 
and the providential displays thereof. 
Ps. 34:16. Christ's "face" denotes, 
(1) His person and office as the image 
of the invisible God. 2 Cor. 4 : 6. (2) 
11 is gracious, glorious, or terrible ap- 
pearances. Rev. 20 : 11. 
298 



FAIR HA'VENS, a harbor on the 
southern shore of the island of Crete. 
Acts 27 : 8-10, 21. It is about midway 
between the eastern and western ends 
of the island, and is still known as 
Kalous Limionas, or "Fair Havens." 
It is a fair winter harbor, though not 
as good as Phcenice, 40 miles westward. 

FAIRS. The word occurs in Eze. 
27 : 12, 14, 16, 22, 27, 33. In v. 33 the 
Hebrew word is translated " wares," 
and this is probably the true meaning 
in all the passages. 

FAITH. The word in the N. T. 
denotes (1) the truth of the gospel of 
Christ and the kingdom of God. Acts 
6:7; Rom. 1:5; Gal. 1 : 23 ; 1 Tim. 3 : 
9; Jude, ver. 3 ("the faith which was 
once delivered to the saints "). 

(2) The act by which we lay hold of 
and appropriate the truths of the gos- 
pel and Jesus Christ, and rely for salva- 
tion upon the work done by him in our 
stead. This is the prevailing sense of 
the word. Matt. 8:10; John 3:16: Rom. 
1 : 16, etc., and all through John and the 
Pauline Epistles. 

The verb corresponding to the noun 
"faith" is "believe." Acts 16 : 31. 
The woi-d occurs only a few times in 
the O. T., but the principle is there 
designated by other terms, such as to 
"look" to God, Isa, 45:22, to "wait 
on" him, Ps. 27 : 14, and to "trust" 
in him, Nah. 1 : 7. Abraham is " the 
father of the faithful," because unbound- 
ed trust in God was the very essence of 
his piety. Comp. Rom. 4:1. Paul de- 
rives the theme of his Epistle to the Ro- 
mans from the passage of Habakkuk : 
" The just shall live by faith." Rom. 1 : 
17; comp. Hab. 2 : 4. The Epistle to 
the Hebrews gives a bright catalogue 
of the heroes of faith under the old dis- 
pensation. 11 : 1 ff. 

The nature of saving faith is three- 
fold. It includes a conviction of the 
understanding, assent of the will, and 
trust of the heart. The principal ele- 
ment of faith is trust when its object is 
Christ. But it is impossible for us to 
trust in him without first being con- 



FAI 



FAL 



vinced of the genuineness of his claims. 
We believe a thing when we are assured 
of its reality; in a person when we add 
to this assurance trust. Faith appre- 
hends Christ, and takes actual hold of 
him and all his benefits. Hence he 
who believes in Christ has already eter- 
nal life. John 3 : 36. Faith is opposed 
to doubt, Matt. 21 : 21, and to sight, 
2 Cor. 5 : 7. Things which are the objects 
of faith we do not see. Heb. 11: 1. 

The importance of faith consists in 
this — that without faith we cannot be- 
come partakers of the merits and right- 
eousness of Christ. As by the hand 
we lay hold of a treasure, and as by the 
eye we perceive the beauties of scenery, 
so by faith we lay hold of Christ. We 
who come within hearing of the gospel 
must exercise faith in order to become 
heirs of salvation. By faith we " put 
on " Christ. It is by faith that we are 



justified, and not by works. The work 
of salvation was all accomplished when 
the Saviour uttered the words, " It is 
finished." But a living faith will be 
accompanied by works, as much as a 
rose must diffuse perfume, and a good 
tree bring forth good fruit. As our Lord 
said, " Thy faith hath made thee whole," 
so Paul says, "By grace are ye saved 
through faith ; and that not of your- 
selves : it is the gift of God," Fph. 
2 : 8. But "faith without works is 
dead." Jas. 2 : 26. Faith is operative' 
in love. Gal. 5 : 6. 

The " faith of God," Rom. 3 : 3, means 
his faithfulness. 

FAITH'FULNESS is a divine 
attribute, and denotes the certainty of the 
accomplishment of all that the divine 
Being has declared. Num. 23 : 19 ; Ps. 
89: 1, 33, 34; Heb. 10:23. 
• FAL'LOW-DEER. "Deer" is 




■MtaHh 



if, 

Hi 





The Bubale, or Fallow-Deer of Scripture. {After Wood.) 
a general name of a class of quadrupeds, i etc., but the animal is never mentioned 



as the stag, fallow-deer, reindeer, elk, 



by this generic name in the Bible. 
299 



FAL 



FAE 



The deer mentioned in 1 Kgs. 4 : 
23 was, by the Levitical law, a clean 
animal. Deut. 14 : 5. It was formerly 
supposed to be the European red deer, 
called fallow from its pale-red or yel- 
low color. Tristram and other late au- 
thorities make it the bubale (Alcephalus 
bubalis) or "wild cow" of the Arabs. 
This desr, from its heavy, calf-like 
build, was classed by Orientals among 
cattle. It was valued for its venison, is 
still found in northern Africa and Arabia, 
and probably once dwelt in Palestine. 

Lieut. Conder has recently found a 
kiud of deer in the vicinity of Mount 
Carmel which is called by the Arabs 
yahmur — precisely the Hebrew word 
translated " fallow-deer." Naturalists 
who have examined the skin which 
Lieut. Conder brought to England state 
that this animal does not differ percep- 
tibly from the European roebuck, which 
is therefore seemingly the animal that 
furnished Solomon's 
table with choice 
venison. See Roa. 

FAL'LOW- 
GROUND, a held 
ploughed, but un- 
sowed (figuratively, 
Jer. 4:3; Hos. 10 : 
12; literally, "til- 
lage." Prov. 13 : 
23). See Agricul- 
ture. 

FAL'LOW- 
YEAR. See Sab- 
batical Year. 

FAMILIAR 
SPIR'ITS (from 
the Latin familiar- 
is, " a household ser- 
vant"). The phrase |j| 
expressed the idea ~ 
that necromancers §§!g| 
had spirits at their ^^ 
command to wait \^$fes?=; 
upon them as ser- v ~- ~ ^^ 

vants. See Divina- 
tion. 

FAM'INE. We have an account of 
at least 8 famines in Palestine and 
the neighboring countries. They were 
among the judgments of God for na- 
tional sins, and were often prophetically 
announced. Two famines occurred in the 
lifetimes of Abraham and Isaac, Gen. 
12 : 10 ; 26 : 1 ; another in Jacob's time, 
300 



Gen. 41 : 56 : and the most remarkable 
one was that of 7 years while Joseph 
was governor in Egypt. But in se- 
verity it was surpassed by the famine 
of 2 Kgs. 7, when people resorted to the 
dunghills for food. 

Two very severe and prolonged sea- 
sons of famine in Egypt have been 
noted by Arabian historians — one in 
A. D. 1200, the other lasting from a. d. 
1064-1071. 

Famine was produced by a variety of 
causes, as when the Nile did not over- 
flow in Egypt, or rains did not fall in 
Judaea, at the customary season, or when 
caterpillars, locusts, or other insects de- 
stroyed the fruits. 

FAN". This was probably a broad 
shovel used to toss the threshed grain 
against the breeze for the purpose of 
separating the chaff from the grain. Isa. 
30:21. The "shovel" mentioned in 
the same passage seems to have been a 




Winnowing-Fans. 

narrower implement, or, as some think, 
a fork or bread-basket used in a similar 
way. Jer. 15 : 7 ; Matt. 3:12. See 
Thresh, Winnow. 

FARTHING. Two Greek words 
are translated " farthing" in the N. T. : 
(1) the kodrctntes, worth about three- 
eighths of a cent; (2) the assariun, 



FAS 



FAT 




A Farthing, 
worth about a cent and a half. See 
Money. 

FASTS. There was only one day 
appointed as a fast by the Mosaic code, 
the day of atonement, Lev. 16 : 29, $q., 
where the expression '• Ye shall afflict 
your souls" probably refers to fasting. 
During and after the Babylonian cap- 
tivity four special fast-days were ob- 
served. Zech. 7 : 5. Subsequent tradi- 
tion relates that fasts commemorated 
the breaking of the tables of the Law 
by Moses, Ex. 32, and the siege of Jeru- 
salem, Jer. 52 : 4, sq. ; the return of 
the spies, Num. 13:25: the burning 
of the temple by Nebuchadnezzar ; the 
sack of Jerusalem and the death of 
Gedaliah, 2 Kgs. 25 : 13, sq. : and the 
reception by Ezekiel and others in Bab- 
ylon of the intelligence of the destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem. 

Public fasts were pi-oclairned at spe- 
cial seasons by Nehemiah, 9 : 1, Jehosh- 
aphat, 2 Chr. 20 : 3, the Jews at Shushan, 
Esth. 4:16, and others. The appoint- 
ment of fasts by individuals for them- 
selves was not uncommon, Neb. 1:4: 
2 Sam. 1 : 12, and also, in the N. T., Luke 
2 : 37, etc. 

Fasts indicate humility and a sense 
of dependence on the Almighty, and 
were observed on solemn occasions, such 
as the death of a prominent personage 
(Saul, 1 Sam. 31 : 13 j 2 Sam. 1 : 12), an 
impending calamity, Jon. 3:5; Esth. 4 : 
3, before a war, 2 Chr. 20 : 3 ; Jud. 20 : 
26, and before a journey. Ezr. 8 : 21. 

The Jewish fasts were kept with great 
strictness, and generally from evening 
to evening. The body was clothed with 
sackcloth, ashes were sprinkled on the 
head, the hands were left unwashed, the 
head was unanointed, and the air was 
filled with the voice of supplication and 
the sobs of grief and penitence. Isa. 22 : 
12; Joel 2:15-17. 

At the time of our Lord fasting was a 
very prominent religious observance and 
the occasion of much hypocrisy and pa- 



rade. Matt. 6 : 16. The fast spoken of in 
Acts 27 :9 was the day of atonement. The 
weekly fasts were upon the second and 
fifth days of the week. Fasts were not 
observed upon the Sabbath, the new 
moons, the great festivals, or the feasts 
of Purim and dedication. John the 
Baptist and his disciples fasted, but we 
have no account that our Lord observed 
periodic fasts, although that he fasted 

j is proved by Matt. 4:2; cf. Matt. 9 : 
14. After the Lord's ascension Chris- 

! tians fasted, 2 Cor. 6:5, and the N. T. 

: recommends fasting as a means of Chris- 
tian growth. Mark 9:29:1 Cor. 7 : 5, etc. 
The N. T. leaves the times of fasting 
to the full choice and appointment of the 
individual. In Matt. 9 : 15 our Saviour 
teaches that fasting follows and springs 

J from affliction, rather as a consequence 

; than a cause, and then may be a means 

j of grace. 

FAT. The Hebrews distinguished 
between the suet or pure fat of an ani- 

; mal and the fat which was intermixed 

I with the lean. Neh. 8: 10. Some parts 
of the former were forbidden to be 
eaten in the case of animals sacrificed, 
Lev. 3 : 3, 9, 17 ; 7 : 3, 23, on the ground 
that the richest part of the animal be- 
longed to Jehovah. Lev. 3:16. The 
Hebrews had, however, their stalled 
oxen, appreciating the luxury of fat 
meat'. 1 Kgs. 4:23; Luke 15: 23. 

FAT {i.e. "vat"). See Wine-press. 
The word is used in the A. V. only in 
Joel 2:24: 3:13. 

FATHER. This word is used in 
the Bible in several senses besides its 
usual one. 

1. It is applied to any ancestor, and 
in the plural to ancestors in general. 
Dan. 5:2; Deut. 1:11: Matt. 23 : 30. 

2. As a title of respect, especially to 
kings, prophets, and priests. Jud. 17 : 

j 10 ; 1 Sam. 10 : 12 ; 2 Kgs. 2:12; Acts 
; 7 : 2 ; 1 Cor. 4:15. Also of protector 
! or guardian. Ps. 68 : 5. 

3. The author, source, or beginning 
1 of anything. Gen. 4 : 21 ; Bom. 4:12. 

4. God is called " Father." Deut. 32 : 
6 ; Ps. 89 : 26 ; Matt. 6 : 4, 9 ; Bom. 1 : 7. 

The position of father was one of 

| great dignity and authority. Laws were 

enacted to secure this. Ex. 22 : 17 : Lev. 

20 : 9. The father had, however, no 

power over the life of his child. Deut. 

| 21 : 18-21. Both his blessing and his 

301 



FAT 



FEE 



curse were especially efficacious. Geii. 
9 : 25, 26 ; 27 : 27-40. The fifth com- 
mandment was the only one to whose 
obedience a blessing was especially 
promised. Ex. 20 : 12 ; Eph. 6 : 2. Dis- 
respect toward parents was one of the 
worst of crimes. Ex. 21:15-17; 1 Tim. 
1 : 9. The father, as the head of the fam- 
ily, was, in patriarchal times, the priest. 
Gen. 8 : 20 ; Job 1:5. " It is a beauti- 
ful circumstance in the law of Moses 
that this filial respect is exacted for 
the mother as well as for the father." 
See Children. 

FATHOM. See Measures. 

FEAR. " The fear of the Lord " is 
a common expression in the 0. T. Job 
28 : 28 ; comp. Acts 9 : 31. It refers to 
awe and reverence for piety rather than 
to dread of God. The love of God is 
not so plainly revealed in the 0. T. as 
in the New. The attributes of God's holi- 
ness and power are most strongly empha- 
sized. Hence the frequent exhortation 
to fear God. 

Fear has its fit place also under the 
gospel dispensation. Paul exhorts Chris- 
tians, Phil. 2:12, "work out your own 
salvation with fear and trembling." If 
it is a "fearful thing to fall into the 
hands of the living God," Heb. 10 : 
31, and "if the righteous scarcely be 
saved," 1 Pet. 4: 18, we ought ever to 
remember the punishment clue to us 
for sin and God's abhorrence of it, and 
in view of the punishment pass our 
time in a proper state of godly fear, 
which, however, is not slavish, but con- 
sistent with assurance of faith and with 
love for God as our Father. Comp. Rom. 
8:15: 1 John 4: 18. 

FEAST, Luke 14: 13, FEASTS. 
Lev. 23 : 2. We often read in the Bible 
of feasts or sumptuous entertainments, 
and of the customs pertaining to them. 
They were generally given to celebrate 
or commemorate some important or joy- 
ful event. Gen. 21 : 8 ; 29 : 22 : 40 : 20 ; 
Eccl. 10 : 19. On such occasions the 
guests amused themselves with stories 
or sallies of humor, and sometimes with 
enigmatical questions, Jud. 14:12, or 
dancing, Mark 6 : 22, and music, Isa. 
5:12; 24 : 7-9. 

As among the Romans, so among the 
Jews at the time of our Lord, the guests 
at feasts reclined upon couches, and did 
not sit upright, as we do. 
3)2 



The most honorable place or seat, or 
" uppermost room," as it is called, Matt. 
23:6, or "highest" or " chief room," 
Luke 14:7, 8, was the middle couch, 
and the middle of that : and lying be- 
low one at table is to lie as it were in 
or upon his bosom. John 13 : 23. See 
Eatixg. 

The "ruler" or "governor of the 
feast," John 2 : 8, was the superintend- 
ent of the servants, and at the same 
time the one who controlled all the ar- 
rangements for the festivity. It was 
his office to test the meats and drinks 
that were offered to the guests. John 
2:9. 

Feasts, Religious. The stated re- 
ligious festivals among the Jews may 
be divided into the following classes : 
(1) The Sabbath, the feast of new 
moons, the sabbatical year, and the 
year of jubilee. (2) The Passover, 
Pentecost, and the feast of taberna- 
cles. (3) The feasts of Purim and of 
the dedication. The first two classes 
of feasts were established by the Law 
of Moses; the last did not come into 
existence till after the Babylonish cap- 
tivity. At each of the feasts of the 
first two classes the males were to "ap- 
pear before the Lord " and to make their 
offerings with rejoicing. Deut. 27:7. 

There was a suspension of labor on 
the principal feast-days. Ex. 12:16; 
Lev. 23:21, 24, etc. But inasmuch as 
the festival of the Passover lasted 
through a whole week, only the first 
and the seventh clays were included un- 
der this restriction. Ex. 12 : 16. A par- 
ticular description of each feast is giv- 
en in its proper place. 

Feasts of Charity or Love. These 
are mentioned in Jucle 12, and are sup- 
posed to refer to the social interviews 
established among the early Christians, 
in imitation, perhaps, of the Jewish, 
Deut. 12 : 18 ; 28 : 12, or Gentile observ- 
ances of like character. They were 
held in the assembly or church, either 
after or before the celebration of the 
Lord's Supper. Similar observances 
are customary at the present day 
among some Christian denominations. 

FEET. To remove the shoes from 
the feet was regarded as a token of 
reverence, and also of mourning. Ex. 
3 : 5 : Eze. 24 : 1 7. It is supposed that 
the priests officiated with naked feet, 



FEL 



FIE 



and in modern times, among heathen 
nations and some nominal Christians, it 
is customary to enter the place of wor- 
ship with the shoes off and the feet 
washed. To wash the feet was a com- 
mon mark of hospitality, Gen. 18 : 4, 
and was visually done by a servant, 1 
Sam. 25 : 41 ; John 13 : 5, 6. This cus- 
tom still prevails in the East. At 
Smyrna the washing of the priests' feet 
by the bishop is a distinct and very im- 
posing ceremony, and is designed to be 
an exact imitation of Christ's example. 
See Clothes, Dust, Foot. 

Foot-chains are supposed to be meant 
by the word "chains " in Num. 31 : 50 
and Isa. 3 : 19. They were worn around 
the ankles, and caused the wearer to 
observe a certain measured pace. The 
same ornaments are now worn by the 
women of Syria and Arabia. Little 
rings are hung upon them, which tinkle 
when the foot is in motion, and they 
are often richly ornamented. 

FE'LIX {happy), the Roman gov- 
ernor of Judaea, a. d. 52-60, was a 
profligate and cruel man. Acts 23 : 26. 
He was married three times. His third 
wife was Drusilla, whom he persuaded 
to leave her husband and marry him, 
and they were residing at Csesarea when 
Paul was brought there in custody. 

He is specially known for the manner 
in which he treated the exhortations 
and warnings of Paul, Acts 24: 26, who 
preached before him a most practical 
sermon, arraigning his crimes and urg- 
ing upon him the duty of repentance in 
view of future judgment. 

The sermon made an impression, for 
" Felix trembled/' but it was transient. 
He kept the apostle imprisoned for 2 
years, and postponed the inquiry re- 
specting his own salvation until a " con- 
venient season," which, so far as we 
know, never came. Felix was super- 
seded by Porcius Festus 2 years after 
this event, and tried at Rome before 
Nero for malversation of office, but es- 
caped punishment through the inter- 
vention of Pallas, the freedman of 
Claudius and his successor, Nero. 

FENCED CIT'Y. See Cities. 

FERRET, an animal of the weasel 
family tamed in Europe and used for 
catching rats. It has long been agreed 
that " the creature which sighs or groans" 
(Heb. andkah, "to groan ") is not the fer- 



ret. Lev. 11 : 30. Older writers consid- 
ered it the shrew-mouse or the hedge- 
hog, both of which abound in Pales- 
tine. The belief is now almost univer- 
sal that it is some animal of the lizarc 




tribe. Several of these reptiles make a 
mournful cry or wail, especially the gecko, 
which is very common in Palestine and 
Egypt among ruins, and is remarkable 
not only for the clucking note which its 
name imitates, but for its fan-like toes, 
whereby it is able to run up the smooth- 
est wall, and even on ceilings. Of these 
small lizards there are several species. 

FESTIVALS, RELIGIOUS. 
Sec Feasts. 

FES'TUS, POR'CIUS, succeed- 
ed Felix, A. D. 60, in the government of 
Judaea, and died in 62. Acts 24 : 27. 
Paul had a hearing before him on sun- 
dry charges, and'Festus would have re- 
leased him if Paul had not appealed to 
the emperor. Acts 26 : 32. Josephus 
gives him a good character as an effi- 
cient ruler, especially because he did his 
best to rid the country of robbers. 

FET'TERS. See Chains. 

FIELD. The Hebrew word trans- 
lated "field" conveys a contrary idea 
to ours, inasmuch as it implies the ab- 
sence of enclosure. Thus the " field " is 
often contrasted with portions of land 
that are enclosed, such as a vineyard, 
Ex. 22:5; Lev. 25:3, 4; a garden or 
a walled town, Deut. 28: 3, 16; " un- 
walled villages or scattered houses 
ranked in the eye of the law as fields." 
Lev. 25:31. "Field" means the open 
country apart from habitations, in Gen. 
25:27; 37:15. Stones were used to 
separate one plot of ground from an- 
other ; curses were threatened for re- 
moving these landmarks. Deut. 19 . 14; 
27: lj Job 24 : 2 ; Prov. 22 : 28. 
303 



FIE 



FIG 



If such unfenced fields were pasture- 
grounds,_the herd or flock would require 
constant watching. Ex. 22 : 5. A piece 
of ground of any size, from the mere 
land around a cave, Gen. 23 : 13, 17, to 
an entire inheritance, Ruth 4 : 5, was 
called a "field." In the N. T. the 
Greek for " fields " occasionally means 
farm-houses or hamlets, in distinction 
from villages and towns, but in the 
A. V. it is rendered "country." Mark 
5:14; 6:36,56. The knowledge of 
these unenclosed fields throws light 
upon the parable of the Sower. Some of 
the seed scattered as he draws near the 
end of his lot is certain to fall beyond 
the ploughed portion, and the birds will 
devour it. Again, the custom of run- 
ning footpaths between, and not over, 
fields explains the Sabbath-walk of our 
Lord and his disciples. Luke 6 : 1. The 
little band did not trample down the 
ripened grain. They merely walked 
between the fields and plucked the 
wheat on either hand. The complaint 
was not brought against them because 
they took the wheat, but because they 
broke the Sabbath. 

FIERYSERTENTS. See Ser- 
pents. 

FIG, FIG' TREE. The fig tree 
(Ficus carica) has been cultivated in 
Palestine from remote times, Deut. 8 : 
8; Isa. 34 : 4, and is also found in a ! 
wild state. It does not grow to a great I 
height, but throws out a profusion of 
very spreading branches, and the trunk I 
is often 3 feet in diameter. Five-lobed ' 
leaves luxuriantly clothe these limbs, j 
and often convert this tree into a beau- I 
tiful natural arbor. 1 Kgs. 4 : 25 : 2 Kgs. 
18:31 ; Isa. 36:16; Mic. 4:4; Zech. 3 : I 
10; John 1:48. 

The fruit is pear-shaped, and the small 
green figs appear before the leaves, i 
When these figs have attained some size, | 
their interior will be found filled with j 
minute white flowei-s. This curious pro- - 
vision leads to the common impression 
that this tree never blossoms. "When 
the leaves have appeared, if there be 
no fruit among them, the fig tree will 
be barren for the present season. Matt. 
21: 19. 

Figs are much used as food in all 

Eastern lands. Two kinds of this fruit 

arc mentioned in the Bible. 1. The 

early fig, or boccore, of which a few 

304 



ripen and are gathered in June, Isa. 
28 : 4; Hos. 9 : 10; Mic. 7 : 1, while 
the most of this early fruit falls off be- 
fore it is perfected. Rev. 6:13. 2. The 
main crop, or kermouse, ordinarily does 




Figs and Fig-Leaves. 

not ripen till August. These are the 
"green figs" of Song Sol. 2 : 13. "Beth- 
phage " means "' house of green figs." A 
long dark-colored kermouse sometimes 
hangs upon the trees all winter. 

These various kinds of figs are eaten 
as they come from the tree, and are also 
dried in masses or cakes. 1 Sam. 25 : 18. 
They seem to have been an ordinary ar- 
ticle of food, and to have possessed me- 
dicinal properties. 2 Kgs. 20 : 7 ; 1 Chr. 
12:40. 

The putting forth of the fig tree was 
one of the earliest indications of sum- 
mer, Song Sol. 2:13; Matt. 24:32; 
Luke 21 : 29 ; and a failure of its fruit 
was a great calamity. Jer. 5:17: 8: 13 ; 
Joel 1:7, 12; Hab. 3 : 17, 18. 

The cursing of the fig tree by our Sa- 
viour, Mark 11 : 13, 21, has occasioned 
great perplexity. This incident oc- 
curred about the beginning of April, 
when, as the evangelist states, the time 
for figs had not come. Why, then, 
should Christ seek figs upon the tree 
and, as it were, blame its barrenness? 
The best reply seems to be, Because the 
tree was in leaf; and when the tree was 
in this state, abnormal though it were, 
fruit might be expected. Dr. Thomson, 
as the result of his observation, consid- 
ers it not at all impossible that the early 



FIL 



FIR 



variety of this tree might have ripe fruit 
in the warm, sheltered ravines of Olivet 
at Easter : " If there was no fruit on this 
leafy tree, it might justly be condemned 
as barren ; and hence the propriety of 
the lesson it was made to teach — that 
those who put forth in profusion only 
the leaves of empty profession are nigh 
unto cursing." 

FIEE. The word occurs only once 
in the A. V. 1 Sam. 13 : 21. The pre- 
ceding verse is connected with it, and 
they are best rendered : " But all the 
Israelites went down to the Philistines 
to sharpen [their tools] whenever there 
was bluntness of edge to their shares 
and coulters and prong-forks and axes, 
and to point their goads." 

FIRE was of course used for cook- 
ing and for warmth. We find reference 
to the latter use in Jer. 36 : 22 : Luke 22 : 
55 : John 18 : 18. See Fuel. A hearth 
with lighted wood or a pan with burn- 
ing charcoal is mentioned in the pas- 
sages specified as the sources of the heat. 
Fire was used in the service of God to 
consume the sacrifices partially or en- 
tirely. There may be a question whether 
Abel offered a burnt-sacrifice, Gen. 4 : 4, 
but surely, from the time of Noah, fire 
was used with the sacrifices. The Mo- 
saic law prescribes its use, Lev. 1 : 7, and 
this burnt-altar fire was to be kept ever 
burning. Lev. 6:9, 13. 

Fire was the sign of the divine pres- 
ence and acceptance. Thus, the heav- 
enly fire which came down upon the 
altar of burnt-offering on the occasion 
of the first sacrifice after the giving of 
the Law, Lev. 9 : 24, indicated Jeho- 
vah's gracious pleasure in the service. 
To the same end fire was sent in other 
instances, Jud. 6:21; 1 Kgs. 18 : 38 ; 1 
Chr. 21 : 26. Fire was used as a purifier. 
Num. 31 : 22, 23 ; cf. Zech. 13 : 8, 9. The 
victims slain for sin-offerings were after- 
ward consumed by fire. Lev. 4: 12, 21; 
6 : 30 ; 16 : 27. The Nazarite marked 
the conclusion of his vow by shaving 
his head and casting the hair into the 
fire on the altar of burnt-offering. Num. 
6 : 18. It was forbidden by the Law to 
kindle a fire on the Sabbath, Ex. 35 : 3 ; 
Num. 15 : 32; but some maintain that 
the prohibition applies to the prepara- 
tion, and not to the heating, of food. 
Consequently, by having the principal 
meal, which was always eaten in the 
20 



I evening, a little earlier on Friday and 
J a little later on Saturday, the Jew could 
! have a hot meal every day in the week. 
The law held him who wilfully or 
carelessly set fire to ripe or harvested 
| fields on which the grain yet stood pe- 
cuniarily liable for damages. Ex. 22 : 6. 
The punishment of death by fire was in- 
flicted in early times. Jer. 29 : 22 ; Dan. 
3 : 20, 21. See Furnace. It is enjoined 
by the Law in the case of incest with a 
mother-in-law, and of unchastity on the 
part of the daughter of a priest. Lev. 
i 20 : 14: 21 : 9. But it is reasonable to 
suppose that in both these cases the con- 
demned were first killed by stoning or 
strangling, and then their bodies burnt. 
To fire the gates was one way of ending 
a siege. Jud. 9 : 49, 52. 

Fire is the comparison of intense love, 
Song Sol. 8:6; of the injuring tongue, 
Ps. 120 : 4 ; Prov. 16:27; Jas. 3 : 5, and 
of godlessness, Isa. 9 : 18. The anger 
of God burns as fire, Ps. 79 : 5 ; 89 : 46 ; 
Nah. 1 : 6. His word is like fire, Jer. 
23 : 29. Yea, he himself is a consuming 
fire, Deut. 4:24; Heb. 12:29. The 
word is frequently used metaphorically. 
The " strange fire," Lev. 10 : 1, is gen- 
erally explained as common fire, not 
taken from the holy fire of the altar. 
But inasmuch as no express law forbade 
the burning of incense by ordinary fire, 
it is very probable that the offence con- 
sisted in presenting an incense-offering 
not commanded in the law in an im- 
proper, merely vainglorious spirit. The 
time and manner of the ofiering were 
" strange," not the fire. 

FIRE'-PAN, one of the vessels of 
the temple-service. Ex. 27 : 3 ; 38 : 3 ; 
2 Kgs. 25 : 15; Jer. 52 : 19. The same 
word is elsewhere rendered "snuff-dish," 
Ex. 25:3S; 37:23; Num. 4:9, and 
" censer." Lev. 10 : 1 : 16 : 12 ; Num. 
16 : 6 ff. These utensils were probably 
shallow metal vessels which served 
either to catch the snuff of the lamps 
when they were trimmed or to burn 
small quantities of incense. 
FIR'KIN. See Measures. 
FIRMAMENT. The word "ex- 
pansion " would more perfectly convey 
the meaning of the original word. Gen. 
1:17. A similar idea is suggested Ps. 
104 : 2 ; Isa. 40 : 22, and the same word 
is used to denote a "covering," Num. 
16 : 38, 39, or a " spreading over," Isa. 
305 



FIR 



FIR 



40 : 19, or "spread forth." Isa. 42 : 5. 
The Jews probably understood the word 
" firmament " to denote an immense arch 
or canopy sprung from one side of the 
horizon to the other, studded with stars 
and forming a sort of separating wall 
between the upper and lower waters. 
See Ps. 19 : 1 ; Dan. 12 : 3. The stars 
are represented as dropping from their 
settings in it. Isa. 34 : 4; Matt. 24 : 29. 

FIRST'-BORN. The first-born 
male of every Jewish family and of all 
beasts was consecrated to God in com- 
memoration of the judgment which God 
brought upon the first-born of Egypt. Ex. 
13 : 2. Several provisions of the Jewish 
law relate to the first-born. He received 
a double portion of the estate, Deut. 21 : 
17, and officiated as priest of the family 
in the father's absence or death. The 
privileges of the first-born were obvi- 
ously great in the cases of Esau and 
Reuben, Gen. 27 : 29, 36 ; 1 Chr. 5 : 1, 2, 
but might be forfeited, as these two cases 
show. The religious pre-eminence of 
the first-born ceased when the priest- 
hood was committed exclusively to the 
tribe of Levi. Num. 3 : 12, 13. It was 
then required that a certain piece of 
money (5 shekels, about $2.50) should 
be paid for the redemption of all the 
first-born of succeeding generations; 
and this redemption-money became part 
of the sacred revenue. Num. 8 : 17 ; 18 : 
16. The first-born of all beasts used in 
sacrifice were devoted to the Lord, Ex. 
13 : 2, but the first-born of unclean ani- 
mals might be redeemed with the ad- 
dition of one-fifth of the value, Lev. 
27 : 13 ; otherwise, they were sold, ex- 
changed, or destroyed. Ex.13 : 13; Lev. 
27 : 27. It is supposed that dogs were 
never redeemed, Deut. 23 : IS. 

The titles " the first-born of every 
creature," Col. 1:15, and " the first-be- 
gotten " of God, Heb. 1 : 6, belong ex- 
clusively to Christ. The first of the 
two might be translated the " first- 
born " or begotten (not created) "before 
every creature," and both expressions 
denote a dignity superior to men and 
angels and the whole creation. 

FIRST'- FRUITS. The first- 
fruits of harvest, of the vintage, the 
threshing-floor, the wine-press, the oil- 
press, the first baked bread of the new 
crop, and the first fleeces of the flock, 
were required by God to be given for the 
306 



use of his ministers, the priests. Ex. 
23 : 19 ; Num. 15 : 19-21 ; 18 : 12, 13. 
These offerings were brought to the 
temple. By making this consecration 
of the first-fruits the entire produce 
was consecrated, as the nation had been 
by the consecration of the first-born. 
No particular quantity was designated, 
but it is supposed a sixtieth part of the 
whole was the least measure. 

The manner of offering the first-fruits 
is prescribed Lev. 23 : 10-14. A sheaf 
of the first ripe barley was brought on 
the morrow after the Passover Sabbath, 
and waved by the priest before the 
Lord ; and after being threshed in a 
court of the temple, a handful of it was 
cleansed and roasted and pounded in a 
mortar. Oil was mingled with it, and 
it was then waved before the Lord in 
the name and behalf of the nation, as 
an acknowledgment of dependence and 
gratitude. Until this was done the har- 
vest remained untouched. 

During the times of apostasy after 
Solomon this ordinance was neglected, 
but Hezekiah awakened the national 
conscience on this subject, 2 Chr. 31 : 
5-12. After the Captivity, Nehemiah 
appointed places for the reception of 
the first-fruits of both kinds (raw pro- 
duce and prepared produce). Neh. 10 : 
35, 37 ; 12 : 44. The prophets insist on 
the duty of offering them. Eze. 20 : 40 ; 
44 : 30 : 48 : 14 ; comp. Rev. 14 : 4. Fruit 
trees were unplucked for three years. 
The fourth year's yield was given to 
God as the first-fruits, but from the 
fifth year the fruit was the owner's, 
Lev. 19 : 23-25. 

The first-fruits were emblematical of 
abundance and excellence, Rom. 8 : 23, 
and also the earnest or sample of a full 
harvest at hand. 1 Cor. 15 : 20. 

FIR' TREE, probably the Aleppo 
pine (Pinus halepensis), which is almost 
as large as the cedar, is now found on 
Lebanon, and was formerly doubtless 
abundant through Palestine, Hos. 14: 
8. Sometimes the cypress and juniper 
may have been included under this name, 
as well as other pines found here. 

The fir was used for shipbuilding, 
Eze. 27 : 5, musical instruments, 2 
Sam. 6 : 5, and in the frame-, and or- 
namental, work of costly edifices, 1 Kgs. 
5 : 8, 10 : 6 : 1 5, 34; 9 : 11 ; 2 Chr. 2:8; 
3:5; Song Sol. 1 : 17. The fir is still 



FIS 



FIS 



of the shoals "can scarcely be conceived 
by those who have not witnessed them. 
Frequently these shoals cover an acre 
or more of the surface, and the fish, as 
the}' slowly move along in masses, are 
so crowded, with their back-fins, just 
appearing on the level of the water, 
that the appearance at a little distance 
is that of a violent shower of rain pat- 
tering on the surface. We obtained 1-4 
species of fishes in the lake, and prob- 
ably the number inhabiting it is at least 
three times as great." 

But not all of these fish of Galilee a-e 
savory eating. Matt. 13 : 47, 48. On 



used in the manufacture of harps, lutes, 
guitars, etc. It was a tall, straight tree, 
of fine appearance, in the tops of which 
the storks built their nests, Ps. 104 : 17. 
Hence it is used to illustrate power or 
grandeur, 2 Kgs. 19 : 23 ; Isa. 14 : 8 ; 
37 : 24: and in JSFah. 2 : 3 the brandish- 
ing of weapons of war is compared to 
the shaking of the tops of fir trees by a 
violent wind. The springing up of the 
fir is emblematical of verdure and plenty, 
Isa. 41:19; 55: 13 : 60:13. 

FISH. The rapid multiplication of 
fish finds recognition in the root-meaning 
of their Hebrew name, " to increase." See 
also Gen. 48 : 16, margin. 
They are mentioned in 
the first chapter of Gen- 
esis (vs. 20,26, 28) and in 
Ps. 8 : 8 as one of the 
chief classes of living 
creatures, and as placed 
under the dominion of 
man. In the Law, Lev. 
11 : 9-12, distinction of 
them is made into clean 
and unclean, according as 
they have fins and scales 
or are without them. Of 
the numerous species of 
fish which inhabit the 
lakes and rivers of Pales- 
tine and the adjacent sea, 
Solomon possessed som 
knowledge, 1 Kgs. 4 : 33, 
but not a single variety 
has its name recorded in 
the Bible. (The whale is 
not a fish !) 

An aggravation of the 
first plague of Egypt was 
the destruction offish — an 
important part of the food 

of the people. In the wil- Fishes of the Sea of Galilee. (After Tristram.) 

derness the Israelites mur- !• Chromis Nilotica. 2. Clavias Maci'acanthus. 3. Labeobarbus Canis 

mured for the fish of their old home 
Num. 11 : 5. It was 




sad prophecy for 
Egypt that by the failing of her waters 
the fishermen should mourn, and that 
they should be disappointed who make 
ponds and sluices for fish. Isa. 19 : 5-10 ; 
comp. Eze. 29:4-10. 

Most of the still and running waters 
of Palestine swarm with fish. Josephus 
first called attention to the similarity 
of the fish of the Sea of Galilee and 
those of the Nile. Of those in the for- 
mer water Tristram says : the density 



this lake four of the disciples toiled as 
fishermen. Matt. 4:18-21. References 
to the " fish-gate," 2 Chr. 33 : 14, etc., 
of Jei-usalem show that the city was 
probably supplied with a market for 
this kind of food. The product of the 
Mediterranean was doubtless then, as 
now, brought from Joppa, the port of 
Jerusalem. The Phoenicians were es- 
pecially engaged in the capture and 
sale of fish, Eze. 26 : 5, 14 ; Neh. 13: 
16, and the Hebrew name, Zidon, sig- 
nifies " fishing." 

307 



FIS 



FIT 



The fish was frequently worshipped 
from Egypt to Assyria and India. Deut. 
4 : 18. Dagon, the Philistine idol, 1 
Sam. 5:4, was half fish, half man. On 
early Christian monuments, especially 
in the Catacombs of Rome, the fish it- 
self or its Greek name was often carved, 
because that name, ichthus, is formed 
of the first letters of the confession : 
"Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour." 

Fish are often carried by the Jordan 
and smaller streams into the Dead Sea, 
but soon perish in its acrid element. 
In the mystical vision of Ezekiel waters 
were seen issuing from under the house 
of God, carrying fertility along the Ke- 
dron valley, and pouring into this sea of 
death, whose waters were healed : "And 
it shall come to pass, that the fishers 
shall stand upon it from En-gedi even 
unto En-eglaim ; they shall be a place 
to spread forth nets ; their fish shall be 
according to their kinds as the fish of 
the great sea, exceeding many." Eze. 
47:1-10. 

" Fish is an article of diet of which 
the Orientals are passionately fond. It 
brings a high price, unless some extraor- 
dinary haul has exceptionally cheapened 
the market. The government derives a 
considerable revenue from the tax on fish 
sold in the market. Every beach on the 
sea-coast of Syria is enlivened with trawl- 
ing-nets and cast-nets and fishing-boats, 
and fishermen, standing often knee-deep 
or waist-deep, casting their pole-lines 
into the surf. Fish swarm in the warm 
water of this latitude, and every variety, 
even to dog-fish and octopods, are greed- 
ily eaten. The word ' smack' or ' boat' 
would better express the kind of craft in 
which the great draught of fishes was 
caught, Luke 5 : 2." — Dr. Post, of Beirut. 
FISH'-GATE, a gate in Jerusalem. 
2 Chr. 33 : 14, etc. Dr. Barclay thinks 
it was near the "Fish-Pool." See Je- 
rusalem. 

FISH-HOOKS. Am.4:2; comp. 
Jer. 16 : 16. The method of taking fish 
with hooks was doubtless known in the 
early ages of the world. Job 41 : 1. 
The spear was also used. Job 41 : 7. 

The usual way, however, was by a 
net — either a casting-net, Eze. 26 : 5 ; 
4T : 10 ; Hab. 1:15; Matt. 4 : 20, 21 ; 
Mark 1 : 18, 19 ; Luke 5:2; John 21 : 
6 ff., or a drag-net. Isa. 19 : 8 ; Hab. 1 : 
15 ; Matt. 13 : 47. In the latter case a 
308 



boat was necessarily used. Such fish- 
ing was done, by preference, at night. 
Luke 5 : 5. Angling was a favorite 
recreation in ancient Egypt. The ref- 
erence in Job 41 : 2 is to the custom of 
putting a ring through the gill of a fish, 
and then by a line attaching it to a stake, 
the object being to keep it alive in the 
water until required for use. Besides 
amateur there were professional fisher- 
men. Such were many of the apostles. 

FISH-POOLS OF HESH'- 
BON, a mistranslation for "pools" 
simply. Song Sol. 7 : 4. There is no 
reference to fish. See Heshbon. 

FITCH'ES, a plant [Nigella sa- 
tiva) of the buttercup family. Isa. 28 : 
25. Some species are cultivated in our 




Fennel Flower, or Fitches. (Nigella Sativa. 
After Carruthers.) 

flower-gardens under such names as 
"love-in-a-mist." Fitches are grown 
for their small black, hot-tasting seeds, 
which are sprinkled over the flat cakes 
of the Syrians before they are baked. 



FLA 



FLI 



These tender seeds are still beaten out 
with a stout staff, as described in Isa. 
28 : 27. " Fitches," in Eze. 4 : 9, should 
read, as in the margin, " spelt." See Rye. 

FLAG. Probably used, as by us, 
somewhat indefinitely. Ex. 2 : 3. If 
any special plant was intended, it may 
have been the edible rush or the flower- 
ing rush, both of which abound in 
Egypt, and the latter in Palestine. 

FLAGON. The Hebrew word so 
translated in 2 Sam. 6 : 19,- 1 Chr. 16 : 
3; Song Sol. 2:5; Hos. 3 : 1 (cf. mar- 
gin) means a "cake," ordinarily of 
compressed raisins. The last-quoted 
text shows that such cakes were offered 
to idols. But in Isa. 22 : 24 the word 
" flagon " is the correct translation of 
the Hebrew. 

FLAX, a well-known plant, which 
furnishes the material of linen stuffs of 
every variety, Ex. 9:31. It was pro- 
duced of the best quality in Egypt, 
Isa. 19 : 9, and was an article of exten- 
sive commerce. 

At the present day, as in ancient 
times, flax is laid upon the housetop in 
the heat of the sun to dry, Josh. 2 : 6. 




Flax. {After Tristram.) 

Lamp-wicks were made of this material, 
Isa. 42 : 3. The spinning of flax was 




Preparation of Flax. {From the Egyptian Monuments. After Wilkinson.) 



ancientlv the labor of the most noble 
ladies. Prov. 31 : 13, 19, 24. See Linen 
and Distaff. 

FLEA, a small insect mentioned as 
the most insignificant of creatures. 1 
Sam. 24: 14; 26 : 20. Residents and 
travellers in warm climates are too well 
acquainted with it. 

FLESHis usedfigurativelvfor every- 
thing living. Gen. 6:13, 17,*19 ; some- 
times mankind, 6:12; sometimes the 
body as distinguished from the soul or 



spirit. Col. 2:5:1 Pet. 4:6. In a the- 
ological sense. " the flesh " is the natural 
man, including the unrenewed will and 
mind, moving in the world of self and 
sense only. Rom. 7:5; 8 : 1 , 5, 9 ; Gal. 
5 : 17, 1 9 ; Eph. 2 : 3. Self-imposed or- 
dinances gratify the flesh — ?'. e. self — 
whilst seemingly mortifying it. 

FLINT, a hard and well-known 
stone very abundant in Palestine and 
adjacent districts, Ps. 114: 8. The fig- 
urative use of the word in Deut. 32 : 13 
309 



FLO 



FLY 



represents the great abundance of oil, 
and in Isa. 50 : 7 and Eze. 3:9 it is 
used to denote firmness and constancy. 

FLOATS, rafts by which the tim- 
bers already fitted for the building 
might be floated to Joppa, and then 
carried overland to Jerusalem. 1 Kgs. 
6:9; 2 Chr. 2:16. 

FLOCK. See Sheep. 

FLOOD, one of the most remark- 
able events in the history of our world. 
It occurred 2500 years before the birth 
of Christ, and was a judgment upon the 
world for the great wickedness of its in- 
habitants, only 8 of whom were saved — 
Noah and his family. Gen. 6 : 17 ff. 
Noah obeyed the divine injunction to 
build the ark and put into it pairs of 
all the land-animals. The waters of the 
flood increased for 150 days, until the 
mountains were covered and the waters 
attained the depth of 15 cubits, or 22Jr 
feet. In consequence, " all flesh died 
that moved upon the earth," and only 
those animals were saved which were 
confined in the ark. At the end of this 
period the waters began to assuage, and 
the ark rested on Mount Ararat. Noah 
sent out in turn a raven and, on two oc- 
casions, a dove. The second time the 
dove returned with an olive-leaf, Gen. 
8:11, which was the best evidence of 
the abatement of the waters. The bib- 
lical narrative is given in Gen. 6-8. 

The description of a vast flood is not 
confined to the Old Testament. Many 
peoples have preserved a tradition of 
the event. And not only do we find tra- 
ditions to this effect on the tablets of 
Assyria and in the literature of Greece, 
but also among the Chinese and among 
the aborigines of North and South 
America and Mexico. The prevalence 
of a belief in the occurrence of a great 
deluge confirms the account of Gen- 
esis. 

It is not necessary to assume that the 
Flood extended over all the earth, al- 
though it did most likely destroy all 
human life except the family of Noah. 
Such expressions as " all the high hills 
. . . were covered," Gen. 7:19, do not 
oblige us to go beyond those portions of 
the earth which were then inhabited by 
men. Similar expressions are used where 
the event referred to was only partial in 
extent. See, for example, Gen. 41 : 57 ; 
Luke 2 : 1. Opinions still differ as to 
310 



whether the Flood was universal or only 
partial. 

The Deluge is referred to in the N. T. 
Matt. 24 : 37 ; 2 Pet. 2:5; 3:6. 

The account of the Flood upon the 
Assyrian tablets has been deciphered 
by Mr. George Smith and published in 
his work, The Chaldsean Account of 
Genesis (London and New York, 1876). 
We quote a portion of the interesting 
story, pp. 270, 271 : 

" On the seventh day in the course of it 
I sent forth a dove and it left. The 

dove went and turned, and 
a resting-place it did not find, and it 

returned. 
I sent forth a swallow and it left. The 

swallow went and turned, and 
a resting-place it did not find, and it 

returned. 
I sent forth a raven and it left. 
The raven went, and the decrease of the 

water it saw, and 
it did eat, it swam, and wandered away, 

and did not return. 
I sent the animals forth to the four 

winds, I poured out a libation, 
I built an altar on the peak of the 

mountain, 
by seven herbs I cut, 
at the bottom of them I placed reeds, 

pines, and simgar. 
The gods collected at its savor, the 

gods collected at its good savor; 
the gods like flies over the sacrifice 

gathered 
From of old also Rubat in her course 
The great brightness of Anu had cre- 
ated. When the glory 
of those gods on the charm round my 

neck I would not leave." 

FLOOR. See Threshing. 

FLUTE. See Pipe. 

FLUX, BLOODY, or dysentery, 
Acts 28:8. 

FLY, the name of a large tribe of 
insects, some of which are exceedingly 
annoying and destructive, Isa. 7 : 18. 
They abound in Egypt and Palestine. 
One species, which is found by modern 
travellers in the vicinity of the Nile, and 
called the Abyssinian fly, is as large as 
a bee, and is such an annoyance to cat- 
tle and other large animals as to oblige 
them to forsake their pastures and 
ranges, and to flee to some place where 
they can roll themselves in the mud or 
sand. Hence we may judge of the ter- 



FOL 



FOR 



rible nature of the judgments mentioned 
in Ex. 8 : 24 : Isa. 7:18; in which last 
passage we are informed that the fly 
shall be found in the very places to 
which the cattle resort to rid themselves 
of its presence. 
FOLD. See Sheep. 

FOLLY, Gen. 34 : 7, FOOL, 
Prow 15 : 5. These terms are used by 
the sacred writers sometimes to denote 
weakness of understanding, Ps. 14 : 1 : 
1 Cor. 1 : 27 ; 4 : 10, and sometimes sin 
or wickedness. Ps. 38 : 5 ; Josh. 7 : 15. 
The transgression and disobedience of 
Adam were the height of folly, as is the 
sin of humanity generally. Foolish 
talking, jesting, foolish and unlearned 
questions, etc., 2 Tim. 2 : 23, are such 
as are vain, frivolous, or have no useful 
tendency. 

The phrase " Thou fool," Matt. 5 : 22, 
implies not only an angry temper, but 
probably also impiety and wickedness, 
in allusion to Ps. 14 : 1, where the athe- 
ist is called a fool. 

FOOD. Gen. 3:6. We may form 
some judgment of the ancient diet from 
what we know of that of the modern 
Orientals. Vegetable food is much 
more common than animal. Instead 
of batter, lard, and suet, they use olive- 
oil. A soup, or rather pottage, of beans 
and lentiles, seasoned with garlic and 
oil, is still, as it was of old, a favorite 
dish. The "red pottage of lentiles" 
for which Esau sold his birthright was 
something of this kind. Eggs, honey, 
milk (especially sour milk), and garden- 
productions of every kind afford the 
principal materials of Eastern diet. The 
most common dish at this day in the 
East is the pilau, which consists of 
rice cooked with meat so as to make a 
sort of broth, seasoned variously and 
colored blue, red, or yellow. 

We do not find the use of animal food 
often occurring, except upon the occa- 
sion of entertainments, or the exhibition 
of hospitality to, a friend, Gen. 18 : 7 ; 
Luke 15 : 28, or upon the tables of the 
rich. The animals used for this pur- 
pose, especially neat cattle, were often 
"stalled" and "fattened." 1 Sam. 16 : 
20 ; 28 : 24 ; 1 Kgs. 4 : 23 ; Neh. 5:18: 
Isa. 1 : 11 : 11 : 6 : Jer. 46 : 21 ; Eze. 39 : 
IS: Am. 6:4; Mai. 4 : 2. 

Wild game, lambs, and kids consti- 
tuted the favorite viands in the East. 



At this day beef is not much used, though 
from some texts above and other similar 
authorities we learn that the flesh of 
young bullocks and stall-fed oxen was 
highly prized. Prov. 15 : 17; Matt. 
22:4. 

In very ancient times it was always 
the master of the house, whether he 
were rich or poor, who slew the animal. 
Jud. 6 : 19. Grecian and Roman writers 
mention a like custom of later times. 
The preparation of the food by cooking 
was the business of the mistress. The 
shoulder was probably the choicest part. 
1 Sam. 9 : 24. 

It is customary for the Arabs to serve 
up at one meal the whole of any animal 
which they have killed. This is occa- 
sioned in some measure by the difficulty 
of preserving fresh meat in the Eastern 
climate. Gen. 18 : 7 : Luke 15 : 23. 

The people of the East are particularly 
fond of fish, and in Egypt this consti- 
tutes a very important part of their sub- 
sistence. Num. 11 : 5. See Fish. 

FOOT'MAJV. The term sometimes 
| means soldiers on foot or infantry. At 
other times it has special reference to 
' the king's guard. 1 Sam. 22 : 17. The 
word there translated " footman " is ren- 
dered "guard" in other passages. 1 Kgs. 
14:28; 2 Kgs. 11 : 4, etc 

FOOT'STOOL. 2 Chr. 9:18. 

! Kings and other rulers sitting in state 

| required a stool upon which to rest their 

! feet. The divine glory, which resided 

i symbolically in the holy place between 

the cherubim above the ark, is supposed 

to use the ark as a footstool. 1 Chr. 28: 

2 ; Ps. 99 : 5. So the earth is called 

God's footstool by the same expressive 

j figure which represents heaven as his 

throne. 

FOOT, WATERING WITH 
I THE, a phrase used of Egypt in 
Deut. 11:10, because the "Egyptians 
I watered with the foot in two ways — by 
; the tread-wheel working sets of pumps, 
; and by means of artificial channels con- 
; nected with reservoirs, and opened, turn- 
ed, or closed by the feet." — Bible Coni- 
i mentary. 

FORD, a word frequently used to 

! designate the crossing of any stream, but 

especiallv of the Jordan, as Josh. 2:7: 

i Jud. 3 : 28 ; 12 : 5, 6 ; of the Jabbok, Gen. 

! 32 : 22 ; of the Arnon, Isa. 16 : 2 ; of the 

Euphrates. Jer. 51 : 32. Until recently 

311 



FOE 



FOU 



the fords of the Jordan were supposed 
to be only 8 or 10 in number, but the 
British Palestine Survey has noted 
about 50. 

FOREHEAD. Inasmuch as mod- 
est women kept the forehead covered 
with a veil, not to do so was indicative 
of shamelessness. Jer. 3 : 3. Jewels for 
the forehead, Eze. 16 : 12, were nose- 
jewels, although at the present day in 
the East women wear jewels and strings 
of coins across their foreheads. To mark 
the forehead with the device of a god 
denoted the consecration of the intellect 
unto it. Thus, the mark of the beast 
was upon the forehead. Rev. 13 : 16. 
So God's name is upon the saint's fore- 
head. Rev. 22 : 4. 

FOREIGNER, any one not of 
the genuine Hebrew stock. Ex. 12 : 45; 
comp. Eph. 2 : 12. 

FOREKNOWLEDGE, a pecu- 
liar and essential attribute of God, re- 
ferring to his knowledge of the future 
and of future events. Acts 2 : 23 ; 15 : 18. 
Believers are said to be " elect according 
to the foreknowledge of God." 1 Pet. 
1:2. 

FORERUNNER. Heb. 6 : 20. 
The term, as used of the entrance of our 
Saviour within the veil, refers to one 
who not only goes before to a particular 
place to make arrangements for his suc- 
cessors, but who leads or prepares the 
wav. 

FOREST. 1 Sam. 22 : 5. Sev- 
eral tracts of country were designated 
in this way ; as, "the forest of Hareth," 
that of " Ephraim," " the wood of Ziph," 
etc. It is known that in the tenth cen- 
tury A. J), there was a fir-wood between 
Jerusalem and Bethlehem. Not a trace 
of these forests remains. One of the 
chief causes of the present desolation 
of the Holy Land is the disappearance 
of forests. The "house of the forest of 
Lebanon," which was built by Solomon, 
:md which was magnificent in size and 
style, 1 Kgs. 7 : 2, was so called probably 
from the great quantity of cedar which 
was used in the construction of it. 

FORGIVENESS is an act of 
God toward man, and of man toward 
his fellow. To forgive sin is the exclu- 
sive prerogative of God. of whose law 
sin is the transgression. Ps. 130 : 4. 
Our Lord, by virtue of his divine na- 
ture, assumed the prerogative and exer- 
312 



cised the power of forgiving sins, which 
the scribes and Pharisees, viewing him 
merely as a man, made the occasion of 
a charge of blasphemy, Mark 2 : 5. 
The gospel makes known not only that 
there is forgiveness with God, but also 
how such forgiveness is made compati- 
ble with the divine justice. 

Forgiveness, full, free, and everlast- 
ing, is offered to all who will believe 
and obey the gospel. Acts 13 : 38, 39 ; 

1 John 2 : 12. The duty of mutual for- 
giveness is urged upon man with the 
most solemn sanctions. Matt. 6 : 14, 15 ; 
18 : 22 : Luke 17 : 3, 4. 

FORKS, mentioned in 1 Sam. 13: 
21, were used, not in eating (for the 
Orientals eat without forks), but in tak- 
ing the meat out of the vessels in which 
it was cooked, or else in husbandry. See 
Eat, Eating. 

FORNICATION. This word, 
as used by the sacred writers, denotes 
various acts of lewdness and inconti- 
nency ; and it is also figuratively ap- 
plied to idolatry, or the mingling of the 
pure worship of God with the impure 
rites of heathenism. Matt. 5 : 32, etc. 

FORSWEAR'. See Oath. 

FORTUNATUS, one of the 
three Corinthians, the others being 
Stephanas and Achaicus, who were at 
Ephesus when Paul wrote bis first Epis- 
tle to the Corinthians, and who are 
mentioned in the postscript as the 
bearers of the Epistles. 1 Cor. 16:17. 

FOUNT'AIN. Springs of water 
are often mentioned in the Bible. Pal- 
estine, in contrast with Egypt, was a 
land of brooks of water, of fountains 
and depths, Deut. 8 : 7. Hundreds of 
fountains may be counted with ease 
on either side of the Jordan. Some 
have peculiar properties. There are 
intermittent, thermal, brackish, sulphur, 
and hot springs. Perpetual fountains 
or springs of living water were greatly 
valued. Ps. 36 : 8, 9 ; Isa. 49 : 10 ; Jer. 

2 : 13 ; Joel 3 : IS ; Zech. 13 : 1 ; John 
4:10; Rev. 7 : 17. 

In the expressive language of the 
Hebrews and the modern Arabs, a foun- 
tain is the " eye " of the locality. The 
importance of water is attested by the 
numerous names of localities into which 
enters the Hebrew en or the Arabic ain f 
" fountain," such as " En-rogel," " En- 
gcdi " (Arabic 'Ain-jidy), "En-had- 



FOW 



FOX 



dah." Damascus is the best supplied 
with water of all the Eastern cities ; 
Jerusalem also had so abundant a sup- 
ply that during its numerous sieges 
there was never a complaint on this 
score. Public fountains are frequent 
in the towns. The " fountain sealed" of 
Song Sol. 4 : 12 is a well-spring covered 
with a stone and sealed with the king's 
own signet. The word " fountain " was 
used figuratively : thus, Deut. 33 : 28 
and Ps. 68 : 26, it is applied to Israel 
as the ancestor of the chosen people of 
God, and in Prov. 5 : 18 to a beloved wife. 

FOWL. See Bird. 

FOX. Neh. 4 : 3. Under this term 
the jackal is included — indeed, most of 
the references seem to be to that animal. 
The Orientals at the present time do not 
distinguish in common language be- 
tween the two creatures. Both are com- 
mon in Palestine. The fox ( Vulpes 
vulgaris) is smaller than the jackal 



(Cam's aureus), and is of a reddish hue, 
while the latter is yellowish ; hence its 
scientific name, meaning "the golden 
dog." It is the latter also, and not the 
fox, which devours the dead and fol- 
lows armies that he may feed on human 
bodies left behind. Ps. 63 : 10. Both 
animals are omnivorous, but the jackal, 
which goes in packs, is even more de- 
structive to the vineyards than the 
other. Song Sol. 2:15. The crafty, 
artful nature of the fox is proverbial. 
Eze. 13 : 4 ; Luke 13 : 32. He prowls sin- 
gly for his prey of birds or small quad- 
rupeds, which he takes by stratagem. 
Jackals are concealed by hundreds 
among the ruins, caves, and gardens 
of Syria. Lam. 5 : 18. At sunset they 
come forth, and both then and at inter- 
vals through the night the traveller 
hears their cry, resembling the con- 
fused wailing of many infants. 

Evidently, the "foxes" which Sam- 




The Syr 

son caught (Jud. 15 : 4) were jackals. 
On this Tristram judiciously remarks : 
while Samson could not have caught so 
many foxes, " he might easily have 
' snared/ as the Hebrew- expresses it, 
300 jackals, which hunt in large packs, 
and which are still most numerous in 
southern Palestine. It is not necessary 
to assume that the whole 300 were 
caught at once or turned loose in the 
same place, but rather that Samson, 
having taken them, turned them loose 
in many different places, so as to make 



z&^/L fin ~^x$SZ~~r* . ~%. 

ian Fox. 

150 incendiary fires, and to cause the 
widest possible injury to the standing 
crops of the Philistines. The brands 
would be attached at some distance 
from the tails of the animals, and jack- 
als, accustomed to run together, would 
not, unless very tightly fastened, pull in 
opposite directions, as foxes or dogs 
would ; but the terrified animals would, 
so soon as ever they were let go, rush 
as fast as possible from their captor, 
and carry the devastation far and wide 
before the brand was extinguished." 
313 



FRA 



FRO 



FRANKINCENSE {white), a dry, 
resinous, aromatic substance of a white 
or yellowish color, bitter and acrid to the 
taste, burning for a long time with a 
clear, steady, and very odoriferous flame. 
Several trees (of the genus Boswellia) 
which grow in India, Arabia, and Af- 
rica yield this gum from incisions in the 
bark. Along the coast of Hadramaut, a 
district of Arabia, as Carter has shown, 
frankincense (the olibanum of com- 
merce) is produced, as was affirmed by 
Herodotus, Celsius, other ancient writ- 
ers, and the Bible. Isa. 60: 6: Jer. 6: 
20. The Arabian species (B. Carterii) 
somewhat resembles, especially in its 




B3swellia Thurifera. (Colebrooke. Supposed Frankincense 
After Dr. Birdwood.) 

pinnate leaves when young, the moun- 
tain-ash. This gum, in the above and 
other passages, is mentioned simply as 
il incense." It is called frank because 
of the freeness with which it burns and 
gives forth its odors; and the pure in- 
cense is that which is first obtained, 
and is freest from foreign admixture. 
" Sweet incense," Ex. 30 : 7, might as 
314 



well be rendered " incense of spices," 
and is the composition mentioned in 
Ex. 30 : 34. 

The use of incense in the Jewish 
worship may be learned from Ex. 30 : 7 
and Lev. 16 : 12, 13, and it is figura- 
tively employed to represent lovely and 
agreeable qualities, Song Sol. 3 : fi ; 4 : 
6, 14, and devotional fervor. Ps. 141: 2 ; 
Mai. 1: 11 ; Rev. 8:3. 

FRANKLY is used in Luke 7 : 42 
in the sense of "freely." 

FRIEND. Abraham is called " the 
friend of God." Isa. 41 : 8 : Jas. 2 : 23. 
Jesus called his disciples his friends. 
John 15 : 15. He used a different word 
in the Greek to Judas, Matt. 
26 : 50, and one used more like 
our conventional " my good 
friend," implying kindly feel- 
ing, though no especial regard. 
FRINGES, a part of the 
Outer garment, and the same as 
the hem or border of the gar- 
ment. Deut. 22 : 12 ; Matt. 9 : 20 ; 
14 : 36. See Clothes. 

The children of Israel were 
enjoined to wear them by Moses, 
Num. 15 : 38, and to place them 
on the four borders or edges of 
their outer garment, which was 
usually rectangular in shape. 
They were of a blue color. 

The object of the fringes was 
to remind the children of Israel 
of the commandments of God. 
Num. 15 : 39. In the time of our 
Lord they had become objects 
of parade and show, so that he 
finds an evidence of the hypoc- 
risy of the Pharisees in their 
practice of " enlarging the bor- 
ders of their garments." The 
" hem of the garment " which 
the woman with the issue of 
blood touched, Matt. 9 : 20, was 
the ancient fringe enjoined by 
Moses. 

They became with time, as did 
the rolls containing the Scriptures, phj'- 
lacteries, and other things, objects of 
superstitious regard, and a Jewish 
commentator on Num. 15 says that any 
man clothed with this fringe is safe, 
and shall be delivered from all hurt 
and destruction. 

FROG, a well-known amphibious 
reptile which lives on insects, worms, etc. 



FKO 



FUE 



Ex. 8 : 2. But one species is found in the 
waters of Egypt {liana escnlenta). In 
Rev. 16 : 13 this creature is the symbol 
of uncleanness. Ex. 8 : 2 records the 
miraculous multiplication of frogs 
among the Egyptians in such numbers 
as to fill their beds, ovens, and knead- 
ing-troughs ; and when they died, as 
they did in immense masses, they fill- j 
ed the iand with an offensive and pesti- 
lential effluvium. 

FRONTLETS. See Phylac- 
teries. 

FRUIT. The word is used in both 
a literal and figurative sense. " The 
fruit of the ground " is the product of 
the ground; "the fruit of the body" 
signifies children. By "fruit" is some- 
times meant reward or consequences. 
Prov. 1:31. " The fruit of the lips " is 
service or thanksgiving. But used lit- 
erally it is a comprehensive term. For 
the regulation in regard to fruit trees, 
see Tree. 

FU'EL was so scarce in the East 
that the people resorted to almost every 
kind of combustible matter, such as the 
withered stalks of herbs and flowers, 
Matt. 6 : 28-30, thorns, Ps. 58 : 9 ; Eccl. 
7 : 0, and even excrements. Eze. 4:12- 
16. See Dung. 

FULFIL/LED. Matt. 2:17. This 
word is frequently used in reference to 
the accomplishment of prophecy. The 
expression, "that it might be fulfilled," 
Matt. 2 : 15, 23 : 8 : 17 ; 12 : 17, etc., etc., 
signifies that the events have fallen out 
in accordance ;with the prophecies of 
the 0. T. The word in this connection 
is almost-synonymous with "verified." 

In other connections, Gen. 25:24;» 
Rev. 15 : 8, etc., the word means " com- 
pleted" or "accomplished," as when 
Christ said, " The time is fulfilled," 
Mark 1:15. 

FULLER. The Hebrew word 
comes from the verb "to tread," be- 
cause originally the clothing was trod- 
den upon in tubs of water until the soap 
which had been dissolved had cleansed 
it. The fuller did not simply full new 
cloth, but washed clothing that had been 
worn. Among the primitive Hebrews 
washing was done at home by the wo- 
men. Ex. 19 : 10 ; Num. 19 : 7. It was 
obligatory in the case of the leper's 
clothing. Lev. 13 : 54. But in later 
times amoEj; the Hebrews, as amonj 



the Egyptians, as the monuments tes- 
tify, washing was an especial and im- 
portant business of the men. 2 Kgs. 18 : 
17 ; Isa. 7 : 3 ; 36 : 2 : Mark 9 : 3. Men- 
tion is made in the Bible of the various 
substances used in this business, such as 
nitre, Prov. 25 : 20 ; Jer. 2 : 22 ; soap, 
probably the juice of some saponaceous 
plant, Mai. 3 : 2. Chalk was rubbed 
into clothes for the same purpose. Since 
the fullers occasioned offensive smells-, 
they carried on their work outside the 
cities. West of Jerusalem was their 
field j its removed position and the sup- 
ply of water from the upper Pool of 
Gihon rendered the place very fit. See 
Fullers' Field. En-rogel was the 
fullers' fountain. 

FULLERS' FIELD, a spot close 
to the walls of Jerusalem. 2 Kgs. 18 : 
17, 26 ; Isa. 36 : 2 j 7 : 3. One resort 
of the fullers appears to have been En- 
rogel, below and south-east of Jerusa- 
lem, but the place where Babshakeh 
stood was probably on the north of the 
city, or perhaps near the Jaffa gate, at 
the upper Gihon pool, where fullers now 
whiten their garments. 

FUL'NESS. Gal. 4:4. This ex- 
pression has a peculiar meaning in some 
passages of the sacred writings. The 
"fulness of time," in relation to the 
Messiah, has the same meaning as the 
expression "when the measure of time 
was full" — that is, when the time had 
elapsed as appointed by God, and all 
the preparations for his coming were 
completed. So when the day of Pen- 
tecost was fully come. Acts 2:1. The 
same word is used, John 1:16 and Col. 
1:19, to signify the perfect and com- 
plete sufficiency of spiritual blessings 
in Christ Jesus. 

"Fulness of the Godhead," Col. 2: 9, 
denotes all the attributes of the divine 
nature in their entire and complete per- 
fection. The "fulness of Deity" was 
in Christ. 

FU'NERAL. See Bury. 

FURLONG. See Measures. 

FURNACE. Furnaces were used 
for melting the precious metals. Prov. 
17:3. They were also used to punish 
criminals. The furnace into which 
Nebuchadnezzar cast the young He- 
brews who refused to worship hisimage, 
Dan. 3 : 22, 23 ; cf. Jer. 29 : 22, was 
probably a large furnace, like a brick- 
315 



FUR 



FUR 



kiln, with an opening at the top to cast 
in the materials ; a second, for the re- 
moval of slag, cinders, etc., or molten 




Egyptian Furnace. (Ayre.') 

metal, was arranged below, in one of 
the sides, so that the material in the in- 
terior could be observed. 

FURNITURE. To a European eye 
the best-furnished houses in the East ap- 
pear empty. On the marble floors are 
rugs, on the divan are cushions of rich 
materials. But the great variety of 
furniture to which we are accustomed is 
unknown. The poor of course had cor- 
respondingly less. A mat or a skin to 
recline on during the day, a mattress to 



on at night, a stool, a little low 
table, and a brazier, — this would be the 
extent of the furniture. It is inter- 
esting to observe that the rich Shunam- 
mite furnished the room of Elisha with 
simply a bed — perhaps merely a mat- 
tress — a table, a stool (chair), and a 
candlestick. 2 Kgs. 4 : 10-13 . The word 
" furniture " is used in Gen. 31 : 34 of 
the camel-trappings. 

FURROW is the translation of 
different words in the Hebrew. In Hos. 
10 : 10 the word is properly "transgres- 
sions." The complaining of the furrows, 
Job 31 : 38, is mentioned in Hindoo 
proverbs. 

FURY. Jer. 10 : 25. As the word 
is generally used, the prophet here at- 
tributes to God what is true only of 
man. We associate haste, impulse, 
thoughtlessness, and unkindness with 
fury. But in this sense God cannot 
have the emotion of fury. He has 
anger for sin, but this is a righteous 
and holy feeling, devoid of the bitter- 
ness by which men are most often ac- 
tuated in their fury ; and when he is said 
to pour out his fury on a person or on a 
people, it is a figurative expression for 
dispensing afflictive judgments. 




Modern Eastern Furniture. 
1. A Village Table. 2. A Brazier, Tongs, etc. 3. Chairs, l'ersian Canopy Bed, a Couch and Wooden 



316 



GAA 



GAD 



G. 



GA'AL (loathing), the son of Ebed, 
led a revolt against Abimelech, king of 
the Shechemites. Jud. 9 : 26-46. He 
was defeated and his partisans were 
scattered. 

GA'ASH {earthquake), the hill where 
Joshua was buried. Josh. 24 : 30 ; Jud. 
2 : 9. South of Tibneh, which is iden- 
tified as Timnath-serah, is a hill, upon 
the north side of which are tombs ; hence 
it is supposed to be " the hill Gaash." 

GAB A. -See Geba. 

GAB'BAI (tax-gatherer), a Benja- 
mite living in Jerusalem. Neh. 11 : 8. 

GAB'BATH. A (platform), the place 
of Pilate's judgment-seat: called also 
"the pavement." John 19:13. The 
judgment-hall was the Prsetorium, on 
the western hill of Jerusalem, and the 
pavement, or Gabbatha, was a tesselated 
pavement outside the hall. 

GA'BRIEJL (man of God), an angel 
specially charged with the message to 
Zacharias respecting the birth of John, 
and to Mary respecting the birth of 
Christ. Luke 1 : 19-26. At an earlier 
period he was sent to Daniel to unfold 
a vision. Dan. 8:16; 9 : 21. See An- 
gels. 

GAD (good fortune?). 1. The sev- 
enth son of Jacob, and the first-born of 
Zilpah, Leah's handmaid, Gen. 30 : 11. 

2. A prophet and particular friend of 
David, the history of whose reign he 
wrote. 1 Chr. 29 : 29. He came to Da- 
vid when the latter was in the cave Adul- 
lam. 1 Sam. 22 : 5. He then began his 
career of counsellor, under divine direc- 
tion, which eventually won him the title 
of "the king's seer." 2 Sam. 24 : 11, 13; 
1 Chr. 21 : 9. In Hezekiah's day he was 
remembered. 2 Chr. 29 : 25. 

GAD, THE TRIBE OF. The 
territory, given to the tribe of Gad 
lay east of the Jordan, north of 
that allotted to Reuben, and south of 
that given to Manasseh on that side of 
the river. It extended from the Jordan 
eastward to Aroer, Josh. 13 : 25, includ- 
ing half of Mount Gilead and half of 
Ammon. Deut. 3:12; Josh. 13 : 25. For 
physical features and history, see Gil- 



ead. Its chief cities were Raraoth-gil- 
ead, Mahanaim, Heshbon, and Aroer. 

This tribe, in the Wilderness, was 
placed with Simeon and Reuben on the 
south of the tabernacle; with Reuben 
and the half of Manasseh, it occupied 
the pasture-grounds on the east of the 
Jordan. It was warlike, as is graphically 
stated, 1 Chr. 12: 8. Two famous men 
came from Gad — Barzillai, 2 Sam. 17 : 
27, and Elijah, 1 Kgs. 17 : 1. The ter- 
ritory was the battle-field for wars be- 
tween Syria and Israel. 2 Kgs. 10 : 33. 

GAD'ARA. See Gadarenes. 

GADARENES, COUNTRY 
OF, possibly the same as that of the 
Gergesenes. Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:1; 
Luke 8:26. A region about Gadara, an 
important city about 6 miles south-east 
of the Sea of Galilee, and 16 miles from 
Tiberias ; now called Um Keis. The 
town is about 1215 feet above the sea- 
level, on the western crest of a mountain. 
The tomb-caverns are very numerous, 
and some of them are still inhabited by 
the Arabs, illustrating Matt. 8 : 28. The 
ruins of the ancient city cover a circuit 
of about 2 miles, including a street with 
basalt pavement-having marks of char- 
iot-wheels. There are rows of columns, 
two theatres. 

The place' of the miracle of Matt. 8 : 
28-33 has been in doubt, but it cannot 
be Gadara, which is too far from the 
lake for the herd of swine to rush into 
it precipitantly in one short movement. 
Recent explorations fix it, with some 
certainty, about midway of the Lake 
of Galilee, on its eastern side and near 
Gerasa, or modern Kersa. Between 
two wadys, Semakh and File, which are 
3 miles apart, the hills come within 40 
feet of the lake, and present a steep 
slope, so that a herd of swine running 
swiftly down it would be carried on into 
the water. There are various readings 
of the name in the original text of the 
Gospels. The reading of Matt. 8 : 28 
was probably " Gadarenes" (as in the 
revised version), which Origen changed 
to " Gergesenes." In Mark 5 : 1 the read- 
ings are " Gerasenes" or " Gadarenes;" 
317 



GAD 



GAL 



in Luke 8 : 26, " Gerasenes," " Gerge- 
senes," or "Gadarenes." The explana- 
tion is, Gadara, a chief city, is named, as 
better known than Gerasa or Khersu. 

GAD'DI {fortunate), the spy from 
the tribe of Manasseh. Num. 13 : 11. 

GAD'DIEL {fortune of God; i. e. 
sent from God), the spy from Zebulun. 
Num. 13 : 10. 

GA'DI {a Gadite), the father of Men- 
ahem, a king of Israel. 2 Kgs. 15 : 14, 17. 

GA/HAM {sunburnt), a son of Na- 
hor, nephew of Abraham. Gen. 22 : 24. 

GA'HAR {lurking-place), a Neth- 
inim. Ezr. 2:47; Neh. 7:49. 

GA'IUS. 1. A Macedonian, Acts 
19 : 29, Paul's host at Corinth when the 
Epistle to the Romans was written, Rom. 
16 : 23, and baptized with his household 
by Paul. 1 Cor. 1 : 16. He accompanied 
Paul to Ephesus, and was seized by the 
mob. Acts 19 : 29. The association of 
his name with that of Aristarchus seems 
to identify him with the Gaius of Derbe. 
Acts 20 : 4. Opinions differ on this 
point. 

2. To one of this name is addressed 
the third Epistle of John. 3 John 1. 

GA'LAL {influential). 1. A Levite. 
1 Chr. 9:15. 

2. A Levite. 1 Chr. 9:16; Neh. 11 : 
17. 

GALA'TIA, a central province of 
Asia Minor, subject to the Roman rule, 
bounded by Bithynia and Paphlagonia 
on the north, Pontus on the east, Cap- 
padocia and Lycaonia on the south, 
and Phrygia on the west. Its bound- 
aries, however, were often changed. 
In Ptolemy's time it extended to the 
Euxine or Black Sea, and at one time 
included Lycaonia on the south. Its 
capitals were Tavium, Pessinus, and An- 
cyra. The country is chiefly high table- 
land between the two rivers Halys and 
Sangarius. 

The Galatians were originally Gauls 
or Celts who 300 years before Christ 
moved from the regions of the Rhine 
back toward the east, and there min- 
gled with Greeks and Jews. Their 
character resembled that of the mod- 
ern French, and combined quick temper, 
prompt action, inconstancy, and change- 
ableness. So they appear in the Epistle 
of Paul to them. 

Galatia was a part of Paul's mission- 
ary-field. He visited it once with Silas 
318 



and Timothy, Acts 16 : 6 ; again, on his 
third tour, he " went over all the country 
of Galatia," 18 : 23, and received a col- 
lection for the saints from its churches, 
1 Cor. 16 : 1. Crescens also appears to 
have been sent there near the close of 
Paul's life. 2 Tim. 4 : 10. 

GALA'TIANS, EPISTLE TO, 
written by Paul with his own hand (ch. 
6 : 11) between A. D. 55-5S. Its design 
is to diffuse true notions among the 
Galatian Christians concerning justifi- 
cation, the relation of the Mosaic econ- 
omy to the Christian, and the authority 
of Paul as an apostle. The Galatians 
had received Paul with much enthusiasm 
when he first preached the gospel to 
them, ch. 4 : 15. After his departure 
teachers had disseminated the false idea 
that the obligation was incumbent upon 
the followers of Christ to practise the 
ceremonies and rites of the Mosaic code. 
With much vehemence and fervor Paul 
combats their Judaizing teachings, and 
enforces the doctrine that by faith alone 
are we justified. Faith constitutes one 
the child of Abraham, 3 : 9, and circum- 
cision is not only not essential to salva- 
tion, but is in itself of no avail. 5 : 6. 
Chs. 1 and 2 are occupied mainly with 
a vindication of Paul's apostolic com- 
mission as of equal authority with that 
of the other apostles, and with an ac- 
count of a debate concerning meats at 
the council of Jerusalem. Chs. 5 and 6 
contain practical exhortations. The 
main argument, that we become par- 
takers of salvation by faith, 3 : 26, is 
the same in the Epistle to the Galatians 
as in that to the Romans. The two 
Epistles were best understood in the 
time of the Reformation, and form the 
magna charta of evangelical Protestant- 
ism. 

GAI/BANTJM, a resinous gum of 
dark-yellow color, produced in Syria 
and neighboring countries. Ex. 30 : 34. 
It burns with a pungent, disagreeable 
odor, was an ingredient of the sacred 
incense, and is still valued for its me- 
dicinal properties. There is uncertainty 
from what plant it is obtained, but that 
of Palestine is thought to be from one 
which botanists call Galbannm officinale. 

GAL'EED {heap of witness), a place 
on Mount Gilead ; named by Jacob, 
Gen. 31 : 47, 48 ; probably near* Tibnch. 

GALILE'ANS, the inhabitants of 



GAL 



GAL 



the province of Galilee. Luke 13 : 1-3 j 
Acts 2:7. 

GAL'ILEE {circle, circuit), a name 
in the 0. T. for a small district in the 
northern mountains of Naphtali, around 
Kedesh-naphtali, and including 20 towns 
given by Solomon to Hiram, king of 
Tvre, Josh. 20 : 7 j 21 : 32 ; 1 Kgs. 9:11; 
2 Kgs. 15 : 29, and called " Galilee of the 
nations" in Isa. 9:1. Devastated dur- 
ing the wars of the Captivity, it was 
repeopled by strangers. In the time of 
the Maccabees they probably outnum- 
bered the Jewish population, and gave 
their new name to a much wider dis- 
trict. 

In the time of our Lord, Palestine was 
divided into three provinces, of which 
Galilee was the most northern. It in- 
cluded the whole region from the Plain 
of Jezreel to the Litany (Leontes) River, 
being about 50 miles long by 20 to 25 
miles wide. The northern part was 
known as Upper and the southern part 
as Lower Galilee. These included the 
territories given to Asher, Naphtali, 
Zebulun, and Issachar. The country 
was famed for its fertility, rich pastures, 
and fine forests. The portion west of 
the lake was the most beautiful. In 
the Roman period the population was 
dense, Josephus estimating it at2,000,000 
or 3,000,000, though that is probably an 
exaggeration. It had a mixed popula- 
tion of heathens, foreigners, and Jews. 
The latter, having a strong, if not domi- 
nant, influence, were less strict and less 
acquainted with the Law than their 
southern Judaean neighbors, by whom 
they were little esteemed. 

The noted mountains of Galilee were 
Carmel, Gilboa, and Tabor ; the towns 
were Nazareth, Cana, Tiberias, Chorazin, 
Bethsaida, and Capernaum. Jesus spent 
the greater portion of his life and ministry 
in Galilee. Many of his most remark- 
able miracles, teachings, and labors were 
within this province of Galilee. His 
disciples were chiefly from this region. 
Acts 1:11. After the fall of Jerusalem, 
Galilee became the residence of cele- 
brated rabbis and the centre of Jewish 
schools of learning. 

GAI/ILEE OF THE GEN'- 
TILES. See Gamlee. 

GAL'ILEE, SEA OF, a small 
lake of deep interest to the Bible-read- 
er as the scene of some of the most 



remarkable works of Jesus. The lake 
is named from the district or province 
of Galilee. It was known by several 
other names, as the sea of Chinnereth, 
Num. 34:11; Deut. 3:17, or Chinne- 
roth, Josh. 11 : 2 ; 12 : 3, or Cinneroth, 
1 Kgs. 15 : 20, probably from a town of 
that name which stood on its shore, Josh. 
19 : 35 ; the lake of Gennesarct,* Luke 
5 : 1, from the plain or land of that name 
on its north-western side, Matt. 14:34; 
Mark 6 : 53 ; the sea of Tiberias, from 
the celebrated city of that name, John 
6:1; and the sea, Matt. 4:15. It is 
also called Gennesar in the Apocryphal 
book of Maccabees, 1 Mace. 11 : 67. Its 
present name is Bahr Tabariyeh. It 
is worthy of note that all the towns 
whose names were applied to this lake 
were situated upon its western side. 

Situation and Extent. — This sea is 60 
miles north-east from Jerusalem, and 27 
east of the Mediterranean Sea. Its form 
is an irregular oval or pear-shape, the 
broad end being toward the north. Its 
length is 12J miles according to Wilson, 
16£ according to Baedeker, and its 
breadth from 4 to 7£ miles. Its level 
varies at different seasons, and is from 
600 to 700 feet below the Mediterranean, 
the mean depression being about 626 
feet, and its depth 160 feet. 

Physical Features. — The lake is sur- 
rounded by an almost continuous wall 
of hills, broken or receding occasionally, 
as at Tiberias, the plain of Gennesaret, 
and at the Jordan. The hills are of 
limestone, basalt, and volcanic rocks, 
indications of volcanic action being also 
specially abundant in the Jordanic 
chasm, though Wilson sees nothing to 
indicate a volcanic origin of the lake. 
Hot springs abound; earthquakes are 
frequent. The Jordan runs through the 
lake, coloring its water for a mile. The 
water of the lake is slightly salty, but 
drunk by the people. Fish abound, 
many species having been found. Tris- 
tram says : " The shoals were marvellous 
black masses of many hundred yards 
long, with the black fins projecting out 
of the water as thickly as they could 
pack. No wonder that any net should 
break which enclosed such a shoal ! 
Yet though the lake swarms with fish as 

* " GennesarPtTi," which is a form of the name 
also given to the sea bv manv authors, is not 
found in the A. V. of our English Bible. 
319 



GAL 



GAL 



I could not have believed water could 
swarm, there are but two boats existing 
on its whole extent besides a ferry-boat." 
( Land of Israel, p. 430.) Baedeker notes 
three miserable fishing-boats. These are 
all that are left to remind the traveller of 
the numerous boats which our Saviour 
saw on the Sea of Galilee. Josephus de- 
scribes a naval engagement which took 
place on its waters between the Jews and 
the soldiers of Vespasian. Violent and 




Sketch-Map of the Sea of Galilee. (Palestine Exploration Fund.) 

sudden storms are common now on the 
lake, as in our Lord's day. 

Scripture History .—This lake is men- 
tioned in the 0. T. but seldom, and then 
rather incidentally, as in Num. 34 • 11 • 
Deut. 3 : 17 ; Josh. 11 : 2 ; 12 : 3 ; 1 Kgs! 
15 : 20. Its chief interest is its associa- 
tion with the public ministry of our Sa- 
viour. Upon its shores was " his own 
320 



city," Matt. 9:1; from fishing-boats 
on Galilee he called Simon Peter and 
his brother Andrew, and his partners 
James and John, who were thenceforth 
'" to catch men," Matt. 4 : 18, 22; Mark 
1 : 16-20; Luke 5 : 1-11; on it he stilled 
the tempest and made the winds and 
the sea obey him, Matt. 8 : 23-27 ; 14 : 
22-33 ; see also 17 : 27 ; Mark 7 : 31-35 J 
at the Sea of Tiberias Christ also showed 
himself to the disciples after his resur- 
rection. John 21. Of 
the nine or more popu- 
lous cities which stood 
upon its shores, the 
more important were 
Bethsaida, Capernaum, 
Chorazin, Tiberias, and 
Magdala. 

Present Appearance. — 
Porter gives an eloquent 
description of the lake 
as it appeared to him 
from his tent-door, on a 
lovely spot, at evening: 
" The silence was pro- 
found. Even Nature 
seemed to have fallen 
asleep. The river glided 
noiselessly past; the sea 
was spread before me 
like a polished mirror. 
. . . East of the lake the 
side of Bashan's lofty 
plateau rose as a moun- 
tain-chain, and at its 
northern end my eye 
rested on the very scene 
of that miracle of mercy 
where thousands were 
fed, end at its southern 
end on that of the mir- 
acle of judgment, where 
' the whole herd of swine 
ran violently down a 
steep place, and perish- 
ed in the waters.' Away 
to the west the shatter- 
ed ramparts of Tiberias 
seemed to rise out of the bosom of the lake, 
and behind them a dark mountain, in 
whose caverned cliffs repose the ashes of 
many a learned rabbin, while over all ap- 
peared the graceful rounded top of Tabor. 
Farther to the right, on the white strand, 
I saw the huts of Magdala. with the coast 
of Gennesaret extending from it north- 
ward to Capernaum — Christ's own city." 



GAL 



GAL 



At the present time the lake is almost ut- 
terly forsaken : only three or four fisher- 
boats can be found there ; while at the 
time of Christ it was covered with sail- 
ing-vessels, and the surrounding western 
shore (the plain of Gennesarel) was, ac- 
cording to the glowing description of Jo- 
sephus, a paradise of beauty and fertility. 
F. R. and C. R. Cornier describe the 



famous sea as pear-shaped, and resem- 
bling in size the English lake "Winder- 
mere. They add : " It is surrounded 
with precipices of limestone, except on 
the north, where a shelving slope leads 
to the shore from a plateau of basalt ex- 
tending from the foot of the highest 
range of Upper Galilee. The scenery 
of the lake is bare, and much tamer 




The Sea of Galilee from Tiberias. (After original Photograph.) 



than that of the Dead Sea. The beach is 
narrow except on the north-west, where 
the cliffs recede, leaving a fertile plain 
(Gennesaret), 2£ miles long and I mile 
broad, watered by several fine springs. 
The pebbly open shore on the north is 
broken into numerous bays, and is 
fringed with dark oleander bushes. 
On the south-eastern side is a palm- 
grove, and a few palms dot the western 
shore. The ruddy cliffs on the west and 
the steep slopes on the east are bare and 
desolate, but the sweet waters of the 
lake, in calm weather mirroring the 
surrounding hills and shining in the 
sun, present a beautiful scene, espe- 
cially at evening. The sea is remark- 
able for its shoals of fish, for the vio- 
21 



lence of its sudden thunder-storms, and 
for the hot springs along its shores. The 
neighborhood of the lake is also pecu- 
liarly subject to volcanic disturbances. " 
—Handbook of the Bible, p. 215 (1879). 
The Rev. Dr. S. Manning encountered 
a sudden and violent storm on this lake, 
illustrating many of the details of N. T. 
history : " I had taken a boat, on a bright, 
cloudless morning, to explore the eastern 
shores and the point where the Jordan 
enters the lake. There was not a ripple 
on the water, not a perceptible current 
in the air. Almost without warning, the 
wind rose ; the waves, crested with foam, 
began to break over the sides of the boat. 
I was sitting on a cushion, or 'pillow,' 
on the flat, raised stern, ' in the hinder- 
321 



GAL 



GAM 



part of the ship,' and watched the crew 
'toiling and rowing.' But all their ef- 
forts were in vain. They were unable 
to make any way, for ' the wind was 
contrary.' At length one of them jump- 
ed overboard, and, partly swimming, 
partly wading, towed the vessel ashore." 
—Holy Fields, p. 205. Capt. Wilson ex- 
perienced a similar sudden storm. 

GALL, BILE, an animal fluid, of 
exceedingly bitter taste, secreted by the 
liver. Ps. 69:21. Allusion is made to it 
in Job 16:13; 20:14, 25; Lam. 2:11, 
and elsewhere. But by the same word, 
in Ps. 69 : 21, reference is made to the 
extraction of a very bitter herb, Deut. 
29:18; 32:32, perhaps hemlock. Hos. 
10 : 4. It was so bitter as to be used as 
a generic term for bitter substances ; as 
sour wine or sour cider, etc., is called 
" vinegar." Comp. Matt. 27 : 34 ; Mark 
15 : 23 ; Acts 8 : 23. See Myrrh. 

GAL'LERYj a veranda common in 
Eastern houses. But the word in the 
A. V. is not a correct translation of the 
Hebrew, which means, according to the 
latest researches, the colonnade or else 
wainscoting. Song Sol. 1:17; Eze. 41 : 
15. 

GAL 'LEY. See Ship. 

GAL'LIM (heaps), the home of Da- 
vid's wife, 1 Sam. 25: 44; a village of Ben- 
jamin, Isa. 10 : 30 ; now perhaps Khirbet 
es-Soma. Conder proposes Beit Jala. 

GAL'LIO, proconsul of Achaia and 
brother of Seneca, the famous philos- 
opher, who describes him as a man of 
great mildness and simplicity. Acts 18 : 
12. Paul was brought before his tri- 
bunal at Corinth by the Jews, who ac- 
cused him of blasphemy. Acts 18 : 6. 
Gallio dismissed the case as one not 
cognizable by a Roman court. Acts 18 : 
14, 15. He deemed the offence at best 
a trivial one. Like his brother Seneca, 
Gallio was executed at the command of 
Nero. 

GAL 'LOWS. See Punishments. 

GAMA'LIEL (recompense of God). 
1. The prince of Manasseh in the des- 
ert. Num. 1:10; 2 : 20 : 7 : 54, 59 : 10 : 
23. 

2. A distinguished Jewish rabbi and 
prominent member of the Sanhedrim 
Acts 5 : 34. He was for 32 years its 
president. He is first introduced to our 
notice in connection with the earlier 
attempts made at Jerusalem, a. d. 33, 
322 



to intercept the progress of the gospel. 
On one occasion, when the apostles, 
standing in the presence of the San- 
hedrin, aroused the feelings of this body 
to such a pitch that they discussed 
measures for putting them to death, 
Acts 5 : 33, Gamaliel, one of their num- 
ber, counselled more moderate and pru- 
dent action. He wisely advocated a 
policy which would not have inter- 
fered, for the time being, by violence, 
with the preaching of the cross. His 
words on this occasion are among the 
most famous that the opponents of 
Christianity uttered in the early Church. 
Acts 5 : 38, 39. He was Paul's teacher 
at Jerusalem. Acts 22: 3. A tradition 
states that Gamaliel was baptized by 
Peter and John. This is very doubtful. 
Rather is the theory to be trusted which 
identifies him with that Gamaliel who 
was the grandson of Hillel, and who is 
referred to often as an authority in the 
Jewish Mishna. 

GAMES. Doubtless the Hebrew 
children had playthings and sports, like 
all other children, but there is no more 
than a passing allusion to such things 
in the Bible, nor would more be expect- 
ed. Zeehariah, 8 : 5, declares that part 
of the outward evidence of the restora- 
tion of Jerusalem will be the public 
playing of the children. The same 
prophet, 12 : 3, illustrates the divine 
care of Jerusalem by comparing the 
city to a stone of burden — i. e. heavy 
and difficult, if not dangerous, to lift: 
for the Lord would guard her against 
all attacks, so that man could not pre- 
vail against her. In this comparison 
commentators see an allusion to a prac- 
tice, which Jerome reports to have pre- 
vailed in Judaea, of lifting heavy stones 
as a trial of strength. Our Lord likens 
his generation of the Jews to children 
playing in the market-place a game 
which consisted in imitating a funeral 
or a marriage. Matt. 11 : 16. But the 
Hebrews had no public games such as the 
Greeks and Romans had. They did not 
fit in with the Hebrew character, partic- 
ularly with their intense religious feel- 
ing. Besides, the three great annual re- 
ligious festivals — the Passover, the feast 
of weeks, and that of tabernacles — drew 
the nation sufficiently together to prevent 
stagnation. It was quite characteristic 
that these festivals furnished the Jews 



GAM 



GAM 



with .their needed diversion. So far 
from having public games, the Jews 
considered them disreputable, and even 
blasphemous. For the attempt of Jason 
to introduce the gymnasium he is called 
an "ungodly wretch," 2 Mace. 4:13, 
and those who practised in it were said 
to have sold themselves to do mischief. 
1 Mace. 1 : 15. The building by Herod 
the Great of a theatre and amphitheatre 
in Jerusalem, as well as at Caesarea, ex- 
cited the aversion of pious Jews, and 
any one who took part in the games was 
regarded as a renegade. And yet, doubt- 
less, the Jews paid some attention to the 
development of their muscles. The fact 
that swiftness of foot was so much es- 
teemed and that runners were employed 
to carry the news of battle would render 
it probable that there were competitive 
races. So the Psalmist, 19 : 5, speaks I 
of the sun rejoicing "as a strong man j 
to run a race," and in Eccl. 9 : 11 the 
Preacher uses the words, " The race is [ 
not to the swift." Then, too, the skill 
acquired in the use of the bow and the 
sling, 1 Sam. 20 : 20 ; Jud. 20 : 16 ; 1 j 
Chr. 12 : 2, implies private if not public 
competition. The proposition of Abner, I 
" Let the young men now arise, and play | 
before us," 2 Sam. 2 : 14, its immediate 
acceptance, and its bloody end, indicate 
the training and skill of the young men, | 
and suggest that the friendly contests of I 
peace had been turned, on this occasion, i 
into a deadly struggle. But such an in- 
terpretation may be too far-fetched. The 
games of private life such as are known 
to us were many of them familiar 
to the Egyptians, and are pictured on 
the monuments. Presuming that the 
Hebrews would learn these from their 
neighbors, if they did not invent them 
for themselves, we may fancy an ancient 
Hebrew amusing himself with " odd and 
even," "checkers," "graces," catching 
balls, etc. 

But although the ancient Hebrews, as 
a nation, were opposed to public games, 
individuals among them entered into 
them with zest, and the Jews residing 
in foreign cities came into frequent con- 
tact with them. We find the Greek 
games frequently referred to by Paul, 
whose heroic nature seems to have 
been fired by the splendid triumphs of j 
the arena. His metaphors are so fre- 
quently taken directly from these games ' 



that his mind seems to run on them, as, 
in a modern parallel, F. W. Robertson 
used metaphors taken from soldier-life. 
Some of Paul's allusions are unhappily 
concealed from view in the A. V. 

Nothing more than a brief handling 
of. this interesting subject will be ex- 
pected here. We follow, in the main, 
Dean Howson's Metaphors of St. Paul. 
The most noted of the Greek games were 
the Olympic, the Pythian, the Isthmian, 
and the Xemean. They bore the appel- 
lation of " sacred." They consisted of 
leaping, running, quoiting, wrestling, 
hurling the spear, and boxing : besides 
these, there were chariot-races. The 
Olympic games were held in the highest 
honor. The victors there were regarded 
as the happiest of mortals. They were 
crowned and led along the stadium, pre- 
ceded by a herald, who proclaimed their 
names, parentage, and country. They 
were afterward solemnly received into 
their native cities. Poets sang their 
praise; statues were sometimes erected 
in their honor. These games were cele- 
brated every five years at Olympia, in 
Elis, on the west side of the Pelopon- 
nesus ; hence the epochs called " Olym- 
piads." The other games were similar 
in toil and honor. The training prepar- 
atory to the contest in either was long 
and severe. Every care was taken to 
prevent foul play. The judges were 
strictly impartial.' The prizes wei-e of 
no intrinsic worth. At the Olympics 
the victors received each a wreath of 
wild-olive and a palm-branch ; at the 
Pythian the crown or chaplet was made 
of laurel : at the Isthmian, of twigs of 
the pine tree : at the Nemean. of parsley 
or ivy. Only one out of all the comba- 
tants in each contest received a prize. 

The apostle Paul was doubtless brought 
frequently in contact with these games, 
which, although Greek in their origin, 
were yet fostered by Rome. He may 
have formed part of the throng which 
witnessed the Isthmian games, since 
these were celebrated near Corinth and 
Paul spent 18 months in that city. At 
all events, he had heard the scenes de- 
scribed, and had had pointed out to him 
the victors. The gymnasium, or place 
of training, and the stadium, or ground 
for running, were among the most con- 
spicuous and the most frequented spots 
in the architecture and embellishment 
323 



GAM 



GAM 



of the cities. That feature of these 
games which was the most exciting is 
the more frequently referred to — viz. the 
foot-race. Thus, Paul says : " None of 
these things move me, neither count I 
my life dear unto myself, that I might 
finish my course [end my race] witji 
joy." Acts 20:24. Again: I have 
fought the good fight [an athletic, not a 
warlike, contest] ; I have ended my 
race; I have kept the faith; henceforth 



there is laid up for me the crown of 
righteousness, which the Lord, the 
righteous Judge, shall give me at that 
day. See 2 Tim. 4 : 7, 8. " The race is 
nearly run, the struggle is all but over; 
he is weary, as it were, and panting 
with the effort; but he is successful. 
The crown is in sight, and the Judge 
.who cannot make a mistake is there, 
ready to place that bright wreath upon 
his head." To the Galatians he says: 




Foot-race. {Adapted from a View of the Circus Flora at Borne. Montfaucon.) 



"Ye did run well; who did hinder you, 
that ye should not obey the truth ?" 
Gal. 5 : 7. The magnificent outburst in 
the Epistle to the Philippiaris, 3 : 13, 14 
— " I count not m} r self to have appre- 
hended : but this one thing / do, forget- 
ting those things which are behind, and 
reaching forth unto those things which 
are before, I press toward the mark for 
the prize of the high calling of God in 
Christ Jesus," — brings vividly before us 
a racer. The oft-quoted passage, 1 Cor. 
9 : 24-27, receives a flood of light when 
we bear in mind the familiarity of the 
Corinthians with the Isthmian games. 
Paul alludes to the foot-race, out of 
which only one runner came as a victor, 
to the strict regimen requisite to success, 
to the vast superiority of the Christian's 
prize, and the shame it were if, while so 
much energy were put forth to gain a 
little reputation, the Christian should 
not strive to gain an unfading crown : 
" I so run, not as uncertainly. - ' A man 
who does not know his own mind is sel- 
dom successful. But the runner keeps 
his eye fixed upon the goal, and bends 
all his energies to win it. And the apos- 
tle, almost in the same breath, alludes 
324 



to the pugilist : " So fight I, not as one 
that beateth the air." v. 26. He would 
not beat the air, but make every blow 
tell, as the heavy blow from the hand 
covered with the nail-studded leather 
(cestun) inflicted a bruise every time it 
struck. I keep under my body and 
bring it into subjection : lest that by any 
means, when I have been a herald [the 
officer who summoned the competitors 
to the struggle] unto others, I myself 
should be a castaway — a reference to 
the training of the pugilist. See v. 27. 
These are only a few of the passages in 
Paul's writings to be illustrated by the 
Grecian games. 

The mention of the Chief of Asia 
(which see), or asiarchs, Acts 19 : 31, at 
Ephesus as the friends of Paul, in con- 
nection with Paul's declaration, taken 
literally, that he had " fought with beasts 
at Ephesus," 1 Cor. 15 : 32, have led 
some to suppose the apostle was actually 
thrown into the arena, but delivered by 
a miracle, and that therefore the asiarchs 
treated him with consideration. But it 
is every way more likely that Paul uses 
a metaphor borrowed from the Roman 
games, in which fighting with wild 



GAM 



GAT 



beasts was introduced. He alludes 
again to these brutal fights between 
men and beasts, or to the gladiatorial 
shows, when, in 1 Cor. 4:9, he says : 
" God hath set forth us the apostles last, 
as it were appointed to death." The 
words " refer to the band of gladiators 
brought out last for death, the vast range 
of an amphitheatre under the open sky 
well representing the magnificent vision 
of all created beings, from men up to 
angels, gazing on the dreadful death- 
struggle, and then the contrast of the 
selfish Corinthians sitting by unconcern- 
ed and unmoved at the awful spectacle." 
— Stanley: Com. on Corinth. 

The early Christians, like the Jews, 
but for different reasons, regarded these 
games and the theatrical exhibitions of 
the Greeks and Romans with horror. 
They were closely connected with hea- 
thenism ; attendance upon them exposed 
the Christians to the cry, " To the lions !" 
for in this way many had been killed: 
hence, regard for the memory of their 
departed brethren should forbid Chris- 
tians' attendance on them. But apart 
from these considerations, they were re- 
garded as too worldly, as tending to 
withdraw the mind from the things of 
God and unduly to elevate the body. 
Surely, as conducted in later times, the 
games were brutalizing, and hence the 
humane spirit of Christ forbade the 
sight of so much bloodshed and suf- 
fering. 

GAMMADIM (Hebrew, brave sol- 
diers). Eze. 27 : 11. The prevailing 
opinion respecting this term is that it 
is rather descriptive of the men of Ar- 
vad, v. 11, than the name of any partic- 
ular people. 

GA'MUL (weaned), the leader of the 
twenty-second course of the priests. 1 
Chr. 24:17. 

GAR'DEX. Isa. 1 : 8. The gardens 
of the Hebrews were enclosures upon the 
outskirts of towns. Allusions to them are 
made Gen. 21 : 33 ; Num. 24 : 6 ; Job 8 : 
16, and there is reason to suppose that 
they were chiefly devoted to fruit- and 
shade-trees and aromatic plants and 
herbs. 1 Kgs. 21 : 2 ; Song Sol. 4 : 12- 
16. A reservoir of water was considered 
an indispensable appendage, either in 
the form of a fountain, a well, or a stream 
passing through it. Gen. 2:10; 13 : 10. 
The gardens around Damascus are 



abundantly watered by little currents 
which are made to flow through every 
part of them. Beautiful allusions to 
this are made. Prov. 21 : 1 ; Isa. 58 : 11 ; 
Eccl. 2 : 5, 6. Gardens were used to 
some extent as burying-places, John 
19 : 41, and also as places of religious 
worship and retirement. Isa. 1 : 29 ; 65 : 
3. The custom at the present day is, as 
in the past, to erect a hut upon an arti- 
ficial mound built in the centre of the 
field in which is a valuable crop, such as 
cucumbers, gourds, etc. In this hut a 
watchman lives until the crop is secur- 
ed. This fact explains the allusion in 
Isa. 1 : 8. When the harvest is over the 
hut is deserted, and gradually falls to 
pieces. 

GA'REB (scabby), one of David's 
warriors. 2 Sam. 23 : 38 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 40. 

GA'REB, THE HILL, near Je- 
rusalem, and meaning scra])ed off. Jer. 
31:39. Ewald proposes to identify it 
with Golgotha; Conder noted a ruin 
called Gharabah, 3 miles south of Shi- 
loh. 

GARLANDS. Acts 14 : 13. The 
heathen adorned the victim of their sac- 
rifices in a variety of ways. Probably 
the garlands mentioned in this passage 
were to decorate the head of the ox which 
they designed to sacrifice to the supposed 
gods. 

GAR/LICK, a well-known bulbous 
root or vegetable similar to an onion 
(Allium sativum), which was cultivated 
in Egypt and much esteemed by the 
Jews. Num. 11 : 5. 

GARMENTS. See Clothes. 

GAR'MITE, THE (the strong). 
Keilah the Garmite is mentioned 1 Chr. 
4: 19. 

GARRISON. See War. 

GASH'MU (rain), a form of the 
name Geshem ; used in Neh. 6 : 6. 

GA'TAM (a valley burnt), a grand- 
son of Esau, and one of the " dukes " 
of Edom. Gen. 36 : 11, 16 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 
36. 

GATE. 1 Sam. 4:18. The entrances 
to walled cities are secured by gates of 
either wood, iron, or brass. Acts 12:10. 
Houses also were protected in the same 
way, and sometimes a door or passage 
was made in the gate, so as to save the 
necessity of opening the whole gate 
every time a single person would pass. 
Acts 12 : 13. In many Asiatic cities 
325 



GAT 



GAZ 



there were broad streets covered over 
wholly or in part, and appropriated to 
merchants or tradesmen in particular 
branches of business, and there were 
also open squares in which the booths 
and stalls of venders were erected. 
These were frequently at the gates of 
the city, which were, of course, places 
of the greatest concourse. 2 Sam. 15 : 2 ; 
2 Kgs. 7:1; Neh. 8:1; Job 29 : 7 ; 
Prov. 22 : 22 ; 31 : 23. The gates were 
often also the places of judicial proceed- 
ings, Deut. 17 : 5 ; 25 : 7 ; Am. 5 : 10, 12, 
15 — the mode of conducting which may 
be learned from Ruth 4 : 1-12— and of 
general resort, Gen. 19 : 1, and, of course, 
frequented by idlers and loungers. Ps. 
69 : 12. In Arabia the gate of the city 
is still the place of judgment. 




Gate of Damascus. 

As the possession of the gates of the 
city was a possession of the city itself, 
the word is sometimes used to signify 
power. Gen. 22 : 17 ; Isa. 24 : 12. Hence 
the expression of our Lord that "the 
gates of heir'( Hades) shall never prevail 
against his Church. Matt. 16 : 18. The 
government of the sultan is called "the 
Sublime Porte." 

Gates, like doors, were often orna- 
mented, 1 Kgs. 6 : 34 : 2 Kgs. 18 : 16, etc. ; 
the Beautiful Gate, Acts 3 : 2, required 20 
men to close it. " The figurative expres- 
sion ' to exalt the gate,' Prov. 17 : 1 9 — i. e. 
to have the opening of the gateway lofty 
— implies ostentation, which is likely to 
provoke envy, and therefore leads often 
to destruction." — At/re. 

GATH (wine-press), one of the five 
cities of the Philistines, Josh. 13 : 3 ; 
1 Sam. 6 : 17 ; Am. 6:2; Mic. 1:10; a 
stronghold of the Anakim, Josh. 11 : 
22 ; home of Goliath, 1 Sam. 17 : 4 ; place 
whither the ark was carried, 1 Sam. 5 : 
8 ; where David sought refuge, 21 : 10- 
326 



15 ; was strengthened by Rehoboam, 
2 Chr. 11 : 8 ; taken by Hazael of Syria, 
2 Kgs. 12 : 17; probably recovered by 
Jehoash, 13 : 25 ; broken down by Uz- 
ziah, 2 Chr. 26 : 6 ; was probably de- 
stroyed before the time of the later 
prophecies, as it is omitted from the list 
of royal cities. See Zeph. 2:4; Zech. 
9 : 5, 6. Thomson would identify it with 
Eleutheropolis, but Porter, Warren, and 
Conder place Gath at Tel es-Safi, 1 5 miles 
south of Kamleh and 12 miles south-east 
of Ashdod. 

GATH-HEPHER (wine-press of 
the well), a town of Zebulun, the home 
\ of Jonah, 2 Kgs. 14 : 25 ; called also 
Gittah-hepher, Josh. 19 : 13 : now el- 
Meshhed, a small village on a rocky hill, 
2 miles east of Sepphoris, on the .short 
route from Nazareth to Tiberias. 

GATH-RIM'MON {pomegranate). 
1. A Levitical city of Dan, Josh. 21 : 
24 ; 1 Chr. 6 : 69 ; not far from Joppa. 

2. A town of Manasseh west of the 
Jordan, belonging to the Levites, Josh. 
21 : 25 : called Bileam in 1 Chr. 6 : 70. 

GAULANITIS. See Golan. 

GA'ZA (Hebrew Azzah, strong), the 
chief of the five cities of the Philistines, 
50 miles south-west of Jerusalem, 3 miles 
from the Mediterranean, and 10 miles 
from Ascalon ; now called Ghuzzeh. 

History. — Gaza is one of the oldest 
cities in the world ; was peopled by the 
descendants of Ham, Gen. 10:19; by 
the Anakim, Josh. 11 : 22 ; given to 
Judah, 15 : 47 ; the scene of Samson's 
exploits, Jud. 16 ; under Solomon's rule, 
and called Azzah, 1 Kgs. 4 : 24 ; smitten 
by Egypt, Jer. 47 : 1, 5 ; prophesied 
against, Am. 1:6, 7 ; Zeph. 2:4; Zech. 
9:5; noticed in N. T. only in Acts 8 : 
26 ; a chief stronghold of paganism 
and the worship of the god Marnas 
(Dagon), whose temples were destroyed, 
A. d. 400 ; taken by the Arabs, A. D. 634 ; 
restored by the Crusaders, A. u. 1149 : 
plundered by Saladin, a. d. 1170, and 
again in A. D. 1187 ; taken by Napoleon, 
1799 ; has now about 18,000 population, 
mostly Moslems. The town is now 
without walls or gates, but is in the 
midst of olive-orchards. Conder thinks 
the ancient town stood on the hill where 
most of the modern town now stands. 
The place is full of reminiscences of 
Samson and his tragic end. The pil- 
lars are shown which he pulled down. 



GAZ 



GEM 



The inhabitants are chiefly Moslems ; 
but there is also a Greek church, and a 
Protestant school in connection with the 
Jerusalem mission. See Philistine. 

GAZER. See Gezer. 

GA'ZEZ (shearer), the names of the 
son and grandson of Caleb, 1 Chr. 2 : 
46, although some suppose the second is 
a repetition of the first. 

GAZ 'Z AM (devouring), one whose 
descendants returned with Zerubbabel. 
Ezr. 2 : 4S ; Neh. 7 : 51. 

GE'BA(,^), a Leviticalcitv of Ben- 
jamin, Josh. 21 : 17 ; 1 Chr. 6 : 60 ; also 
called Gaba. Josh. 18 : 24. In the reign 
of Saul it was held by the Philistines, 
but taken by Jonathan, 1 Sam. 13 : 3 ; 
was a northern landmark of Judah, 2 
Kgs. 23 : 8 ; was rebuilt by Asa, 1 Kgs. 
15 : 22 ; held by the Assyrians, Isa. 10 : 
29: peopled by Benjamites after the 
Captivity. Ezr. 2 : 26. Geba and Gibeah 
appear to be sometimes confounded in 
the English Version (see 1 Sam. 14 : 5), 
though they were separate towns. Geba 
was near Michmash and on the south 
side of the ravine. It has been identi- 
fied with Jeba, a deserted village 6 miles 
north of Jerusalem, and 1 mile from 
Michmash. The ravine now called Wady 
Suweinit is the ancient pass of Mich- 
mash. 1 Sam. 14 : 5, 31. 

GE'BAL (mountain). 1. A place 
near Tyre : now Jebail, 10 miles north 
of Beyrout, and known as Byblus by the 
Greeks. Eze. 27:9. Among the ruins 
of an ancient citadel are stones 20 feet 
long, and in finish and size closely re- 
sembling those seen in the foundation of 
the temple at Jerusalem, and suggesting 
the same class of workmen. 

2. Some identify the Gebal of Ps. 83 : 
7 with northern Edom, called el-Jebal, 
but others regard it as Geba, No. 1. 

GE'BER (man), two men of Solo- 
mon's twelve officers for provision. 1 
Kgs. 4:13, 19. 

GE'BIM (ditches), a place near Je- 
rusalem. Isa. 10:31. Conder places it 
at el-Jib ; Grove at el-Isawiyeh. 

GEDALI'AH [whom Jehovah hath 
made powerful), the governor of Juda?a, 
appointed by Nebuchadnezzar after its 
subjection. 2 Kgs. 25 : 22 ; Jer. 40 : 5. 
He was a friend of Jeremiah's, Jer. 40 : 
6, and had the confidence of the people, 
but was not permitted long to rule, for 
a party of the royal family of Judah, 



headed by Ishmael, rose against him 
and slew him. Jer. 41 : 2. 

GE'DER (walled place), possibly 
same as Gedor, No. 2. Josh. 12 : 13. 

GEDE'RAH(s^-co^). 1. A town 
near the valley of Elah, and in the low- 
lands of Judah. Josh. 15: 36: nowJie- 
direh, 9 miles south of Ludd. 2. A town 
in Benjamin. 1 Chr. 12 : 4 : now Jedireh, 
No. 2, 6 miles north-west of Jerusalem. 

GEDE'ROTH (sheep-cotes), a city 
in the plain of Judah : taken bv the 
Philistines, Josh. 15 : 41 ; 2 Chr. 28 : 18. 
Warren suggests as its site Katrah, a 
village in the valley of Sorek, 3 miles 
south-west of 'Akir (Ekron). 

GEDEROTHA'IM (two sheep- 
folds), a town in the low-country of 
Judah. Josh. 15 : 36. 

GE'DOR (wall). 1, 2. Two names 
in the genealogy of Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 
4, 18. 

3. A Benjamite name in Saul's gene- 
alogv. 1 Chr. 8 : 31 ; 9 : 37. 

GE'DOR (wall). 1. A town in the 
hill-country of Judah, Josh. 15 : 58 ; 
probably Jedur, 8 miles north of He- 
bron. 

2. A town apparently of Benjamin, 
2 Chr. 12 : 7, and probably the same as 
Geder of Josh. 12 : 13. 

3. Gedor of 1 Chr. 4 : 39 was prob- 
ably between Judah and Mount Seir. 
The Septuagint calls it Gerar. 

GEHA'ZI (valley of vision), the ser- 
vant and constant attendant of Elisha. 
On three occasions he comes into promi- 
nence in connection with the Shunam- 
mite, 2 Kgs. 4 : 12-37 : 8 : 4, and later he 
was guilty of deception in the matter of 
Naaman the Syrian, and in punishment 
was made a leper. 5 : 20-27. See Elisha. 

GEHENNA. See Hinnom, Val- 
ley OF. 

GELILOTH (circle),, one of the 
places marking the boundary of Benja- 
min. Josh. 18 : 17. Gilgal is in place of 
Geliloth in Josh. 15 : 7, and the two are 
supposed to be identical. See Gilgal. 

GEMAL'LI (camel-driver), the fa- 
ther of the spy from Dan. Num. 13 : 
12. 

GEMARFAH (whom Jehovah hath 
perfected). 1. The son of Hilkiah, 
Zedekiah's ambassador to Nebuchad- 
nezzar. Jer. 29 : 3. 

2. The son of Shaphan, a minister of 
Jehoiakim, from whose house Baruch 
327 



GEM 



GEN 



read Jeremiah's prophecv. Jer. 36 : 10 
12, 25. 

GEMS. See Precious Stones. 

GENEALOGY. The matter of 
pedigree was deemed of great import- j 
ance by tbe Hebrews and ancient peoples 
generally, as at present among tbe Arabs. 
Genealogical lists are interspersed all I 
through the historical books of the 0. I 
T. They are called "the book of the j 
generation of," etc. They answer also 
a spiritual purpose. They prove the 
faithfulness of God in favoring the in- 
crease of the race, in accordance with 
his command, in keeping his promise to 
Abraham and his seed, in raising up 
priests to minister in his sanctuary, and 
finally, in sending, when the set time had 
come and all things were ready, his Son 
into the world. As far as the Bible is 
concerned, the preservation of these 
genealogical lists was for the authenti- 
cation of Christ's descent. But the his- 
torical use is by no means to be ignored; 
indeed, in proportion as we grasp its 
value shall we attain conviction of the 
perfect reality of tbe earthly descent 
of Christ from the seed of David, ac- 
cording to prophecy. 

The first biblical genealogy is Gen. 
4:16-24. It gives the descendants of 
Cain. The following chapter gives the 
family of Seth. The tenth and eleventh 
chapters, though the ordinary reader 
might pass them over because they seem 
to consist of mere unimportant names, 
are regarded by ethnologists as invalu- 
able, since they contain a history of the 
dispersion of the nations in prehistoric 
times. The first eight chapters of 1 
Chronicles are devoted to genealogical 
accounts, beginning with Adam, because, 
as it is stated, " all Israel were reckoned 
by genealogies." 9:1. It is, however, 
to be observed that these several lists 
are not in all cases records of direct de- 
scent, though, perhaps, in the majority 
of instances, they are unbroken. Still, 
they are not sufficient to determine the 
length of any period, since in many 
cases the list the writer has transcribed 
contains only jv-ominent names. Women 
are named occasionally, when there is 
something remarkable about them or 
when any right or property is trans- 
mitted through them. See Gen. 11 : 29 ; 
Ex. 6 : 23 ; 1 Chr. 2:4; Luke 1 : 5, etc. 
Another feature is that these records es- 
328 



] pecially concern the line of the chosen 
> seed and the tribe and family from which 
! our Lord sprung. Seth's family is more 
fully stated than Cain's, Abraham's than 
Lot's, Isaac's than Ishmael's, etc. They 
are both ascending and descending. For 
the former, see 1 Chr. 6 : 33-43 ; Ezr. 
7 : 1-5 ; for the descending, see Ruth 
4 : 18-22 : 1 Chr. 3. The descending 
scale is likely to take in the collateral 
branches. There are many clerical er- 
rors in these lists. 

But notwithstanding these alterations 
and abridgments, it is capable of proof 
that the Bible presents us transcripts 
from certain official records. They bear 
the evidence of substantial truth. That 
| such records existed is indicated rather 
I than proved, Thus, the assignments of 
j the temple-service by David were gene- 
alogical. In the reign of Rehoboam, 
Iddo wrote a book on genealogies. 2 Chr. 
■ 12 : 15. From 2 Chr. 31 : 16-19 we learn 
| that in Hezekiah's day there existed ge- 
| nealogies — of the priests, at all events. 
j The lists in Ezra and Nehemiah prove 
\ that such lists and others survived the 
Captivity. It is a monstrous assump- 
tion to say that they were forged. Lord 
Hervey (in Smith's Dictionary of the 
Bible) points out an incidental allusion 
to these lists at the time of Christ in 
proof that the census went upon them as 
a basis, since Joseph went to Bethlehem 
because he was of the house of David. 
Manifestly, Joseph had, in the genealogy* 
of his family, good grounds for this belief. 
Probably " the registers of the Jewish 
tribes and families perished at the de- 
struction of Jerusalem, and not before, 
although some partial records may have 
survived the event." When the temple 
fell there was no longer any special need 
of these lists. The Aaronic priesthood 
was no more ; the nation was dispersed 
in captivity ; the Messiah was come. 

Genealogy of Jesus Christ. Matt. 
1 : 1-17 : Luke 3 : 23-38. This is the only 
genealogy given us in the N. T. " We 
have two lists of the human ancestors of 
Christ : Matthew, writing for Jewish 
Christians, begins with Abraham ; Luke, 
writing for Gentile Christians, goes back 
to Adam, the father of all men. Accord- 
ing to his human nature, Christ was the 
descendant of Abraham, David, and 
Mary ; according to his divine nature, 
he was the eternal and only begotten 



GEN 



GEN 



Son of God, begotten from the essence 
of the Father. John, 1 : 1-18, begins 
his Gospel by setting forth his divine 
genealogy. In him, the God-man, all 
the ascending aspirations of human na- 
ture toward God and all the descending 
revelations of God to man meet in perfect 
harmony. Matthew begins at Abraham, 
1. To prove to Jewish Christians that 
Jesus of Nazareth was the promised 
Messiah ; 2. To show the connection 
between the Old and New Testaments 
through a succession of living persons 
ending in Jesus Christ, who is the sub- 
ject of the Gospel and the object of the 
faith it requires. Christ is the fulfil- 
ment of all the types and prophecies of 
the 0. T., the heir of all its blessings 
and promises, the dividing-line and 
connecting-link of ages, the end of the 
old and the beginning of the new history 
of mankind. In the long list of his 
human ancestors we have a cloud of 
witnesses, a compend of the history of 
preparation for the coming of Christ 
down to the Virgin Mary, in whom cul- 
minated the longing and hope of Israel 
for redemption. It is a histoiy of di- 
vine promises and their fulfilment, of 
human faith and hope for the desire of 
all nations. In the list are named illus- 
trious heroes of faith, but also obscure 
persons written in the secret book of 
God, as well as gross sinners redeemed 
by grace, which reaches the lowest 
depths as well as the most exalted 
heights of society. Matthew's table is 
divided into three parts, corresponding 
to three periods of Jewish preparation 
for the coming of Christ." — Sehaff. 

The differences between Matthew and 
Luke have been variously explained. 
Both lists are incomplete and names 
must be supplied (there are only nine 
names for a period of 833 years). They 
coincide until David, when Matthew takes 
the reigning line through Solomon, Luke 
the younger and inferior line by David's 
son Nathan. A more serious difficulty 
is that names do not appear in the same 
place in the two lists. The greatest 
difference is that Matthew calls Joseph 
the son of Jacob, while Luke calls him 
the son of Heli or Eli. He cannot have 
been naturally the son of both, and it is 
not likely that the two names are meant 
for one and the same person. Hence 
the following theories: 



1. The oldest explanation assumes 
one, or perhaps two, levirate marriages 

! in the family of Joseph — i. e. a marriage 
| of a man to the childless widow of his 
j elder brother, the children of the second 
marriage being reckoned as the legal 
descendants of the first husband. Heli 
and Jacob may have been brothers or 
half-brothers (sods of the same mother, 
but of different fathers), successively 
married to the mother of Joseph, who 
according to law was registered by Luke 
■ as the son of Heli, though naturally the 
I son of Jacob, as recorded by Matthew. 
But this view involves inaccuracy in 
one or the other of the two geneal- 
ogies. 

2. Matthew gives the legal or royal 
j genealogy of Joseph, Luke the private 
I line of Joseph. But this is exposed to 

the same objection. 

3. Matthew gives the genealogy of 
Joseph, Luke the genealogy of Mary. 
Heli may have been the father of Mary 
and the father-in-law of Joseph, and 
consequently the grandfather of Jesus. 

j Luke, writing for Gentiles and proving 
I that Christ was the seed of the woman, 
! traces the natural or real pedigree of 
j Jesus through his mother, Mary, in the 
line of Nathan, and indicates this by the 
parenthetical remark, "Jesus being (as 
j was supposed) the son of Joseph [but in 
reality] the son of Heli," or his grand- 
[ son by the mother's side. Mary is al- 
i ways called by the Jews "the daughter 
of Heli." Matthew, writing for Jews, 
gives the legal pedigree of Jesus (which 
was always reckoned in the male line) 
through Joseph, his legal father, in the 
| line of Solomon. This explanation is 
j the easiest, and has been adopted by 
Luther, Grotius, Bengel, Olshausen, Eb- 
j rard, Wieseler, Robinson, Gardiner, 
! Lange, Plumptre. It is supported by 
j the fact that in Matthew's history of the 
i infancy Joseph is most prominent ; in 
! Luke's account, Mary. Jesus, then, was 
j both legally and really the son and heir 
! of David. The Davidic descent of Je- 
sus is a mark of the Messiah, and is 
| clearly taught in the prophecv, and also 
I in Rom. 1 : 3 ; 2 Tim. 2:8: Heb. 7 : 14; 
j John 7 : 42 ; Acts 13 : 23. If we take this 
explanation, Jesus was in a double sense 
i the son of David — in law and in fact, 
I from his reputed father and from his 
I natural mother. 

329 



GEN 



GEN 



GENERATION, or GENERA'- 

TIONS, ''has three secondary mean- 
ings in the A. V. : 1. A genealogical 
register, as Gen. 5:1. 2. A family his- 
tory, Gen. 6 : 9 ; 25 : 1, since early his- 
tory among the Orientals is drawn so 
much from genealogical registers. 3. A 
history of the origin of things as well 
as persons — e. g. of the earth." — Smith. 

GEN'ESIS, the first book of the 
Bible, and by far the most interesting 
of all books relating to the primitive 
history of mankind. The term signifies 
" beginning " or " origin." 

Contents. — Genesis gives us a history 
of the origin of the world, of the human 
family, of sin, of the promise of redemp- 
tion, and of the Jewish people. The 
first eleven chapters are occupied with a 
general account of the creation of all 
things, and with the history of Adam, 
of the first inhabitants of the earth, of 
the Deluge, of Noah, and finally of the 
confusion of tongues at Babel. With 
the twelfth chapter begins the history 
of the patriarchs and the chosen jieople. 
A detailed account is given of the lives 
of Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph. 

There are no good grounds for doubt- 
ing Moses to be the author. With the 
use of older documents and traditions. 
he compiled, under divine direction, the 
history as we have it. Much criticism has 
been expended upon the account it gives 
of the creation of man and of the world 
in the first chapter. Here as in no 
other ancient account God is sharply 
distinguished from matter, and is made 
to exist before the world. The universe 
comes into being at his command. The 
order of created things in Genesis is 
substantially the order of geology and 
biology. Both begin with the formation 
of the earth and proceed from the vege- 
table to animal life ; both stop with man. 
The word translated " day " probably 
means an indefinite period. The ''sev- 
enth day," which has no evening, ch. 2 : 
2, cannot refer to a day of 24 hours, but 
to the long redemptive period in which 
we are living. See Creation. 

Few if any existing documents have 
a more venerable age than has Genesis. 
Covering nearly 2500 years, it gives us 
the account of the preparation of this 
planet as an abode for man and the first 
annals of the race. Its value cannot 
be over-estimated as a fragment of lite- 
330 



rature or as a work of history, and it 
has been well observed that in the first 
page of Genesis a child may learn more 
in an hour than all the philosophers in 
the world learned without it in a thou- 
sand years. 

GENNES'ARET, LAKE OF. 
Luke 5:1. See Galilee. Sea of. 

GENNES'ARET, THE LAND 
OF. A small crescent-shaped strip of 
country on the north-west side of the 
Sea of Galilee was called " The land of 
Gennesaret" (though often inaccurately 
written " Gennesareth "). It is named 
only twice in Scripture. Matt. 14: 34; 
Mark 6 : 53 ; comp. Luke 5 : 1. It is gen- 
erally supposed to apply to the plain 
called by the Arabs el-Ghuweir, or "lit- 
tle Ghor." It lies along the lake for 3 
or 4 miles, and extends back about a 
mile or more, where it is shut in by the 
hills. The southern part, reaching 
nearly to Mejdel, is still watered by 
several streams; the northern portion, 
reaching to Khan Minyeh, now without 
water, is supposed to have been irrigated 
by an aqueduct from the fountain of Ca- 
pernaum, probably 'Ain Tdbighah. 

The plain was formerly very rich and 
fruitful, according to Josephus, and is 
supposed to be the scene of the parable 
of the Sower, Matt. 13 : 1-8, but it is 
now fruitful in thorns. The banks of 
the lake and of the brook running from 
the fountain 'Ain Tdbighah are fringed 
with oleanders. Fish still abound in the 
stream, as in the adjacent lake. The 
fountain el-Mudawarah, or "round 
spring," about 30 yards in diameter and 
2 feet deep, and from which the water 
bursts forth in a considerable volume, has 
by Tristram been regarded as the spring 
of Capharnaum, noticed by Josephus; 
but this is disputed by the best authori- 
ties, and Tristram himself has given it 
up. For Map, see Galilee, Sea of. 

This land of Gennesaret has been held 
to contain three important cities, Caper- 
naum, Bethsaida, and Chorazin, but 
none of these were in the "plain" of 
Gennesaret. unless Capernaum was lo- 
cated at Khan Minyeh. See Capernaum. 
Bethsaida {Et Tdbighah) and Chorazin 
(Kerazeh) were farther north. Mejdel, 
the ancient Magdala, seems to have been 
the only town in the plain, which, like 
the other plains (Esdraelon, Sharon, 
etc.), was unoccupied, people preferring 



GEN 



GER 



for comfort and safety to live on the 
mountains and hills. 

GEN'TILE. This was the name by 
which the Jews designated all men but 
themselves — i. e. all pagan nations who 
were ignorant of the true God, and idol- 
aters. Luke 2:32; Acts 26:17, 20; 
Rom. 2:9; 9 : 24, etc. In opposition 
to the Gentiles, the Hebrews regarded 
themselves, and were in fact, the chosen 
''people of God." Sometimes the 
" Greeks," as the most cultivated among 
the heathen, stand for them. Rom. 1:16; 
Acts 16 : 1, 3, etc. Paul is called the 
"apostle to the Gentiles" on account 
of his special mission and work among 
them. 

Court of the Gentiles. See Temple. 

Isles op the Gentiles, Gen. 10 : 5, 
is supposed to denote Asia Minor and 
the whole of Europe, which was peopled 
by the children of Japheth. 

GENU'BATH (theft), the son of 
Hadad, the adversary of Solomon. 1 
Kgs. 11 : 20. 

GE'RA (a grain). 1. A son or 
grandson of Benjamin. Gen. 46:21; 1 
Chr. 8 : 3, 5, 7. 

2. The father of Ehud. Jud. 3:15. 

3. The father of Shimei. 2 Sam. 16 : 
5; 19:16; 1 Kgs. 2:8. 

GE'RAH. See Measures. 

GE'RAR (residence, or water-pots), 
a city and district in the south of Pal- 
estine, and near, Gaza, Gen. 10 : 19 ; 
visited by Abraham, Gen. 20:1; by 
Isaac, Gen. 26 : 1 ; Asa pursued the de- 
feated Ethiopians to it. 2 Chr. 14:13. 
Eusebius knew of Gerar as 25 miles 
from Eleutheropolis. The city may be 
Khurbet Umm Jerrdr, several miles south 
of the valley of Ghuzzeh, which runs 
from Beersheba to the sea. Some locate 
the city at el-'Aujeh. 

GER'GESA, and GER'GE- 
SENES. The a country of the Gerge- 
senes," Matt. 8 : 28 — probably the same 
as " Gadarenes," Mark 5:1; Luke 8 : 
26 — was on the east side of the Sea of 
Galilee. The scene of the miracle was, 
according to Thomson, near modern 
Khersa, where the hills approach within 
40 feet of the water. See Gadarenes. 

GER'IZIM, MOUNT, a mountain 
in Ephraim, near Shechem, from which 
the blessings were pronounced, as the 
curses were from Mount Ebal, Deut. 11 : 
29 ; 27 : 1-13 ; Josh. 8 : 30-33. Gerizim is 



I 2849 feet above the level of the sea, and 
about 800 feet above Isablvs (Shechem). 
It is separated from Ebal by a narrow 
valley. Six tribes were placed on Geri- 
zim, and six on Ebal; Deut. 27 : 12, 13, the 
ark probably in the valley between them, 
and Joshua read the blessings and curs- 
ings successively. Josh. 8 : 33, 35. The 
Levites on either side re-echoed them, 
and the people responded "Amen!" 
Deut. 27 : 14, 15. Gerizim was the scene 
of the first recorded parable — that of the 
trees and brambles. Jud. 9 : 7-21. It 
was the site of the Samaritan temple, 
and referred to by the woman at the 
well. John 4 : 20. Samaritan tradition 
asserts that it is the place where Abra- 
ham offered Isaac, but this is not sus- 
tained by the best authorities. It is now 
Jebel et Tor. See Moriah. 

Present Condition. — The mountain is 
composed chiefly of limestone. It has 
a large plateau on its summit, covered 
with ruins of cisterns, paved platforms, 
and on one side those of a castle. The 
whole mountain-top bears traces of hav- 
ing once been covered with houses. 

The small remnant of the Samaritan 
sect at JS'&blm performs annually the 
paschal sacrifice on the top of Gerizim 
according to the prescription of the 
book of Exodus (ch. 12). It is the only 
spot on earth where this Jewish festival 
is perpetuated in its primitive style. 
Dean Stanley and other travellers have 
visited the scene, and point out the strik- 
ing resemblance to the Mosaic prescrip- 
tion. The amphitheatre formed by these 
two mounts, Gerizim and Ebal, is most 
suitable for assembling a vast body of 
people within the hearing of the human 
voice, and where all could see what was 
being done. There is no other place 
like it in all Palestine. Numerous trav- 
ellers have repeated the experiment of 
stationing persons on the opposite 
mounts, and heard the reading of the 
ten commandments by each party, and 
they were also heard by each other with 
great distinctness. See Ebal, Shechem. 

GER'SHOM (expulsion). 1. The 
first-born son of Moses and Zipporah. 
Ex. 2 : 22 ; 18 : 3. 

2. A corruption of Gershon. 1 Chr. 6 : 
16, 17 ; 15 : 7. 

3. A priest with Ezra. Ezr. 8 : 2. 
GERSHON (expulsion), the eldest 

of Levi's sons, Gen. 46 : 11 ; Ex. 6 : 16, 
331 



GEE 



GEZ 



17 ; 1 Chr. 6 : 1, and founder of the Ger- 
shonites. Num. 3 : 21. 

GERZITES. See Gezrites. 

GESHAM {filth)/), a descendant of 
Judah ; also improperly written Geshan. 
1 Chr. 2 : 47. 

GE'SHEM {rain), also called 
GASH'MU, an Arabian who, with 
Sanballat and Tobiah, opposed Nehe- 
miah while the wall was building. Neh. 
2:19: 6:1, 2. 

GE'SHUR {bridge), a small district 
or principality of Syria, east of the Jor- 
dan and north-east of Bashan. It was 
within the territoiy allotted to Manasseh, 
Deut. 3 : 14 ; 2 Sam. 15 : 8 ; 1 Chr. 2:23; 
Josh. 13 : 13 : David married a daughter 
of its king, 2 Sam. 3:3; Absalom fled 
thither after the murder of Amnon, 2 
Sam. 13:37. Geshur was probably a 
part of that rocky region now known as 
" the Lejah," still the refuge of criminals 
and outlaws. Merrill places Geshur 
south of Mt. Hermon, east of the Sea of 
Galilee and north of Bashan. 

GESH'URI,and THE GESH'- 
URITES. 1. The inhabitants of 
Geshur. Deut. 3 : 14; Josh. 12 : 5 ; 13 : 
11, 13. 

2. An ancient tribe bordering on the 
Philistines to the south. Josh. 13 : 2. 

GE'THER {dregs ?), a son of Aram. 
Gen. 10: 23; 1 Chr. 1 : 17. 

GETHSEMANE {oil-press), a 
place across the Kedron and at the foot 
of Olivet, noted as the scene of our Lord's 
agony. John 18 : 1 ; Mark 14 : 26 ; Luke 
22 : 39. A garden or orchard was at- 
tached to it, and it was a place to which 
Jesus frequently resorted. Matt. 26 : 36 ; 
Mark 14 : 32 ; John 18 : 2. Tradition, 
which since the fourth century has 
placed it on the lower slope of 'Olivet, 
about 100 yards east of the bridge over 
the Kedron, seems to agree with the re- 
quirements of the Gospel narratives. It 
is a small, irregular, four-sided spot, en- 
closed by a high wall, and about 70 paces 
in circumference. The wall was built in 
1847 by Franciscan monks, who say it 
was necessary to restrain pilgrims from 
injuring the olive trees. The old olive 
trees are seven or eight in number, the 
trunks cracked from age and shored up 
with stones. The trees are said to date 
back to the time of Christ. They are 
surely of great age and size (19 feet in 
circumference), but Titus cut down all 



the trees about Jerusalem, and the Cru- 
saders found the country destitute of 
wood, and we have no mention of old 
olive trees before the sixteenth century ; 
hence it can only be stated that these old 
olives are possibly descendants of those 
which grew here in the time of Christ. 
The garden now has younger olives and 
a dozen cypresses. The monks keep in 
it a flower-garden, and present each visi- 
tor with a bouquet of roses, pinks, and 
other flowers, for which one franc is ex- 
pected in payment. Olive-oil and rosa- 
ries from the olive-stones are also sold 
at a high price. 

Tradition, which is not trustworthy, 
fixes the spot of Christ's suffering at 
the so-called Cavern of Agony, a grotto 
in a solid rock, near the garden. The 
place of the arrest of Christ was pointed 
out in the Middle Ages at the above 
spot, and near by the spot where Judas 
betrayed Jesus was also marked by tra- 
dition. Dr. Thomson and some others 
think the present garden too near the 
public road for Gethsemane, and would 
place it farther to the north-east. The 
Latins control the present garden, and 
the Greeks have set up a Gethsemane 
of their own, farther up the Mount of 
Olives. 

GEU'EL {majesty of God), the spy 
from the trihe of Gad. Num. 13 : 15. 

GE'ZER {steep place), called also 
GAZER, GAZARA, GAZE'RA, 
and GAD, a royal city of Canaan, and 
one of the oldest cities of the land. Josh. 
10: 33; 12: 12. Gezerwasin Ephraim ; 
given to Kohath, Josh. 21:21; 1 Chr. 
6:67; noticed in the wars of David, 
1 Sam. 27 : 8 ; 2 Sam. 5 : 25 ; 1 Chr. 20 : 
4 ; burned by Pharaoh in Solomon's 
days, 1 Kgs. 9:15-17; given to Solo- 
mon's Egyptian wife, and rebuilt by 
him ; was an important city in the time 
of the Maccabees. M. Ganneau, from 
a hint given by an old Arab chronicler, 
has identified Gezer with Tell el-Jezer, 
4 miles from Nicopolis. Numerous ruins 
were found, indicating a city of import- 
ance, and inscriptions in Greek and 
square Hebrew characters giving the 
name and noting the boundaries of the 
Levitical city — a discovery of great im- 
portance, being the only one of its kind 
as vet brought to light. 

GEZ'RITES {dwellers in a barren 
land), a tribe in the time of Saul, who 



GHO 



GIB 



shared with the Geshurites and Amalek- 
ites the land between the south of Pal- 
estine and Egypt, 1 Sam. 27 : 8. The 
name is properly Gerzites, and they once 
dwelt in central Palestine, as is proven 
by the name of Mount Gerizim. 

GHOST. Gen. 25: 8. To " give up 
the ghost" means to expire. "Ghost" 
is used by Shakespeare and other Eng- 
lish writers as synonymous with " spirit." 
The words in Matt. 27 : 50 would be 
better translated : " Christ gave up his 
spirit." 

Holy Ghost. The third person in 
the Holy Trinity. See God, Spirit. 

GI'AH (a breaking forth; here, a 
waterfall), near the hill Arumah, 2 Sam. 
2:24. 

GI'ANT denotes men of extraordi- 
nary size or height. Gen. 6 : 4. The sons 
of Anak are usually looked upon as gi- 
ants, on account of the expression of 
which the spies made use — that they were 
" as grasshoppers ... in their sight." 
Num. 13 : 33. The fright of the Israelites 
makes it probable that they were refer- 
ring to strength rather than stature. The 
king of Bashan, Deut. 3:11, and Goliath, 
1 Sam. 17 : 4, were warlike and dreaded 
giants. See Rephaim. 

GIB'BAR (gigantic), the father of 
some who returned with Zerubbabel. 
Ezr. 2 : 20. 

GIB'BETHON (height), a town of 
Dan : given to the Kohathites, Josh. 
19 : 44; 21 : 23 ; held by the Philistines 
in the reigns of Jeroboam, Nadab, 
Baasha, Elah, Zimri, and Omri. 1 Kgs. 
15 : 27; 16 : 17. The siege lasted 27 
years. Conder proposes to identify it 
with Gibbieh or Kibbieh, between Elte- 
kah and Baalath. 

GIB'EA [kill), a name in th# gene- 
alogy of Judah, 1 Chr. 2:49; probably 
the name of a place rather than of a per- 
son. See Gibeah, 1. 

GIBEAH (a hill), the name of sev- 
eral towns. 

1. Gibeah in the hill-country of Ju- 
dah, Josh. 15 : 57 ; now probably Jebah, 
10 miles north of Hebron. This is 
doubted by Grove, but supported by 
Robinson, Porter, and Conder. 

2. Gibeah of Benjamin, 1 Sam. 13 : 2 ; 
first mentioned in Jud. 19 ; a shameful 
crime by some of its people nearly de- 
stroyed the tribe of Benjamin, Jud. 20, 
21. It is generally regarded the same 

334 



as Gibeah of Saul, and located at Tuleil 
el-Fiil, " hill of beans," 4 miles north 
of Jerusalem, and east of the road from 
Jerusalem to Ndbulus (Shechem). 

3. Gibeah of Saul is held by most 
authorities to be the same as Gibeah of 
Benjamin, but Baedeker's Hand-book 
assumes that they are distinct cities, and 
holds that Geba and Gibeah were some- 
times confounded. For in 1 Sam. 14: 
1-15, Geba near Michmash, or Jeba, 
would answer the conditions of Jon- 
athan's exploit, but v. 16 suddenly takes 
us back to Gibeah of Benjamin, toward 
which the Philistines would hardly have 
retreated if any other route was open 
to them. Again, in 1 Sam. 13:2, 15, 
Jonathan is at Gibeah of Benjamin, and 
Samuel also, but in v. 3 Jonathan smites 
the Philistines at Gebah, and he and 
Saul remain at " Geba," as many ver- 
sions read, and Gibeah, as in our Eng- 
lish version. For notices of Gibeah of 
Saul, see 1 Sam. 10 : 26 ; 11 : 4 ; 15 : 34 ; 
22 : 6 ; 23 : 19 ; Isa. 10 : 29, etc. In the 
first passage it is called " Gibeah Elo- 
him," meaning, in the Hebrew, " Gibeah 
of God," or " the hill," as our version 
reads in 1 Sam. 7 : 1, and correctly. 

4. Gibeah in Kirjath-jearim was no 
doubt a hill in that city, 2 Sam. 6 : 3, 4, 
on which the house of Abinadab stood, 
where the ark was left. 

5. Gibeah in the field, Jud. 20 : 31 : 
probably the same as Geba. 

6. G ibeah-haaraloth, Josh. 5 : 3, mar- 
gin. See Gilgal. 

GIB'EATH (hill), probably the 
same as Gibeah of Benjamin, Josh. 18 : 
28. See Gibeah, 2. 

GIB'EON (of a hill), a city of the 
Hivites, Josh. 9 : 3-21, about 6 miles 
north of Jerusalem. 

History. — Gibeon, after its league with 
Joshua, was attacked by the Canaanites ; 
secui'ed Joshua's help ; near it Joshua 
commanded the sun to stand still, Josh. 
10 : 12, 13 ; Isa. 28 : 21 ; the city was 
given to Benjamin and to the Levites, 
Josh. 18 : 25 ; 21:17: it was the scene 
of a mortal skirmish between twelve of 
Abner's and twelve of Joab's men, also 
of the murders of Asahel by Abner. and 
of Amasa by Joab, 2 Sam. 2 : 12-24; 20 : 
8-10; because Saul broke the covenant 
with the Gibeonites, in the days of David 
a famine broke out, which, after three 
years, stopped by the hanging of seven of 



GIB 



GIH 



Saul's sons, 2 Sam. 21 : 1, 2-6 ; the tab- 
ernacle was set up at Gibeon, 1 Chr. 16 : 
39; and Solomon offered great sacrifices 
there, 1 Kgs. 3 : 4, 5 ; 9:2; 2 Chr. 1 : 3, 
13; Jehoram recovered captives at Gib- 
eon, Jer. 41 : 12-16 ; its people helped to 
rebuild the walls of Jerusalem after the 
Captivity, Neh. 3 : 7 ; 7 : 25 ; Ezr. 2 : 20, 
margin. It is now called el-Jib, a small 
village in the midst of ancient ruins, and 
standing on a low circular hill, whose 
steep sides are covered with vineyards. 
At the eastern base of the hill is a fine 
spring; the water runs into a reservoir 
120 by 100 feet, which is probably the 
" Pool of Gibeon." 

GIB'EONITES, the inhabitants 
of Gibeon, 2 Sam. 21 : 1, 2, 3, 4, 9. 

GIB'LITES, THE, a people in- 
habiting Gebel. Josh. 13 : 5. 

GIDDAJL/TI {I have trained up), a 
Kohathite Levite, head of the twenty- 
second course, 1 Chr. 25 : 4, 29. 

GID / DEL {very great), names of two 
persons whose descendants returned with 
Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 47, 56; Neh. 7 : 49, 
58. 

GID'EON (o hewer), the son of Jo- 
ash the Abiezrite, and fifth judge of 
Israel. He first comes into notice when 
an angel appears to him under the oak 
in Ophrah and assures him of God's 
special favor, Jud. 6:11, 12. Subsequent- 
ly, God commanded him to offer as a 
sacrifice to the Lord the bullock which 
his father had set apart for Baal, and to 
destroy the altar of Baal. He did both 
of these things, but only escaped the 
murderous wrath of his fellow-citizens 
through the wily intervention of his fa- 
ther, Jud. 6 : 31. 

The great works of Gideon's life were 
the abolition of idolatry, Jud. 8 : 33, and 
the deliverance of the land from the in- 
vasions of the Midianites. Before un- 
dertaking the latter enterprise, he se- 
cured a pledge of the divine favor in 
the phenomena of the dew and the fleece, 
Jud. 6 : 36-40. God, desirous of show- 
ing the victory to be the immediate re- 
sult of supernatural agencv, diminished 
Gideon's army from 32,000" to 300. With 
this small force Gideon had recourse to 
stratagem, and in an assault by night 
completely terrified and successfully 
routed the enemy, Jud. 7. 

Gideon refused the ci - own, Jud. 8 : 23, 
from the whole nation, which his son 



Abimelech afterward received from a 
part. He judged Israel for 40 years, 8 : 
I 28, and the nation enjoyed peace and 
engaged in the worship of God, 8 : 33. 
He was one of her greatest rulers, and is 
honorably mentioned Heb. 11:32. 

GIDEO'NI {a cutting down), the fa- 
ther of the prince of Benjamin in the 
wilderness. Num. 1 : 11 ; 2 : 22 ; 7 : 60, 65 ; 
10 : 24. 

GI'DOM {cutting down, desolation), 
between Gibeah and the cliff of Rimmon, 
Jud. 20 : 45. It has not been identified. 
GIER'-EAGLE {racham = paren- 
tal affection), the Egyptian vulture, an 
unclean bird. Lev. 11: 18; Deut. 14:17. 
GIFT. The practice of making 
presents as a token of esteem and re- 
spect prevailed very extensively in the 
East. They were frequently made to 
secure favor, as in the case of Jacob 
and Esau, Gen. 32 : 13-15. Kings and 
princes often made splendid gifts, Gen. 
45 : 22, 23, and subjects approached 
their kings with presents. 1 Kgs. 4 : 
21 ; 2 Chr. 17 : 5, etc. To refuse to 
make presents to a king was a mark of 
contempt, 1 Sam. 10 : 27. The articles 
J thus bestowed were very various — cattle. 
Gen. 32 : 13; garments, 2 Kgs. 5 : 23; 
' money, 2 Sam. 18 : 11, etc. See, for a 
! list of presents, 1 Kgs. 10 : 25. The 
| wise men from the East presented the 
! infant Jesus with the most costly arti- 
! eles of the Orient — " gold, and frankin- 
cense, and myrrh." Matt. 2 : 11. 

The peculiar offerings under the Law 
are spoken of as gifts. Deut. 16:17; 
Matt. 5 : 23, 24. And it is with singular 
force that the blessings of the gospel 
through Jesus Christ are called gifts, 
inasmuch as they cannot be purchased, 
and nothing can be given in return for 
them. 

GIFTS. The word "gifts" is em- 
ployed to describe those graces or qual- 
ities with which Christ endues his disci- 
ples. Eph. 4 : 8, 11, 12. Some of these, 
which were bestowed on the early apos- 
tles, were miraculous, and designed to 
confirm their claims to apostolic author- 
ity, such as the gift of tongues, of 
prophecy, etc. The "ministry of gifts" 
ceased with the apostles, although some 
hold that they have been continued, and 
are still dispensed; as. for example, the 
Irvingites. 

GI'HON {fountain, or stream). 1. 
335 



GIL 



GIL 



The name of the second river of Eden, 
Gen. 2 : 13. Some identify it with the 
Nile. See Eden. 

2. A place near Jerusalem where Sol- 
omon was proclaimed king, 1 Kgs. 1 : 
33-4:5. Hezekiah stopped the upper water- 
course of Gihon, and Manasseh bailt a 
wall on the west side of Gihon in the val- 
ley. 2 Chr. 32 : 30 ; 33 : 14. Upper Gihon 
has been identified by some with Birket 
Mamilla, 150 rods west of the wall of 
Jerusalem, which is a pool 300 feet long, 
200 wide, and 20 deep. Lower Gihon is 
supposed to have been the same as Bir- 
ket es-Sultan, south-west of the Jaffa 
gate, a pool 600 feet long, 250 broad, 
and 40 deep. Warren, however, pro- 
poses the Pool of the Bath or Hezekiah 
as the Lower Gihon, the valley being 
that from the Jaffa gate to the temple- 
site, now filled up, while Grove and Con- 
der favor the pool Siloam as the site of 
Gihon. See Jerusalem. 

GIL/ALAI (dungy, or tceighty), a 
musical priest in Nehemiah's day, Neh. 
12:36. 

GILBOA, or GILBOA (bubbling 
fountain), a mountain east of the plain 
of Jezreel, about 10 miles long, running 
east-south-east and west-north-west; the 
northern slope is steep ; the southern 
was probably once covered with forests, 
though it is now inhabited and culti- 
vated. 

History. — Gilboa was a place where 
Saul and Jonathan were slain in battle, 
and from whence Saul went to consult the 
witch of Endor. 1 Sam. 28 : 4 ; 31 : 6 ; 
1 Chr. 10 : 1 ; 2 Sam. 1 : 21. The moun- 
tain is now called Jebel Fukua'j the place 
is called Je/bon. 

GILEAD (hard). 1. The grand- 
son of Manasseh, Xum. 26 : 29, 30, etc. 

2. The father of Jephthah, Jud. 11 : 
1,2. 

3. A Gadite, 1 Chr. 5 : 14. 
GIL/EAD (rocky region), called also 

MOUNT GILEAD and LAND OF 
GILEAD, Gen. 31 : 25 ; Num. 32 : 1, 
and known in N. T. times as Perasa 
" beyond Jordan." Matt. 4:15; John 
1:28. 

1. Gilead was a region of country 
bounded on the north by Bashan, east 
by the Arabian desert, south by Moab 
and Ammon, and west by the Jordan. 
Gen. 31:21; Deut. 3:12-17; 1 Sam. 
13 : 7 ; 2 Kgs. 10 : 33. It was about 60 
336 



miles long, and 20 miles in its average 
breadth. 

Physical Features. — The region of 
Gilead combines hills, valleys, fields, 
streams, and forests, as if it were a col- 
lection of beautiful parks. Among its 
mountains are fields of grass and wheat, 
and forests with paths winding through 
them. Of these mountains named in 
Scripture are Abarim, Pisgah, Nebo, and 
Peor. The mountains of Gilead are 2000 
to 3000 feet above the valley of the Jor- 
dan, gradually sinking away to the east- 
ward into the Arabian plateau. The sum- 
mits are broad, furnishing rich pasturage 
and extensive forests, and were famous 
for their aromatic gums and spices. Num. 
32 : 1 : Gen. 37 : 25. The balm of Gilead 
was held in high favor, Jer. 8 : 22 ; 46 : 
11 : it is said that only a spoonful could 
be collected in a da}-, and that was sold 
for twice its weight in silver. It was 
found along the Jordan valley. The re- 
gion is still one of great fertility. Eleven 
living streams are found between the 
Yarmuk and the Jabbok, and canals dug 
for irrigating the fields in every direction. 
South of the Jabbok on the Jordan the 
country is barren and desolate from want 
of water as far as the Wady Nimrin, but 

I beyond that are three streams and the 
land is again fertile. Several hot sul- 

j phur-springs have been found in Gilead. 

| History. — Jacob fled toward Gilead, 

| Gen. 31 : 21 ; it was conquered by Israel. 
Num. 21 : 24 ; Jud. 10 : 22 : Josh. 12 : 2 ; 
Deut. 2 : 36 : was given to Reuben, Gad, 
and Manasseh, Josh. 17 : 6 ; under 
Jephthah it defeated the Ammonites, 
Jud. 10:18; was a refuge for Saul's 
son and for David, 2 Sam. 2 : 9 ; 17 : 22, 
24 : the home of Elijah, 1 Kgs. 17 : 1 ; 
taken in part by Syria, 2 Kgs. 10 : 33 ; 
by Assyria, 15 : 25-29 ; referred to in the 
minor prophets, Hos. 6 : 8 ; 12 : 11 : Am. 
1 : 3, 13 ; Ob. 19 : Mic. 7 : 14 . Zech. 
10 : 10. It is now under nominal Turkish 
rule, with a Turkish governor residing at 
es-Salt — Ramoth-gilead of Scripture — 
but it is really controlled by the semi- 
barbarous Arabs and overrun by Bed- 
ouins. 

2. Mount Gilead of Jud. 7 : 3 was 
probably near Mount Gilboa: a trace 
of the name is found in Jdlud. Some 
German scholars, however, read "Gil- 
boji '* for "Gilead" in this passage. 
The well of Herod was near this mount. 



GIL 



GIT 



GIL'EADITES, a branch of the j 
tribe of Manasseh, descended from Gril- 
ead. Num. 26: 29, etc. 

GIL/G Alt (rolling). 1. The name of 
the first station of the Israelites after i 
crossing the Jordan, and " in the east | 
border of Jericho," Josh. 4 : 19, 20, the I 
twelve stones were set up, and the taber- 
nacle remained at Gilgal until removed 
to Shiloh. Josh. 18 : 1. Samuel judged 
and Saul was made king there, 1 Sam. 
7:16; 10 : 8 ; 11 : 14, 15 : at Gilgal the 
people gathered for war ; there Agag 
was hewn in pieces. 13 : 4-7 ; 15 : 33. 
Later on, Gilgal became a seat of idol- 
atry, but whether this one or the Gilgal 
above Bethel is yet unsettled. Gilgal is 
not named in the N. T. Josephus 
places this Gilgal 10 furlongs from Jeri- 
cho and 50 from the Jordan ; Jerome 
had it pointed out 2 miles from Jericho : 
Thomson and others locate it near the 
modern village of Riha ; Zschokke, at 
Tell Jeljul, north of Wady Kelt. Conder 
favors this, and gives the name Jifjulieh. 

2. The Gilgal in Elijah's time was 
probably in the range of hills beyond 
Bethel, since the prophet "went down" 
from that Gilgal to Bethel, 2 Kgs. 2 : 2. 
As Bethel is 3300 feet above the Jordan 
plain, it must have been a Gilgal not in 
that plain, but one higher up than Bethel. 
It has been identified with Jiljilia, 8 
miles north of Bethel, where the school of 
the prophets was probably established. 

3. Gilgal of Josh. 12 : 23 is supposed 
to be at a Jiljulieh, 4 miles south of 
Antipatris, in the plain of Sharon. 
There is a Kilkilieh — another form of 
Gilgal — also, 2 miles east of Antipatris. 

GI'LOH {exile), a town in the hill- 
country of Judah ; the home of Ahitho- 
phel, Josh. 15 : 51 ; 2 Sam. 15 : 12 : 
17 : 23 ; perhaps now Beit Jala, a village 
of 3000 population, about 2 miles north- 
west of Bethlehem. 

GI'LONITE, a native of Giloh, 2 
Sam. 15: 12; 23: 34. 

GIM'ZO (fertile in sycamores), a 
town in the plain of Judah ; taken by 
the Philistines, 2 Chr. 28 : 18 ; now 
Jimzu, a village about 2£ miles south- 
west of Ludd (Lydda). 

GIN, a trap for beasts or birds, con- 
sisting of a net (" snare," Isa. 8 : 14), 
and a stick to act as a spring ("gin," 
Am. 3:5). See Hunting. 

GI'iVATH (protection), the father 
22 



of Tibni, the rival of Omri for the throne 
of Israel, 1 Kgs. 16 : 21, 22. 

GIIV'IVETHO (gardener), a priest 
who returned from Babylon with Zerub- 
babel, Neh. 12 : 4. 

GIN'NETHON (gardener), a priest 
who " sealed the covenant," Neh. 10 : 
6. One of his descendants, mentioned in 
12:16. 

GIRD, GIRD'LE. Girdles are 
worn in the East by both men and wo- 
men for binding up the loose, flowing 




Aucieiii Girdles. 
1, 2, Egyptian. (From Wilkinson and Eosellini.) 3, 4, 
Assyrian. (From Sculptures in the British Museum.) 

garments, so as to admit of their moving 
about freely. The girdles were usually 
of leather or of linen, and frequently 
were highly- ornamented. Daggers were 
often carried in the girdle. See Clothes. 

GIRGASITE, Gen. 10 : 16, or 
GIR'GASHITES, Gen. 15: 21. A 
tribe of the Canaanites who are sup- 
posed to have inhabited a section of the 
country east of the Sea of Galilee, whence 
the name of the city of Gergesa. 

GIS'PA (caress), one of the rulers 
of the Nethinim after the Captivity, 
Neh. 11:21. 

GIT TAH-HEPHER, Josh. 19 : 
13. See Gath-Hepher. 

GIT'TAIM (two wine-presses), a 
town, probably in Benjamin. 2 Sam. 4 : 
3 ; Neh. 11 : 33. 

GITTITES. See Gath. 

GIT'TITH (a musical instrument), 
a word found in the titles of Ps. 8 ; 81 1 
84. The derivation of the word is dis- 
puted. It may be associated with the 
city of Gath, or with the word signify- 
ing " wine-press," and consequently with 
the vintage-season. 

337 



GIZ 



GLO 



GI'ZONITE, the epithet given to 
Hashem, the father of some of David's 
warriors. 1 Chr. 11 : 34. 

GIZ'RITES. See Gezrites. 

GLASS was discovered by the Phoe- 
nicians, or perhaps earlier. Represen- 



of vision. Deut. 14 : 13. It is not cer- 
tain what particular bird is meant, but 
most probably one of the buzzards, of 
which three species inhabit Palestine. 
The great red buzzard (Buteo ferox) is 
most common, and resembles an eagle in 




Egyptian Glass Bottles. {After Wilkinson.) 
tations of the process of glass-blowing are 
found on Eyptian monuments, and glass 
beads and fragments of glass vases have 
been discovered of very ancient age. 
The only mention of glass in the 0. T. 
is in Job 28 : 1 7, where it is translated 
" crystal." The mirrors referred to by 
the word "glass" in 1 Cor. 13 : 12 ; 2 
Cor. 3:18; Jas. 1:23 were not made 
of glass. See Looking-glass. 

GLEAN. Ruth 2:2. In the joy- 
ful season of harvest the Jewish farmer 
was not allowed to forget the poor and 
the stranger. A special command was 
given, Lev. 19 : 9, 10, that he should 
leave some of the fruits for them to 
gather. 

GLEDE, mentioned among the un- 
clean birds of prey by a Hebrew name 
which probably indicates its keenness 
338 



Bottle inscribed with the 
Name of Thothmes III. 
{After Wilkinson.) 

its size and habits. The orig- 
inal word is rendered "vul- 
ture" in Lev. 11 : 14. 

GLORY, GLORIFY, terms of 
frequent occurrence in the Bible. 

To "glorify" is to render glorious or 
to exalt. Dan. 5 : 23 ; Acts 3:13; John 
17 : 5. Hence the comprehensive pre- 
cept of the apostle, 1 Cor. 6:19, 20, re- 
quiring the devotion of our whole pow- 
ers and faculties to this one great end, 
"the glory of God," 1 Cor. 10:31, or 
making God glorious. To "give glory" 
means to praise or exalt. Luke 17 : 18. 

Glory of God. This expression is 
almost equivalent to "brightness" or 
" effulgence " of God, and refers to the 
peculiar and absolute perfection of all 
the divine attributes. By contrast, men 
are said to have " come short of the glory 
of God," Rom. 3 : 23, where the special 
reference, no doubt, is to the perfect holi- 
ness of the Almighty. 



GNA 



GOA 



God is denominated the " King of 
glory," Ps. 24 : 8, or of resplendent 
brightness. The glory of God is dis- 
plajed in the works of creation, Ps. 19 : 
1, in the redemption of the world through 
Christ, 2 Cor. 4 : 6, and in the person of 
Christ. Heb. 1 : 3. He is said to be 
"glorious in holiness." Our Lord is 
called the "Lord of glory," Jas. 2:1, 
and the " hope of glory." Col. 1 : 27. 

Different objects are said to have a 
glory, 1 Cor. 15 : 41, and regenerate be- 
lievers are said to have awaiting them 
the glory akin to that they have lost. 
Col. 3:4: Heb. 2:10. 

GNASH, GNASHING, a strik- 
ing or grinding of the teeth in the par- 
oxysms of anguish or despair. Ps. 112 : 
10; Matt. 8:12. 

GNAT. Matt. 23 : 24. This insect, 



a species of "mosquito," is common in 
hot countries. In the passage cited, 
the words "strain at" (a typographical 
error) should rather be "strain out:" 
the phrase will then better express the 
gross inconsistencies which our Saviour 
reproved. 

GOAD. Jud. 3:31. This was a 
rod or pole about 8 feet long, armed at 
the larger end with a piece of iron, with 
which the ploughshare was freed from 
clods and earth, and at the smaller with 
a sharp spike, by which the oxen were 
urged on in their labor. In the hands 
of a powerful man like Shamgar, Jud. 
3 : 31, it would be a formidable instru- 
ment. The goad is used to this day in 
Palestine. 

GOAT. Lev. 3 : 12. Goats were 
among the chief possessions of the 




Syrian Goat. (After Tristram.) 



wealthv in the early ages of the world. 
Gen. 27 : 9 ; 1 Sam! 25 : 2 : 2 Chr. 17 : 
11. Resembling the sheep in its general 
structure and appearance, it is covered 
with hair instead of wool, and is much 
more active, bold, and wandering in its 
habits. It feeds on bark and tender 



twigs, and its feet are formed for leap- 
ing and climbing among rocks and 
mountains. Its milk is valuable foi 
food, Prov. 27 : 27, the hair for manu, 
factures of various kinds, Ex. 25:4; 
Num. 31 : 20; Heb. 11 : 37, and the skin 
for vessels or bottles, Josh. 9:4; Ps. 
339 



GOA 



GOD 



119 : 83 ; Matt. 9 : 17, and in modern 
times for leather. 

There are several species of goat in 
Palestine, but the common kind ( Capra 
mambricu) has enormous hanging ears 
a foot long, often reaching lower than 
its nose and its stout recurved horns. 
Comp. Am. 3 : 12. 

It was a clean animal by the Jewish 
law, Deut. 14 : 4, and was much used in 
sacrifices. Lev. 3 : 12 j Num. 15 : 27 : 
Ezr. 6:17. 

The peculiar qualities of goats occa- 
sion frequent figurative allusions to 
them. The boldness and strength of the 
leaders of the flocks are alluded to, Prov. 
30 : 31 ; Zech. 10 : 3, and they are made 
to represent oppressors and wicked men 
generally. Eze. 34 : 17 ; 39 : 18 ; Matt. 
25 : 33. 

Goat, Wild (the climber). This an- 
imal is quite distinct from the domestic 
goat. The high hills of Palestine and 
Arabia are still a refuge for this very 
shy and wary creature, the ibex or 
mountain-goat (beden of the Arabs, 
Capra beden). Tristram says : "In the 
neighborhood of En-gedi, while encamp- 
ed by the Dead Sea shore, we obtained 
several fine specimens, and very inter- 
esting it was to find this graceful crea- 
ture by the very fountain to which it 



Save name (Eii- 



:di- 



Fountain of 



the Kid'), and in the spot where it roam- 
ed of old while David wandered to es- 
cape the persecutions of Saul " upon the 
rocks of the wild goats. 1 Sam. 24 : 2. 

The flesh of these animals is nearly of 
the flavor of venison. The JJedouins 
make bags or bottles of their skins and 
rings of their horns. When they are 
found among the rocks they usually 
elude the pursuit of the hunter, some- 
times leaping even 20 feet, but in the 
plains they are often taken. Their 
habits are alluded to in Job 39 : 1 ; Ps. 
104:18. 

Goat, Scape, Lev. 16 : 26, one of the 
two goats offered on the day of atone- 
ment. The ceremony which the high 
priest performed over the scape-goat is 
very mysterious and very significant. 

1. The priest laid his hands upon the 
head of the goat and confessed over it 
the sins of Israel. Lev. 16 : 21. The an- 
imal was then let go and driven off into 
the uninhabited wilderness. 

2. The significance of this event is 

340 



beyond dispute. It represents the cul- 
mination of the Mosaic sacrifice for sin, 
and is at the same time a most perfect 
representation of vicarious atonement. 
The iniquities of the nation were con- 
sidered as having been transferred to the 
goat, the priest having put them upon 
its head. It was then driven off, in its 
uncleanness and pollution, to suffer for 
crimes it had not committed, in the des- 
olate wilderness. This is a beautiful 
type of the atonement of Christ, upon 
whom was laid "the iniquity of us all," 
who suffered for our redemption, Isa. 53. 

"Scape-goat" is the A. V. trans- 
i lation of " Azazel." Lev. 16 : 26. The 
old interpretation, which applied the 
word to the (/oat, is now abandoned, the 
best scholars agreeing in regarding it as 
expressive of the person to whom the 
goat was sent. It probably comes from 
a root, used in Arabic, but not in He- 
brew, meaning to " separate." But who 
is the person? The best opinion is that 
" the devil" is meant. Both goats were 
parts of the same sin-offering, both be- 
longed to Jehovah. Hence both were 
typical of the atonement of Christ. The 
goat that was slain made an atonement 
for the holy place. The goat that was 
sent away typified the removing of the 
guilt of the people. See the valuable 
and interesting excursus upon "Azazel" 
in Bible Commentary, Lev. 16. 

GO'ATH (lowing), a place probably 
near Jerusalem, Jer. 31 : 39 j location not 
known. 

GOB (ditch, or cistern). 2 Sam. 21 : 
18, 19. The Greek version reads Goth, 
while in the account of this encounter 
of David's men in 1 Chr. 20 : 4 the 
name is Gezer. 

GOBLET. See Cup. 

GOD (good). The name of the 
Creator of all things and the supreme 
Governor of the universe and the Giver 
of all good gifts. He is " a Spirit, infi- 
nite, eternal, and unchangeable in his 
being, wisdom, power, holiness, justice, 
goodness, and truth." He is revealed to 
us in an endless variety of ways in his 
works and providential government. 
Rom. 1 : 20, but more fully in the Holy 
Scriptures and in the person and work 
of his only begotten Son, our Lord. 

1. Names. — There are three principal 
designations of God in the 0. T. — Elo- 
him, Jehovah, and Adonai. The first is 



GOD 



GOL 



used exclusively in the first chapter of 
Genesis ; it predominates in the second 
book of Psalms (Ps. 42-72, called the 
Elohim Psalms), and occurs alternately 
with the other names in the other parts 
of the 0. T. It expresses his character 
as the almighty Maker and his relation to 
the whole world, the Gentiles as well as 
the Jews. The second is especially used 
of him in his relation to Israel as the 
God of the covenant, the God of reve- 
lation and redemption. "Adonai" (i.e. 
my Lord) is used where God is reverent- 
ly addressed, and is always substituted 
by the Jews for ''Jehovah," which they 
never pronounce. The sacred name Je- 
hovah, or Yahveh, is indiscriminately 
translated, in the English Version, 
God, Lord, and Jehovah. 

2. The Nature of God.— God is reveal- 
ed to us as a trinity consisting of three 
Persons who are of one essence, Matt. 
28 : 19 ; 2 Cor. 13 : 14 ; John 1 : 1-3— 
God the Father, God the Son, and God 
the Holy Ghost. To the Father is as- 
cribed the work of creation, to the Son 
the redemption, to the Holy Spirit the 
sanctification ; but all three Persons 
take part in all the divine works. Al- 
though this idea of God is not brought 
out as prominently in the 0. T. as in j 
the Xew, it is nevertheless there. It is 
intimated in Gen. 1, where God, the j 
Word ("God spake," etc., compare Ps. 
33 : 6 : John 1 : 1, 3), and the Spirit of 
God are mentioned in the work of cre- 
ation. The " divine "Wisdom " of Prov. 8 
is personified, and corresponds to the 
''Word" in John 1, and refers to the 
second Person of the Trinity. To each 
of these Persons of the Trinity are as- 
cribed the essential attributes of the 
supreme God. Thus, the Son is repre- 
sented as the Mediator of the creation. 
John 1:3; Col. 1:16; Heb. 1 : 4. 

3. The unity of the Godhead is em- 
phasized in the 0. T.. while the trinity 
is only shadowed forth, or at best faintly ; 
brought out. The grand reason for the 
emphasis of the unity of the Godhead 
was to show the fallacy of polytheism i 
and to discourage idolatry, which the 
heathen practised. God is denominated 
"one Lord," Deut. 6:4. Over against 
the false deities of the heathen, he is j 
designated the "living" God. This 
belief in God as one was a chief mark 
of the Jewish religion. 



4. The attributes of God are those of 
the most perfect being. He is holy, 
Josh. 24:19; eternal, 1 Tim. 1:17; 
everywhere present, Ps. 139 : 7 ; Acts 17 : 
24 ; almighty, Gen. 17 : 1 ; immutable, 
Ps. 102 : 26. God is, moreover, just, Jer. 
9:24, wise, Job 12:13. and above all 
he is Love. 1 John 4:16. 

GODHEAD. Col. 2:9. The na- 
ture or essential being of God. Acts 17 : 
29: Rom. 1:20. 

GOD'LINESS, piety resulting 
from the knowledge and love of God, 
and leading to the cheerful and con- 
stant obedience of his commands. 2 Pet. 
3: 11. In 1 Tim. 3 : 16 it imports the 
substance of revealed religion. 

GODS. Rulers and judges are so 
called in Ex. 22 : 28 ; Ps! 82 : 6 ; John 
10 : 34 because thev represent God. 

GOG and MAGOG. Eze. 38: 
2. Magog was the name of one of 
Japheth's sons. Gen. 10 : 2. It was 
also a general name of a country north 
of the Caucasus or Mount Taurus, or 
for the people of that district. Gog 
was the king of the country. This 
people seems to have sustained rela- 
tions of hostility to Israel, and is asso- 
ciated with Antichrist. Rev. 20 : 8. 

GOT.AN (circle), one of the six cit- 
ies of refuge in Manasseh given to the 
Levites. It was in Bashan, and the most 
northerly of the three cities of refuge 
east of the Jordan. Deut. 4 : 43 : Josh. 
20 : 8 ; 21 : 27 ; 1 Chr. 6 : 71. It was 
possibly 10 or 12 miles north-east of the 
Sea of Galilee, in the centre of Gaulani- 
tis ; some suggest Nawa as the site of 
Golan. 

GOLD. Gen. 2:11. This heaviest 
and most malleable of metals is found 
at the present day chiefly in California 
and Australia. Several places are men- 
tioned by the sacred writers as abound- 
ing in gold ; such as Ophir, Job 28 : 16, 
Parvaim, 2 Chr. 3 : 6, Sheba, and Ra- 
amah. Eze. 27 : 22. Until after the time 
of David gold was never coined, but 
was sold by weight as a precious arti- 
cle of commerce. The use of gold was 
very common among the Hebrews. Sev- 
eral parts of the temple, its furniture 
and utensils, were overlaid with this 
precious metal. Ex. 36 : 34-38 : 1 Kgs. 
7:48-50. And many of the vessels of 
the wealthy, as well as their personal 
ornaments and insignia of office, were 
341 



GOL 



GOS 



of gold. Gen. 41 : 42 ; 1 Kgs. 10 : 17-22 ; 
Esth. 1 : 6, 7 ; Dan. 5 : 29 ; Luke 15 : 22 ; 
Jas. 2 : 2. 

GOLDEN CAN'DLESTICK. 

See Candlestick. 

GOLGOTHA (skull), the Hebrew 
name of the spot where Jesus was cruci- 
fied. Matt. 27 : 33. See Calvary. 

GOLI'ATH (splendor), a renowned 
champion of the Philistines from Gath. 
1 Sam. 17 : 4. He was more than 9 feet 
in height. Conscious of his superior stat- 
ure and strength, he defied the armies 
of Israel to produce a rival. But he 
was met and slain by David, who, al- 
though a pygmy in the eyes of the 
giant, was mighty through the assist- 
ance of God. 

In 2 Sam. 21 : 19 another Goliath of 
Gath, "the staff" of whose spear was 
like a weaver's beam," is mentioned as 
being slain by Elhanan. He may have 
been a son of David's antagonist. 2 
Sam. 21:22. 

GO'MER (perfect). 1. The eldest 
son of Japheth, progenitor of the an- 
cient Cimmerians, and of the present 
Celtic peoples of Europe. Gen. 10 : 2, 3 ; 

1 Chr. 1:5, 6. 

2. The wife of Hosea. Hos. 1 : 3. 

GOMORRAH (submersion), one 
of the five cities in the vale of Siddim, 
Gen. 14: 1-11 ; destroyed for its wicked- 
ness, 18 : 20 ; 19 : 24, 28 ; made a warning 
by Moses, Deut. 29 : 23 ; 32 : 32 ; referred 
to by Isaiah, 1 : 9, 10 ; by Jeremiah, 23 : 
14 ; 49 : 18 ; 50 : 40 ; by Amos, 4 : 11 ; by 
Zephaniah, 2:9; by our Saviour, Matt. 
10 : 15 ; Mark 6:11: by Paul, quoting 
Isaiah, Rom. 9 : 29 ; by Peter and Jude, 

2 Pet. 2 : 6. Its site is disputed. Some 
place it at the southern, others at the 
northern, end of the Dead Sea. The 
name Wady 'Anniyeh, at the north-west 
side of the Dead Sea, is like the Hebrew 
for Gomorrah. See Sodom and Salt Ska. 

GOOD'MAIV OF THE HOUSE 
is the master of the house, irrespective 
of moral character. The term was in 
common use when the A. V. was made. 
Matt. 20: 11. 

GOPHER-WOOD. The ark was 
constructed of this material. Gen. 6 : 14. 
There are many theories as to what go- 
pher-wood was. One is that it was some 
resinous wood, such as cedar, pine, or fir. 
Still more probable is the opinion that it 
was cypress, which was considered by the 
342 



ancients as the most durable wood, and 
least exposed to worms and natural de- 
cay. It abounded in Syria, was used 
very commonly for shipbuilding, and 
was almost the only wood which could 
furnish suitable timber for so large a 
vessel as the ark. 

GO'SHEN. 1. The portion of 
Egypt assigned to Israel. Gen. 45 : 5, 10 ; 
46 : 28 : 47 : 27-50 : 8. It probably 
bordered on the Tanitic branch of the 
Nile, hence called Zoan or Tanis, Ps. 
78:12, and reached from the Mediter- 
ranean to the Eed Sea. It was suited 
to shepherds, abounded in vegetables. 
It contained the treasure-cities Rameses 
and Pithom. Goshen was near the roy- 
al capital, Gen. 48 : 1, 2; Ex. 5 : 20 ; 
appears to have been the starting- 
place of the Israelites in their journey 
to the Land of Promise. Ex. 12 : 37, 38. 

2. A district in Palestine, perhaps 
between Gibeon and Gaza. Josh. 10 : 
41; 11: 16. 

3. A city in the hill-country of Judah, 
Josh. 15 : 51 : perhaps now Sehiyeh. 

GOSPEL (from the Anglo-Saxon 
god-spell, ''good tidings") is the Eng- 
lish translation of the Greek euaggelion, 
which signifies "good" or "glad tid- 
ings." Luke 2:10; Acts 13 : 32. The 
same word in the original is rendered 
in Rom. 10 : 15 by the two equivalents 
" gospel " and " glad tidings." The term 
refers to the good news of the new dis- 
pensation of redemption ushered in by 
the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus 
Christ. The "good news" is denomi- 
nated either simply the "gospel," Matt. 
26 : 13, or else " the gospel of the king- 
dom," Matt. 9:35; of " Jesus Christ," 
Mark 1:1; of "peace," Rom. 10: 
15; Eph. 6:15, of "salvation," Eph. 
1 : 13 ; of " God," 1 Thess. 2:9; and of 
" grace." Acts 20 : 24. 

Gospels, the Four Canonical. The 
word " Gospels " is also employed to 
designate the four biographies of our 
Lord by Matthew, Mark, Luke, and 
John. These are the only faithful ac- 
counts of his life extant. They are the 
independent recitals of well-informed 
men ; and there is no evidence that either 
Evangelist got his facts from another. 
But the Gospel by John, while it is com- 
plete on its own peculiar plan, seems to 
have been composed in part with the 
object of supplementing what was lack- 



GOU 



GOU 



ing or only partially given in the nar- 
rations of the first three Gospels. In 
\his fourth Gospel, for example, the di- 
vinity of our Lord is emphatically as- 
serted and dwelt on at length, and of 
the opposition he met with from the 
Pharisees a full account is given, John 
5-12. John further gives in detail the 
discourses of our Lord in the last week, 
chs. 13-17, and the account of the res- 
urrection of Lazarus, ch. 11. On the 
other hand, he omits the circumstances 
of our Lord's birth, which had been giv- 
en so fully by Matthew and Luke, the 
account of the Lord's Supper, related by 
all three of the other Evangelists, the 
institution of baptism, and most of the 
miracles and all the parables found in 
the first three accounts. 

There are differences in the accounts 
of the same events as given by the va- 
rious Evangelists, but with a few excep- 
tions they are verbal, and only such as 
we would natui-ally expect in different 
descriptions of the same occurrences. 
These very differences in details are fa- 
vorable to the genuineness of the Gos- 
pels, because they prove the absence of 
collusion or secret agreement among the 
writers. 

The genuineness of these records of 
our Lord's life is as strongly supported, 
to say the least, as that of any other 
document of antiquity. There is no 
doubt that they were all written, as we 
have them, in the first century (the first 
three before the destruction of Jerusa- 
lem, a. d. 70), and were all used and 
known as "the Four Evangelists" in 
the Church before the year 200, if not 
before 150. Upon both these points the 
concurrent evidence is so strong that 
the opponents must resort to the wild- 
est theories and hypotheses, Avhich re- 
fute themselves by their contradictions. 
There is good evidence scattered all 
through the second century that they 
were in general use. Justin Martyr 
used them about 140. His pupil, Ta- 
tian, wrote a Harmony of the Gospels 
about 170, and quite recently a commen- 
tary of Ephraem Syrus on Tatian's Dia- 
teftsaron has been published at Venice 
( 1876 ), which settles the vexed question as 
to the character of this work. The argu- 
ments for the genuineness, as varied as 
they are convincing, are such as these : 
(1) The direct testimonies of writers in 



I the second century and later ; (2) the 
j quotations found in the writings of the 
authors known as the Fathers; (3) an- 
cient translations, as the Itala and Pesh- 
ito, dating from the second century; (4) 
the attitude of heretic and heathen oppo- 
nents, who, like Celsus (180), did not 
call in question the genuineness of the 
records, although they denied the cred- 
ibility of a part of their contents. 
Basilides, a Gnostic heretic, knew the 
Gospel of John as early as 125, and 
Marcion, another Gnostic, about 150, 
made use of a mutilated Gospel of Luke. 
The language in which the Gospels 
were written was the Greek, with the 
probable exception of Matthew written 
in Hebrew, and there can be little 
doubt that we now have, with the ex- 
ception of a few readings, the docu- 
ments as they left the hands of the 
writers. 

Gospels, Apocryphal. These are the 
spurious accounts of our Lord's life. 
There are many of them ; as, for exam- 
ple, the Gospel according to James, ac- 
cording to Nicodemus, etc. The earliest 
was probably composed some time in the 
second century. They indulge in puer- 
ile accounts of the parents of our Lord, 
of the pretended miracles of his child- 
hood, and of his experience in Hades. 
These stories were invented to satisfy a 
| prurient curiosity, and were accepted by 
I the credulous. . The circumstances re- 
lated carry their own refutation with 
them, as being entirely out of harmony 
with the spirit of our Lord's life. They 
tend to confirm the canonical Gospels as 
the counterfeit presupposes the genuine 
coin. 

A " harmony " of the Gospels is an 
arrangement of these four biographies 
which displays the chronology of the 
events narrated, the variety of events, 
and the diversity of details. The object 
is to present a full account of our Lord's 
life in the chronological sequence of its 
events. For the several Gospels see 
Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. 

GOURD. Jon. 4:6- Probably the 
plant which shaded the prophet was 
either the castor-oil plant (Ricinus com- 
munis), which in the East grows rapid- 
ly to the height of even 15 feet, or, ac- 
cording to rapidly-prevailing opinion, it 
was a vine of the cucumber family ( Cu- 
curbita pepo), similar to our gourd, and 
343 



GOU 



GOU 



still used for shade in Palestine. " In 
the gardens about Sidon many an arbor 




Castor-Oil Plant. (Eicimts Communis.) 



of gourds may be seen. But the plant 
withers as rapidly as it shoots, and af- 
ter a storm or any injury to the 
stem its fruit may be seen hang- 
ing to the leafless tendrils which 
so lately concealed it — a type of 
melancholy desolation." — Tris- 
tram. 

Some have regarded the ex- 
pression, " It came up in a night 
and perished in a night," as lit- 
eral, others as indicating merely 
rapid growth. The declaration 
that the Lord prepared a gourd, 
and prepared a worm, and pre- 
pared an east wind, indicates 
the direct and special interposi- 
tion of his providence to teach 
the prophet a lesson of submis- 
sion to the divine will. 

Gourd, Wild. The wild gourds 
eaten by the sons of the prophets, 
2 Kgs. 4 : 38-41, were doubtless 
the handsome yet poisonous fruit 
of the colocynth ( CitruUus colo- 
cynihus), from which the medi- 
cine of that name is obtained. 
This vine is not common in Pal- 
estine, yet may be found about 
Gilgal, and bears a fruit resem- 
bling an orange in size and shape, 
but very hard and having its yel- 
low rind marbled with green and 




344 



Colocynthus, or Wild Gourd. {CitruUus Colocynthut. After Tristram.) 



GOV 



GRA 



white. The plant resembles the water- 
melon, and belongs to the same family. 
For various reasons it is thought that 
the " knops " used in the ornamental 
work of Solomon's temple were imita- 
tions of the colocynth. 1 Kgs. 6:18. 

GOVERNOR. Matt. 27:2. Af- 
ter Judaea became a province of the 
Roman empire, governors or procurators 
were appointed and sent thither from 
Rome. This was the office held by Pon- 
tius Pilate at the time of our Saviour's 
crucifixion. Sometimes the word "gov- 
ernor" is used as a general title for a 
ruler or presiding officer. Gen. 42 : 6. 
See Feast. 

GO'ZAN, a district of Mesopotamia, 
2 Kgs. 17:6; 18:11; 19:12; 1 Chr. 5: 
26; Isa. 37:12; probably identical with 
Gauzanitis of Ptolemy, and Myydonia of 
other writers. It was watered by the 
Habor, the modern Khabour, a large 
branch of the Euphrates in Mesopotamia. 

GRACE denotes the love of God as 
displayed in his free favor toward men 
as sinners and destitute of all claim upon 
him. 1 Tim. 1:2. Hence the N. T., which 
reveals the plan by which this grace is 
bestowed, is called "the gospel of the 
grace of God." Acts 20:24. The apos- 
tolic Epistles begin with the salutation, 
" Grace and peace be with you." 

GRAIN. See Corn. 

GRAPES, the fruit of the vine. 
Gen. 49 : 11. When fully ripe and dried 
thev are called " raisins." 1 Sam. 25 : 1 8 ; 
30 : 12 ; 2 Sam. 16 : 1 ; 1 Chr. 12 : 40. 

The soil and climate of Palestine are 
pre-eminently well suited to the growth 
of the vine, and it has always been among 
the principal productions of the country. 
In Judaea especially particular districts 
were famed for the excellency of their 
grapes ; as En-gedi and the vales of 
Eshcol and Sorek. The word " Sorek" 
is not only the name of a region in the 
tribe of Judah, but also signifies the 
noblest variety of the vine and its clus- 
ters, which there abounded. This grape 
was white, with delicious juice, and with 
seeds so small and soft as to be almost 
imperceptible. In Persia the best rai- 
sins are made of this grape. It is of this 
that the celebrated Kishmish wine of 
Shiraz is made. Very fine grapes were 
in old times, as at present, produced on 
Mount Lebanon and at Helbon or Alep- 
po. Travellers agree in relating that 



Palestine, even in its present state of 
subjugation to the Mussulmans, who are 
forbidden to use wine, produces clusters 
of 12 pounds' weight each, the single 
grapes of which are as large as plums. 
They tell us that the clusters of Judaea, 
a few miles westward from Jerusalem, 
are larger than any in Europe, and that 
they have often seen clusters of such size 
that it was impossible for a single man 
to carry one of them uninjured for any 
distance. Brocard informs us in his 
Travels that the best vines grow in the 
environs of Bethlehem, in the vale of 
Rephaim (between Bethlehem and Jeru- 
salem), and in the traditional vale of 
Eshcol, near Hebron. 

The grapes of the Holy Land, with the 
exception of the Sorek, above mentioned, 
are mostly red or black. Hence the juice 
is called " the blood of the grape," trans- 
lated, in our, version, " red wine." Isa. 
27:2. 

Besides wine and raisins, there is made 
from grapes a syrup called dibs, which 
"is obtained by boiling down the juice 
of the ripe grapes to a third of its bulk, 
when it becomes as thick as treacle, but 
is of a lighter color. The Moslems are 
very fond of dibs, which they eat with 
bread, drink with water, and use largely 
in confectionery. The Hebrew name 
debash ('honey') is identical, and it is 
this syrup, and not bees' honey, which 
is understood to be meant by the honey 
which Jacob sent down as a present to 
the governor of Egypt, Gen. 43 : 11, and 
in which the men of Tyre traded from 
the land of Israel. Eze. 27 : 17."— Tris- 
tram. 

The Jews were expressly required by 
their law not to gather the grapes until 
the vine was three years old, Lev. 19 : 
23, and to leave some on the vines and 
some on the ground, Lev. 19 : 10 ; and 
it was the privilege of the poor and de- 
pendent to gather these for their own 
use, provided they were eaten on the 
ground. They were not allowed to take 
any away. Deut. 23 : 24; 24 : 21. The 
grapes thus left were called " the glean- 
ings," and as they hung, here and there 
one, on the vines or lay scattered on the 
ground, they were strikingly emblemat- 
ical of the depopulation of a city or 
country. Isa. 17 : 6 ; 24 : 13 ; Jer. 6:9; 
49 : 9 ; Ob. 5. See Vine, Vineyard, 
Wine, Winepress. 

345 



GRA 



GEE 



GRASS. Isa. 51 : 12. This word is 
frequently applied in the Scriptures to 
herbage generally, Isa. 15 : 6, though 
sometimes distinction is made between 
such herbs as are used by man as grain 
and vegetables, and such as are used 
chiefly by cattle. Ps. 104 : 14. 

The quick growth and tenderness of 
this species of vegetation furnish sev- 
eral of the most striking illustrations of 
the Scriptures. Ps. 90 : 5, 6 ; 92 : 7 ; 
103 : 15, 16 ; Isa. 40 : 6-8 ; 51 : 12 j Jas. 
1:10; 1 Pet. 1 : 24. 

The passage in Prov. 27 : 25 would be 
more accurately rendered thus : " The 
grass {hay) appeareth, and the green 
herb (tender grass) showeth itself, and 
the plants (herbs) of the mountains are 
gathered." So in Isa. 15 : 6 : " The 
grass (hay) withereth, the green herb 
(grass) faileth, there is no green 
thing." 

Nothing can exceed in beauty and 
appropriateness the gradation of images 
employed by the prophet, 2 Kgs. 19 : 
26 ; the weakness and tenderness of the 
first shoots of any green herb ; the frail- 
ty of the few spires of grass that some- 
times spring up in the vegetable mould 
or shallow earth upon the housetop, or 
the withered blade of corn (grain) blast- 
ed before it rises into a stalk. 

Coarse herbage was often dried, as it 
is still, for the purpose of heating ovens. 
Under the fierce rays of a Syrian sun, 
joined to parching winds, it often hap- 
pens that "the grass of the field which 
to-day is, . . . to-morrow is cast into 
the oven." Matt. 6:30; 13:30; Luke 
12 : 28. 

GRASSHOPPER, an insect of 
the locust species, often mentioned in 
the sacred writings. Eccl. 12 : 5. The 
word rendered "grasshopper" in the 
above-cited passage is rendered " locust" 
in 2 Chr. 7:13. 

Grasshoppers were allowable food un- 
der the Jewish law. Lev. 11 : 22. Their 
timidity is proverbial. Job 39 : 20. 
They are often found in great multi- 
tudes (hence the figurative language, 
Jud. 6:5 and 7 : 12 ; Jer. 46 : 23), and 
prove destructive to vegetation, especi- 
ally in its early stages. Am. 7:1. 

The allusion in Nah. 3 : 15-17 is to a 

common habit of these insects. When 

benumbed with the cold, they assemble 

in vast numbers upon the hedges or 

346 



other shrubbery ; and such is their mul- 
titude that the places they occupy are 
darkened, and resemble the encamping- 
ground of a great army. As soon, how- 
ever, as they are revived by the warmth 
of the sun, they fly away, no one knows 
whither. 

The grasshopper is used to illustrate 
comparative insignificance, Num. 13 : 
33 ; Isa. 40 : 22 ; and in the passage 
from Ecclesiastes first cited, reference is 
probably made to that degree of weak- 
ness and infirmity in old age which 
makes the weight, or even the chirping, 
of a grasshopper burdensome. 

GRATE, BRAZEN. See Altar. 

GRAVE. See Burial, Engrave, 
Hell. 

GREAT SEA. Num. 34:6. The 
Mediterranean Sea ; called also " utmost 
sea" and " the hinder sea." Joel 2 : 20 ; 
Zech. 14:8. See Sea. 

GREAVES. See Armor. 

GRE'CIA. See Greece. 

GREECE, or HELLAS, the 
Avell-known country in the south-east of 
Europe. It is named four times in the 
0. T. as Greece or Grecia, Zech. 9:13; 
Dan. 8 : 21 ; 10 : 20 ; 11 : 2, and once in the 
N. T., Acts 20 : 2. It or its people are 
referred to in Hebrew history as Javan, 
Isa. 66 : 19 ; Eze. 27 : 13, 19, and in 
apostolic history as Achaia. Its cities 
noticed in Scripture are Athens, Corinth, 
and Cenchrea. See Greeks, and for fur- 
ther notice of the country, see Achaia 
and Macedonia. 

GREEKS, GRECIANS. These 
terms should be more distinguished. 
The " Greeks " were the Greeks by 
race, Acts 16 : 1, 3 : 18 : 17, or else Gen- 
tiles as opposed to Jews. Rom. 2 : 9, 10, 
marg. But " Grecians " were foreign 
Jews as distinct from those in Pales- 
tine, who were called " Hebrews." Acts 
11 : 20. The Greeks and Hebrews first 
met when the Tyrians sold the Jews 
to the Greeks. Joel 3:6. "Prophet- 
ical notice of Greece occurs in Dan. 
8 : 21, etc., where the history of Alexan- 
der and his successors is rapidly sketch- 
ed. Zechariah, 9:13, foretells the tri- 
umphs of the Maccabees over the Grasco- 
Syrian empire, while Isaiah looks for- 
ward to the conversion of the Greeks, 
amongst other Gentiles, through the in- 
strumentality of Jewish missionaries. 
66:19." "After the complete subju- 



GBE 



GUR 



gation of the Greeks by the Ron.' an s, I pire of the kingdoms which were form- 
and the absorption into the Roman em- ' ed out of the dominions of Alexander, 




Sketch-Map 
the political connection between the 
Greeks and the Jews as two independ- 
ent nations no longer existed." — Smith : 
Dictionary of the Bible. 

GREYHOUND is the A. V. trans- 
lation for the Hebrew words, meaning 
" one girt about the loins." Prov. 30 : 
31. That a " greyhound " does not an- 
swer to the meaning of the Hebrew is 
generally agreed. The most probable 
rendering yet suggested is that of a 
"wrestler" girded for the fight; others 
explain it of the war-horse, which is so 
poetically described in the book of Job 
(39 : 19-25). 

GRIND. See Mills. 

GRINDERS, in Eccl. 12 : 3, repre- 
sent the double teeth used in mastication. 

GRIZ'ZLED, black and white in- 
termingled in small spots. Gen. 31 : 10 : 
Zech. 6 : 3, 6. 

GROVE. The translation, except 
in Gen. 21 : 33, of the Hebrew word 
asherah; but since asherah is regarded 
by the best interpreters to be an " idol" 
or an idolatrous pillar (an image of As- 
tarte, and not a " grove,") the translation 
is misleading, as in 1 Kgs. 18 : 19 ; 2 Kgs. 
13 : 6, and other places. See Ashtoreth. 
But it is likely that this asherah was 



See 



See 



of Greece. 

often set up in a grove, because thus 
would be given that seclusion necessary 
to the cruel and indecent rites which 
marked, among Oriental nations, the 
worship of false divinities. 

GUARD'-CHAMBER, the 
apartment occupied by the king's guard. 

1 Kgs. 14:28. 
GUDGODAH. Deut. 10 : 7. 

Hor-Hagidgad. 

GUEST. See Hospitality. 

GUEST-CHAMBER. 
Chamber. 

GUII/TY OF BLOOD, Num. 
35 : 27, 31 ; GUILTY OF DEATH, 
Matt. 26 : 66 ; Mark 14 : 64. This phrase 
in the last two passages means " deserv- 
ing of death ;" in the former it means 
simply "' guilty of blood-shedding." 

GU'NI {painted). 1. A son of Naph- 
tali. Gen. 46:24; Num. 26:48; 1 Chr. 
7:13. 

2. One of Gad's posterity. 1 Chr. 5: 15. 

GUR (v)help, or abode), an ascent from 
the plain of Jezreel. 2 Kgs. 9 : 27. Drake 
suggests Keft Kud, near Jenin, as its 
site. 

GUR-BA'AL {abode of Baal), a 
place in the desert, south-east of Judah. 

2 Chr. 26 : 7. 



347 



HAA 



HAD 



H. 



HAAHASH'TARI (the courier), 
a Judite. 1 Chr. 4 : 6. 

HABA'IAH (whom Jehovah hides), 
a priest, the ancestor of some who re- 
turned from exile. Ezr. 2:61; Neh. 7 : 
63. 

HABAKKUK, or HABBAK'- 
KUK (embrace), one of the twelve mi- 
nor prophets, of whose birth we know 
neither the time nor the place. He lived 
in the reign of Jehoiakim or of Josiah. 

Prophecy of, relates chiefly to the in- 
vasion of Judaea by the Chaldaeans, ch. 1, 
and the subsequent punishment of the 
Chaldaeans themselves, ch. 2. The pas- 
sage 2 : 4, "the just shall live by his 
faith," furnished to Paul the text for 
his Epistle to the Romans. Rom. 1:17; 
comp. Gal. 3 : 11. 

The third chapter is an eloquent and 
sublime psalm upon the majesty of God. 
Bishop Lowth says, " This anthem is un- 
equalled in majesty and splendor of lan- 
guage and imagery." 

HABAZINI'AH (light of Jehovah), 
a Rechabite. Jer. 35 : 3. 

HABERGEON. See Armor. 

HA'BOR (perhaps rich in vegeta- 
tion), a river of Gozan, 2 Kgs. 17 : 6 ; 1 
Chr. 5 : 26 ; probably identical with the 
modern Khabour, the Aborrhas and Cha- 
boras of ancient writers, and a branch 
of the Euphrates. 

HACHALIAH (whom Jehovah af- 
flicts), the father of Nehemiah. Neh. 1 : 
1; 10:1. 

HACH'ILAH, HILL OF (the 
darksome hill), a place in Judah near 
Ziph, and where David with his 600 fol- 
lowers hid. 1 Sam. 23:19: comp. 14, 
15, 18; 26 : 3. Conder was inclined to 
locate it at the ruins now called Yekin : 
" The hill Yekin is a bold promontory 
standing just at the edge of the plateau. 
It looks over the whole desert ; the cliffs 
of En-gedi, the Dead Sea, and the heights 
of Moab are in full view. Just beneath 
the crest of the hill is a hollow, with an- 
other knoll beyond. It is the head of a 
great valley, which soon becomes precip- 
itous, running down into the desert. In 
this hollow are a spring and a cave. This 
348 



I imagine is what is meant by the 
' trench.' 1 Sam. 26 : 5. David is said 
to have crossed over to the other side, 
and we may imagine him standing on 
one or other of the hill-tops and looking 
down on the king and his sleeping party 
in the hollow." 

HACHMONI, SON OF. The 
Hachmonites Jehiel and Jashobeam are 
so spoken of 1 Chr. 27 : 32 ; 11 : 11. 
Hachmon was their ancestor. 

HA'DAD (sharjmess), one of the sons 
of Ishmael, 1 Chr. 1:30; he is called 
Hadar in Gen. 25 : 15. 

HA'DAD (a different name in He- 
brew, meaning brave). 1. King of Edoin, 
who won a great victory over the Mid- 
ianites on the field of Moab. His cap- 
ital was Avith, which see. Gen. 36 : 35 ; 
1 Chr. 1 : 46. 

2. Another king of Edom, with Pau 
for his capital, 1 Chr. 1 : 50 ; called Ha- 
dar in Gen. 36 : 39. 

3. A member of the royal house of 
Edom. In the general massacre of the 
males of Edom by Joab, 1 Kgs. 11 : 15, 
he escaped, and fled into Egypt. Pha- 
raoh received him with peculiar marks 
of favor, giving him his daughter in 
marriage. Subsequently, Hadad re- 
turned to Edom, and won for himself 
the reputation of an " adversary " of 
Solomon by the border- warfare he car- 
ried on against Israel. 1 Kgs. 11 : 
14, 25. 

HADADE'ZER,orHADARE'- 
ZER (Hadad's help), a king of Zobah. 
He was twice defeated by King David's 
armies. 2 Sam. 8:3; 10:16. On the 
first occasion 20,000 of the enemy were 
slain and 1000 chariots were taken. 
Amongst the spoil were shields of gold, 
1 Chr. 18 : 7, which David took to Jeru- 
salem. 

Some years afterward, Hadadezer and 
three other Syrian princes formed an 
alliance to assist the Ammonites against 
David ; but the whole Syrian army was 
defeated on the east bank of the Jordan 
by the Israelites under the command of 
Joab. Between 40,000 and 50,000 of 
the enemy were killed, including their 



HAD 



HAG 



principal general, and they thenceforth 
became tributary to David. 1 Chr. 19 : 
16-19. 

HA'DAD-RIffl'MON, a place 
probably named from two Syrian idols, 
Hadad, the sun-god, and Rimmon. It 
was in the valley of Megiddo, Zech. 12 : 
11, and the scene of a great lamentation 
over the death of Josiah. 2 Kgs. 23 : 29 ; 
2 Chr. 35:20-25. It is identified by 
Van de Velde with Rummdneh, 4 miles 
south of Lejun. Conder favors this. 

HA'DAR (room). 1. Gen. 25 : 15. 
See Hadad. 

2. Gen. 36 : 39. See Hadad, 2. 

HADAREZER. See Hadadezer. 

HAD AS HAH, or HADA'- 
SHAH (new), a town in the plain of 
Judah, Josh. 15 : 37 ; probably the Adasa 
of the Maccabeean history, and corre- 
sponding well in name and position to 
modern Abdas. 

HADAS'SAH {myrtle). See Es- 
ther. 

HADATTAH (new), atown named 
as in the extreme south of Judah. Josh. 
15 : 25. Fuerst proposes to read Hazor- 
hadattah (New Hazor), as distinct from 
the Hazor in v. 23; Wilton would iden- 
tify it with an imposing ruin called 
Kasr el-Adadah. 

HA'DES (the unseen world, the -spirit- 
world) occurs eleven times in the Greek 
Testament (Matt. 11 : 23 ; 16: 18: Acts 
2:31; Rev. 1 : 18, etc.), and ought to 
have been retained in the English Ver- 
sion (as it probably will be in the Re- 
vision) to distinguish it from Gehenna 
("hell"). The word is used in Homer 
as a proper noun for Pluto, the god of 
the unseen or lower world, next brother 
to Zeus (Jupiter). In later writers it 
signifies a place, viz., the unseen spirit- 
world, the realm of the departed, the 
abode of the dead. 

1. The Greek view of Hades and the 
Roman view of Orcus is that of a place 
for all the dead in the depths of the earth 
— dark, dreary, cheerless and shut up, 
inaccessible to prayers and sacrifices, 
ruled over by Pluto. 

2. The Hebrew Sheol is the equivalent 
for the Greek Hades, and is so translated 
in the Septuagint. It is likewise the 
subterranean abode of all the dead, but 
only their temporary abode till the ad- 
vent of the Messiah or the final judg- 
ment, and is divided into two depart- 



ments, called paradise or Abraham's 
bosom for the good, and Gehenna or hell 
for the bad. 

3. The N. T. Hades does not differ 
| essentially from the Hebrew Sheol, but 
Christ has broken the power of death, 
dispelled the darkness of Hades, and 
revealed to believers the idea of heaven 
as the state and abode of bliss in im- 
mediate prospect after a holy life. 

The English Version translates Hades 
and Gehenna by the same word (" hell"), 
except in 1 Cor. 15 : 55 ("grave"), and 
thus obliterates the important distinction 
between the realm of the dead or spirit- 
world and the place of torment. Hades 
is a temporary jail or prison-house; 
heaven and helT are permanent and 
final. Since Christ's descent into Hades, 
or the unseen, the spirit world, believers 
need not fear to enter this realm through 
death. Christ declares, "I am alive for 
evermore, Amen ; and have the keys of 
hell [Hades] and' of death." Rev. 1 : 18. 

HA'DID (sharp), a place near Lod 
or Lydda. Ezr. 2:33; Neh. 7 : 37 ; 11: 
34. Its site is probably that of the mod- 
ern village el-Hadztheh, 3 miles east of 
Lydda. See Adida. 

HAD'LAI (resting), an Ephraimite, 
father of the chief of a tribe in the reign 
of Pekah. 2 Chr. 28 : 12. 

HADORAM (Jire-worshippers ?). 
1. The fifth son of Joktan. Gen. 10:27 ; 

1 Chr. 1 : 21. The tribe which sprang 
from him were probably the Adramitse, 
who lived on the south coast of Arabia. 

2. The son of Tou» or Toi, king of 
Hamath, 1 Chr. 18 : 10 ; called Joram in 

2 Sam. 8:10. 

3. The tax-collector stoned after Jer- 
oboam's rebellion, 2 Chr. 10 : 18 ; called 
Adoniram, 1 Kgs. 4 : 6, and Adoram, 2 
Sam. 20 : 24. 

HA'DRACH, LAND OF (per- 
haps enclosure), a country of Syria, Zech. 
9 : 1, 2, and conjectured to be the region 
about Damascus, including, perhaps, all 
of Coelo-Syria ; or it may refer to the 
region around Hamath. 

HA'GAB (locust), one whose de- 
scendants returned from Babylon under 
Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 46. 

HAG'ABA (locust), one whose sons 
were among the Nethinim who returned 
with Zerubbabel, Neh. 7:48; called 
Hagabah in Ezr. 2 : 45. 

HA'GAR (flight), an Egyptian wo- 
349 



HAG 



HAI 



man who lived in the family of Abra- 
ham as bond-woman. At Sarah's own 
suggestion, she became the concubine 
of Abraham. "When she conceived, her 
mistress was " despised in her eyes." 
Gen. 16 : 4. In consequence of it, Ha- 
gar was harshly treated and fled away 
from the house of Abraham. She made 
her way toward Egypt, her native coun- 
try, through the wilderness of Shur, and 
while resting herself near a fountain by 
the wayside she was visited by an angel, 
who promised her an innumerable seed 
and a son whose name was to be Ish- 
mael. The angel at the same time di- 
rected her to return home and submit 
herself to her mistress. The place of 
this manifestation was afterward known 
as Beer-lahai-roi, " well of the living and 
seeing [God]." Gen. 16 : 14. 

We lose sight of Hagar entirely from 
this time on till the festival of Isaac's 
weaning. On that occasion Sarah saw 
Ishmael mocking or making sport of 
her child. She immediately demanded 
the banishment of Ishmael and his 
mother from their home. Abraham was 
pained by the demand ; but being di- 
vinely admonished to comply, he rose 
up early in the morning, and supplying 
Hagar with bread and a bottle of water 
sent her and her child away. She found 
her way to the wilderness of Beer-sheba ; 
but her supply of water was exhausted. 
Placing the child under one of the 
shrubs that she might not see it die, 
she mingled her prayers with its cries. 
God heard the prayer, and disclosed to 
her a fountain. She at the same time 
received again the promise (fulfilled in 
the Arabs) that Ishmael would be the 
father of a great nation. Gen. 21 : 9-21. 

Paul refers to Hagar, Gal. 4 : 25, as a 
type of the Law and its bondage. 

HAGARENES', or HAGAR- 
ITES {flight), a people dwelling east 
of the Jordan. 1 Chr. 5 : 10, 19, 20 ; 27 : 
31. They seem to be distinguished fi-om 
the Ishmaelites, Ps. 83 : 6, but are usu- 
ally regarded as having been named after 
Hagar, though some identify them with 
the Agraei, in the north-east of Arabia. 

HAG'GAI {festive), a prophet whose 
prophetic activity fell after the Captiv- 
ity, in the second year of Darius Hystas- 
pes, or B. c. 520, ch. 1 : 1. Nothing is 
known of his life. 

The Prophecy of, which is prosaic 
350 



in stvle, concerns the repair of the tem- 
ple, 1 : 1-12 ; 2 : 10-20, the glory of the 
second temple, 2 : 1-9, and the triumph 
of Zerubbabel over his enemies. 2 : 20- 
23. The prophet severely rebukes the 
people for their neglect to build the 
house of the Lord, and for their sel- 
fishness in living in the luxm*y of ceil- 
ed (or panelled) houses, while the tem- 
ple was neglected. 1 : 4. The people 
obeyed the prophet, and received the 
promise of God's presence. 1:13. The 
second chapter contains a Messianic 
reference, and alludes to Christ as the 
" Desire of all nations," v. 7, or, as 
others render the passage, "the desira- 
ble things of all nations." The He- 
brew reads, "They shall come, the de- 
sire of all nations, and I will fill this 
house with glory, saith the Lord of 
hosts." 

HAG'GERI (wanderer), one of 
David's mighty men. 1 Chr. 11 : 38. 

HAG'GI (festive), the second son 
of Gad, Gen. 46 : 16 ; Num. 26 : 15 ; 
founder of the Haggites. 

HAGGIAH (festival of Jehovah), 
a Merarite Levite, 1 Chr. 6 : 30. 

HAG'GITH (a dancer), one of 
David's wives, and the mother of Ado- 
nijah. 2 Sam. 3 : 4; 1 Kgs. 1 : 5, etc. 

HAI (heap of ruins). See Ai. 

HAIL. When a very cold current 
of air encounters a hot and humid one, 
the vapor of the latter is suddenly con- 
densed into drops, and sometimes these 
are frozen into irregular spheroids of 
porous ice, which fall to the earth as 
hail. This phenomenon is more fre- 
quent in temperate than in tropical re- 
gions, and usually occurs in summer 
and at the hottest hour of the day. 
Hail rarely falls except during thunder- 
storms ; and hence the Bible commonly 
mentions it in connection with fire (light- 
ning), as in Ps. 148 : 8. As rain was al- 
ways rare in Egypt, the fall of hail men- 
tioned as the seventh plague, Ex. 9, 
must have been singularly frightful, as 
it was greatly destructive to man, beast, 
and herb. God used a storm of hail- 
stones to utterly rout and destroy the 
Amorites who fought with Joshua at 
Gibeon, Josh. 10. 

In modern times stones of ice have 
been known to fall of half a pound in 
weight, and even eighteen ounces ; and 
were it not that hail-storms are exceed- 



HAI 



HAI 



ingly local and rarely continue more 
than five or ten minutes, incalculable | 
destruction would result. The largest j 
hail falls in hot countries, where hail is 
less frequent. 

Inspiration often uses this agency fig- 
uratively to picture the awful judgments 
of God. In Rev. 16 : 21 hail-stones are 
mentioned of a talent in weight, or, if 
the language were literal, of 55, and 
perhaps 113, pounds, according as the 
Attic or Jewish talent be intended; in 
all probability the former. 

HAIR. The difference between the 
Hebrews and their neighbors, the Egyp- 
tians, in the matter of wearing their hair 
is early, though incidentally, alluded to 
in the Bible. Thus Joseph, on being 
summoned into the presence of Pha- 
raoh, "shaved himself," while in most 
other countries it would have been suffi- 
cient to comb his hair and trim his 
beard. But the Egyptian men — out of 
notions of cleanliness perhaps — shaved 
their heads ; the priests shaved their 
whole bodies every third day. The 
women, however, wore their natural 
hair long and plaited. In place of the 




Egyptian mode of wearing the hair. (From a 
painting. British Museum.) 

natural hair, wigs were worn by the men ; 
and these were so constructed as to afford \ 
more protection against the sun than the 
more modern turbans. 

The Assyrians, and the Asiatics gen- 
erally, the neighbors of the Hebrews on 
the east, had opposite customs in regard 
to the hair of men. On the Assyrian 
sculptures the hair appears long and 
combed closely down upon the head : 
the beard is also full length. False hair 



seems to have been plaited in to make 
the greater show. Much care was given 
to the hair. 

The Greeks were great admirers of 
long hair in both men and women. Their 
manner of wearing it varied. The Ro- 
man men at the time of Christ wore 
their hair short. Shaving was also cus- 
tomary, and a long beard was regarded 
as slovenly. 

The Hebrews were accustomed to cut 
the hair very much as we do, and must 
have used a kind of scissors, 2 Sam. 14: 
26. But in the case of a vow or relig- 
ious obligation they let it grow, as in the 
case of the Nazarites. Num. 6:5; Jud. 
13 : 5. See Nazarites. The precept to 
the priests, Eze. 44 : 20, requires an 
avoidance of extremes ; so that the 
" Israelites " should neither resemble the 
priests of the heathen gods, who shaved 
their hair close, nor yet the Nazarites, 
who did not cut the hair at all. It 
was prohibited, Lev. 19 : 27, to round 
the corners of the head — that is (as it is 
generally understood), to shave off the 
hair about the temples. The hair (espe- 
cially black or dark hair) was consider- 
ed an ornament, and it was anointed 
with aromatic oil, particularly on festi- 
vals and other joyous occasions. Ruth 
3:3; 2 Sam. 14:2; Ps. 23 : 5 ; 92:10; 
Eccl. 9:8; Luke 7 : 46. Combs and 
hair-pins are mentioned in the Talmud 
as in use among the Jews. 

The hair is spoken of by the apostle 
as a natural veil or covering to women, 
which it is a shame to put off, 1 Cor. 
11 : 15. It was plaited or braided, as is 
the custom at this day among the Asiat- 
ic women. The excessive care bestowed 
upon the head-dress led to the apostolic 
rebuke. 1 Tim. 2 : 9 ; 1 Pet. 3 : 3. See 
Head-dress. 

The practice of shaving the head in 
token of great affliction and humiliation 
for sin was common among the Hebrews 
even as early as Job's day, Job 1 : 20. 
So that the exhortation to cut off the 
hair is equivalent to an exhortation to 
begin a course of deep mourning and sor- 
row, Jer. 7 : 29. A change in the color of 
the hair was one of the earliest indica- 
tions of the leprosy, and hence, after re- 
covery, the removal of the hair as the seat 
of disease was particularly enioined. Lev. 
13 : 4, 10, 31, 32 ; 14 : 8, 9. See Leprosy. 
Baldness disqualified for the priesthood ; 
351 



HAK 



HAM 



artificial baldness was forbidden, Lev. 
21 : 5. See Baldness. 

Hair was employed by tbe Hebrews as 
an image of what was least valuable in 
man's person, 1 Sam. 14 : 45 ; 2 Sam. 14 : 
11 ; Matt. 10 : 30 ; Luke 12 : 7 ; Acts 27 : 
34, as well as of what was innumerable 
Ps. 40 : 12 ; 69 : 4, or particularly fine. 
Jud. 20:16. 

HAKKATAN (the small, or young), 
the father or chief of the sons of Azgad, 
Ezr. 8:12. 

HAK'KOZ {the thorn), the head of 
the seventh course of priests. 1 Chr. 
24:10. 

HAKUPHA {bent), one mention- 
ed Ezr. 2 : 51 j Neh. 7 : 53. 

HA'LAH, a place in Assyria to 
which the ten tribes were carried cap- 
tive. 2 Kgs. 17 : 6 ; 18 : 11 ; 1 Chr. 5 : 26. 
It is now identified, with great probabil- 
ity, as the Chalcitis of Ptolemy, and in 
the north-west of Gauzanitis. Layard 
found a remarkable mound near the 
Khabour called Gla or Kalah, "castle," 
which covers the site of an ancient for- 
tress or town. The Septuagint and Vul- 
gate versions appear to regard Halah as 
a river, and it may have been the name 
of a river and of a town. The river was 
perhaps the Nahr al Huali, which is a 
branch of the Khabour. 

HA'LAK, THE MOUNT {the 
■smooth or the bald mountain), the name 
of a mountain marking the southern 
limit of Joshua's conquests. Josh. 11 : 
17; 12 : 7. It has been variously iden- 
tified with- the range of hills parallel 
with Beer-sheba, with the modern Jebel 
el-Mukreh, 60 miles south of the Dead 
Sea, and with the range of white hills 
8 miles south of the Dead Sea, and which 
divides the Ghor, to the north, from the 
Arabah, to the south. 

HALE means to haul, to drag by 
force, before magistrates. Luke 12 : 58 ; 
Acts 8 : 3. 

HAL'HTJL {trembling), a town in 
the mountains of Judah, Josh. 15 : 58. 
Its ruins, having the same name, Halhul, 
are found on the eastern slope of a hill 
4 miles north of Hebron, where is also 
an old mosque dedicated to Neby Yunas, 
the prophet Jonah. 

HA'LI (necklace), a town in Asher, 
Josh. 19 : 25; now 'Alia. 

HALL, in Luke 22 : 55, was the 
court of the high priest's palace. 
352 



HALLELUJAH. See Alleluia. 

HALLOHESH {the enchanter), 
one who sealed the covenant, Neh. 10 : 
24. 

HAL'LOW means to make holy, to 
consecrate. 

HALO'HESH {the enchanter), one 
who helped repair the wall, Neh. 3 : 12. 

HAM (hot, or multitude), the son of 
Noah. He is known for his irreverence 
to his father, Gen. 9 : 22, and as the pa- 
rent of Cush, Mizraim, Phut, and Ca- 
naan, Gen. 10 : 6, who became the 
founders of large nations. Cush seems 
to have been the father of the peoples 
dwelling in Babylonia, southern Arabia, 
and Ethiopia; Nimrod was his son. Gen. 
10 : 8. Mizraim, the Hebrew word for 
Egypt, was the ancestor of the Egyp- 
tians. Phut was also the ancestor of 
an African people, as appears from the 
association of his name with the de- 
scendants of Cush and the Lydians, 
Jer. 46 : 9 ; see margin. Canaan was 
the ancestor of the Phoenicians and 
other tribes inhabiting Palestine. 

Egypt is called "the land of Ham," 
Ps. 78 : 51 ; 105 : 23-27 ; 106 : 22. 

HA'MAN {celebrated), prime min- 
ister of Ahasuerus, the Persian mon- 
arch. Esth. 3:1. His pride being hurt 
because Mordecai, the Jew, refused to 
bow and do him reverence, Esth. 3 : 
2, he secured a royal decree for the 
extermination of all Jews in the Per- 
sian dominions. He was, however, 
thwarted through the influence of Es- 
ther, and executed on the very gallows 
he had prepared for Mordecai. Esth. 7 : 
10. The Jews, on the mention of his 
name on the day of Purim, hiss. Like 
Sejanus in Roman history, his name will 
always suggest the contrast of power 
and disgrace. 

HA'MATH (fortress, citadel), one 
of the most important cities of Syria, 
and one of the oldest in the world. It 
was founded by a son of Canaan. Gen. 
10 : 18 ; Num. 34 : 8. and was situated 
in the valley of the Orontes, between its 
source and the site of the city of An- 
tioch. It thus commanded the route to 
the Euphrates from Phoenicia, and may 
be called the "key " of northern Pales- 
tine. It was 165 miles in a straight 
line north of Jerusalem, and was the 
capital of a kingdom or province of 
which little is known. It was visited 



HAM 



HAM 



by the spies, Num. 13 : 21, and it is fre- 
quently noticed as the northern boun- 
dary of Palestine. Num. 34 : 8 ; Josh. 
13 : 5. Its king, Toi, blessed David for 
his victory over Zobah, 2 Sam. 8 : 9-12 ; 
Solomon extended his kingdom to Ha- 
math, 1 Kgs. 8 : 65 ; 2 Chr. 8 : 4, and 
built store-cities in that region ; after- 
ward the city and country became inde- 
pendent, but were again subdued by 
Jeroboam II., 2 Kgs. 14 : 25, 28. It was 
taken by the Assyrians, 2 Kgs. 18:34; 
Isa. 10:9 ; Amos calls it "Hamath the 
great," and speaks of its desolation. 
Am. 6 : 2. 



Later History. — The name of Hamath 
was changed by Antiochus Epiphanes 
to Epiphania, though the old name 
does not appear to have been lost, since 
it was known as Hamath in the time of 
Jerome. The place was taken by the 
Moslems, A. D. 639 ; by the Franks, a.d. 
1108 ; by the Turks, a. d. 1 115; was de- 
stroyed by an earthquake in which 
15,000 persons perished, A. D. 1157; and 
taken by Saladin, a. d. 1178. Its mod- 
ern name is Hamah, and it is now a 
place of 30,000 inhabitants. Porter re- 
gards it as a town where life has been at 
a standstill for 30 centuries. It, how- 




Inscription discovered at Hamath. (From a report of the Am. Palestine Exploration Society.) 



ever, has large bazaars, baths, mosques, 
and hydraulic works, and carries on an 
active trade with Aleppo and other 
towns of Asia and Africa. The Persian 
water-wheels, which creak and groan as 
they raise the water for the supply of 
the city, are great curiosities. The Ha- 
math inscriptions, which have in late 
years excited the attention of scholars, 
were first seen by Burckhardt, but at- 
tracted little notice until 1870. The 
stones are four in number, and are in- 
scribed in hieroglyphics of a very an- 
cient character : they have not yet been 
satisfactorily deciphered. 
HAMATH - ZOBAH ( fortress 
23 



of Zobah), a city which Solomon con- 
quered, 2 Chr. 8 : 3, which cannot have 
been Hamath, "the great," but must 
have been another Hamath, not yet 
identified. 

HAM'MATH {warm sprivns), a for- 
tified city in Naphtali, Josh. 19 : 35, and 
probably identical with Hiiinmum, or 
" Warm Springs," about 1 mile south 
of Tiberias. It is still noted for its hot, 
sulphurous waters, which are too nause- 
ous to drink, but are used for bathing 
and are regarded as possessing great 
medicinal qualities. The walls of 
an old town can be traced near the 
baths. Hammath is probably the same 
353 



HAM 



HAN 



as Hammon, No. 2, and as Hammoth- 
dor. 

HAMMED / ATHA(rfo»Wef), Ha- 
inan's father, Esth. 3 : 1. 

HAMMELECH (the king), the 
father of Jerahmeel and Malchiah. Jer. 
36 : 26 ; 38 : 6. 

HAM'MER, the English translation 
of four different Hebrew words. The ham- 
mers mentioned by Isaiah, 44 : 12 " seem 
to have been the heaviest instruments of 
the kind for hard blows." Jael's ham- 
mer, Jud. 4 : 21, was properly a mallet, 
such as the Bedouin use at the present 
day to drive the wooden tent-pins into 
the ground. The " battle-axe," Jer. 51 : 
20, and the " maul," Prov. 25 : 18, were 
species of hammers used for warlike 
purposes. The tool probably resembled 
that of the present day. The word 
"hammer" is also used symbolically for 
mighty force. Jer. 23 : 29 ; 50 : 23. 

HAMIOLEKETH (the queen), 
the sister of Gilead, 1 Chr. 7 : 17, 18. 

HAM'MON (warm springs). 1. A 
place in Asher, near Zidon, Josh. 19 : 28. 
It is identified with 'Ain Hdmul, 10 miles 
below Tyre. 

2. A Levitical city in Naphtali, 1 Chr. 
6:76; probably the same as Hammath 
and Hammoth-dor ; now Hiimmam. 

HAMMO TH-DOR( warm springs, 
dwelling), a Levitical city and a city of 
refuge in Naphtali, Josh. 21 : 32. See j 
Hammath and Hammon, No. 2. 

HAM'ONAH, or HAMO'NAH ! 
(multitude), a city apparently near where j 
the multitudes of Gog should be buried, 
Eze. 39: 16. 

HAMON-tiOG (multitude of Gog), 
a name given to a ravine or valley in 
which multitudes of the slain of Gog 
were to be buried, Eze. 39 : 11, 15. The 
Targums regard it as near the Sea of 
Galilee, and probably on the great road 
from Syria and the East to Egypt. 

HA'MOR (ass), the father of She- 
chem, who ravished Dinah, Gen. 33 : 19. 
He was killed by Jacob's sons, Gen. 34 : 
26. He is called Emmor in Acts 7 : 16. 

HAMTJ'EL (wrath of God), a Siine- 
onite, 1 Chr. 4: 26. 

HA'MUL (pitied), the younger son 
of Pharez, and ancestor of the Hamul- 
ites. Gen. 46 : 12 ; 1 Chr. 2:5; Num. 
26:21. 

HAMUTAL (akin to the dew), 
daughter of Jeremiah of Libnah, a wife 
354 



to King Josiah, and mother of Jehoahaz 
and Zedekiah. 2 Kgs. 23:31; 24:18; 
Jer. 52 : 1. 

HANAMEEL (whom God has 
given), son of Shallum, and Jeremiah's 
cousin, Jer. 32 : 6-12. 

HA'NAN (merciful). 1. A prominent 
Benjamite, 1 Chr. 8:23. 

2. A descendant of Saul. 1 Chr. 8 : 38 ; 
9 : 44. 

3. One of David's guard, 1 Chr. 11 : 43. 

4. One of the ancestors of the Nethinim 
who returned with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 
46 ; Neh. 7 : 49. 

5. A Levite who assisted Ezra in ex- 
plaining the Law, Neh. 8: 7, and sealed 
the covenant, 10 : 10. 

6. A chief who sealed the covenant. 
Neh. 10 : 22. 

7. Another sealer, Neh. 10:26. 

8. The tithe-keeper appointed by Ne- 
hemiah to represent the laity, Neh. 13 : 
13. The four storekeepers represented 
the four classes of the people — priests, 
seribes, Levites, and the laity. 

9. One whose sons had a chamber in 
the temple, Jer. 35 : 4. 

HANAN'EELi (graciously given of 
God), a tower which formed a part of 
the wall of Jerusalem. Neh. 3:1; 12 : 
39; Jer. 31:38; Zech. 14:10. It ap- 
pears to have been between the fish- 
gate and the sheep-gate, but can scarcely 
be identified with the tower of Meah, as 
some have proposed. Dr. Barclay sug- 
gested that in the projection at the north- 
east corner of the harem enclosure are 
to be found the remains of the tower of 
Hananeel. 

HANA/NI (gracious). 1. A son of 
Heman, appointed by David to share 
with his eleven kinsmen the charge of 
the eighteenth division of the Levitical 
musicians, 1 Chr. 25 : 4, 25. 

2. A seer who rebuked King Asa for 
neglect to trust in God. He was im- 
prisoned for his boldness, 2 Chr. 16 : 7- 
10. He was probably the father of Jehu 
the prophet, 1 Kgs. 16 : 1 , 2 ; 2 Chr. 19 : 2. 

3. A brother of Nehemiah, who brought 
him the melancholy report of the condi- 
tion of Jerusalem which induced Nehe- 
miah to make his journey thither, Neh. 
1 : 2. Hanani was afterward appoint I 
by Nehemiah to have charge of the city 
gates, b. c. 446, Neh. 7 : 2. 

4. A priest who had a foreign wife, 
Ezr. 10 : 20. 



HAN 



HAN 



HANANI'AH {whom God hath 
given). 1„ A false prophet and contem- 
porary with Jeremiah. He prophesied 
that the vessels of the Lord's house 
would be brought back from Babylon 
two years after the date of the prophecy, 
Jer. 28 : 3. In token of deliverance 
from the bondage of Babylon, he broke 
the wooden yoke which Jeremiah wore 
in accordance with the divine command. 
Jeremiah was deceived by his preten- 
sions, but subsequently called him a de- 
ceiver to his face, and prophesied his 
early death. He died that year, Jer. 
28 : 17. Hananiah's case is an instance 
of the false prophets with whom the 
true prophets came into conflict. 

2. 4 Benjamite chief, 1 Chr. 8:24. 

3. One of the sons of Heman, 1 Chr, 
25 : 4, 23. 

4. One of Uzziah's captains, 2 Chr. 
26:11. 

5. One who had a foreign wife, Ezr. 
10 : 28. 

6. 7. Two repairers of the wall of Je- 
rusalem, Neh. 3 : 8, 30. 

8. The "ruler of the palace," whom 
Nehemiah appointed to share with his 
brother the charge of the gates of Jeru- 
salem, Neh. 7: 2. 

9. One who signed the covenant, Neh. 
10 : 23. 

10. 11. Two priests, Neh. 12 : 12,41. 

12. A son of Zerubabbel, 1 Chr. 3 : 
19, 21. 

13. The father of one of Jehoiakim's 
princes, Jer. 38 : 12. 

14. Grandfather of the captain who 
arrested Jeremiah, Jer. 37 : 13. 

\b. Original Hebrew name of Shad- 
raeh, Dan. 1 : 6, 7. 

HAND is a symbol of human action ; 
" pure hands " are pure actions ; " un- 
just hands" are deeds of injustice; 
"hands full of blood," actions stained 
with cruelty ; and the like. Ps. 24:4; 
Eze. 23 : 37. It is likewise a term for 
the vengeance of God exercised upon 
any one, 1 Sam. 5 : 6, 7. "To pour 
water on any one's hands" was to serve 
him. So Elisha is said to have done for 
Elijah, 2 Kgs. 3:11. "To wash one's 
hands" in public was a way of express- 
ing innocency, Deut. 21 : 6, 7 ; Matt. 27 : 
24; "to kiss one's hand" is an act of 
adoration, Job 31 : 27 ; "to lift up one's 
hands " is to take an oath. Gen. 14 : 22. 
Also it is a posture in blessing, Lev. 9 : 



22 ; also, to rebel, 2 Sam. 20 : 21. " To 
stretch out the hand " is sometimes a ges- 
ture that denotes mercy, Isa. 65 : 2 ; "to 
put it forth unto anything" is to steal, 
Ex. 22 : 8, 11. "To smite the hands 
together over the head " was a gesture 
of despairing grief. 2 Sam. 13 : 19 : Jer. 
2:37. Hand in general is the symbol 
of power and strength — the right hand 
particularly so. " To be on one's right 
hand" is to be in one's favor. The He- 
brews, in reckoning the four quarters, 
faced the east; consequently to "the right 
hand " signified to the south, the south- 
ern quarter; " to the left hand" signi- 
fied to the north, the northern quarter. 
Job 23 : 9 ; 1 Sam. 23 : 19, see margin ; 
2 Sam. 24 : 5. These are a few out of 
the many uses of the word hand. One 
more use will be given : " To lay the 
hands upon any one," or the imposition 
of hands, was at an early period " a 
part of the ceremonial observed on the 
appointment and consecration of per- 
sons to high and holy undertakings." 
In Num. 27 : 18 we read that Moses was 
commanded to lay his hand upon 
Joshua. This act did not confer any 
new grace upon Joshua, but merely 
gave formal and public confirmation of 
Jehovah's choice, and confirmed and 
strengthened the spiritual gifts already 
bestowed. Comp. Deut. 34 : 9. The 
phrase is not used in the N. T. in ex- 
actly the same sense. Acts 8 : 15-17 ; 
1 Tim. 4 : 14 ; 2 Tim. 1 : 6. The apostles 
confirmed the grace the convert had re- 
ceived, as in the case of Cornelius, Acts 
10 : 44-48, and in other cases conferred 
spiritual gifts and qualifications. 

HAND-BREADTH, the palm ; 
used as a measure of four fingers, equal 
to about 4 inches. Ex. 25 : 25 ; 1 Kgs. 7 : 
26. In Ps. 39 : 5 the expression " Thou 
hast made my days as an hand-breadth " 
means " very short." 

HANDICRAFT. The following 
is in the main a condensation of the ar- 
ticle in Ayre's Treasury of Bible Know- 
ledge : 

The primitive condition of man being 
that of agriculturists, his wants were 
few and easily supplied. Yet even he 
w r ould want some tools, and as the race 
became older and extended itself its ne- 
cessities would stimulate it to greater 
inventiveness. Hence we find that the 
Cainites, who were more progressive 
355 



HAN 



HAN 



than the Sethites, early possessed iron 
articles, Gen. 4:22. See Tubal-cain. 
From this incidental biblical notice we 
are able to form an idea of that early 
mode of life. Our notices are, however, 
extremely scanty. Still, by putting 
them together, we get this enumeration 
of tradesmen among the Hebrews and 
the other peoples mentioned in the 
Bible. 

1. Apothecaries, or, rather, perfumers. 
Ex. 30 : 25, 35 ; 2 Chr. 16 : 14 ; Neh. 3 : 
8; Eccl. 10:1. 

2. Bakers. See Bake, Bread, Oven. 

3. Barbers. Eze. 5:1; Num. 6 : 5, 19. 

4. Carpenters. The building of Noah's 
ark implies considerable knowledge of 
this trade. The various structures or- 
dered by the Lord for his service, such 
as the tabernacle and its contents, Ex. 
25 : 10, etc., and the houses of the peo- 
ple, prove that this useful trade was 
early practised and afterward main- 
tained among the Hebrews. But when 
particularly fine work had to be done, 
foreign artists were employed. 2 Sam. 
5:11; 1 Kgs. 5 : 6. Yet it is doubtless 
true that many of the Hebrew carpen- 
ters were good and skilful workmen. 
Isa. 44:13-17; Ezr. 3:7. Among 
the carpenters' tools are mentioned in 
the Bible the rule, the measuring-line, 
the plane, the compass, the hammer, 
nails, the saw, the axe, Isa. 10: 15, the 
awl, Ex. 21 : 6. Our Lord's reputed 
father, Joseph, and our Lord himself 
were carpenters. See Carpenter. 

5. Carvers in wood and stone. Beza- 
leel and Aholiab, who were proficient 
therein, are individually mentioned in 
Exodus as leading in the building of the 
tabernacle in the wilderness, Ex. 31 : 5. 
So a man sent by Huram is credited with 
the superintendence of the carved work 
of the temple, 2 Chr. 2 : 13, etc. 

6. Dyers were also known. This fact 
is easily inferred from the prevalent use 
of colored fabrics on the part of the 
early Hebrews. 

7. Engravers, both upon stone and 
metal, Ex. 28:9-11. See Engrave. 

8. Fullers were probably numerous, 
in consequence of the prevalence of 
white in dress. See Fuller. 

9. Masons. Cities antedate the Flood, 
(Jen. 4:17. The Israelites built cities 
for their Egyptian master (Rameses), 
Ex. 1:11. It is reasonable to conjec- 

356 



ture that the Phoenician masons men- 
tioned as building Solomon's temple 
were the master-masons, but that He- 
brew workmen were also employed, 1 
Kgs. 5 : 17, 18. The skill of these ma- 
sons is shown in so exactly fitting the 
stones of the temple that the building 
rose without the sound of a hammer, 
1 Kgs. 6 : 7. Plastering was customary 
within and without, mortar being used. 
Lev. 14 : 40-42 ; Matt. 23 : 27. The un- 
tempered mortar was perhaps mere mud, 
Eze. 13:10-15. 

10. Mining must have been early 
practised, Job 28 : 1-6. See Metals. 

11. Potters are frequently spoken of ; 
e. cj. Jer. 18 : 2-6. See Potter. 

12. Ship-builders. This trade was 
perhaps only carried on for a short peri- 
od. The Tyrians were the prominent 
ship-builders, and were the teachers of 
other nations. 1 Kgs. 10 : 22 ; 22:48, 
49. See Commerce. 

13. Smiths or workers in metal were 
of various kinds, from the diggers or 
smelters of ore to the skilled artificers 
in gold and silver. They existed before 
the Flood, Gen. 4:22. Much work of 
this sort was done in the wilderness. 
Ex. 25:11-13; 26:6,21. Bronze was 
the metal most employed — iron much 
less so. The jewelry worn so commonly, 
the vessels of the tabernacle, the gold 
and silver utensils, the ornamentation 
so profusely used, — all show that the 
smiths of the various sorts were much 
employed by the Hebrews. 

14. Tanners and dressers of leather 
were found in all parts of the land. It 
was at a tanner's house that Peter lodged 
when in Joppa, Acts 9 : 43. 

15. Tent-makers. This trade seems 
to have been a lucrative one. Paul fol- 
lowed it, and supj>orted himself by it, 
Acts 18 : 3. 1 

16. Weavers, particularly women, are 
mentioned frequently. 2 Kgs. 23 : 7 ; 1 
Chr. 4:21; Prov. 31:13, 19. 

A trade was indispensable to a Jewish 
citizen after the Captivity, but all trades 
were not held in equal honor. It is 
probable that as in the East at the 
present day, so formerly, each trade had 
its own special locality. Be it ever re- 
membered to the honor of the Jews that 
the} r , almost alone among ancient na- 
tions, regarded a trade as a fit occupa- 
tion of a freeman, that therefore their 



HAN 



HAR 



highest citizens could earn their hread 
if necessary, and that slaves were not 
depended upon, as in Greece, for the 
doing of all manual work. Trades 
among the Jews were also not neces- 
sarily hereditary. It was a saying of 
the Rabbins : " He who does not teach 
his son a trade makes out of him a foot- 
pad." 

HANDKERCHIEF, NAPKIN, 
A'PRON. These articles were pretty 
much alike, differing mainly in use. See 

HANDS, LAYING ON OF. See 

Hand. 

HAND'STAVES, darts or jave- 
lins, Eze. 39 : 9. 

HA'NES, a city of Egypt, Isa. 30 : 
4, and generally identified with Heracle- 
opolis, " Hercules' city," in middle Egypt, 
on the west of the Nile : but the Chal- 
dee paraphrast reads Tahpanhes, thus 
identifying it with that city. 

HANGING. According to Jewish 
law, the criminal was first strangled and 
then hanged. Num. 25 : 4 ; Deut. 21 : 
22. The body was to be taken down 
before sunset. It was a special mark of 
infamy and a curse, Deut. 21 : 23. Jesus 
is said to have been " hanged on a tree ;" 
literally, " on a beam of wood." Acts 5 : 
30 ; Gal. 3 : 13. But the expression re- 
fers to his crucifixion. 

HANGING, HANGINGS. The 
words are not the singular and plural 
of the same word in the Hebrew, but 
are translations of quite different words. 

1 . The " hanging " — literally, " a cov- 
er" — is the word for the curtain before 

.the door of the tabernacle, Ex. 26:36, 
37 ; 39 : 38, and for the curtain before 
the entrance of the court. Ex. 27:16; 
38:18; Num. 4:26. The same Hebrew 
word is several times translated cor- 
rectly in the expression. " veil of the 
covering." Ex. 35 : 12 ; 39 : 34 ; 40 : 21 ; 
Num. 4: 5. 

2. The "hangings" — literally, "that 
which is in motion " — were the cover- 
ings upon the walls of the court of the 
tabernacle. Ex. 27 : 9 ; 35 : 17 ; 38 : 9 ; 
Num. 3:26; 4:6, 26. 

3. The word "hangings" is used in 2 
Kgs. 23 : 7, but the Hebrew word may 
more properly be translated " tents." 
such as were used in the impure rites of 
Ashtoreth. 

HAN'IEL (grace of God), a Son of 



Ulla, and a prince of Asher, 1 Chr. 7 : 
39. 

HAN'NAH (grace), one of the wives 

of Elkanah, and the mother of Samuel, 
whom she received in answer to prayer. 
Her song of praise on this occasion, 1 
Sam. 2: 1-10, is a magnificent hymn to 
the holiness and justice of Jehovah, and 
has been compared with the song of 
Mary. Luke 1 : 46-55. 

HANNATHON (graciously re- 
garded), a place on the north-eastern 
border of Zebulon. Josh. 19 : 14. Con- 
der proposes to identify it with Kefr 
Anait, the Caphar Hananiah of the 
Talmud. 

HA'NOCH (initiated). 1. A son 
of Midian, Gen. 25:4; called Henoch. 
1 Chr. 1 : 33. 

2. Eldest son of Reuben ; founder of 
the family of the Hanochites. Gen. 46 : 
9; Ex. 6:14; Num. 26:5. 

HANOCHITES, THE, the de- 
scendants of Hanoch, Num. 26 : 5. 

HA'NUN (gracious). 1. A king of 
Ammon who is known for the indignities 
he showed to the messengers sent to 
him by David to comfort him at the 
death of his father, 2 Sam. 10:1-6. 

2. A man of Jerusalem. Neh. 3 : 13. 

3. Another repairer of the wall. Neh. 
3 : 30. 

HAPHRA'IM (two pits), a city of 
Issachar, apparently near Shunem. Josh. 
19 : 19. Eusebius and Jerome place it 6 
milesnorthof Legio. About6miles north- 
east of Lejun and 2 miles west of Snlam 
(Shunem) is the modern village of el- 
Afaleh, which may represent Haphraim. 

HA'RA (mountain-land), a place, 
evidently in western Assyria, to which 
the Israelites east of the Jordan were 
carried captive, 1 Chr. 5 : 26. It is gen- 
erally regarded as a variation of Haran. 
From the connection in which it is 
named, it must have been on or near the 
Khabour River. 

HAR'ADAH (fear), a desert-sta- 
tion of the Israelites, Num. 33:24, 25, 
and may be identical with Jebel-Aradah, 
in Wady el-'Ain, a day's march from 
'Ain Huderah. 

HA'RAN (a, mountaineer). I. The 
brother of Abraham, and the father of 
Lot, Gen. 11 : 26. 

2. A Levite, 1 Chr. 23 : 9. 

HARAN (parched), a son of Caleb 
by his concubine Ephah, 1 Chr. 2 : 46. 
357 



HAR 



HAR 



HA'RAN (parched, dry), called also 
CHARRAN, Acts 7 : 2, 4, the place to 
which Terah removed from Ur of the 
Chaldees, taking with him his two sons, 
Abram and Nahor, and his grandson, 
Lot. Terah died there, Gen. 11 : 31, 32; 
Abram and Lot moved to Canaan, Gen. 
12 : 4, while Nahor remained at Haran, 
which was called the city of Nahor. Gen. 
24: 10. It was the early home of Rebekah, 
and Jacob afterward resided there with 
Laban, Gen. 27 : 43. The city was in 
Mesopotamia, and more definitely in Pa- 
dan- aram, Gen. 24: 10 ; 25 : 20, and also 
in western Assyria. It is generally identi- 
fied with the modern Haran, the Roman 
Carrae, situated on the river Belik (the 
ancient Bilichus), about 50 miles above 
its entrance into the Euphrates. It is 
now a small Arab village, containing 
within its ruined walls the traditional 
tomb of Terah, the father of Abraham. 
About 2U miles distant is Urfah, which 
cannot be the Ur of the Chaldees. 

There is a Harran on the border of 
Lake Anteibeh, east of Damascus, which 
Dr. Beke would identify with Haran of 
Abram, but his view is not accepted by 
biblical scholars. 

HARARITE, THE {the moun- 
taineer), the designation of three persons 
in connection with David's guard. 

1. Agee, 2 Sam. 23: 11. 

2. Shammah, 2 Sam. 23 : 33. 

3. Sharar, 2 Sam. 23 : 33 ; called Sacar, 
1 Chr. 11 : 35. 

HARBO'NA (ass-driver), a eu- 
nuch of Ahasuerus, Esth. 1:10. 

HARBO'NAH, the same per- 
son as above, Esth. 7 : 9. 

HARE, Deut. 14 : 7. Of the 
hare, which resembles the rabbit, 
five species or varieties are found 
in Palestine. This animal was de- A 
clared 
Le 
cud 

popular guidance this description 
was better than a more scientific 
one, and is explained under Conev. 

HA'REPH ( plucking off ), a son «g 
of Caleb. 1 Chr. 2:51. ' ^ 

HARETH (thicket P). a forest 
of Judah to which David fled from 
Saul, 1 Sam. 22 : 5. Conder sup- 
poses that by a transposition of letters 
it should read "the city of Hareth " (?), 
as in Josephus and in two important 
358 



manuscripts, and finds the site of the 
place in the small modern village of 
Kharas, on the north side of Wady Ar- 
neba, near Kileh (Keilah). 

HARHAI'AH (Jehoeuh is angry), 
father of a repairer of the wall, Neh. 
3:8. 

HAR'HAS (very poor), an ancestor 
of Shallum, 2 Kgs. 22:14; called Has- 
I rah in 2 Chr. 34:22. 

HAR'HUR (inflammation), one 
whose descendants returned with Zerub- 
babel. Ezr. 2:51; Neh. 7 : 53. 

HA'RIM (flat-nosed), a priest who 
headed the third course of priests. 1 
Chr. 24 : 8. His descendants returned 
with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2:39; Neh. 7: 
42. Some of them had foreign wives, 
Ezr. 10:21. The name was signed to 
the covenant, Neh. 10 : 27. The name 
occurs again Neh, 12:15. 

2. One whose son repaired part of the 
wall of Jerusalem, Neh. 3:11. 

3. A non-priestly ancestor of others 
who returned, and whose strange wives 
were discarded. His sons signed the 
covenant. Ezr. 2 : 32 ; Neh. 7 : 35 ; Ezr. 
10:31; Neh. 10:27. 

HA'RIPH (plucking off), ancestor 
of some who returned with Zerubbabel, 
Neh. 7 : 24. 

HARLOT. The first mention of 
harlots is in the case of Tamar, Gen. 38 : 
1 5, but we frequently meet with them later 
in the books of the Bible. The Mosaic 



s?^ 



ired unclean by the Jewish law, m 
iv. 11 : 6, " because he cheweth the if 
d, but divideth not the hoof." For ^ 




Hare of Mt. Sinai. 



Law forbade fathers to hire out their 
daughters as harlots, Lev. 19 : 29, and 
the severe punishment by burning was 



HAR 



HAR 



ordained for the priest's daughter guilty 
of fornication, Lev. 21 : 9. 

The harlot was regarded as unclean, 
and is mentioned in the same breath 
with the dog, Deut. 23 : 18. The book 
of Proverbs compares the harlot to a 
deep ditch and a narrow pit, Prov. 23 : 
27, and represents in strong language 
the perils attending an association with 
her, Prov. 7:10-27. 

The term is also used of wicked cities; 
as Nineveh, Nah. 3 : 4, and Jerusalem, 
Isa. 1 : 21 ; of Israel, to represent her 
alienation from God. The marriage re- 
lation is looked upon as subsisting be- 
tween it and God. The nation became 
a harlot when she practised idolatry. 
Jer. 2 : 20 ; 3 : 1 ; Eze. 16 : 15 ; Hos. 2:2; 
4:15. 

In the N. T. harlots are classed with 
publicans, Matt. 21 : 32, and Paul ad- 
monishes against the sin of fornication, 
especially in his Epistle to the Corinth- 
ians. 1 Cor. 5 : 1 ; 2 Cor. 12 : 21. In the 
book of Revelation, (heathen) Rome, 
under the mystic name of Babylon, is 
called "the mother of harlots," 17:5. 

HARNEPHER (panting?), an 
Asherite chieftain, 1 Chr. 7 : 36. 

HAR'NESS, 1 Kgs. 20:11. In 
this passage and some others the word 
denotes armor. The phrase "made 
ready his chariot," Ex. 14 : 6, literally 
means, in modern phraseology, " tack- 
led," or " put to, his horses." That 
bridles with bits were very early known 
as part of the harness of a horse is ob- 
vious from Isa. 37 : 29 ; Prov. 26 : 3 ; Ps. 
32 : 9. The ancient harness was often 
very elaborate, as the monuments testify. 

HA'ROD (trembling), a well or 
spring by which Gideon and his army 
encamped before the battle with the 
Midianites, and apparently where the 
Lord caused to be applied the test of 
the warriors by their mode of drinking. 
Jud. 7 : 1. Saul may have encamped 
there. 1 Sam. 28:4; 29:1. Stanley 
located it at 'Ain Jdlud, a spring 2 miles 
south-east of Jezreel : Conder at 'Ain 
Jemdin, a copious spring from a rock, 3 
miles west of Scythopolis ( Beisdn). The 
name Jemdin means " Two companies." 

HATtODITE, THE, the des- 
ignation of two of David's warriors, 2 
Sam. 23:25. 

HAR'OEH (the seer), OR REAI'- 
AH, a name, 1 Chr. 2: 52. 



HA'RORITE, 1 Chr. 11 : 27. See 
Harodite. 

HARO'SHETH (working in wood, 
etc.) OF THE GENTILES, so 

called from the mixed people who dwelt 
there. A place in the north of Palestine, 
the home of Sisera, Jud. 4 : 2, 13, 16, 
and the place of assembling of Jabin's 
army. Dr. W. M. Thomson locates 
Harosheth in the pass between the 
plain of Esdraelon and Acre, at the 
base of Mount Carmel, where the Kishon 
flows through the ravine. A village 
and mound covering ruins, both bear- 
ing a name very similar to Harosheth, 
are found in this vicinity. Conder pro- 
poses with greater probability to identify 
it with El-Hdrithiyeh, a miserable mud 
hamlet about 11 miles west of Nazareth. 

HARP, a musical instrument in- 
vented by Jubal, and used by the Jews 
in seasons of thanksgiving to God, 
mirth, and joy. Gen. 4:21; 31 : 27 : Ps. 
81 : 2 ; Isa. 24 : 8. The instrument sug- 
gested any other thought than mourn- 
ing and sorrow. In . the hour of cap- 
tivity the harp is hung upon the wil- 
lows, Ps. 137 : 2. David was pai-ticu- 
larly skilful in the use of it, 1 Sam. 
16 : 16, 23. See Psaltery. 

The harp was played with the fingers, 
1 Sam. 16 : 23, but perhaps also with a 
key, as Josephus suggests. The same 




Egyptian Harp. 



author ascribes ten strings to the harp, 
which would lead us to infer its identi- 
ty with the "instrument of ten strings," 
Ps. 92 : 3. Sometimes it had only eight 
strings, and was called "the harp on the 
Sheminith." 1 Chr. 15 : 21 ; Ps. 6 : 12, 
title. Harps were of different sizes, for. 
some played on tbem while walking, 1 
359 



HAR 



HAS 



Sam. 10 : 5, David played before Saul. 
1 Sam. 16 : 23 ; 18 : 10. There are dif- 
ferent accounts of the shape of the harp. 
The preceding cut is found represented 
on Egyptian monuments. 

HARROW. The verb meaning 
"to break the clods" is employed in 
Job 39:10: Isa. 23:24: and Hos. 10 : 
11, and is believed to indicate the use, 
occasionally at least, of an instrument 
analogous to our harrow. This may 
have been a plank or log of wood, upon 
which stones were heaped and the labor- 
er sat, and which was drawn over the 
ground by oxen, to break in pieces the 
clods and level the surface; or the pres- 
ent custom may have been employed : 
" In modern Palestine oxen are some- 
times turned in to trample the clods, and 
in some parts of Asia a brush of thorn is 
dragged over the surface, but all these 
processes, if used, occur (not after, but) 
before the seed is committed to the soil." 
— Smith : Bib. Diet. The word rendered 
" harrow " in 2 Sam. 12 : 31 ; 1 Chr. 20 : 
3, means a Threshing-instrument, which 

HAR'SHA {deaf), ancestor of 
some who returned with Zerubbabel. 
Ezr. 2:52: Neh. 7:54. 

HART, HIND, Ps. 42:1. The 

former is the male stag, one of the 
most graceful and beautiful of all ani- 
mals. It was elean by the Levitical 
law, Deut. 12:15; 14 : 5, and the grace 
and agility of its motions are alluded to 
in Song Sol. 2:9; Isa. 35 : 6. The stag 
lolls or pants like the dog, and is soon 
exhausted by hunger. Jer. 14:5; Lam. 
1:6. 

It is uncertain whether this word de- 
notes the true fallow-deer, the red deer, 
or the Barbary deer, or whether it em- 
braces all of them. These three species 
doubtless formerly lived in Palestine or 
adjoining districts. The fallow-deer 
alone is still seen, and that rarely, in 
the wooded districts of the country. 

The hind is the female stag. She is 
smaller and weaker than her mate, the 
hart, and has no horns. She is sure and 
swift of foot, and leaps fearlessly among 
the rocks and precipices. 2 Sam. 22 : 
34; Ps. 18:33; Hab. 3:19. The in- 
stinctive affection of the hart and hind 
is alluded to Prov. 5:18, 19 and Song 
Sol. 2:7; 3:5. 

The figurative prediction of Jacob re- 
360 



specting Naphtali, Gen. 49:21, would 
be more appropriately rendered, " Naph- 
tali is a deer roaming at large ; he slioot- 
eth forth noble antlers." The antlers or 
horns indicate the strength and health of 
the stag, and the whole metaphor ex- 
presses the increase of the tribe and 
the fertility of their portion in Judsea. 
See Fallow-deer, Roe. 

HA'RUM {lofty), a Judite, 1 Chr. 
4:8. 

HARU'MAPH {slit-nosed), one 
whose son helped to repair the wall, 
Neb. 3:10. 

HAR'UPHITE, THE, a name 
of Shephatiah, 1 Chr. 12 : 5. 

HA'RUZ {zealous), the maternal 
grandfather of King Amon, 2 Kgs. 21 : 19. 

HAR'VEST occurred in the months 
of March and April, and the term is fre- 
quently employed to designate this sea- 
son of the year. Josh. 3: 15; Prov. 6: 
8. The harvests of the different grains 
happened in regular succession, and are 
known as the " wheat-harvest," 1 Sam. 
12:17, and the "barley-harvest," Ruth 
1 : 22. The grain was reaped with sick- 
les, Jer. 50 : 1 6, gathered in handfuls, 
Ruth 2; 16, and done up into sheaves. 
Ps. 129: 7. It was then conveyed to 
the bai-ns or threshing-floors, sometimes 
in carts, Am. 2: 13, where it was thresh- 
ed or winnowed. One mode of thresh- 
ing was by the treading of oxen, which 
it was forbidden to muzzle, Deut. 25 : 4. 
Harvest was a season of great joy and 
merriment, Isa. 9:3. In the book of 
Ruth we pass through it as in a pano- 
ramic vision. 

In the N. T. our Lord refers to the 
end of the world under the term of har- 
vest, Matt. 13 : 39, whose reapers will 
be the angels. The angel is represented 
figuratively as at that time thrusting in 
his sickle, "for the harvest of the earth 
is ripe," Rev. 14:15. 

Feast of. See Pentecost. 

HASADI'AH [whom Jehovah loves), 
a descendant of the royal line of David, 
1 Chr. 3 : 20. 

HASENU'AH {the hated), a Ben- 
jam ite. 1 Chr. 9 : 7. 

HASHABIAH (whom Jehovah re- 
gard*). 1, 2. Merarite Levites. 1 Chr. 
'6:45; 9:14. 

3. The head of the twelfth course of 
Levitical musicians, 1 Chr. 25:3. 19. 

4. A Hebronite Levite, I Chr. 26:30. 



HAS 



HAU 



5. Prince of the tribe of Levi in Da- 
vid's time, 1 Chr. 27:17. 

6. A chief Levite in Josiah's time, 2 
Chr. 35:9. 

7. A Merarite Levite who accompa- 
nied Ezra from Babylon, Ezr. 8: 19. 

S. A priest in the same company, Ezr. 
8:24. 

9. A repairer of the wall, Neh. 3:17. 

10. A Levite who sealed the covenant, 
Neh. 10: 11. 

11. A Levite, Neh. 11:22. 

12. A Levite, Neh. 11:15. 

18. A priest, Neh. 12:24. 

HASHAB'NAH {whom Jehovah re- 
gards), one who sealed the covenant, 
Neh. 10 : 25. 

HASHABNI'AH (ivhom Jehovah 
regards-). 1. One whose son repaired 
the wall, Neh. 3 : 10. 

2. A Levite, Neh. 9 : 5. 
HASHBADANA (considerate 

judge /), one who stood on Ezra's left 
while he read the Law to the people, 
Neh. 8 : 4. 

HA'SHEM {fat), father of some in 
David's £uard, 1 Chr. 11 : 34, or Jashen, 

2 Sam. 23 : 32, 33. 
HASHMO'NAH, a station of the 

Israelites near Mount Hor, Num. 33: 
29, and probably identical with Hesh- 
jton, which see. 

HA'SHUB (intelligent). 1,2. Two 
of the repairers of the wall, Neh. 3 : 11 , 23. 

3. One who sealed the covenant, Neh. 
10 : 23. 

4. A Merarite Levite. Neh. 11:15; 
called Hasshub 1 Chr. 9:14. 

HASHUBAH (intelligent), a de- 
scendant of David, 1 Chr. 3 : 20. 

HA'SHUM (rich). 1. One whose 
descendants returned with Zerubbabel. 
Ezr. 2:19; Neh. 7:22. Several of 
these descendants had married foreign 
women, Ezr. 10 : 33. Representatives of 
them sealed the covenant, Neh. 10:18. 

2. One who stood on Ezra's left hand 
while he publielv read the Law. Neh. 8 :4. 

HASHU'PHA (stripped), one of 
the ancestors of the Nethinim who re- 
turned with Zerubbabel. Neh. 7 : 46. In 
Ezr. 2 : 43 more aecuratelv Hasupha. 

HAS'RAH (very poor). SeeHARHAS. 

HASSENA'AH (thorn-edge), Neh. 

3 : 3. one whose sons built the fish-gate. 
If the nnme of a town, which is not cer- 
tain, it must be identical with Senaah. 
See Senaah. 



1 HAS'SHUB. See Hashub, No. 4. 

HASUPHA. See Hashupha. 

HAT. See Head-dress. 

HA'TACH, a Persian eunuch, 
Esth. 4:5, 6, 9, 10. 

HATE, Gen. 24 : 60. To hate is to 
regard with a passion contrary to love, 
Jer. 44 : 4. God's hatred is toward all 
sinful thoughts and ways. It is a feel- 
ing of which all holy beings are con- 
scious in view of sin, and is wholly un- 
like ihe hatred which is mentioned in 
the Scripture among the works of the 
flesh, Gal. 5 : 20. We must hate the 
evil, but love and bless our enemy, Matt. 
5 : 43. To hate sometimes means to love 
in a less degree. When our Saviour 
says that he who would follow him 
must hate father and mother, he means 
that even these dearest earthly friends 
must be loved in a subordinate degree; 
and in the same sense the follower of 
Christ is to hate his own life, or be will- 
ing to sacrifice it for the love and ser- 
! vice of the Redeemer. A careful exam- 
I ination of the passages and the connec- 
i tion in which these words occur will best 
show their true force and meaning. 

HA'THATH (fearful), a son of 
Othniel, 1 Chr. 4:13. 

HAT'IPHA (captive), one of the an- 
cestors of the Nethinim who returned with 
Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 54 ; Neh. 7 : 56. 

HATTTA (exploring), one of the 
ancestors of temple-porters who return- 
ed. Ezr. 2 : 42 ; Neh. 7 : 45. 

HATTIL (wavering), one of the 
ancestors of the Nethinim who return- 
ed. Ezr. 2:57: Neh. 7: 59. 

HAT'TUSH(fl»wmiW). 1. One of 
David's descendants, and another de- 
scendant who returned with Zerubbabel. 
1 Chr. 3:22: Ezr. 8:2. 

2. A repairer of the wall, Neh. 3:10. 

3. A priest who accompanied Zerub- 
babel and afterward sealed the covenant, 
Neh. 10:4: 12:2. 

HAU'RAN (caves, caverns), a coun- 
try east of the Jordan : the north-eastern 
boundary of Palestine, Eze. 47 : 16, 18, 
and the Auranitis of the Greeks, and now 
known as the Hauran. For situation of 
the country, see Map at end of this volume. 

History. — Little was known of the 
Hauran previous to 1854. The works of 
Porter, 1855, Graham, 1858, Wetzstein, 
1 Q 60. Eurton and Drake, 1872, and Selab 
Merrill of the Am. Pal. Explor. Soc, 1877, 
361 



HAV 



HAW 



have thrown much light on its extent, na- 
ture, and history, but a thorough explo- 
ration of the country yet remains to be 
made. When the Israelites couquered 
the land, the whole of this region appears 
to have been subject to Og, the king of 
Bashan, Num. 21 : 33-35 ; Deut. 3 : 1-5, 
and a large portion of it was allotted to 
Manasseh. The district would then in- 
clude the Argob, the slope of the Hauran 
Mountains, where the Israelites found 
60 fortified cities with walls and gates 
and a fertile tract. See Bashan. In 
the Roman period the country was di- 
vided into 5 provinces, Itursea, Gau- 
lanitis, Batancea (applied also to the 
whole region), Trachonitis, and Auran- 
itis. The ruins scattered over the 
region are very extensive and remark- 
able ; those built in the caverns are re- 
garded by Wetzstein as the most an- 
cient, and possibly reaching back to 
the times of the Rephaim, Gen. 14 : 
5 ; 15 : 20, and Deut. 3 : 11. The 
villages are chiefly of stone houses, 
having gates and doors of large slabs 
of dolerite; the gateways of the larger 
buildings are ornamented with sculp- 
tured vines and inscriptions. The 
Arabs, according to Wetzstein, from 
near Yemen settled in the Hauran at 
about the beginning of the Christian 
era; later, a second immigration from 
south Arabia took place, and these con- 
trolled the country for five centuries, 
and they probably erected most of the 
stone buildings now in so good a state 
of preservation. A large number of 
inscriptions in various characters are 
yet to be deciphered, which will throw 
much light, no doubt, upon the ancient 
history of this wild region. Wetzstein 
states that the eastern section of the 
Lejah and the slopes of the Hauran 
Mountains contain at least 300 ruined 
eities and towns. Selah Merrill says 
that an important ruin is found in every 
half hour of travel, and that among 
these ruins he has himself visited and 
examined 60 ruined churches, and eleven 
of thirteen theatres, including one vast 
naumachia where mock sea-fights were 
held. And he concludes a paper read 
before the American Geographical So- 
ciety in New York, Nov. 8, 1877 {Bul- 
letin, No. 5), with the following remarks : 
" In every age previous to the Moslem 
conquest in a. d. 635 — running clear 
362 



back to the time of the giants — this 
land has baen thickly inhabited, gene- 
rally by intelligent and wealthy people. 
Churches, theatres, palaces, temples, cas- 
tles, baths, porticos, splendid roads, a 
multitude of inscriptions, remains of a 
perfect system of irrigation, historical 
notices of cathedrals, bishops, and a 
widespread Christian influence, notices 
of conquests and vast spoils falling into 
the hands of the victors, authentic no- 
tices of many successive and powerful 
races that have flourished here, and the 
surface of the whole country dotted with 
ruined towns, cities, and villages, — are 
convincing proofs that the statements 
found in the 0. T. respecting the num- 
bers of their armies and people may be 
accepted, so far as the capacities of the 
soil for supporting such a population 
are concerned, as the literal truth." See 
also Argob, Bashan, and Gilead. 

HAV ILAH. 1. A son of Cush, 
Gen. 10 : 7. 

2. A son of Joktan, Gen. 10 : 29. 

HAV ILAH, or HAVILAH (cir- 
cle, district), a country^ abounding in 
gold, bdellium, and onyx-stone, Gen. 
2 : 11. Havilah is mentioned as a 
boundary of the children of Ishmael, 
Gen. 25:18. Kalisch supposes that it 
was a country between the Persian and 
the Arabian gulfs ; others hold that the 
" country of Havilah " in 1 Sam. 15 : 7 
refers to the region about Mount Seir, 
and that it was not probably identical 
with the Havilah of Gen. 2:11. See 
Eden. 

HA'VOTH-JA'IR^fapo/ 
Jair), a title applied to certain villages 
east of the Jordan which Jair captured 
and held. Num. 32 : 41 ; Jud. 10 : 4. 
The towns of Jair are included with the 
60 cities given to Manasseh, Josh. 13 : 
30 ; 1 Chr. 2 : 23 ; but the word rendered 
" villages " usually means a small col- 
lection of hovels in a country place. 
These towns were a part of one of the 
revenue-districts of Solomon, 1 Kgs. 4: 
13. 

HAWK, a general name for a well- 
known group of fierce and rapacious 
birds, unclean by the Levitical law. 
Lev. 11 : 16 ; Deut. 14 : 15, but so sacred 
among the Greeks and Egyptians that 
to kill one, even unintentionally, was a 
capital crime. Of the ten or twelve 
species of these falcons found in Pal- 



HAY 



HAZ 



most are migratory, Job 39 : | to anoint him king but left this duty to 

Elisba; and so when Hazael was des- 
patched by his king, Benha- 
dad, to Elisha to inquire about 
the results of the disease with 
which he was afflicted, the 
prophet predicted the eleva- 
tion of Hazael to the throne 
of Syria, and a series of the 
most horrible cruelties of 
which he would be guilty to- 
ward the children of Israel, 

1 Kgs. 19 : 15. Hazael ex- 
pressed the utmost abhorrence 
of such conduct, but on the 
next day he smothered Benha- 
dad to death and ascended the 
throne, 2 Kgs. 8 : 7-16. He 
warred against the kingdom 
of Israel, 2 Kgs. 10 : 32, and 
against Judah. He took Gath, 
and was averted from entering 

-■ Jerusalem only by a rich bribe, 

2 Kgs. 12 : 17, 18. He reigned 
forty-six years, and was suc- 
ceeded by his son, Benhadad. 
The conquests of Hazael' s reign 
were lost during that of his son 

Kestrel, or Hawk. (Tinnunculus alaudarius. After Tristram.) a ' n |L S ?~?! S £, r .; 2 Kg ^J^w T 2 ^ 

HAZ ALL 9 llUUsri 




HAY, Prov. 27 : 25. We are not to 
suppose that this word, as used in the Bi- 
ble, denotes dried grass, as it does with 
us. The management of grass by the He- 
brews as food for cattle was entirely dif- 
ferent from ours. It was never dried and 
stored for winter use, but was cut green 
as it was wanted ; and the phrase " mown 
grass," Ps. 72: 6, would be more proper- 
ly rendered "grass that has just been 
fed off." So in Prov. 27 : 25 the word 
translated " hay " means the first shoots 
of the grass: and the whole passage 
might properly be rendered, "The grass 
appeareth, and the green herb showeth 
itself, and the plants of the mountains 
are gathered." And in Isa. 15 : 6 " hay " 
is put for " grass," and "grass "is put 
for the "green herb." The tenderness 
of grass, the rapidity of its growth, and 
the early period at which it is cut down 
and consumed afford the sacred writers 
some striking and beautiful illustrations. 
Ps. 103 : 15 ; Isa. 40 : 6 ; Jas. 1 : 11. See 

MoWTNGS. 

HAZ'AELi (God sees), an officer in 
the court of Syria, and subsequently its 
powerful king. Elijah was commanded 



OF, either family or palace of Hazael, 
Am. 1:4. 

HAZA'IAH (whom Jehovah sees), a 
Judite, Neh. 11 : 5. 

HA'ZAR-AD'DAR (village of 
Adar, or greatness), called Adar in Josh. 
15 : 3 ; to the west of Kadesh-barnea, and 
on a ridge between Canaan and the des- 
ert: now 'Am el- Kit dei rat. 

HAZAR-ENAN (fountain, vil- 
lage), a boundarv of the Promised Land. 
Num. 34 : 9, 10*; Eze. 47 : 17 : 48 : 1. 
Porter would identify it with Knryetein. 
60 miles east-north-east of Damascus, 
where are large fountains, fragments of 
columns, and other ruins, but this is too 
far north ; Canon Cook suggests Aynn 
ed-Dara, a fountain in the heart of the 
central chain of Anti-Libanus. 

HAZAR-GAD'DAH (village of 
fortune), a town in the south of Judah, 
Josh. 15 : 27, which Wilton would identify 
with Wady Mubughik, where are exten- 
sive ruins of great antiquity ; Grove with 
el-Ghurrah, about 9 miles east of Beer- 
sheba; Conder with Judeideh, the name 
of a spring near Hebron. 

HAZAR-HAT'TICON (middle 
363 



HAZ 



HEA 



village), a place on the border of the 
Hauran, Eze. 47: 16. 

HA'ZARMA'VETH {court of 
death), the third of Joktan's sons. Gen. 
10 : 26 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 20. He was the pro- 
genitor of the inhabitants of modern 
Hadramaut, a province in South-east- 
ern Arabia. This province abounds in 
frankincense and myrrh, but the climate 
is very unhealthy ; whence its singular 
name. 

HA'ZAR-SHU'AL (village or en- 
closure of jackal*), a town in the south- 
ern portion of Judah ; given afterward 
to Simeon, Josh. 15 : 28 ; 19 : 3 ; 1 Chr. 
4 : 28, and repeopled after the Captivity, 
Neh. 11 : 27. Wilton suggested Beni- 
Shail, near Gaza, as its site, but Van de 
Velde and Conder, with greater proba- 
bility, locate it at Saweh, between Beer- 
sheba and Moladah. The ruins are on a 
high bluff; a wall built of flint blocks 
surrounds the site, and justifies the name 
Hazar ("enclosure"). 

HA'ZAR-SUSAH, and HA'- 
ZAR-SU'SIM (village of horses), a 
city of Simeon, in the southern border 
of Judah. Josh. 19:5; 1 Chr. 4:31. 
Wilton believes it was in Wady es-Su- 
nieh, near Gaza, but Conder proposes 
Beit Sushi, south of Belt Jibrin. 

HA'ZEL., Gen. 30:37. It is gen- 
erally supposed tilt the almond tree is 
intended in this passage. The, original 
word is thought to be susceptible of this 
rendering. 

HAZELELPO'NI (shade coming 
upon me), a sister to some descendants 
of Judah, 1 Chr. 4:3. 

HA'ZER, same as Hazar; used 
onlv in composition. 

HAZE'ROI (the villages). In Deut. 
2 : 28 we read that the Avim dwelt in 
Haze.im, even unto Azzeh or Gaza: and 
the notice of the Avites in Josh. 13 : 3, 4 
as the most southern of the tribes inhab- 
iting the Canaanitish country clearly 
identifies their land with the mountains 
of Azazimeh. See Palmer's Desert of 
the Exodus (Amer. ed.), p. 360. 

HAZE'ROTH (villages, or enclos- 
ures), the second station of the Israelites, 
Num. 11 : 35 ; 12 : 16 ; 33 : 17, 18 ; Deut. 
1: 1, and identified with 'Ain Hudherah, 
40 miles north-east of Sinai. 

HAZ'EZON-TA'MAR, and 
HAZ'ANON-TAMAR (felling of 
palm trees), the old name of En-gedi, 
364 



Gen. 14 : 7 ; 2 Chr. 20 : 2 : a city as old 
as the oldest in Syria, the contemporary 
of Sodom and Gomorrah, and already a 
city when Hebron was first founded. 
See Tristram's Land of Israel, p. 285, 
and also Ex-gedi. 

HA'ZIEL (vision of God), a Levite 
in the time of David, 1 Chr. 23 : 9. 

HA'ZO (vision), a son of Nahor. 
Gen. 22:22. 

HA'ZOR (enclosure). 1. The city of 
King Jabin ; destroyed by Joshua, Josh. 
11:1, 10, 11: given to Naphtali, 19: 
36 ; again possessed by the Canaanites, 
Jud. 4 : 2, who had for its king Jabin 
— a generic title, probably, like Pha- 
raoh in Egypt— who reigned in Ha- 
zor and whose general was Sisera. It 
was fortified by Solomon, 1 Kgs. 9 : 
15 ; its people were carried into cap- 
tivity by Tiglath-pileser. 2 Kgs. 15 : 29. 
The city appears to have been situated 
on a hill in the midst of a plain, and 
was a stronghold. Josh. 11 : 4 ; Jud. 4 : 
3. Several places have been suggested 
as the site : Tell Khureibeh, a rocky peak 
near Ketlesh, by Robinson, and Conder 
points out the name Hadireh, the Ara- 
bic equivalent of Hazor, near this ; mod- 
ern Hazere, where are ruins, by Thom- 
son ; but doubtless it is to be found at 
Kh urbet Harrah, 2\ miles south-east of 
Kedesh, as proposed by the Palestine 
Memoirs. Remains of ancient walls, 
towers, and a fortress are to be found, 
and also broken glass and pottery. 

2. A city in the south of Judah ; prob- 
ably should be written Hazor-ithman, 
Josh. 15 : 23. 

3. Another town of Judah; called 
Ilazor-hadattah, or New Hazor, Josh. 
15 : 25. Robinson proposes el-Hudherah ; 
Conder, el-Hazzdrah, near Beit Jibrin, 
.is its site. 

4. Hezron. which is Hazor, Josh. 15 : 
I 25 ; rendered by Canon Cook " Kerioth 
j Hezron, which is Hazor." He would 
j identify it with el-Kuryetein, where are 
I large ruins seen by De Saulcy. It is 

supposed to have been the home of 
Judas Iscariot, the man of Kerioth, 
Matt. 10 : 4 ; Conder suggested Khesh- 
ram, north of Bcer-sheba, as the site 
of this Hazor. 

HEAD-BANDS were perhaps fil- 
lets for the hair. Isa. 3 : 20. See Head- 

! DRESS. 

I HEAD'-DRESS. Hats were un- 



HEA 



HEA 



known to the Hebrews. The attempt of 
Jason to introduce them was regarded as 
a grievance, 2 Mace. 4: 12. " Coverings 
for the head were not in ordinary use. 
Thus, it was a token of mourning to 
cover the head, 2 Sam. 15 : 30 ; Jer. 14 : 
3, 4, and the mantle seems to have been 
employed for the purpose. 1 Kgs. 19 : 13. 
The head-dresses that were then used 




Head-dress of Assyrian Kins and Queen. 
(From Nineveh Marbles.) 

were rather for ornament. This was 
specially the 3ase with the high priest's 
mitre and the ' bonnets ' of the ordinary 
priests, which are expressly said to have 
been ' for glory and for beauty.' Ex. 
28 : 36-40. And those which were in- 
tended by the Hebrew words tzaniph and 
peer seem to have been worn only by 
eminent persons or on festive occasions. 
The formor word implies wrapping 
around, after the fashion of a turban ; 
it is described as used by men, Job 29 : 




Syrian Head-dresses. Damascus. (Ayre.) 
14 (in our version 'diadem'); by wo- 
men, Isa. 3:23 ('hoods'); as belong- 
ing to kings, 62:3 ('diadem'); to the 
high priest, Zech. 3:5 ('mitre'). The 
latter, peer, conveying the idea of or- 
nament or beauty, is said to have been 
worn by priests, Ex. 39 : 28 ; Eze. 44 : 
18 ('bonnets'), by females, Isa. 3 : 20, 
by a bride-groom, Isa. 61:10, and by 
others in gala-dress. Isa. 61 : 3 ; Eze. 
84*17, 23."— Ayre. 



The Assyrian head-dress is described 
in Eze. 23 : 15 as consisting of a high 
turban. The word rendered " hats " in 
Dan. 3 : 21 properly applies to a cloak. 

HEAP. See Stones. 

HEART, Acts 16 : 14. The seat 
of the affections, desires, hopes, and 
motives. John 14 : 1 ; Esth. 1:10. The 
term is also used by the Bible writers to 
designate the understanding, 1 Cor. 2: 
9, and intellectual perceptions. It is 
further a general term for the spiritual 
nature of man. Isa. 1:5; 2 Cor. 4 : 6. 
In the latter passage the apostle speaks 
of the light shining in our hearts, 
teaching us of Christ as the One who re- 
veals God. The heart is declared to be 
corrupt and full of evil, Eccl. 9 : 3, and 
deceit, Jer. 17 : 9, the seat of sin and 
crime, Matt. 15 : 19, as also of faith. 
Rom. 10:10. The Lord "looketh on 
the heart," 1 Sam. 16 : 7, in contrast to 
the outward appearance, and we are 
commanded to cultivate it, as the most 
important part of our nature, rather 
than external appearances. Prov. 4:4; 
Joel 2:13. The expression "to speak 
in the heart," 1 Sam. 1:13, is synony- 
mous with "to think." 

HEARTH. The Hebrew words so 
translated do not, any of them, mean 
what we call a hearth. Thus, the 
" hearth " of Gen. 18 : 6 was the heap of 
ashes covering the hot stones on which 
the bread was baked, according to the 
Eastern custom. See Bread. The 
"hearth" of Ps. 102 : 3 means & fa gut 
as fuel ; in Isa. 30 : 14, not the hearth, 
but the burning mass. When we read 
that King Jehoiakim threw the cut leaves 
of Jeremiah's prophecy into the fire that 
was on the hearth, we are to understand 
that before him was a portable furnace 
or brazier of charcoal, Jer. 36 : 22, 23. 

HEATH. Jer. 17 : 6 ; 48 : 6. No 
true heath is found in Palestine. There 
is great probability that the dwarf juni- 
per or savin (Juniperus sabina), which 
grows in the most sterile and desolate 
parts of the desert, is the plant intended. 
"Its gloomy, stunted appearance, with 
its scale-like leaves pressed close to its 
gnarled stems and cropped close by the 
wild goats, as it clings to the rocks about 
Petra, gives great force to the contrast 
suggested by the prophet between him 
that trusteth in man, naked and desti- 
tute, and the man that trusteth in the 
365 



HEA 



HEB 



Lord, flourishing as a tree planted by 
the waters." — Tristram. 

HEATHEN, Ps. 2 : 1. This term 
(from heath, one who lives on the heaths 
or in the woods, like pagans, i. e. vil- 
lagers) is applied in the English Bible 
to all idolaters or to all nations except 
the Jews. See Gentile. It now denotes 
all nations except Christians, Jews and 
Mohammedans. 

HEAVEN. The general idea ex- 
pressed by the word in the Bible is of 
a realm different from the earth and 
hell. Under this general realm are in- 
cluded two realms — the one the mate- 
rial, the other the spiritual heaven. The 
plural is often used in both cases, most 
frequently in Matthew, and always in 
the phrase "the Father in the heavens," 
"the kingdom of the heavens." 

1. The heavens or heaven is con- 
trasted with the earth, Gen. 1:1; Ps. 
115 : 15 ; Matt. 5 : 18 ; 24 : 35, and is rep- 
resented as above us. This is the mate- 
rial world of air and the firmament. It 
is looked upon by the Hebrews as a 
solid expanse, Gen. 1 : 14, Heb., which 
has windows, Gen. 7: 11 ; 2 Kgs. 7 : 2, 
19, and doors. Ps. 78 : 23. The rain de- 
scends from it, Jas. 5:18; 2 Sam. 21 : 
10, and the frost, Job 38 : 29. The 
stars are called the " stars of heaven," 
Nah. 3: 16, the " host of heaven," Deut. 
4:19, or the "lights in the firmament," 
Gen. 1 : 14, and the fowls fly in the midst 
of it, Rev. 19 : 17. This material and stel- 
lar heaven will be dissolved at the final 
consummation, Rev. 6 : 14 ; 2 Pet. 3 : 10, 
and with the earth give place to a new 
heaven and a new earth, Rev. 21 : 1. 

2. The term refers also to a realm be- 
yond this material universe, and differ- 
ent from it — an invisible realm of holi- 
ness and bliss. This heaven is the pecu- 
liar abode of God, who is described as 
the God of heaven and the God in heav- 
en. 1 Kgs. 8 : 30 ; Dan. 2 : 28 ; Matt. 5 : 
45. Christ is said to be the " Lord from 
heaven," 1 Cor. 15 : 47, and to have 
"come down from " or to have descend- 
ed from heaven, John 3:13, etc. Into 
this heaven he has again ascended. Luke 
24 : 51 ; Acts 1:9; Eph. 4 : 8 ; 1 Pet. 3 : 22. 
Here God has his throne, here the angels 
dwell, Matt. 22 : 30. It is the place 
whore God's will is done, Matt. 6 : 10, 
and where joy, Luke 15 : 7, and peace 
reign, 19 : 38. It is here that Christ 

3 fi fi- 



lms prepared the many mansions, John 
14:2, and into which Elijah passed, 2 
Kgs. 2 : 1. Believers have an inherit- 
ance in this realm, 1 Pet. 1 : 4, and may 
lay up treasures in it, Matt. 6 : 20. 
Heaven is in this signification contrast- 
ed with hell, Ps. 139 : 8, into which Satan 
fell, Luke 10 : 18 ; 2 Pet. 2 : 4. 

The terms "paradise," Luke 23:43, 
and " Abraham's bosom," Luke 16 : 22, 
designate a state of bliss in the other 
world, but not the highest and ultimate 
state. 

The third heaven, 2 Cor. 12 : 2, into 
which Paul was rapt in a vision, is 
probably only another expression for 
the highest heaven. The later rabbins 
distinguished seven heavens : the first 
three belong to the material universe; 
the other four to the spiritual world, 
where God, the saints, and angels dwell. 

That the believer's heaven is not 
merely a state, but also a world of space, 
is abundantly testified to not only by 
many of the above passages, but also by 
such expressions as " heavenly places," 
Eph. 1 : 3. The bliss of heaven is be- 
yond our conception. This is indicated 
by the many forms and figures used to 
give us an impression of its joys. John 
14 : 2, 3 ; Heb. 4 and 11 ; Rev. 3, 21, 22. 

Heaven, Kingdom of. See Kingdom. 

HEAVE- OF FERING. See 
Offering. 

HEBER (alliance). 1. Grandson 
of Asher. Gen. 46 : 17 ; Num. 26 : 45; 
1 Chr. 7 : 31. 

2. A Judite, 1 Chr. 4 : 18. 

3. A Gadite, 1 Chr. 5 : 13. 

4. A Benjamite, 1 Chr. 8:17. 

5. Another Benjamite, 1 Chr. 8 : 22. 

6. Heber the Kenite, the husband of 
Jael, who slew Sisera, Jud. 4 : 22. See 
Jael, Sisera. Heber appears to have 
led a life apart from the rest of his tribe. 
He must have been a person of conse- 
quence, from the fact that it is stated 
that there was peace between him and 
the powerful king Jabin, Jud. 4 : 17. 

7. For Eber, Luke 3 : 35. 
HEBERITES, THE, descend- 
ants of Heber, Num. 26 : 45. 

HEBREWESS, a Hebrew wo- 
man, Jer. 4 : 39. 

HEBREW LANGUAGE. See 
Bible. 

HEBREWS. The term is prob- 
ably derived from the Hebrew verb eber, 



HEB 



HEB 



•which means " to pass over," to cross a 
stream, or from the proper noun Eber, 
one of the ancestors of Abraham (other- 
wise unknown). Gen. 10 : 24 ; 11 : 13. 
(Compare our words transalpine, cisal- 
pine, ultramontane, transjordanic.) It 
was first applied by the Canaanites to 
Abraham, Gen. 14:13, who had immi- 
grated from the east side of the Eu- 
phrates (and hence might be called a 
trans-Euphratian, a stranger come from 
the other side of the Euphrates), and then 
to all the descendants of Abraham. The 
Egyptians, Gen. 39 : 14 ; 41 : 12, and the 
Philistines, 1 Sam. 4 : 6, knew the peo- 
ple by this title, and, as we may infer, 
all foreigners. But they sometimes use 
it of themselves, but only when foreign- 
ers are thought of. Gen. 40 : 15 ; Ex. 2 : 
7. The favorite name was " Israelites," 
and after the Captivity the title " Jews" 
came into vogue, but the title" Hebrews" 
was still used for the more strict Jews, 
who preferred the Hebrew language, in 
distinction from the Hellenists or Greek- 
ish Jews. 

1. Their Origin. — Abram was chosen 
by God in Ur of the Chaldees to be the 
father of this people, and made recipient 
of the promise to be the founder of a 
great nation, Gen. 12 : 1. The Hebrew 
people were descended directly from him 
through Isaac and Jacob, and are fre- 
quently called the " seed of Abraham," 
Ps. 105 : fi ; John 8 : 37, or " children of 
Abraham," Gal. 3:7, or "children of 
Israel," Ex. 1 : 13. 

2. Their Government. — (1.) For the 
first three generations it was a patri- 
archal form. Jacob and his sons then 
followed Joseph into Egypt, where for 
400 years the Hebrews were subject to 
the Pharaohs, and, after the first gene- 
ration, in a state of bondage, which be- 
came excessively oppressive. Ex. 1 : 11- 
14. God finally raised up a deliverer to 
them in the person of Moses, in whose 
lifetime the (2) theocracy, or theocratic 
form of government, was established. 
Israel was compacted into a nation in 
the wilderness. Here it first learned its 
strength ; here it received the two tables 
of the Law and the moral, political, so- 
cial, and religious institutions peculiar 
to it; and here it was reassured of the 
familiar relation of God to it : "I will . . 
be your God, and ye shall be my peo- 
ple.'" Lev. 26 : 12 ; Ex. 6 : 7. The cha- 



racteristic feature of this form of gov- 
ernment is found in God's intimate rela- 
tion with the affairs of the nation and 
his special superintendence of them. 
And although the nation subsequently 
had its judges and kings, yet God in a 
peculiar sense presided over its desti- 
nies. He guided the nation by the pillar 
of cloud and fire; he gave them the 
manna, and the victory over Amalek, 
Ex. 17 : 14; he gave the Law, Ex. 20 : 
1 ; he led them across the Jordan and 
into Canaan, Jo?h. 3 : 7. and appointed 
Joshua successor of Moses, Josh. 1:3; 
he instructed them how to fight against 
Jericho and Ai, Josh. 8:1; he gave 
victory to Deborah, Jud. 4 : 14 ; he called 
Saul, 1 Sam. 10 : 1. and deposed him, 1 
Sam. 16 : 1, etc. God thus presided in a 
very personal manner over the national 
affairs of the Hebrews. 

3. Their R-eliyion. — God was the im- 
mediate author, by special revelation, of 
the Hebrew religion. Revealing him- 
self particularly to Abraham and Jacob, 
he deferred the full revelation of it for 
the period of Moses. This religion con- 
j sisted in the worship of God, Deut. 6 : 4, 
J as one and as holy. Ex. 15 : 11 ; Ps. 89 : 
i 35. The Israelitish nation was thus 
made the receptacle for two distinct con- 
ceptions which were not shared in by any 
of the surrounding nations, who broke 
the deity up into fragments and attrib- 
uted the most flagrant vices as well as 
human passions to their gods (as the 
Greeks and Romans). Their religion 
also taught them that God is the Creator 
of all things, Gen. 1:1; all-wise, Prov. 
15 : 3 ; everywhere present, Ps. 139 : 7 ; 
almighty, Ps. 115 : 3 ; eternal. Ps. 90 : 2. 
He is also represented as love, Ex. 34 : 
6 : Isa. 63 : IB, etc., though not as fully 
as afterward by Christ and his apostles. 
Their religion taught the spiritual 
worship of God, without the aid of 
images of metal, wood, and stone, Ex. 
20 : 4. Idolatry was condemned and the 
practice of it punished, as in the case of 
the golden calf, Ex. 32 : 35. It further 
included in its code the moral law and 
the duty of man to his fellow, Ex. 20 : 
12-17. It was, however, not the final or 
perfect religion, but provisional and tem- 
porary. Heb. 8:7: 10 : 1 ; 1 Pet. 1:1], 
12. It commanded a vast number of 
merely external and ceremonial rites 
which were at once typical and symbol- 
367 



HEB 



HEB 



ical. The religion of Christ did away 
with the temple, the sacrifices, etc., and 
established spiritual ordinances. 

Thus looking at the Hebrew religion, 
we find it, in contrast with the heathen 
religions, free from falsehood and con- 
serving great eternal truths, which have 
become the heritage of all modern civil- 
ized nations, but, in contrast with the 
religion of Christ, temporary, imperfect, 
a typical and prophetical preparation 
for Christianity. 

4. Their political history may be di- 
vided into seven periods : 

(1) From Abraham to Moses. This 
embraces the patriarchal period and the 
sojourn in Egypt. Abraham's descend- 
ants increase in numbers in the land 
of Canaan till Jacob in his old age goes 
with his sons to Egypt. Here they spend 
400 years, first under the favor, and then 
under the oppressive tyranny, of the Pha- 
raohs. 

(2) From Moses to Saul. The marvel- 
lous deliverance from the bondage of 
Egypt, the founding of the theocracy 
at Mount Sinai, and the life in the wil- 
derness. After wandering 40 years in the 
wilderness, the people cross over the Jor- 
dan into the land of their fathers. Moses 
dies after seeing it from Mount Pisgah, 
but without having trodden it. Joshua 
is appointed the successor of Moses, and 
becomes their military captain. The 
most of the land is taken after hard 
fighting, and apportioned between the 
twelve tribes. Fourteen judges follow 
Joshua, among them a woman — Debo- 
rah. Lawlessness reigned to a greater 
or less extent, and might was right, 
Jud. 17 : 6. The last and the greatest 
of the judges was Samuel, whose life 
marks the transition to the third period. 
See Judges. 

(3) From Saul to the Division of the 
Kingdom (about 120 years). — This pe- 
riod includes the greatest prosperity Is- 
rael ever attained, under the reigns of 
David and Solomon. Her territory was 
extended, foreign nations acknowledged 
her glory, 1 Kgs. 5:1; 10 : 1, and lit- 
erature and the sciences were cultivated, 
1 Kgs. 4 : 33. The reign of Solomon 
(40 years) marks the highest prosperity, 
but also the beginning of the decline. 
See Sahl, David, Solomon, the Temple. 

(4) From the Division of the Kingdom 
(975) to the Close of the Canon (about 500 

S63 



years). — This period is marked by the de- 
cline of the nation, and embraces the Exile 
and the Return. At Solomon's death the 
kingdom was divided between Rehoboam 
and Jeroboam, and the history of each 
would be a monotonous account of fall- 
ing away and recovery from idolatry if 
it were not for the periodical appearance 
of great prophets. The two kingdoms 
come into conflict with the surrounding 
nations and grow weaker and weaker, 
till the upper kingdom is destroyed and 
the people led away captive in B. c. 721 ; 
the lower kingdom, b. c. 588. Subse- 
quently, a part of the nation returns un- 
der Zerubbabel and other leaders, Ezr. 2 : 
2. The books of Ezra and Nehemiah 
give an account of the Return and of the 
subsequent restoration of the temple. 

(5) From the Return to the Advent of 
Christ. — Although many Jews were car- 
ried captive into Babylon, many, of their 
own accord and contrary to the counsel 
and warning of Jeremiah, went down 
into Egypt. There they built in Leon- 
topolis a temple, in which the ritual of 
the Law was observed, and which would 
act as a damper upon the enthusiasm 
after the services in Jerusalem. In 
Alexandria the Jews " were in such 
numbers as to be known as ' The Tribe.' 
They were a separate community under 
their own chief, entitled ethnarch or 
alabarch, and represented more than a 
third of Alexandria, with a council cor- 
responding to that which ultimately 
ruled at Jerusalem." — Stanley. By their 
scholars the translation of the O. T. into 
Greek called the Septuagint was made, 
being begun under the patronage of 
Ptolemy Philadelphus, b. c. 285. The 
school of philosophers of which Philo is 
the chief exercised a great influence on 
Gentile as well as Jewish thought. It 
answered the useful purpose of mediat- 
ing between Platonism and Christianity, 
and thus was a bridge from one to the 
other. After the Return, B. c. 538, the 
Jews remained under the yoke of Persia ; 
but when Alexander the Great subverted 
that monarchy, he granted them many 
favors. Their prosperity was of short 
duration. The death of the world-con- 
queror, b. c. 323, led to the disruption of 
his empire into four kingdoms, but led 
likewise to a wrangle which involved all 
lands. " In this world's debate," says 
Stanley, "Palestine was the principal 



HEB 



HEB 



stage across which 'the kings of the 
south' — the Alexandrian Ptolemies — 
and "the kings of the north' — the Se- 
leucidas from Antioch — passed to and 
fro, with their court-intrigues and in- 
cessant armies, their Indian elephants, 
their Grecian cavalry, their Oriental 
pomp. It was for the larger part of the 
century and half that succeeded Alex- 
ander's death a province of the Grasco- 
Egyptian kingdom." 

In the early part of the third cen- 
tury b. c. the Jews threw off the Egyp- 
tian allegiance and put themselves 
under Antiochus the Great, king of 
Syria; but Antiochus Epiphanes, his 
youngest son, persecuted them, pro- 
scribing their religion and profaning 
their temple, erecting an altar in the 
temple to the Olympian Jupiter, and or- 
dering divine honors to be paid to the 
idol. But the Jews were monotheists 
of a positive type. The outrage was 
not to be silently borne, nor were they 
to be forced to do what their conscience 
forbade. War broke out. The roman- 
tic period of Jewish history begins. The 
Jews ranged themselves for the inevit- 
able conflict. On the one side were the 
infamous priests Jason and Menelaus, 
their followers the Hellenists, who were 
renegade Jews backed by Antiochus. 
On the other side were the great mass 
of the people, stung into madness by 
the cruelties of their king, but most 
of all settled in their determination not 
to submit to pagan rites. They were 
led by the Maccabaoan family, who were 
high priests as well as princes, and after 
a thirty years' struggle they gained their 
independence. Under John Hyrcanus, 
of this family, peace was made with 
Syria, b. c. 133. In b. c. 107, Aristob- 
ulus, his son, assumed the royal title. 
See Maccabees. 

But the Jews at last fell, like the rest 
of the civilized world, under the Roman 
power. Pompey took Jerusalem in b. c. 
63 ; Antipater, the father of Herod, was 
made procurator of Judaea in B. c 47. 
He was murdered shortly after, and 
Herod at length became king of Judasa, 
B. c. 37. For the history of the Jews 
from this date to the destruction of Je- 
rusalem see the biographies of the suc- 
cessive monarchs. 

(6) From the Advent of Christ to the 
Destruction of Jerusalem. — The Gospels 
24 



inform us as to the Jews' hatred and re- 
jection of the Messiah. And so they 
prepared their downfall. Matt. 23 : 37. 
The long-suffering of God was abused; 
his offers of mercy were often rejected, 
and at last the time for their final over- 
throw came. Josephus tells the story. 
The city of Jerusalem, whither they had 
gathered, was besieged by Titus, and 
after much suffering, borne with fanat- 
ical courage, taken. The temple was 
burnt, the whole city demolished. The 
prophecy of Christ was literally fulfilled. 
Matt. 23 : 34-39 ; Luke 21 : 20-24. See 
Jerusalem^ 

(7) From the Destruction of Jerusalem 
to the Present Time. — The Jews were no 
longer a nation, but their religion re- 
mained unchanged, and retained a hos- 
tile attitude to Christianity. The peo- 
ple that prepared the way for the com- 
ing of the Messiah crucified the true 
Messiah, and wait in vain for a new 
Messiah. After the capture of Jerusa- 
lem the Jews were sold in large num- 
bers into slavery, and scattered all over 
the Roman world. Many returned to 
the ruins of the Holy City. The empe- 
ror Claudius admitted them to citizen- 
ship, but they were very differently 
treated by successive emperors. In A. D. 
135, under the emperor Hadrian, a fa- 
natical impostor, Bar-cochba, announced 
himself in Palestine as the Messiah. An 
immense multitude hastened to his 
standard of revolt. The Romans, 
however, completely vanquished them. 
Jerusalem was again completely de- 
stroyed, and became a Roman colony 
under the name of JE\i& Capitolina. 
The Jews were forbidden to enter it. 
The emperor Julian (a. d. 331-363), 
from hostility to Christianity, endeav- 
ored to rebuild the temple, but in vain. 
Since the downfall of the "Western 
Roman Empire (a. d. 476) the Jews 
have had very varying fortunes under 
different masters, and much cruel per- 
secution. They have spread themselves 
over all the earth, but have always re- 
mained separate and distinct. This re- 
markable fact is a plain indication of 
the hand of God, who will yet do great 
things for and with them. They are a 
standing proof of divine prophecy and 
a living argument for the truth of Chris- 
tianity. For an account of their literary 
activity, see Talmud. 

369 



HEB 



HEB 



The Jews by their talents and indus- 
try exert great influence among Chris- 
tian nations. They have long been the 
great bankers of the world. The Roths- 
child family with its immense wealth 
has controlled the money-market. The 
Jews have furnished great scholars and 
statesmen. Neander, the Church his- 
torian, and Stahl, the jurist, were con- 
verted Jews ; the great musician, Men- 
delssohn-Bartholdy, Lord Beaconsfield, 
Gambetta, Castelar, are of Jewish ex- 
traction. They have distinguished them- 
selves in all the occupations except ag- 
riculture and manufactures. They are 
divided into orthodox, and liberal or re- 
form Jews, who differ from each other 
as the Pharisees and Sadducees of old. 
The former prevail in Russia, Poland, 
and the East; the latter in Germany 
and America. Many of the Jews to-day 
are deists, or even atheists. The mod- 
ern epoch is marked by the name of 
Moses Mendelssohn (died 1786), whose 
German translation of the Pentateuch 
was the groundwork of reform. The in- 
fidel Jews exert a pernicious influence on 
the German political press. The poet 
Heine was a Jew. In America they 
enjoy full liberty, which until recently 
had been denied them in Europe. They 
are also increasing of late in Jerusalem, 
where they are strictly orthodox, issue 
newspapers in the Hebrew language, 
and bewail every Friday at the founda- 
tion of the temple-wall the sins of their 
forefathers. The number of Jews in 
the world is estimated at 9,000,000, of 
whom 50,000 live in New York city, 
where they accumulate great wealth. 

The last word of Christ and the apos- 
tle concerning this wonderful people — 
which, like the burning bush, are never 
consumed — is a word of promise and 
hope that their blindness will be re- 
moved, and that after the fulness of the 
Gentiles has come in "all Israel will be 
saved." Rom. 11 : 26. 

Hebrew op the Hebrews, Phil. 3 : 
5, denotes that the individual so called 
had both a Hebrew father and mother — 
was one whose Hebrew extraction was 
perfect. 

HEBREWS, EPISTLE TO 
THE, was written about the years 62 
to 64 in Italy, 13 : 24, and addressed to 
the believing Jews of Palestine and the 
East. The design of the author was not, 
370 



primarily, to make new converts or to 
console old ones, but to guard them 
against apostasy and to strengthen their 
faith by an exhibition of the evidence in 
favor of the pre-eminence of the religion 
of Christ over that of Moses. One gets 
the impression of peculiar temptations 
to apostasy or a weakening in the faith 
against which the Hebrew Christians 
are continually warned in the Epistle, 
ch. 2 : 1 ; 4:1, 14 ; 10 : 23. 

The Epistle at once exhibits the unity 
and the characteristic difference of the 
Old and the New Testament economy 
and revelation. Both were alike of di- 
vine origin, 1 : 1, 2, but the former was 
imperfect and defective, chs. 8:6, 7 ; 
10: 1. This is proved by an extended 
consideration of the character of Christ, 
the Mediator of the new covenant, and 
of the mediators (Moses and Aaron) of 
the old covenant, and by a consideration 
of the prophecy of Jeremiah concerning 
a new covenant, ch. 10 : 16, and its spir- 
itual character, chs. 9, 10. In the com- 
parison thus instituted we discover a 
marked contrast between the old and 
new covenants, so far as both their na- 
ture and their founders are concerned. 

The Epistle exhibits the person of 
Christ, the Author of the new cove- 
nant, as superior in dignity to the angels, 
ch. 1, and proves it by the O. T. itself. 
Christ was the very brightness of God's 
glory and the express image of his per- 
son, ch. 1 : 3. Therefore the conclu- 
sion is drawn that the revelation made 
by him is of greater authority than that 
made by angels, which was accepted, ch. 
2 : 2. He is then represented as of su- 
perior dignity to Moses, ch. 3 : 3, and as 
our High Priest, ch. 3:1, who belongs 
to the order of Melchisedek, ch. 5 : 16; 
7 : 21. In order to perform the high- 
priestly functions, it was necessary for 
him to endure the sufferings and temp- 
tations incident to the humanity he in- 
tended to save, 2:17; 4:15; 12 : 2, and 
to assume human nature, ch. 2 : 14. He 
thus becomes the Author of salvation, 
ch. 5 : 9, by the shedding of his blood, 
2:9; 9:12. The superiority of his 
high priesthood is shown not only by 
his super-angelic nature, but in his 
freedom from sin, 4:15; 7:27. The 
Aaronic priests were sinful, 7 : 28. 
Christ has thus purchased an eternal 
salvation for all who believe in him in a 




View of Hebron from the South. (After Ihotoyra^h by Bonjils.) 




Mount Hermon, with Ruins of au Ancient Temple. (After Photograph by Good.) 



HEB 



HEB 



special sense, ch. 7 : 25, and for every 
man, ch. 2 : 9. He has entered into the 
holy of holies, the divine presence, and is 
seated on the right hand of God. 10 : 12. 

The latter part of the Epistle is taken 
up with practical exhortations and a 
profound definition and telling illus- 
tration of faith, ch. 11. The apostle 
thus establishes, by a remarkably clear 
and lucid argument, the divine yet tem- 
porary character of the old revelation 
and the super-eminent dignity of the 
High Priest, Christ, whose manifestation 
is -the better thing" which God has 
provided for us, 11 : 40. The Epistle 
corroborates the divine origin of the old 
covenant, and at the same time is calcu- 
lated to reconcile the Jew to the destruc- 
tion of his temple, the loss of his priest- 
hood, the abolition of his sacrifices, the 
devastation of his country, and the ex- 
tinction of his name, because it exhibits 
a nobler temple, a better priesthood, a 
more perfect sacrifice, a heavenly inher- 
itance, and a more durable memorial. 

The authorship of this anonymous 
Epistle is a matter of dispute ; some 
ascribe it to Paul, who for special reasons 
concealed his name, others to Luke or 
Barnabas, or to Apollos. It was certainly 
inspired by the genius of Paul, and may 
have been written by him in Hebrew 
and translated or reproduced in its pres- 
ent Greek form by Luke or some other 
disciple of the great apostle of the Gen- 
tiles. This hypothesis would account 
for the difference of style as well as the 
unity of sentiment. 

HEBRON {alliance). 1. A son of 
Kohath, and therefore grandson of Levi. 
Ex. 6 : 18 ; Num. 3:19; 1 Chr. 6 : 2, 18 : 
23 : 12. 

2. A name in the genealogical lists of 
the tribe of Judah, 1 Chr. 2 : 42, 43. 

HE'BRON (friendship), an ancient 
town of Palestine, about 20 miles south 
of Jerusalem, and the same distance 
north of Beer-sheba; first called Kirjath- 
arba, or " city of Arba," the father of 
Anak. Josh. 21 : 11 ; 15 : 1 3, 14 ; Jud. 1 : 
10. Some interpret the name to mean 
"a city of four," or as having four dis- 
tinct quarters. It lies about 3000 feet 
above the level of the sea, and is one of 
the oldest towns in the world and men- 
tioned before Damascus, Gen. 13:18; 
15 : 2, and was built 7 years before Zoan, 
or Tanis. in Egypt, Num. 13 : 22. 
372 



History. — Hebron is named about 40 
times in the 0. T., but nowhere in the 
New. Abraham pitched his tent under 
the oaks of Mamre, near Hebron, Gen. 
13 : 18, and he bought the cave of Mach- 
pelah, as a burial-place. 23 : 17-20. See 
Machpelah. Hebron was taken by 
Joshua, Jo;>h. 10:36,37; 12:10, and 
the region given to Caleb, Josh. 14 : 13 ; 
was rebuilt and made a Levitical city 
and a city of refuge, Josh. 20 : 7 ; 21 : 
11 ; was the royal residence of David, 2 
Sam. 2 : 1-14; 1 Kgs. 2:11; became the 
headquarters of the rebellious Absalom, 
2 Sam. 15 : 10 ; was fortified by Rehobo- 
am and re-peopled after the Captivity. 2 
Chr. 11 : 10 ; Neh. 11 : 25. Judas Mac- 
cabaeus re-captured it from the Edomites ; 
it was destroyed by the Romans; for 
about 20 years it was the seat of a Latin 
bishopric, A. n. 1167-1187, but at the 
latter date it fell into the hands of Sala- 
din, and has since been held by the Mos- 
lems. A pool is still shown over which 
tradition says that David hung the mur- 
derers of Ishbosheth, and the tomb of 
Abner and Ishbosheth is also pointed 
out within an Arab house. 

Present Condition. — Hebron is in a 
narrow part of a valley and surrounded 
by fertile lands, vineyards, olive- groves, 
j and almond and fig trees. The town 
j has many spacious houses, built of stone, 
I and numbers about 10,000 souls, includ- 
I ing 500 Jews ; but there is not a single 
| Christian family there. The city is di- 
! vided into several quarters, in one of 
which is the great mosque, a massive 
structure, about 200 by 150 feet on the 
ground and nearly 50 feet high, with 
two minarets. This mosque is known 
to conceal the noted cave of Machpelah, 
the burial-place of Abraham, Isaac, and 
Jacob and their wives, except Rachel. 
! The mosque is closed against visitors 
j and guarded with the strictest care by 
the Moslems. Only a few times have 
Europeans been permitted to enter it — 
the Prince of Wales in 1862, the marquis 
of Bute in I860, and the crown-prince of 
Prussia in 1809. These visitors were ac- 
companied by Dean Stanley, Fergusson, 
Rosen, and others. Hebron is a hotbed 
of Moslem fanaticism. 

About two miles west of the city, on 
the road toward Gaza, is the famous oak 
of Abraham, a majestic and venerable 
tree whose trunk measures 32 feet in cir- 



HEB 



HEL 



cuinference, and at the height of 19 feet 
it divides into four huge branches, form- 
ing a crown upwards of 275 feet in cir- 
cumference. The tree is surrounded by 
a wall, and on the hill above it the Rus- 
sians have built a fine hospice. A large 
terebinth or oak was shown there in the 
days of Josephus which, tradition says, 
" has continued since the creation of the 
world."— Jewish War, iv. 9, 7. For view 
of "Abraham's Oak," see under Abraham. 

The town carries on a brisk trade wi!:h 
the Bedouins, and manufactures water- 
skins from goats' hides, and pretty glass 
ornaments. Glass was made there early 
in the Middle Ages. 

2. A city of Asher, Josh. 19 : 28; per- 
haps Abdon of Josh. 21 : 30 ; now 'Abdeh. 

HE'BRONITES, THE, a fam- 
ily of Kohathite Levites descended from 
Hebron. Num. 3:27; 26:58; 1 Chr. 
26 : 23. 

HEDGE, Hos. 2 : 6. Travellers tell 
us that such hedges as are mentioned in 
this passage are often found in Eastern 
countries at this day, and that they are 
especially useful as defences against the 
incursions of the Arabs on horseback. 
The hedge is sometimes figuratively 
used to denote protection. Comp. Job 
1:10. 

HEG'AI, or HE'GE, a eunuch of 
the court of Ahasuerus. Esth. 2 : 3, 8, 15. 

HEIFER, Hos. 10:11. The fig- 
urative allusions of the sacred writers to 
the wildness, sportiveness, and indocil- 
ity of this animal, espeaially when well 
fed, are very striking. Jer. 43 : 20 : 59 : 
11; Hos. 4:16. In Isa. 15 : 5 allusion 
is probably made to the lowing of a 
heifer — a mournful sound that can be 
heard at a great distance ; so should the 
lamentation of the Moabites be in the day 
of their visitation. 

The heifer was used in sacrifice on a 
particular occasion, Num. 19 : 1-10; 
comp. Heb. 9:13, 14, the manner and 
design of which are fully stated in the 
passage cited. 

HEIR. See Inheritance. 

HELAH (rust), a wife of Ashur, 1 
Chr. 4 : 5. 

HE'LAM (stronghold), usually re- 
garded as the place where David gained 
a victory over the Syrians, 2 Sam. 10 : 
16, 17, and by some identified with Al- 
manetha, west of the Euphrates; but this 
is merely conjecture. The Latin Version 



does not regard the word as a proper 
name, but renders it " army " or " host." 

HEL/BAH (fertile), a city of Asher, 
Jud.l : 31, in the plain of Phoenicia; the 
same as Hebel. Rendered "the coast" 
in Josh. 19 : 29. 

HEI/BON (fertile), a Syrian city 
celebrated for its wine, Eze. 27 : 18, and 
formerly identified with Aleppo, but 
later with Helbon, in a wild glen high 
up in the Anti-Lebanon. This valley is 
celebrated for its fine grapes and vine- 
yards. Robinson says " the wine of 
Helbon " is the best and most famous 
wine in the country, while Aleppo pro- 
duces none of anv special reputation. 

HEL'DAI (worldly). 1. The chief 
of the twelfth division of David's forces, 
1 Chr. 27 : 15. 

2. One who returned from captivity, 
Zech. 6:10. In v. 14 his name is writ- 
ten Helem. 

HE'LEB (milk), or HELED 
i (transient), one of David's warriors. 2 
' Sam. 23:29; 1 Chr. 11:30. 

HE'LEK (portion), the founder of 
the Helekites, a Manassite family, Num. 
26 : 30. 

HELEM (hammer). 1. An Asher- 
ite, 1 Chr. 7 : 35. 

2. A name mentioned in Zech. 6 : 14. 

HE'LEPH (exchange), a place on 
the borders of Naphtali, Josh. 19 : 33, 
and which Van de Velde proposes to 
identify with Beitlif ; Clark, with the 
" white promontory " south of Tyre ; but 
these are conjectural. 

HELEZ (loins r). 1. One of Da- 
vid's " thirty." 2 Sam. 23 : 26 ; 1 Chr. 
11:27; 28:10. 

2. A Judite, 1 Chr. 2 : 39. 

HE 'EI (elevation), the father of Jo- 
seph, the husband of Mary, Luke 3 : 23. 
The same word as Eli. 

HEL'KAI (whose portion is Jeho- 
vah), a priest in the days of Jehoiakim 
the high priest, Neh. 12 : 15. 

HEI/KATH (portion), a Levitical 
city of Asher, Josh. 19 : 25 ; 21 : 31, and 
called Hukok in 1 Chr. 6 : 75 ; probably 
the modern Yerka, a village 7 miles 
north-west of Acre. 

HEI/KATH- HAZZURIM 
(field of swords), a place near Gribeon ; 
so called from the deadly combat men- 
tioned in 2 Sam. 2 : 13-17. Drake pro- 
poses to place it in the broad, smooth 
valley el-Askar. 

373 



HEL 



HEM 



HELL. 1. The Old Testament.— 
The Hebrew word for hell is Sheol, 
which corresponds to the Greek Hades, 
and means the under-world or the realm 
of the dead. It is derived by some from 
the root " to demand " (hence the " grasp- 
ing " or '■ insatiable "), by others from the 
root "to make hollow" (comp. the Ger- 
man Ho lie with Hohle), so as to mean 
the vast subterranean receptacle and 
resting-place of the dead. Sheol is va- 
riously translated in our English Bible 
by the terms " hell," " pit," and " grave." 
In many places it is rightly translated 
" grave." 1 Sam. 2:6; Job 14 : 13, etc. 
Sheol is represented as in the depths of 
the earth, Job 11 : 8 ; Prov. 9:18, dark, 
Isa. 38 : 10, all-devouring, Prov. 1:12, 
destitute of God's presence, Ps. 88: 10- 
12, a state of forgetfulness, Ps. 6 : 5, in- 
satiable, Isa. 5 : 14, remorseless, Cant. 
8 : 6, and a place of silence, Eccl. 
9:10. The Hebrew notions about it 
were vague and indefinite. It was re- 
garded as the place where worldly oc- 
cupations, good or bad, did not enter. 
Eccl. 9 : 10 ; Job 3 : 13-20. It can by 
no means be made out that the term re- 
fers exclusively or definitely to infernal 
anguish. But it no less certainly repre- 
sented terror and repulsiveness to the 
Hebrew mind. 

2. The New Testament. — The two words 
translated "hell" are Hades and Gehen- 
na. Hades occurs eleven times, and is 
once rendered " grave," 1 Cor. 15 : 55 ; 
in all other places "hell." It evidently 
does not refer to the ultimate abode of 
the impenitent and the final state of ex- 
clusion from God, but to the disembodied 
state between death and the final judg- 
ment of the Son of man, when he shall 
come in his glory, Matt. 16 : 27. After 
the crucifixion, our Lord descended into 
hades, Acts 2 : 27, and this is an article 
of the Apostles' Creed, where, however, 
we use wrongly the word "hell." It was 
in this realm that our Lord " preached to 
the spirits in prison," 1 Pet. 3:19. See 
Hades. 

The term Gehenna, which occurs twelve 
times, more nearly corresponds to our 
word "hell." It signified primarily the 
valley of Hinnom or the deep, narrow 
valley south of Jerusalem which had 
been the seat of the worship of Moloch. 
Jer. 7 : 31 ; 2 Chr. 33 :-6 : 2 Kgs. 23 : 10. 
It afterward was turned into a place for 
374 



the deposit of the filth and dead animals 
of the city. Hence this term was applied 
to the final state and abode of lost souls. 
Matt. 5 : 29 ; 10 : 28 , 23 : 15 ; Jas. 3 : 6, 
etc. It is here that " their worm dieth 
not" and the "fire is not quenched," 
Matt. 17 : 9. Into this realm the rebel- 
lious angels were cast, 2 Pet. 2 : 4 (where 
the word is a derivative from "Tarta- 
rus"). At the great day of judgment 
the cursed shall go away into this abode 
and receive the everlasting punishment. 
Matt. 25 : 46. 

HELLENISTS, THE, were the 
Jews who had lost their strict and ex- 
clusive spirit by constant intercourse 
with the Gentiles, who habitually spoke 
Greek, and who read the Septuagint. 
They were much better qualified for the 
larger views of the gospel than were 
their Jewish brethren who lived in Pal- 
estine and spoke the Hebrew language. 
In the A. V. the term is rendered " Gre- 
cians." Acts 6:1; 9 : 29 ; 11 : 20. They 
were not necessarily outside of Palestine. 
The class Avas formed by habits of thought 
quite as much as by language. The term 
must not be confounded with Hellens, 
who were native Greeks in religion as 
well as language. 

HELMET. See Armor. 

HE'LON {strong), father of Eliab, 
the chief of Zebulon. Num. 1:9; 2:7; 
7 : 24, 29 ; 10 : 16. 

HELPS, the translation in the A. 
V. of a word which occurs only in this 
place in the N. T., 1 Cor. 12:28. The 
" helps " are a gift of the Spirit. This 
gift doubtless comprehends the various 
duties of the deacons and deaconesses of 
the apostolic Church, especially the care 
of the poor and the sick. It is found 
also among the laity, especially the fe- 
male portion, in all ages and all branches 
of Christendom. 

HELPS, THE, used in the storm, 
Acts 27 : 17, were chains, cables, etc., 
which were^passed under the keel of the 
vessel, in order to bind the planks to- 
gether. 

HEM OF GARMENT. See 
Clothes. 

HE'MAM (exterminating), a son of 
Lotan, Gen. 36:22; called Homam in 
1 Chr. 1 : 39. 

HE 'MAN (trusty). 1. A son of 
Zerah eminent for wisdom. 1 Chr. 2:6; 
1 Kgs. 4:31. 



HEM 



HER 



2. Grandson of Samuel the prophet. 
1 Chr. ,6:33; 15:17, 19; 16:41, 42; 
25 : 1, 4, 5, 6 ; 2 Chr. 5 : 12 : 29 : 14; 35 : 
15. Ps. 88 is attributed to him. 

HEMATH {heat), a person or 
place mentioned in 1 Chr. 2 : 55. 

HEMATH {fortress). 1 Chr. 13 : 
5; Am. 6:14. See Hamath. 

HEI'DAN {pleasant), the eldest 
son of Dishon, Gen. 36 : 26 ; called Am- 
ran in 1 Chr. 1 : 41. 

HEMLOCK, Hos. 10:4. A well- 
known bitter and poisonous herb, a 
species of which is common in the 
United States. The word rendered 
"hemlock" in the above passage and 
in Am. 6:12 is elsewhere rendered 
'•'gall." The figurative use of it is ex- 
plained by comparing the above pas- 
sage with Deut. 29 : 18 ; Am. 5: 7; Heb. 
12 : 15. The evils of perverted judg- 
ment resemble the springing up of use- 
less and poisonous plants where we look 
for and expect valuable and nutritious 
vegetation. 

HEN" {favor), a son of Zephaniah, 
Zech. 6 : 14. 

HEN. The only place in which this 
word occurs is in our Lord's lament : " 
Jerusalem, Jerusalem, thou that killest 
the prophets, and stonest them which 
are sent unto thee, how often would I 
have gathered thy children together, 
even as a hen gathereth her chickens 
under her wings, and ye would not !" 
Matt. 23 : 37 ; Luke 13 : 34. But hens 
must have been common barnyard fowls, 
as they are to-day in Syria, where they 
form a chief article of food. Hen's eggs 
are probably meant in Luke 11 : 12, and 
if so they were very abundant. The 
rabbinical prohibition to keep fowls in 
Jerusalem was probably never enforced. 
The cock is mentioned in connection 
_with Peter's denial. See Cock-crowing. 

HE'NA {troubling), a city conquered 
bv a king of Assyria, 2 Kgs. 18:34; 
19:13; Isa. 37:13; believed to be 
Anak, on the Euphrates, 20 miles from 
the site of Babvlon. 

HEN'ADAD [favor of Hadad), 
the head of a Levitical family who were 
prominent in rebuilding the temple and 
repairing the wall. Ezr. 3:9; Neh. 3 : 
IS, 24; 10:9. 

HE'NOCH, 1. 1 Chr. 1:3. See 
Enoch. 

2. 1 Chr. 1 : 33. See Hanoch. 



HETHER {a well). 1. A Manas- 
site. Num. 26 : 32, 33 ; 27:1; Josh. 17: 
2 3 
' 2.' A Judite, 1 Chr. 4 : 6. 

3. One of David's warriors, 1 Chr. 
11 : 36. 

HETHER {well, pit), a district in 
Palestine, probably in Judah ; possibly el- 
Mesh-hed ; taken by Joshua, Josh. 12 : 17. 

HEPHERITES, THE, de~ 
scendants of Hepher, 1. Num. 26:32. 
.HEPH'ZIBAH {my delight is in 
her). 1. The wife of Hezekiah, and 
mother of Manasseh, 2 Kgs. 21 : I. 

2. A symbolical name for restored Je- 
rusalem, Isa. 62 : 4. 

HER'ALD, one who makes a public 
and formal announcement. The only ref- 
erence in the A. V. to this officer is in Dan. 
3:4; but in the N. T. the familiarity 
of Paul with the Grecian games induced 
him to speak of the gospel-preachers as 
heralds ; e. g. 1 Tim. 2 : 7 ; 2 Tim. 1 : 11. 
So Peter. 2 Pet. 2 : 5. See Games. 

HERB, a plant which, in distinc- 
tion from the shrub or tree, is without 
true woody tissue. Herbs die to the 
ground, if not entirely, during the dry 
Oriental summer. But those of them 
that are biennials or perennials revive 
with the fall rains or in the spring. 
Six Hebrew words are translated by 
the general term before us, five of them 
with unquestionable correctness. The 
word thus rendered in 2 Kgs. 4 : 39 ; 
Isa. 18 : 4 ; 26 : T9 involves the idea of 
brightness, and is perhaps some partic- 
ular plant. If so, the most probable 
opinion is that it is colewort or some 
plant of the cabbage tribe. See Grass. 

HERD, HERDSMAN. Nothing 
more strikingly brings out the contrast 
between the Egyptians and the Hebrews 
than their different estimation of the 
pursuit of cattle-raising. While the 
latter had large herds and flocks, and 
considered their possession and keep 
honorable, the former, quite as depend- 
ent upon them for food and labor, de- 
spised the herdsman as " an abomina- 
tion," Gen. 46 : 34. By the influence 
of Joseph his brethren were made Pha- 
raoh's chief herdsmen. Gen. 47 : 6. The 
patriarchs were great herdsmen. The 
occupation was not inconsistent with 
state honors ; thus, Doeg, " the chiefest 
of the herdsmen," was high in Saul's 
favor, 1 Sam. 21 : 7. David's herdmas- 
375 



HER 



HER 



ters were among his chief officers of 
state. In Solomon's time, although com- 
merce decreased its relative importance, 
the pursuit was still extensive. Eccl. 2 : 
7 ; 1 Kgs. 4 : 23. " It must have suffer- 
ed greatly from the inroads of the ene- 
mies to which the county, under the 
later kings of Judah and Israel, was ex- 
posed. Uzziah, howevex-, 2 Chr. 28:10; 
and Hezekiah, 32 : 28, 29, resuming 



command of the open country, revived 
it. Josiah also seems to have been rich 
in herds, 35 : 7-9. The prophet Amos 
at first followed this occupation, Am. 1 : 
1 ; 7 : 14." 

The wealth of the Jews at all times 
consisted largely of cattle. The terri- 
tory of the tribes across the Jordan was 
particularly adapted for grazing-pur- 
poses. West of the river the principal 



y^4? 




Egyptian Herdsmen treating sick Animals. (After Wilkinson.) 



feeding-grounds were Sharon, 1 Chr. 
27:29, the Carmel, 1 Sam. 25:2, and 
Dothan, Gen. 37 :17; but doubtless all 
the uncultivated lands were used for 
this purpose. But for food they did not 
use, as we do, full-grown beeves, but 
killed the calves. Fattening for beef is 
indeed not practised in the East. The 
oxen were broken for service in the 
third year, Isa. 15 : 5. When the heat 
had dried up all the pasture, then the 
oxen were stalled, Hab. 3:17. Hence 
the figure " a stalled ox " for stately 
magnificence, which is used in Prov.15: 
17. " Calves of the stall " were watch- 
fully cared for, Mai. 4 : 2. Cattle feed 
upon foliage as weil as upon grass, Ps. 
50:10. A mixture of various grains, 
as also chopped straw, is fed when the 
pasture gives out. See Job 6 : 5, " fod- 
der;" Isa. 30 : 24, "provender;" Gen. 
24 : 25 ; Isa. 11 : 7 ; 65 : 25. See Agri- 
culture. Ox. 

HE'RES (sun). 1. Mount Heres, 
Jud. 1 : 35 ; possibly the same as Ir-she- 
mesh ; perhaps al; Kefr Hdrin. 

2. Heres, Isa. 19:18 (margin), but 
the text reads " city of destruction." 
Calvin did not regard it as a proper 
name; Poole regards it as an Egyptian 
citv inhabited by the Jews. 

HE'RESH (artificer), a Levite, 1 
Chr. 9: 15. 

HERESY, Acts 24 : 14. This 
term, as generally used by the sacred 
376 



writers, implies no judgment respecting 
the truth or error of the peculiar tenets 
but signifies a party or division. It is 
derived from a word meaning "to 
choose." The Pharisees, Acts 15 : 5; 
26 : 5, and the Sadducees, Acts 5 : 17, as 
well as the Nazarenes, Acts 24:5, 12, 
14, were denominated heresies. In 
these passages the word is translated 
"sects." In Acts 24:14, where Paul 
speaks of the Christian religion as "the 
way which they call heresy," he un- 
doubtedly means to imply that the 
Christian organization was not a sepa- 
ration from the 0. T. Church, but the 
true Church itself. In 1 Cor. 11:19; 
Gal. 5 : 20, and 2 Pet. 2: 1 heresies are 
referred to in connection with the apos- 
tolic Church, and in the last two cases 
the implication is that they are depart- 
ures fr<>rn the fundamental truth of the 
gospel, and to be condemned. Early in 
the history of the Christian Church the 
word acquired the signification it now 
has, of a departure from the fundamen- 
tals of gospel truth. 

HERMAS (of Mercury, the god of 
gain, and the messenger of the gods), a 
Roman Christian whom Paul greets, 
Rom. 16 : 14. Some of the fathers at- 
tributed to him the book called " The 
Shepherd of Hernias," a sort of Pil- 
grim's Progress, consisting of three 
parts : the first has 4 visions ; the sec- 
ond, 12 spiritual precepts; the third, 



HER 



HER 



10 similitudes, each setting forth some 
truth. 

HERMES {Mercury), according to 
tradition, one of the Seventy, and after- 
ward bishop of Dalmatia, Rom. 16 : 14. 

HERMOG'ENES {beyotten of 
Mercury), one who forsook Paul. 2 Tim. 
1:15. 

HER'MON {prominent summ it, 
peak, or perhaps from a root signifying 
"unapproachable" or " holy ;" by the 
Sidonians Sirion, "to glitter," and by 
the Amorites Shenir, and by the He- 
brews Sion, Deut. 4:48; Ps. 133:3), 
the high southern part of Anti-Libanus, 
about 40 miles east of north of the 
Sea of Galilee, and 30 miles south of 
west of Damascus, and now called Jebel- 
esh-Sheikh, or " the chief mountain." 
It has three peaks or summits, hence 
called "the Herrnons;" incorrectly ren- 
dered " the Herinonites," Ps. 42 : 6. 
Hermon was the northern limit of the 
territory of Israel beyond the Jordan, 
Deut. 3 : 8 ; 4 : 48 ; Josh. 11 : 3, 17; 13 : 11, 
Hermon and Tabor are the representa- 
tives of all the mountains of the Prom- 
ised Land, Ps. 89 : 12 ; 42 : 6 ; 133 : 3. 
Some of the names of Hermon may re- 
fer to different peaks of the mountain, 
Deut. 3:9; Song Sol. 4 : 8 ; 1 Chr. 5 : 
23. Hermon rises to an elevation of 
9000 feet above the Mediterranean. 
The top is partially crowned with snow, 
or rather ice, during the whole year, 
which, however, lies only in the ravines, 
and thus presents at a distance the ap- 
pearance of radiant stripes around and 
below the summit. The high ridge 
Jebel-ed-Duhy, on the north of the val- 
ley of Jezreel, is sometimes called the 
Little Hermon, but Jebel-esh-Sheikh is 
the true and only Hermon of the Scrip- 
tures. See cut p. 371. 

Physical Features. — Schaff calls Her- 
mon " the Mont Blanc of Palestine." The 
mountain constitutes a part of the great 
Anti-Lebanon range, running from north- 
east to south-west for over 30 miles. Its 
rock-formation is hard limestone, cover- 
ed at places with soft chalk, while ba- 
salt appears in some spurs. The top of 
the mountain may be described as con- 
sisting of three peaks or summits, of 
which two are approximately north and 
south, about 400 yards apart, and of 
almost equal height, being joined by a 
flat plateau depressed in the middle. 



The third peak, 600 yards to the west, 
is about 100 feet lower, and divided by 
a valley-head from the former. This is 
called El Mutabkhiydt, "place of cook- 
ing." The two principal peaks are each 
9053 feet above the level of the sea and 
11,000 feet above the Ghor or Jordan 
depression. No ruins are found, except 
on the southern peak, where is a hollow 
bounded by an oval enclosure of stones 
well hewn. At its southern end is a sa- 
cellum, or temple, nearly destroyed. — Sec 
Our Work in Palestine, p. 245. In win- 
ter the snow extends down the moun- 
tain-side for about 5000 feet ; it melts 
as summer advances, until in September 
only a little is left in the crevices and 
shaded hollows. In November the snow 
begins to cover the mountain again. 
Hence the best time for the ascent is 
from June to early autumn. Bears are 
frequently seen on Mount Hermon, and 
foxes, wolves, and various kinds of game 
abound. Porter describes the sides and 
top of Hermon as the acme of barren 
desolation; but Tristram, visiting it at 
a different season, found " many boreal 
forms of life both in fauna and flora," 
and from Hermon added 50 species to 
his catalogue of jilants. — See Tristram, 
Land of Israel, p. 613. The view from 
the summit is one of vast extent, em- 
bracing a great part of the Holy Land, 
" which lies far below, spread out like a 
gigantic relief-map." The traveller may 
look down upon Sidon, Tyre, the Medi- 
terranean, Mount Carmel, Gerizim, the 
hills about Jerusalem and the Dead Sea, 
Gilead and Nebo, the Jordan Valley, 
Gennesaret, Damascus, Lebanon, etc. 

Bible History. — Mount Hermon was a 
great landmark to the Israelites, as it 
marked their north-eastern boundary. 
Deut. 3:8; Josh. 12: 1. Joshua ex- 
tended his conquest nearly to that 
point, Josh. 11 : 17. The Hebrews ex- 
tolled its majestic height, Ps. 89 : 12, 
and its copious dew, Ps. 133 : 4. Mod- 
ern travellers note the abundant dews, 
which drench everything, and from 
which tents afford small protection. 
These abundant dews are accounted for 
by the fact that in the daytime the hot 
air comes streaming up the Ghor from 
Lake Huleh, while Hermon arrests the 
moisture and deposits it congealed at 
night. 

Hermon is not mentioned in the N. T., 
377 



HER 



HER 



but it is probably tbe site of the trans- 
figuration of Christ, Matt. 17; Mark 9, 
and answers the description of "a high 
mountain apart." Conder notes it as a 
curious observation that " on the sum- 
mit of Hermon there is often a sudden 
accumulation of cloud, as quickly again 
dispersed, often visible when the re- 
mainder of the atmosphere is perfectly 
clear. . . . We cannot fail to be reminded 
in this phenomenon of 'the cloud that 
overshadowed ' the apostles." Caesarea 
Philippi, where Christ was just before 
the transfiguration, is at the foot of 
Hermon, and there are several retired 
places on the mountain-side where it 
might well have occurred. It fits into 
the points of the narrative in the Gos- 
pels far better than Tabor, where the 
monastic tradition (Greek and Latin) 
locates this wonderful event. See Tabor. 

HER'MONITES, THE, prop- 
erly " the Hermons," referring to the 
three peaks of liermon, Ps. 42:6, 7. 

HEROD. 1. Herod the Great, 
king of Judaea, B. c. 40- b. c. 4. In his 
reign Christ was born, Matt. 2 : 1-18. 
He was a man of unusual executive abil- 
ity, of iron will, of consummate shrewd- 
ness and cunning, but of violent pas- 




Bronze Coin of Herod the Great. 

sions, and cruel and unscrupulous in 
the choice of means to accomplish his 
designs. He was by descent an Idu- 
maean and the son of Antipater, who 
had been appointed by Julius Caesar 
procurator of Judaea, B. c. 47. At the 
age of 25, Herod was made governor of 
Galilee, subsequently appointed tetrarch 
of Judaea by Antony, B. c. 40, and after- 
ward, by the Roman senate, king of 
Judaea. He was obliged to fight for his 
kingdom, and with the aid of the Ro- 
mans wrested it out of the hands of his 
enemies. Antigonus, the high priest, 
and the last representative of the As- 
monaean family in that office, was taken 
and executed, a. d. 37. 
378 



Herod's reign was in one sense a most 
brilliant one. Following the example 
of the Roman emperor Augustus, he 
lavished vast sums of money on public 
works. He founded and built a beauti- 
ful city on the coast, which he named, 
after his royal master, Caesarea. He 
also rebuilt the city of Samaria, which 
had been completely destroyed, b. c. 109, 
and gave it the new appellation Sebnste. 
In Jerusalem and its vicinity he erected 
a theatre and an amphitheatre, and on 
the borders of his kingdom built some 
strong fortresses, as Herodeion. His 
magnificence, however, did not confine 
itself to his own kingdom, but over- 
leaping its boundaries founded temples 
in various parts of the Roman empire. 
But the most important building to 
which Herod gave his money was the 
temple at Jerusalem. Out of deference 
to the prejudices of the Jewish people 
he engaged 1000 priests to work upon 
the temple itself, while hundreds of 
other workmen were employed upon the 
other parts. The work was begun B. c. 
20, and continued long after his death. 
John 2 : 20. Whi'e, by a shrewd respect 
for the preiudices of his subjects, Herod 
flattered them into periodical displays 
of contentment, he was not a popular 
sovereign. He was, after all, a for- 
eigner, and the Hebrew people could 
not become reconciled to his dominion 
and that of Caesar. In many ways he 
offended them, as by the introduction of 
the theatre and of games after the model 
of the Grecinn games. 

In his family life Herod displayed 
the most cruel and barbarous nature. 
He had ten wives and several sons; 
and in reference to his conduct toward 
them Augustus made the remark, "I 
would rather be his swine than his 
son." He committed the most revolt- 
ing murders amongst his nearest kin. 
Among the victims of his rage and sus- 
picion were the brother, grandfather 
(Hyrcanus, b. c. 30), and mother of 
Mariamne, his wife, Mariamne herself, 
B. c. 29, his two sons by her, Aristobulus 
and Alexander, B. c. 7, and his son by 
Doris, Antipater, only a few days before 
his death. To this frightful list must 
be added the innocent children of Beth- 
lehem, whom he had murdered in the 
hope to thus do away with Jesus, Matt. 
2: 16. When he was dying he ordered 



HER 



HER 



that the chief men of all the cities of 
Judaea should be killed, in order that 
there might be some mourning at his 
death. 

After a long reign of 37 years, Herod 
died a miserable death in Jericho. His 
feet swelled, and his bowels became the 
victim of ulcers which gave him intense 
pain. He removed to Callirhoe, on the 
other side of the Jordan, hoping to get 
relief in the baths. All was of no avail, 
and he died, nearly 70 years of age, and 
unregretted by his family, much less by 
his subjects. 

The wise men of the East had an au- 
dience with Herod on their arrival in 
Jerusalem, and, alarmed by their inter- 
est in One "born King of the Jews," he 
took the precautions which cunning 
could suggest, and cruelty execute to do 
away with his rival, Matt. 2 : 8, 16. 

2. Herod Axtipas, tetrarch of Gali- 
lee and Peraea, Luke 3 : 1, b. c. 4-a. d. 
39. He was the second son of Herod 
by his fourth wife, Malthace. Like his 
father, he was ambitious and fond of 
ostentation. Our Lord refers to his 
cunning when he terms him "that fox," 
Luke 13 : 32. He also lavished large 
sums of money on public works, and 
built Tiberias, so called after the Roman 
emperor Tiberius. Induced thereto by 
his wife, Herodias, he went to Rome to 
secure the title of king. Charged, how- 
ever, with crimes, he was deposed from 
his office by Caligula, and banished to 
Lyons. 

Herod Antipas is mentioned at least 
five times in the N. T. He is brought 
the most prominently forward in the 
history of John the Baptist. The proph- 
et denounced the adulterous relation in 
which he was living with Herodias, the 
legal wife of Herod Philip (not the te- 
trarch Philip, who married Salome), his 
brother. Herod listened with pleasure 
to John, but, instigated by his wife, he 
put him in prison, and in obedience to a 
rash oath to Salome, although with hesi- 
tating will, had him beheaded, Mark 6 : 
16-28. Herod was also one of the 
judges before whom our Lord appeared 
at his trial. He happened to be at Je- 
rusalem for the feast of the Passover, 
and Pilate sent Christ to him, as he was 
a Galilean. Herod was very desirous to 
see Jesus, having heard of him before, 
Mark 6:14, and asked many questions, 



none of which, however, were answered, 
Luke 23:7-12. This incident is again 
referred to Acts 4 : 27. From the Gos- 
pels we get his character as a votary of 
pleasure and debauchery, Mark 6 : 22 ; 
superstitious, Mark 6 : 16 ; and cunning, 
Luke 13 : 32. 

3. Archelaus, b. c. 4-a. d. 6, eth- 
narch of Judaea, Samaria, and Idumaea. 
He was the son of Herod by Malthace, 
and elder brother of Antipas. Heroc 1 
the Great, his father, left the " king- 
dom " to him, but Augustus refused to 
ratify the will, and put him off" with the 
inferior title ethnarch. He was tyranni- 
cal toward his subjects and regardless 
of their prejudices, marrying his step- 
brother's wife, Glaphyra, in violation of 
the Mosaic Law. He was accused, and, 
cited to appear at Rome, was deposed from 
his office and banished to Vienne in Gaul. 
There is only one mention of Archelaus 
in theN. T., Matt. 2:22. 

4. Philip, tetrarch of Gaulonitis, Au- 
ranitis, etc., b. c. 4-a. d. 34. He was the 
son of Herod the Great by his fifth wife, 
Cleopatra, but unlike the rest of his 
family was distinguished for justice and 
moderation. He married his niece Sa- 
lome, the daughter of Herodias and his 
brother Herod (Philip), who was the 
young woman that danced before Herod 
Antipas. Philip is referred to once in the 
N. T., Luke 3 : 1. 

5. Herod Philip was the son of Her- 
od the Great and Mariamne, the daugh- 
ter of Simon the high priest. He was 
the first husband of Herodias, and is 
called Philip in Mark 6 : 17. He seems 
to have occupied a private station. 

6. Herod Agrippa I., king, a. d. 37- 
44, first of the tetrarchy of Philip and Ly- 




Coin of Herod Agrippa I. 

sanias, and finally of a dominion equal 
in extent to that of Herod the Great. 
He was the grandson of Herod the Great, 
and son of Aristobulus (murdered b. c. 
7). Educated at Rome and thrown 
into prison by Tiberius, he gained the 
favor of the emperor Caligula, who made 
379 



HER 



HES 



him king. He observed the ceremonial 
of the Pharisees and affected piety. As 
the representative of the Jewish spirit, 



£ Is 

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— c5 






B-9 






5 m 



s-. — a. w 

^ 2 



a, h 



p. a 
.a . 



<2 



he persecuted the apostles, beheaded 
James, and sought to execute Peter, 
Acts 12: 1-19. 
380 



7. Herod Agrippa II., a. d. 50-100, 
king of the tetrarchies formerly under 
Philip and Lysanias. He was the 
brother of Bernice and Drusilla. Paul 
appeared before him and narrated the 
history of his conversion. His words in 
answer to Paul's question have become 
proverbial : " Almost thou persuadest 
me to be a Christian," Acts 26 : 28. 

HERO DIANS, a Jewish political 
party, originating probably in devotion 
toward the Roman emperor and Herod, 
his deputy, Matt. 22 : 1 6. They were 
the court-party and submitted willingly 
to the government of Rome, and were 
thus at the opposite pole from the Phari- 
sees. It may be that some of them were 
among those who regarded Herod as the 
Messiah. They coalesced with the Phari- 
sees in the attempt to destroy Christ, 
Mark 3:6; Matt. 22 : 16, and are prob- 
ably referred to in the expression "lea- 
ven of Herod," Mark 8:15. 

HERO'DIAS, the granddaughter 
of Herod the Great, and mother of 
Salome, Matt. 14 : 3. She first mar- 
ried her uncle, Herod Philip, and after- 
ward Herod Antipas, another uncle, and 
that too during her first husband's life- 
time. For this unlawful and scandalous 
connection John the Baptist faithfully 
reproved the parties, and his fidelity 
cost him his life, Matt. 14 : 3-10. When 
her husband, Antipas, was banished to 
Lyons, she shared his banishment with 
him. 

HERO'DION, a "kinsman" of 
Paul, whom he greets, Rom. 16 : 11. 

HERON. Lev. 11:19; Deut. 14: 
18. At least seven species of heron are 
found in Palestine. These well-known 
birds frequent marshes and rivers, in 
which their long legs fit them to wade, 
and from which they obtain their food 
of fish, frogs, and insects. Most critics 
hold that the bird of the above references 
was not the heron, but Tristram, one of 
the latest and best, sustains the reading 
of the A. V. 

HE'SED {kindness), the father of 
one of Solomon's commissariat officers, 
1 Kgs. 4:10. 

HESHBON {reason, device), a city 
originally belonging to the Moabites, 
but taken by Sihon, king of the Amor- 
ites, and made his capital ; captured 
and occupied by the Israelites, Num. 
21:25, 26; situated on the boundary 



HES 



HEZ 



between Reuben and Gad ; rebuilt by 
Reuben and made a Levitical city, then 
being territorially a Gadite city. Num. 
32 : 3, 37 ; Deut. 1:4; 2 : 24-30 ; 3 : 2, 
6 ; 4 : 46 ; 29 : 7 ; Josh. 9:10; 12 : 2, 5 ; 
13 : 10-27 j 21 : 39 ; Jud. 11 : 19, 26 ; I 
Chr. 6 : 81. In later times the Moabites 
regained possession of Heshbon, so that 
it is mentioned as a Moabitish town in 
the prophetic denunciations against that 
people, Isa. 15:4; 16 : 8, 9 j Jer. 48 : 2, 
34, 45 ; 49 : 3. 

The ruins of the city still exist some 
15 miles east of the northern end of the 
Dead Sea, on the great table-land of 
Moab. A small hill rises 200 feet above 
the general level, and upon this is Hesh- 
bon, now called Hesbdn. The whole 
city must have had a circuit of about a 
mile. The hill is described as " one heap 
of shapeless ruin." " Jewish stones, Ro- 
man arches, Doric pillars, and Saracenic 
arches are all strangely mingled." — See 
Tristram, Land of Israel,]). 544. The site 
was admirably adapted for the capital of 
a warlike people. It was the key both to 
the plain of the Jordan and to the moun- 
tains of Gilead. East of the city are 
the remains of water-courses and an 
enormous cistern, or "fish-pond," which 
illustrates Cant. 7: 4. 

HESII'MON (fertility), a town 
named with others as lying in the south 
of Judah, Josh. 15 : 27. Wilton con- 
nects it with Husham, an Edomite king, 
Gen. 36 : 34, 35, and with 'Am Hash, 
perhaps Hashmonah of Num. 33 : 29, 
30, but Conder identifies Heshmon with 
a site called el-Meshash ("the pits"), 
which has two wells and is on the road 
from Beer-sheba to Moladah. 

HES'RON, HES'RONITES. 
See Hezrox, Hezronites. 

HETH (terror), one of the sons of 
Canaan, of the family of Ham, and 
progenitor of the Hittites. Gen. 10 : 15 ; 
23 : 3, 5, 7, 10, 16, 18, 20 ; 25 : 1 ; 27 : 46 ; 
49 : 32 : 1 Chr. 1 : 13. See Hittites. 

HETHLON (hiding-place), the 
name of a place on the northern border 
of Palestine, Ezr. 47 : 15 ; 48 : 1. In all 
probability the "way of Hethlon" is 
the pass at the northern end of Lebanon, 
and is thus identical with "the entrance 
of Hamath" in Num. 34:8. See Ha- 
math. 

HEZ'EKI (8tronq), a Benjamite, 1 
Chr. 8 : 17. 



HEZEKIAH (strength of Jehovah). 
1. A distinguished king of Judah, the 
son and successor of the apostate Ahaz. 
He ascended the throne B. c. 726, at the 
age of 25, and ruled 29 years, till b.-c. 697. 
He was one of the three best kings of 
Judah, and an eminently godlv man. 
2 Kgs. 18 : 5 ; 2 Chr. 29 : 2. He re- 
stored the Mosaic institutions to honor. 
He accomplished the abolition of idol- 
worship in his kingdom, 2 Kgs. 18 : 

4, 22, and tore down the high places, 
which had been dedicated to idolatry. 
He also broke in pieces the brazen 
serpent of Moses, which had become 
the object of idolatrous regard, 2 Kgs. 
18 : 4. During his reign the temple 
was repaired, 2 Chr. 29 : 3 sqq., and 
the Passover celebrated with festivities 
that had not been equalled for magnifi- 
cence and solemnity since the days of 
Solomon and David, 2 Chr. 30 : 26. A 
proclamation was sent from Dan to Beer- 
sheba inviting the tribes to come to Je- 
rusalem to keep the Passover, 2 Chr. 30 : 

5, and as a result of the convocation a 
national religious zeal broke out, 2 Chr. 
31 : 1. Another illustration of Hezekiah's 
godly zeal in the cause of religion is found 
in the high esteem in which he held Isa- 
iah the prophet, whom he frequently 
consulted, 2 Kgs. 19 : 3 ; Isa. 37 : 2. 

The political career of Hezekiah was 
an active one. He warred against the 
Philistines, and regained what his father 
had lost, 2 Kgs. 18 : 8. He rebelled 
against the domination of Assyria, 2 
Kgs. 18 : 7. In the fourteenth year 
of his reign Sennacherib invaded his 
kingdom with an immense army. Rab- 
shakeh was sent out in advance, and 
endeavored to intimidate Hezekiah into 
submission, and insolently insulted him 
under the walls, 2 Kgs. 18 : 19 sqq. 
Hezekiah had recourse to Isaiah, who 
gave assurance of the assistance of the 
Lord, 2 Kgs. 19 : 6. The prediction 
came true, and by a sudden judgment 
of the Almighty the Assyrian host was 
decimated and put to flight, 2 Kgs. 19 : 
35. This event is referred to by the 
three historians of Hezekiah's reign as 
a supernatural event. 2 Kgs. 19 : 35 ; 2 
Chr. 32 : 21 ; Isa. 37 : 36. Hezekiah 
formed an alliance with Egypt, 2 Kgs. 
18:21, and was rich and prosperous. 2 
Kgs. 18 : 7 ; 2 Chr. 32 : 27-29. 

In the events of his private life, one 
381 



HEZ 



HID 



is noted of peculiar significance. The 
king became sick unto death, and Isaiah 
uttered his doom in the words, " Thou 
shalt die, and not live," 2 Kgs. 20 : 1. 
Turning his face to the wall, he lamented 
the event and prayed God to avert it. 
Isaiah, passing out into the court, was 
checked by the word of the Lord, and 
commanded to return and to announce 
the prolongation of the king's life 15 
years, 2 Kgs. 20 : 5. As a sign of the 
cure the dial was made to go back ten 
degrees, 2 Kgs. 20 : 10. Another event 
of note in Hezekiah's life was the pun- 
ishment pronounced upon his house by 
Isaiah, 2 Kgs. 20 : 17, for the display 
be made of his riches to the messengers 
of the king of Babylon, who had come 
to congratulate him upon his recovery. 
Hezekiah died in honor and was buried 
in the " highest of the sepulchres of the 
sons of David," 2 Chr. 32 : 33. 

2. A descendant of the royal house 
of Judah, 1 Chr. 3 : 23. 

3. Ezr. 2 : 16 ; Neh. 7 : 21. See 
Ater. 

HE'ZION (sight), grandfather of 
Benhadad, and king of Aram (Syria), 1 
Kgs. 15 : 18. 

HE'ZIR (a swine). 1. A priestly 
chief, 1 Chr. 24:15. 

2. One who sealed the covenant, Neh. 
10 : 20. 

HEZ'RAI [enclosed), one of David's 
warriors, 2 Sam. 23 : 35 ; called Hezro 
in 1 Chr. 11 : 37. 

HEZ'RON. 1. A son of Reuben. 
Gen. 46 : 9 ; Ex. 6 : 14; 1 Chr. 5 : 3. 

2. A son of Phares. Gen. 46:12; 
Ruth 4:18; 1 Chr. 2:9. 

HEZ'RON, Josh. 15 : 25. See Ha- 

ZOR, 4. 

HEZ'RONITES, THE. 1, 2. 

Two families in Reuben and Judah, 
Num. 26 : 6, 21. 

HID'DAI (joyful), one of David's 
warriors, 2 Sam. 23 : 30; in 1 Chr. 11 : 
52 called Hurai. 

HID'DEKEL {rapid Tigris), a cel- 
ebrated river of western Asia, the third 
of the rivers which issued from the gar- 
den of Eden. It is said to flow east to 
Assyria, Gen. 2:14; Dan. 10 : 4 ; is call- 
ed in the ancient Zend language Teger 
(" stream "), whence the name " Tigris." 
Like its twin river, the Euphrates, it 
has in the Armenian territory numerous 
sources. The western branches, which 
382 



form the principal stream, spring from 
the southern slope of the Anti-Taurus, 
at no great distance from the sources 
of the Araxes, the Euphrates, and the 
Halys, and form a junction not far from 
Diarbekir. The eastern branch is form- 
ed by the union of several streams hav- 
ing their sources in the districts of Mu- 
kus and Shattak, and farther eastward, 
in the mountains of Kurdistan. The 
eastern and western branches of the 
Tigris unite at Tilleh, whence the river 
rushes through a long, narrow, and deep 
gorge to the low country of Assyria. At 
Mosul, opposite the site of Nineveh, the 
river is about 300 feet wide, and when 
swollen by rains or the melting of the 
mountain snows becomes impetuous, 
flooding the lower country, and some- 
times destroying the bridges of boats. 
The river receives several important 
tributaries, and between Mosul and 
Baghdad passes over several ledges of 
limestone rocks, which form rapids of 
greater or less importance. In the lat- 
ter part of its course it averages 600 
feet in width, frequently 15 or 20 feet 
in depth, and during a sudden rise flows 
about 5 miles an hour; but in passing 
over the alluvial plain, the current is 
often less than 1 mile an hour. At Kur- 
nah the Euphrates and the Tigris unite ; 
the combined stream receives the name 
of Shat-el-Arab, which, after a course of 
about. 120 miles, falls into the Persian 
Gulf. The whole course of the Tigris to 
its junction with the Euphrates is about 
1146 miles. The Tigris is navigable for 
vessels drawing from 3 to 4 feet of water, 
from the Persian Gulf almost as far as 
Tekrit, a distance of nearly 600 miles. 
There is an active commerce along the 
river between Basrah and Baghdad by 
means of the large country-boats, which 
go in fleets; above the latter city it is 
chiefly carried on by rafts from Mosul. 
The Euphrates expedition ascended the 
Tigris to beyond Dokhalah, and the Eu- 
phrates steamer passed from the Euphra- 
tes to the Tigris by the ancient canal, 
which leaves the former several miles 
below Hit. and enters the latter a 
short way below Baghdad. The banks 
of the Tigris, on which stood Nineveh and 
other populous cities once the seats of 
high culture and the residence of mighty 
kings, are now covered with mounds and 
ruins, the relics of ancient greatness. 



HIE 



HIG 



There is scarcely one permanent settle- 
ment on the banks of the Tigris from 
Jezivah to the immediate vicinity of 
Baghdad, with the exception of Mosul 
and Tekrit. See Assyria, Euphrates, 
and Tigris. 

HI'EL {God lives), a Bethelite who 
rebuilt Jericho in the reign of Ahab, and 
in whom Joshua's curse, Josh. 6 : 26, was 
fulfilled. 1 Kgs. 16 : 34. 

HIEUAPOLIS {sacred city), a city 
in Proconsular Asia, Col. 4 : 13, near the 
river Lycus, and in sight of Laodicea, 
which was about 5 miles to the south. It 
stood on a high bluff, with a high moun- 
tain behind it. In the city was the famous 
temple of Pluto, remains of which are still 
to be seen. The ruins of the city are 
extensive, among which are the remains 
of temples, churches, a triumphal arch, a 
theatre, gymnasium, baths, and highly- 
ornamented sarcophagi. Hierapolis was 
celebrated for its warm springs, which 
hold in solution carbonate of lime, de- 
positing incrustations on anything with 
which the waters come in contact. It is 
now called Pambouk Kelessi. 

HIGGA'ION, a term occurring 
three times, Ps. 9:16; Ps. 19 : 14 
(translated "meditation"), and Ps. 92: 
3 (translated "solemn sound"). It 
probably was originally a musical term 
which acquired the additional signifi- 
cation of solemn thought or medita- 
tion. 

HIGH 7 PLACES. The notion of 
heaven as the dwelling-place of God 
led naturally to the thought that 
the higher one rose above the level 
ground the nearer one came to God. 
This deduction lay at the base of the 
systematic use of hills and mountain- 
tops for religious worship. Trojans 
sacrificed to Zeus (Jupiter) on Mount 
Ida; Greeks, Persians, Germans, and 
many other nations followed the cus- 
tom. We are therefore prepared to find 
the Bible containing notices of the 
" high places," as these altars were call- 
ed. The patriarchs offered their sacri- 
fices wherever they pitched their tents, 
Gen. 12 : 7, 8 ; 26 : 25 ; 28 : 18, but even 
they sometimes sacrificed upon the 
mountains. Gen. 22 : 2 ; 31 : 54. The 
Moabites, Num. 22 : 41 ; 23 : 14, 28 ; 
Isa. 15 : 2 ; Jer. 48 : 35, and the Canaan- 
ites, Num. 33 : 52 ; Deut. 12 : 2, are often 
mentioned in the Bible as habitual sac- 



rificers upon the high places. But not 
only these idolaters, but Moses also — al- 
though it might seem to be an imitation 
of the heathen — at the command of God 
or of his own accord, chose the moun- 
tains for religious purposes. Ex. 17 : 15 ; 
Num. 20 : 25. It will be remembered 
that the first altar erected to Jehovah in 
the Holy Land was upon Mount Ebal. 
Deut. 27 : 5 ; Josh. 8 : 30. The Israel- 
ites found that all prominent points had 
been consecrated by the former inhabit- 
ants for idol- worship, and they used the 
same localities in the Jehovah-wor- 
ship. The.e was, however, an express 
direction given in respect to selecting 
places of worship. Deut. 12 : 11-14. 
But their course, (though in the be- 
ginning innocent) was a fatal snare. 
It was perhaps impossible to worship 
Jehovah purely amidst the suggestions 
of the former impurity which those high 
places called up, so in the books of Mo- 
ses we find strict commands to destroy 
them. Lev. 26 : 30 ; Num. 33 : 52 ; Deut. 
33 : 29. Israel is directed to repair unto 
the one altar of burnt-offering. Deut. 
12:5, 6; 16:21. But on the other 
hand, an earlier law, Ex. 20 : 24 ff., gave 
the people directions how to build altars, 
as if there might be really more than 
one. And it is certain that the Deutero- 
nomic regulation was violated, at least in 
letter, for Gideon, Jud. 6 : 25, 26, Samuel 
at Mizpeh, 1 Sam. 7 : 10, at an unnamed 
high place, 9 : 12, and at Bethlehem, 16 : 
5 ; Saul at Gil gal, 13 : 9, David, 1 Chr. 
21:26, Elijah on Mount Carmel, 1 Kgs. 
18 : 30, and other prophets, 1 Sam. 10 : 5, 
offered sacrifices away from the taber- 
nacle, and even upon high places. To 
account for this strange anomaly some 
suggest that the command already al- 
luded to was " prospective, and was not 
to come into force until such time as 
the tribes were settled in the Promised 
Land, and had rest from all their neigh- 
bors round about." Others plead the 
inconvenience, or in all probability at 
times the impossibility, of coming up to 
Jerusalem, as an excuse. But it should 
be borne in mind that in the above-men- 
tioned incidents there was either a di- 
vine command or a divine sanction. 
The Rabbins declare that for the greater 
part of the time before the building of 
the temple it was allowable to offer sac- 
rifices upon the high places. 2 Sam. 15 : 
383 



HIG 



HIG 



32 ; cf. 1 Kgs. 3 : 2. Whatever may be 
the explanation, the worship on the high 
places gratified a popular demand, and 
God did not punish them for this viola- 
tion of the command in Deuteronomy. 
Elijah, indeed, complains because so 
many altars of Jehovah were thrown 
down, 1 Kgs. 19 : 10. They formed 
local centres of religion ; indeed, there 
is a resemblance in this respect between 
them and the synagogues. Solomon, 
however, took a step downward in this 
matter. He gave the sanction of his 
example to the erection of high places, 
not only for Jehovah, but for heathen 
divinities, 1 Kgs. 11 : 7, 8. The idol- 
atry of the capital found imitators. 
When Jeroboam would strengthen him- 
self against the attraction of Jerusalem, 
he erected calves at the high places of 
Dan and Bethel, 1 Kgs. 12 : 29-31. 
From that time the Jews of the north- 
ern kingdom used the high places 
as places of worship, both of Jehovah 
and of false gods. In Judah the worship 
of Jehovah on the high places contin- 
ued. Even the pious kings — Asa, 1 Kgs. 
15 : 14, Jehoshaphat, 22 : 43, Jehoash, 2 
Kgs. 12:3, Amaziah, 14:4, Azariah, 
15 : 4, Jotham, 15 : 35 — made no attempt 
to remove it, although their failure to do 
so constitutes a stock charge against 
them by the writers of the books of the 
Kings. But in Chronicles, Asa and Je- 
hoshaphat, 2 Chr. 14 : 3 ; 17 : 6 ; 20 : 33, 
are both stated to have taken away the 
high places. The discrepancy is re- 
moved by supposing these kings really 
did remove the high places used for 
idolatrous worship, but found them- 
selves unable to remove those dedicated 
to Jehovah. Meanwhile, the prophets, 
among whom were Amos, 7:9; Hosea, 
10 : 8, and Micah, 1 : 5, lifted up their 
denunciations against the practice. At 
last Hezekiah set himself vigorously 
against the high places, 2 Kgs. 18 : 4. 
But it was reserved to Josiah to uproot 
the evil. The nation, under the recent- 
ly-discovered book of the Law (Deuter- 
onomy), for the first time, perhaps, real- 
ized how sinful their practice had been, 
and therefore joined the king in destroy- 
ing all traces of it, 2 Kgs. 23 : 5. After 
the time of Josiah there is no mention 
of Jehovistic high places, although the 
later prophets speak of idolatrous high 
places. Jer. 17 : 3; Eze. 6 : 6. 
384 



The high places had their particular 
priests. 1 Kgs. 12:31; 2 Kgs. 17 : 32 ; 
23 : 8 fF. The worship thereat consisted 
both in sacrifices and offerings. Upon 
them was an altar, which is distin- 
guished from the high place, 2 Kgs. 
23 : 15, and about them, in some cases 
at least, a structure called the " house 
of the high place." 1 Kgs. 12 : 31 j 13 : 
32 ; 2 Kgs. 23 : 19. This gave them a 
temple-like appearance. The word for 
"high place" was occasionally trans- 
ferred to such a temple or shrine, and 
therefore a "high place" in a valley, 
Jer. 7 : 31, or in the city's streets is 
spoken of. Eze. 16 : 31. 

HIGH' PRIEST, the head of the 
Jewish priesthood, Lev. 21:10. Aaron 
was the first to hold the office, Ex. 28 : 1, 
and his descendants filled it after him. 
Eleazar was his immediate successor, 
Num. 3 : 32 ; 20 : 28 ; Deut. 10 : 6, and 
the priesthood remained in his family 
till Eli, 1 Chr. 24 : 3, 6, who was of the 
house of Ithamar. 

The office of the high priest was orig- 
inally held for life. This rule was dis- 
regarded by Solomon, who appointed 
Zadok and deposed Abiathar, 1 Kgs. 2 : 
35, because he had espoused the cause 
of Adonijah, 1 Kgs. 1 : 7, 25. 

In the years succeeding the close of 
the canon the office became a tool in the 
hands of the rulers of the land. Herod 
particularly and his successors disre- 
garded the tradition of the Jews on this 
point. This people, who held the office 
so sacred, now often begged their rulers 
to remove the incumbents, who were 
parasites of the throne. Herod appoint- 
ed no less than five high priests himself, 
and one of them, Simon, as the price of 
his daughter in marriage. We conse- 
quently read in the N. T. of several high 
priests living at the same time, and An- 
nas and Caiaphas are particularly men- 
tioned, Luke 3 : 2. 

The services of consecration were pro- 
longed, lasting 7 days, Ex. 29 : 35, and 
elaborate. They consisted of sacrifices, 
Ex. 29 ; of anointing with oil, Ex. 29 : 7 ; 
30 : 22-33 ; Lev. 21 : 10 ; and of putting 
on of garments, Ex. 29 : 5, 6, 8, 9. 

The dress of the high priest was much 
more costly and magnificent than that 
of the inferior order of priests. It is 
described Ex. 39 : 1-9. In the cut are 
seen the robe and ephod, the latter of 



HIG 



HIL 



which is outermost of all, and is curi- 
ously wrought with gold wire and blue, 
purple, and scarlet thread. Upon either 
shoulder is seen an onyx-stone, on each 
of which were engraved the names of six 
of the tribes of Israel. The breastplate 
is also seen, with a wrought chain of 




Hi»h Priest. 



Priest. 



gold attached to each corner, and pass- 
ing under the arms and over the shoul- 
der. See Breastplate. 

The mitre, or head-dress, is formed 
of eight yards of fine linen, in circular 
folds, and inscribed in front, upon a 
plate of pure gold, Holiness to the 
Lord. The fringe or hem of the robe, 
and the bolls suspended from it, are 
also seen. 

The dress of the high priest on the 
day of expiation was very plain and 
simple, consisting only of plain linen, 
with a sash or girdle. Hence these 
were called by the Jews the priest's 
'•'white garments," etc.; the former, 
" garments of gold." 

Functions. — Tho high priest's most 
solemn, peculiar, and exclusive duty 
wa3 to officiate in the most holy place 
on the great day of atonement, Heb. 
9:7,25. See Atonement, Day op. In 
Lev. 16 we have a full account of 
this most interesting service and the 
imposing ceremonies which preceded 
it. The high priest might at any 
time perform the duties assigned to the 
ordinary priests. He was in general the 
overseer of the temple, 2 Kgs. 12:10, 
and at the time of oar Lord presided 
25 



over the Sanhedrin. Acts 5:17; John 
18:13, 11, etc. 

Jesus is the great High Priest, who 
once for all sprinkled with his own blood 
the threshold of the holy of holies (hea- 
ven), where he ever liveth to make inter- 
cession for us. Heb. 4 : 14 ; 7 : 25 ; 9 : 1 2, 

HIGHWAYS. At the present 
time there arc no roads in Palestine 
except the remains of those the Romans 
made. But inasmuch as the ancient 
Jews used carts and chariots, there must 
have been roads in that day. Gen. 45 : 
19, 20 ; Josh. 17 : 10; Jud. 4*: 13 ; 2 Kgs. 
10:10; Acts 8:28. The highways or 
more frequented tracks are distinguished 
from the hedges or the narrow paths be- 
tween the hedges of a vineyard by our 
Lord in the familiar parable of the Mar- 
riage-supper, Luke 14 : 23. Sco Hedge, 
Field. 

HI'LEN (place of caves ?), a city of 
the sons of Aaron in Judah, 1 Chr. 6 : 
58 : named Ilolon in Josh. 15 : 51 ; 21 : 15. 

IIILKI'AII {the Lord is my portion ). 
1. The father of Eliakim. 2 Kgs. 18 : 18 ; 
Isa. 22 : 20 ; 36 : 3, 22. 

2. The high priest in the reign of Jo- 
siah, who accidentally, while "summing 
up " the silver in the temple, found tho 
book of the Law, 2 Kgs. 22 : 8. 

3, 4. Two Merarite Levites. 1 Chr. 
6:45; 26:11. 

5. One who stood by Ezra during the 
reading of the Law, Neh. 8 : 4. 

0. A priest who returned with Zerub- 
babel, Neh. 12: 7, 21. 

7. The father of tho prophet Jere- 
miah, Jcr. 1:1. 

8. The father of one of Zedekiah's am- 
bassadors to Nebuchadnezzar, Jer. 29 : 3. 

HILL-COUNTRY. Sec Hill. 

HIL'LEL (praise), father of Abdon, 
one of the judges of Israel, Jud. 12: 13, 
15. 

HILL, HILLS. There is somo 
confusion in the use of ''hill" and 
"mountain" in the A. V. Thus the 
" hill country " of Luke 1:39 is the 
"mountain of Judah," Josh. 20 : 7. 
Again, precisely the same elevation is 
called both mountain and hill, Luke 9: 
28; cf. 37. But the original text is ex- 
act, employing words of quite different 
meaning to express the different eleva- 
tions of hills and mountains. See Pal- 
estine, Mountain. 

385 



HIL 



HIR 



HILL OF ZION. See Zion, Je- 
rusalem. 

HI1V. See Measures. 

HIND. See Hart. 

HING'ES. The translation of two 
Hebrew words. The hinges of Prov. 
23 : 14 were probably the pivots inserted 
in sockets, both above and below, upon 
which Oriental doors are even now hung, 
'''he hinges of 1 Kgs. 7: 50 were "prob- 
ably of the Egyptian kind, attached to 
the upper and lower sides of the door." 

HIN'NOM, a valley to the south and 
west of Jerusalem, called also " the val- 
ley of tbe son," or "children, of Hin- 
nom," or "valley of the children of 
groaning," a deep and narrow ravine 
with steep, rocky sides separating Mount 
Zion to the north from the " hill of evil 
counsel," and the sloping rocky plateau 
of the " plain of Rephaim " to the south. 
The south-eastern portion of the valley 
was called Tophet, or " place of fire," 
Jer. 7 : 31 ; 2 Kgs. 23 : 1 0, and the " val- 
ley of slaughter," Jer. 7 : 32 ; 19 : 6. 

The earliest mention of the Valley of 
Hinnom is in Josh. 15 : 8 ; 18 : 16, where 
the boundary-line between the tribes of 
Judah and Benjamin is described as 
passing along the bed of the ravine. On 
the southern brow, overlooking tbe val- 
ley at its eastern extremity, Solomon 
erected high places for Molech, 1 Kgs. 
11 : 7, whose horrid rites were revived 
from time to time in the same vicinity 
by the later idolatrous kings. Ahaz 
and Manasseh made their children " pass 
through the fire" in this valley, 2 Kgs. 
16 : 3 ; 2 Chr. 28 : 3 : 33 : 6, and the fiendish 
custom of infant sacrifice to the fire-gods 
seems to have been kept up in Tophet. 
To put an end to these sacrifices, Josiah 
polluted the place by spreading over it 
human bones and other corruptions, 2 
Kgs. 23:10, 13, 14; 2 Chr. 34 I 4, 5, 
from which time it appears to have be- 
come the common cesspool of the city, 
into which its sewage was conducted, to 
be carried off by the waters of the Ke- 
dron. 

From its ceremonial defilement, and 
from the detested and abominable fire 
of Molech, if not from the supposed 
ever-burning funeral piles, the later 
Jews applied the name of this valley, 
Ge Hinnom, Gehenna, to denote the place 
of eternal torment. In this sense the 
word is used in the Gospels. Matt. 5 : 
386 



29 ; 10 : 28 j 23 : 15 ; Mark 9 : 43 ; Luke 
12 : 5. It is now Wddy Rabdbeh. 

The valley has usually been de- 
scribed as beginning at the north-west 
of Jerusalem and extending south 1J 
miles, turns east between Zion and the 
hill of evil counsel, passing through 
a deep gorge and joining the Kedron. 
South of the valley is a steep hillside, 
rocky and full of sepulchres, the tradi- 
tional site of Aceldama, or " field of 
blood." Warren, however, identifies 
Hinnom with the Kedron valley east of 
Jerusalem {Recovery of Jerusalem, p. 
239), and Stanley accepts this view 
(Ibid., -p. 14). Prof. Socin in Baedeker's 
Handbook, 1876 dissents from this loca- 
tion, and holds to the former identifi- 
cation of Hinnom. 

HI'RAH {noble birth), an Adullam- 
ite, the friend of Judah, Gen. 38 : 1, 12, 
20. 

HIRAM (noble). 1. A distinguish- 
ed king of Tyre. He was contemporary 
with David and Solomon, and on terms 
of political and personal friendship with 
them. Under his reign the city of Tyre 
became celebrated for its wealth and 
magnificence, and the vast supplies he 
furnished to the kings of Israel show the 
greatness of his resources. He aided 
David with materials for a palace, 2 
Sam. 5 : 11 ; 1 Chr. 14 : 1, and Solomon 
in the construction of the temple, 1 Kgs. 
5 : 1-12 ; 9 : 11-14, furnishing workmen 
as well as materials. He also allowed 
Solomon to send ships with the Tyrian 
ships under Tyrian management. 1 Kgs. 
9:26-28; 10:11-28. 

2. An eminent artificer of Tyre who 
was employed by Solomon on some of 
the most difficult of the fixtures and fur- 
niture of the temple, 1 Kgs. 7:13. 

HIRE'LXNG, one who is employed 
on hire for a limited time, as a day or 
year, Job 14 : 6. By the Levitical law 
such a one was to be paid his wages 
daily, Lev. 19 : 13. " The years of a 
hireling " were years exactly reckoned, 
since the hireling would know the day 
of his release, and the master would not 
let him go a day too soon. Isa. 16 : 14; 
21 : 16. "The little interest which would 
be felt by such a temporary laborer, 
compared with that of the shepherd or 
permanent keeper of the flock, furnishes 
a striking illustration in one of our 
Lord's discourses, John 10 : 12, 13. 



HIS 



HOD 



HIS is often used in the A . V. instead 
of its. In one sentence this fact has 
misled many. Thus : " Seek ye first the 
kingdom of God and his righteousness," 
Matt. 6 : 33. The " his " refers to God, 
not to kingdom. 

HISS. To hiss at one is used as an 
expression of insult and contempt, 1 Kgs. 
9:8; Jer. 19 : 8 ; Eze. 27 : 36 ; Mic. 6 : 
]6, and also denotes "to call by whis- 
tling." Isa, 5:26; 7:18; Zech. 10 : 8. 

HIT'TITES, the posterity of Heth, 
the second son of Canaan. Their settle- 
ments were at first in the southern part 
of Judaea, near Hebron, Gen. 23 : 3, and 
later, when the spies enter the land, they 
find them dwelling in the mountains. It 
was from the Hittites that Abraham pur- 
chased Machpelah for a sepulchre, Gen. 
23:3-13; and in this transaction they 
are represented as a commercial rather 
than a warlike people. Esau married 
two Hittite women, Gen. 26 : 34, 35 ; 
from all which we gather that they were 
on terms of intimacy with the family of 
Abraham. Later in the history of Israel 
they seem to have lost their national in- 
tegrity, although the name was not for- 
gotten, Ezr. 9: 1, 2. 

HIT'TITES, LAND OF THE, 
the region peopled by the descendants 
of Cheth (A. V. "Heth"), the second 
son of Canaan. They were first settled 
about Machpelah, at a place named Kir- 
jath-arba, afterward called Hebron. Gen. 
23 : 19 ; 25 : 9. When the Israelites en- 
tered the Promised Land the Hittites 
took part against the invaders in equal 
alliance with the other Canaanite tribes. 
Josh. 9:1; 11 : 3. After this the notices 
of the Hittites are very few. Of the ex- 
tent of their country nothing is known, 
except that it covered the portion of Ca- 
naan between the wilderness of Paran 
on the south and the region occupied by 
the Jebusites on the north. Notices of the 
nation have recently been found in As- 
syrian inscriptions, and occur in Egyp- 
tian annals. See Canaan. 

HFVITES, a people descended from 
Canaan, Gen. 10 : 17. When Jacob re- 
turned to the land of his fathers he 
found them settled there. One of them, 
Hamor, defiled Dinah, for which a speedy 
retribution was visited upon their city by 
Simeon and Levi, Gen. 34 : 25. We 
again meet them at the conquest of Ca- 
naan, Josh. 11 : 3, 19. This people dwelt 



at this time in the north-western part of 

Palestine, under Mount Hermon, Josh. 

11 : 3, and in Mount Lebanon, Jud. 3 : 3. 

HFVITES, LAND OF THE, a 

region in Canaan, along the coast of the 
Mediterranean, peopled by some of the 
J descendants of Canaan, the son of Ham. 
Gen. 10 : 17 : 1 Chr. 1:15. On Jacob's 
return to Canaan, Shechem was in pos- 
session of the Hivites, Hamor the Hivite 
being the "prince of the land," Gen. 34: 
2. They voluntarily surrendered their 
country to Joshua. Josh. 9:7; 11: 19. 
The main body of the Hivites were then 
living on the northern confines of western 
Palestine — " under Hermon in the land 
of Mizpeh," Josh. 11 : 3 ; " in Mount Leb- 
anon, from Mount Baal-hermon unto the 
entering in of Hamath," Jud. 3 : 3. They 
paid tribute to Solomon. 1 Kgs. 9 : 20 ; 
2 Chr. 8 : 7. Their country appears to 
have been afterward absorbed by the 
surrounding nations. 

HIZKIAH {strength of Jehovah), 
an ancestor of the prophet Zephaniah, 
Zeph. 1 : 1. 

HIZKI'JAH {strength, of Jehovah), 
one who sealed the covenant, Neh. 10 : 
17. 

HO'BAB (7owe),the son of Kaguel, 
or Reuel, and brother-in-law of Moses, 
Num. 10 : 29-32. 

HO'BAH {hiding -place), a place be- 
yond Damascus to which Abraham pur- 
sued the confederate kings, Gen. 14 : 15. 
Two miles to the north of Damascus is 
Jobar, which the Jews regard as the 
Hobah of Scripture. There they had a 
synagogue dedicated to Elijah. Others 
fix the site at Buzrah, 3 miles north of 
Damascus : Delitszch suggests Hoba, a 
fountain near Karzetan, as Hobah. 

HOD {splendor), an Asherite, 1 Chr. 
7 : 37. 

HODAI'AH {splendor of Jehovah), 
a member of the royal line of Judah, 1 
Chr. 3 : 24. 

HODAVFAH {splendor of Jeho- 
vah). 1. A Manassite, 1 Chr. 5:24. 

2. A Benjamite, 1 Chr. 9 : 7. 

3. A Levite, Ezr. 2 : 40. 
HO'DESH {new moon), a woman of 

Benjamin, 1 Chr. 8 : 9. 

HODE'VAH {splendor of Jehovah), 
a Levite family who returned from cap- 
tivity with Zerubbabel, Neh. 7 : 43. 

HODFAH {splendor of Jehorah), a 
woman, the wife of a Judite, 1 Chr. 4 : 
387 



HOD 



HOO 



19; perhaps same as Jehudijah. 1 Chron. I 
4:18. 

HODI'JAH {splendor of Jehovah), \ 
the name of three Levites in the time of I 
Ezra and Nehemiah. Neh. 8:7; 9:5; 
10:10, 13, 18. 

HOG'LAH (partrid(je), one of the 
daughters of Zelophehad. Num. 26 : 33 ; 
27:1: 36:11; Josh. 17 : 3. 

HO'HAM {whom Jehovah incites), 
king of Hebron, Josh. 10 :3. 

HO'LON (sandy). 1. A town in the 
mountains of Judah, one of the first group, 
of which Debir was apparently the most 
considerable, Josh. 15 : 51; 21 : 15 ; call- 
ed Hilen in 1 Chr. 6 : 58. Conder pro- 
poses Beit 'Alain, as its site. 

2. A city of Moab, Jer. 48 : 21, in the 
plain-country, east of the Jordan. 

HOLY, HOLINESS. Ex.15: 
11 ; Lev. 27 : 14. Holiness, or perfect 
freedom from sin, and immaculate pur- 
ity are distinguishing attributes of the 
divine nature, Isa. 6 : 3. These words 
in their primitive meaning imply a sepa- 
ration or setting apart from secular and 
profane uses to sacred and divine uses. 
They sometimes denote the purity of the 
angelic nature, Matt. 25 : 31 ; the com- 
parative freedom from sin which results 
from the sanctification of the human 
heai-t, as in the case of Christians, Heb. 
8:1; Col. 3:12; and the consecrated 
character of things, Ex. 30 : 25; Lev. 
16 : 4, and places, Ex. 3 : 5. 

The conception of God as holy was 
characteristic of the religion of the 0. T. 
While the nations of antiquity were at- 
tributing to the divine Being human pas- 
sions and human sins, the Hebrews alone 
held firmly to the idea of God as abso- 
lutely holy. 

HOLY CITY. See Jerusalem. 

HOLY DAY. See Feasts. 

HOLY GHOST, HOLY 
SPIRIT. See Spirit. 

HOLY LAND. See Canaan. 

HO'MAI (exterminate), 1 Chr. 1 : 
39. See Hemam. 

HOME- BORN SLAVE. See 
Servant. 

HOMER. See Measures. 

HONEST occurs frequently in its 
original sense of "honorable, comely." 
Like the Latin honcstns, it denotes what 
is morally beautiful in character and 
con finer. 1 Pet. 2 : 12. 

HONEY, HONEYCOMB, Ps. 
388 



19:10. Palestine still is, almost with- 
out metaphor, " a land flowing with 
milk and honey," Ex. 3 : 8, 17. It is 
remarkable for the variety of its flowers, 
reminding us of the promise: "With 
honey out of the rock should I have 
satisfied thee," Ps. 81:16. With such 
provision was John the Baptist fed. 

Besides these wild swarms, bee-keep- 
ing is carried so far in this country that 
almost every house possesses its hives. 
The syrup obtained from dates is sup- 
posed to be sometimes intended by the 
word " honey," 2 Chr. 31 : 5. Dibs, or 
the syrup made from (trapes, which see, 
is also included under the term "honey." 
The figurative allusions of the sacred 
writers to honey and the honeycomb are 
striking and beautiful. Ps. 19 : 10 ; Prov. 
5:3; 27 : 7. Milk and honey were the 
chief dainties of the earlier ages, as they 
are now of the Bedouins, and butter and 
honey are also mentioned among articles 
of food. 2 Sam. 17 : 29 : Isa. 7:15. In 
South Africa bees deposit their honey on 
the surface of the cliff's of rocks, and for 
its protection cover it with a dark-col- 
ored wax. This, by the action of the 
weather, becomes hard and of the com- 
plexion of the rock. The traveller makes 
an incision in this wax covering, and by 
applying his mouth to the aperture sucks 
out as much honey as he wants, Deut. 
32:13. They also cover trees in the 
same manner. See Bee, Grapes. 

HOOD, a turban, Isa. 3:23. See 
Head-dress. 

HOOKS. Various kinds of hooks 
are mentioned in the Bible. 

1. Fish-hooks. See Fi?h-hooks. 

2. The "hook" of 2 Kgs. 19:28; 
Eze. 29 : 4 was probably a ring put 
through the nose of wild beasts, or, ac- 
cording to the inhuman practice of the 
ancient Orientals, of human beings. In 
Job 41 : 2 such a ring is spoken of, called 
"thorn." 

3. Pruning-hooks, knives hooked at 
one end. Isa. 2:4: 18:5. 

4. Flesh-hooks, for getting the flesh 
out of the caldrons. Eze. 27 : 3 ; 1 Sam. 
2:13, 14. 

5. Hooks to which the carcass was 
suspended while being flayed, Eze. 40 : 
43. This meaning is, however, disputed. 

6. Hooks by which the curtains of the 
tabernacle were suspended, Ex. 26 : 32, 
37. 



HOP 



HOR 



HOPH'NI (a fighter), AN D PHIN'- 
EHAS (brazen -m&uthed), the two sons 
\j{ Eli, united in their office, their crimes, 
and their death. They are examples of 
the evils of lax family government. They 
were licentious, exacting, and impious. 
They were slain in the battle when the 
ark of God was taken. See 1 Sam. 1:3; 
2 : 12-17, 22-26, 34; 4 : 11. See Eli. 

HOR, MOUNT (the mountain). 1. 
Now called by the Arabs Jebel Neby 
Hartin, " mountain of the prophet 
Aaron." It was the halting-place of the 
Israelites between Kaclesh, Num. 20 : 
22 ; 33 : 37, and Zalmonah, 33 : 41, when 
they were journeying " by the way of the 
Red Sea to compass the land of Edom," 
Num. 21 : 4, and where Aaron died. Num. 
20:24-29; 33:38, 39; Deut. 32 : 50. 

" It is one of the very few spots con- 
nected with the wanderings of the Israel- 
ites which admit of no reasonable doubt. 
There Aaron died in the presence of 
Moses and Eleazar, there he was buried, 
and there Eleazar was invested with the 



priesthood in his stead. The mountain 
is marked far and near by its double tup, 
which rises, like a huge castellated build- 
ing, from a lower base, and on one of these 
is the Mohammedan chapel, erected out 
of the remains of some earlier and more 
sumptuous building, over the supposed 
grave. There was nothing of interest 
in the chapel ; only the marks of Mus- 
sulman devotion, ragged shawls, ostrich 
eggs, and a few beads. These were in 
the upper chamber. The great high 
priest, if his body be really there, rests 
in a subterraneous vault below, hewn out 
of the rock, and in a niche now cased 
over with stone, wood, and plaster. 
From the flat roof of the chapel we over- 
looked his last view — that view which 
was to him what Pisgah was to his 
brother." — Dean Stanley. 

Situation and Physical Features. — The 
Scriptures describe Mount Hor as "iu 
the edge" — i. e., on the boundary-line— 
of Edom. Num. 20:23; 33:37. Edom 
or Mount Seir comprehended the whole 




Mt. Hor and 
of the sandstone range of mountains 
which bounds the Arabah on the east 
and extends nearly from the southern 
extremity of the Dead Sea to the Gulf 
of Akabah. About midway between 
these two points, some 50 miles distant 
from each, is the highest and most con- 
spicuous mountain of the range, which 
is without doubt the Mount Hor upon 
which Aaron died. Mosera, Deut. 10 : 
6, must have been close to the mountain. 
The altitude of the summit is 4S00 feet 
above the Mediterranean, 4000 feet 
above the Arabah, and 6000 feet above 



Aaron's Tomb, 
the surface of the Dead Sea. These are 
the English measurements. The moun- 
tain, which is ascended by an exceed- 
ingly steep path, has two peaks, and on 
the eastern of these (4360 feet above the 
Mediterranean, according to Baedeker) 
is situated the tomb of Aaron (Kabr 
Harun), to which pilgrimages are made. 
Here the Arabs formerly offered sacri- 
fices, and Stephens, an early American 
traveller, saw the remains of an altar 
and indications of such sacrifices. The 
tomb of Aaron is a small building meas- 

j uring 28 by 33 feet and surmounted by 
3S9 



HOR 



HOR 



a white dome, as is usual over saints' 
tombs. The interior consists of two 
chambers, one above the other. In the 
upper are four large pillars and a stone 
sarcophagus. Steps lead down to the 
lower chamber, which is perfectly dark. 
At the end is a recess covered by grat- 
ing, which purports to be the real tomb. 
The impression of one on the spot is that 
Aaron's death took place in the small 
basin between the two peaks. Trumbull 
proposes Jebel Madurah for Mt. Hor. 

Since Aaron had his last view of earth 
from the summit of Hor, as Moses did 
from Pisgah, the prospect is regarded 
with great interest. The view includes 
the Arabah, the mountains of southern 
Palestine and Edom, and the Dead Sea. 
Beneath the mountain, on the eastern 
side, is Petra, a place of great historic 
interest. See Sela. 

2. Mount Hor, evidently distinct from 
the one above, is once mentioned, Num. 
34 : 7, 8, as one of the northern bounda- 
ries of the Promised Land. Some would 
understand by this the whole of the Leb- 
anon range as marking the northern 
boundary of the country. Porter makes 
it the extreme northern summit of the 
Lebanon range, which bounds " the en- 
trance of Hamath " on the south. It is 
10,000 feet high, emphatically Hor-ha- 
har, " the mountain of the mountain," 
the loftiest mountain in Syria. 

HORAM (elevated), king of Gezer 
at the time of the Conquest, Josh. 10 : 33. 

HO'REB {dry, desert), a mountain 
or range frequently mentioned in Scrip- 
ture. The special application of Horeb 
and Sinai in the O. T. has been much 
discussed. Robinson and Hengsten- 
berg think that Horeb is the name for 
the whole range, Sinai for a particular 
peak; Gesenius and others hold pre- 
cisely the opposite view. Stanley sug- 
gests that there is more a distinction of 
usage than of place. (1) In Leviticus 
and Numbers, Sinai is exclusively used of 
the scene of the giving of the Law ; (2) 
in Deuteronomy, Horeb is substituted 
for Sinai; (3) in the Psalms the two are 
used indifferently. See Sinai and Pal- 
entiue, p. 31. The Arabs now apply the 
name Jebel et-Tur to the whole central 
granite region, while the peaks of which 
it is composed are called by various 
names. The mountain of Sinai and its 
wilderness are distinguished as the the- 
390 



atre of events that took place in the dis- 
trict of Horeb, and the whole of Horeb 
is called "the mountain of God." Ex. 
3: 1, 12; 4:27; 17:0; 18:5; 33 : 6. 
Hence, sometimes " Sinai" alone is 
spoken of. Ex. 19:11,19,23; 24:16; 
31 : 18 ; 34 : 29, 32 ; Lev. 7:38: 25 : 1 ; 
26:40; 27:34; Num. 1 : 1 ; 3:1,14; 
33 : 15. But frequently "Horeb " alone 
is named, and the same events are spoken 
of as occurring on Horeb which are de- 
scribed as taking place on Sinai. Deut. 
1:2, 6, 19 ; 4 : 10, 15 ; 5:2; 9:8; 18 : 
16; 29: 1. Later sacred writers employ 
both names ; e. g. " Horeb," 1 Kgs. 8:9; 
19 : 8 ; 2 Chr. 5:10; Ps. 106 : 19 ; Mai. 
4:4; " Sinai," Jud. 5:5; Ps. 68 : 8, 17. 

In the N. T. "Sinai" became a gen- 
eral name, as at the present day. Acts 
7 : 30, 38 ; Gal. 4 : 24, 25. In more mod- 
ern times, and ever since the Crusades, 
the application of the names Sinai and 
Horeb to the particular mountains or 
peaks has varied greatly among travel- 
lers. The range of Horeb spreads over 
an extensive field, and may be divided 
into two groups, exhibiting rugged and 
venerable mountains of dark granite, 
stern, naked, splintered peaks and 
ridges, some of them of indescribable 
grandeur, rising in frowning majesty 
high above the general level of the 
range. The following heights of sev- 
eral peaks are given by the British Ord- 
nance Survey: Jebel Musa, 7375 feet; 
Jebel Serbal, 6735 feet; Jebel Kathe- 
rin, 8537 feet; Um Shaumer, 8450 feet. 
See Sinai. 

HO'REM (devoted), a place in 
Naphtali, Josh. 19 : 38. Van de Velde 
locates it at Harali, west of the waters 
of Merom. 

HOR-HAGID'GAD {mountain of 
the cleft), a camping-place of the Israel- 
ites in the desert, Num. 33 : 32 ; appar- 
ently the same as Gudgodah, Deut. 10 : 
7, though Wilton regards the latter as a 
valley and the former as a mountain 
near it; Robinson notes on his map a 
Wady Ghudoyhah west of the Arabah ; 
possiblv identical with this place. 

HO'RI (cave-dweller). 1. A Horite. 
Gen. 36:22, 30; 1 Chr. 1:39. 

2. A Simeonite, Num. 13 : 5. 

HO'RITES, HORIMS. These 
were the aboriginal inhabitants of Mount 
Seir, Gen. 14 : 6, from which they were 
driven by the descendants of Esau, 



HOR 



HOR 



Deut. 2 : 12, 22. The term means a 
u cave," and probably indicates the cha- 
racter of this people's habitations. 

HORMAH {place desolated), a 
royal city of the Canaanites ; assigned 
to Simeon. Num. 14 : 45 ; 21 : 1-3 ; 
Deut. 1 : 44 ; Josh. 12 : 14 ; 19 : 4. 
It was first known as Zephath or 
"watch-tower," Jud. 1 : 17; was 
destroyed after the Conquest ; 
was rebuilt. 1 Sam. 30:30; 1 
Chr. 4 : 30. Robinson identified 
Zephath with the pass es-Sufah, 
but Palmer and Drake, with 
greater certainty, locate it at 
Sebaiteh, the equivalent for the 
Hebrew " watch-tower." The 
ruins are 500 yards long by 200 
or 300 yards wide, and comprise 
churches, a tower, and two res- 
ervoirs of water. The streets 
can also be traced. It is about 
20 miles from 'Ain Gadis (Ka- 
desh), and a ruined fort 3 miles 
from the town commands the only 
pass through which the city could be ap- 
proached. Palmer suggests that the for- 
tress was the zephath, or " watch-tower," 
and Sebaista the city. Conder suggests 
Hordn as ancient Hormah, but until fur- 
ther exploration Palmer's view seems the 
most probable. 

HORN. This word is employed in 
the O. T. as an emblem of power, honor, 
or gjory. Deut. 33 : 17; Job 16 : 15 ; 
Lam. 2:3. "To exalt the horn" was 
the same as to prosper ; so " to cut off 
the horn," Jer. 48 : 25 ; Lam. 2 : 3, is to 
render worthless, to ruin. " To defile 
the horn in the dust" is to humble most 
deeply, Job 16 : 15. The horn was like- 
wise the symbol of victory. Hence its 
use by the false prophet Zedekiah, 1 
Kgs. 22:11, and in the Revelation of 
John, 5:6. So elsewhere. It is also 
frequently employed in prophetic visions 
instead of "kings" and "kingdoms," 
■ Dan. 7 : 20-24 ; Zech. 1 : 18. Horns were 
used as vessels for liquids, especially oil 
and perfumes, 1 Sam. 16 : 1 ; 1 Kgs. 1 : 
39, and also for trumpets, Josh. 6 : 8, 13. 
It is not necessary to think they were 
always actual horns, but rather horn- 
shaped articles. The horn being the 
chief defence and strength of many 
beasts, to break or cut off the horn of a 
king or people is to abridge or destroy 
their power, and to raise or exalt the 



horn is to establish or increase power 
and prosperity. So also among the 
aborigines of this country a like custom 
prevailed. The chief of the council 
which negotiated the treaty with Wil- 




Horns worn as head-ornaments by modern Orientals. 
Ham Penn opened the business by pla- 
cing on his own head a crown with a 
horn in it, significant of supreme au- 
thority, by which the covenants of the 
treaty were made binding. 

Dr. Livingstone describes how the 
natives of South Africa ornament their 
heads with buffalo-horns. The married 
women of the Druses of Mount Lebanon 
formerly wore on their head horns, orig- 
inally of paste-board or pottery, but, 
through pride and rivalry, from a few 
inches they became of enormous length 
and the material was of greater cost, 
until the Druse rich women "sported 
gold horns decked with jewels, and so 
long that a servant had to spread the 
veil over them." 

Horns op the Altar. See Altar. 

HOR'NET, a very large, strong, 
and bold insect of the wasp family, re- 
markable for its irritability and for the 
severity of its sting. Deut. 7 : 20. Hor- 
nets were employed as the instruments 
of the divine judgments upon the ene- 
mies of Israel, Ex. 23 : 28 ; Josh. 24 : 12. 
The furious attack of these insects often 
drives horses or cattle to madness, and 
profane history tells of districts render- 
ed almost uninhabitable by them. Capt. 
Warren says : " The hornets in Palestine 
are very numerous, and attack human 
beings in the most furious manner. I 
391 



HOE 



HOS 



can readily conceive the rout of an army 
being occasioned by them." 

HORONA'IM'(fwy caverns), a city 
of Moab on an eminence. Isa. 15 : 5 : 
Jer. 48 : 3, 5, 34. Merrill locates it at 
JCharaneh, south-east of Hesban. 

HOR ONITE, THE, the desig- 
nation, of uncertain derivation, given to 
Sanballat, the determined foe to JN T ehe- 
miah. Neh. 2 : 10, 19 ; 13 : 28. He may 
have come from Horonaim or Beth-horon. 

HORSE, Gen. 49 : 17, one of the 
noblest of animals, of -which Job gives 
a most poetic description, ch. 39 : 19-25. 
In the early periods of the world the 
laboring-beasts were chiefly oxen and 
asses, while horses were used by kings 
and warriors, either mounted or har- 
nessed to chariots. Ex. 14 : 9, 23 ; Esth. 
6 : 8. The use of horses by the Israel- 
ites was discouraged. Deut. 17 : 16 ; Josh. 
11 : 6. The reason is perhaps explained 
in Isa. 31 : 1, 3. In Solomon's time, 
however, horses were common among 
them, and he probably imported them 
from Syria and Egypt. 1 Kgs. 4:26; 
10 : 26, 29 ; 2 Chr. 1 : 14-17 ; 9 : 25. At 
the present day the horse is the usual 
conveyer of travellers through Palestine 
and Syria, as the camel is in the desert 
and the donkey in Egypt. Horses were 
consecrated to idol-gods, 2 Kgs. 23 : 11, 
and are often emploj^ed by the prophets, 
under different colors, to denote the cha- 
racter of future dispensations, Zech. 1 : 
8 ; 6 : 2-6 ; and so also are angels repre- 
sented under the figure of horses, 2 Kgs. 
2:11; 6 : 15-17, because of the charac- 
teristic strength, fieetness, and courage 
of that animal. 

HORSE-LEECH (the adherer), 
a well-known kind of worm very com- 
mon in all the stagnant waters of Pal- 
estine, Prov. 30 : 15. It fastens itself 
within the nostrils or mouths of animals 
as they drink, and will suffer itself to be 
nearly torn in two before relaxing its 
hold. Its thirst for blood, never satis- 
fied till its body is completely filled, may 
illustrate the insatiable cravings of lust, 
avarice, and cruelty. 

HO'SAH {place of refuge), a Me- 
rarite Levitc chosen by David to keep 
the gate Shallecheth. 1 Chr. 16:38; 
26:10. 16. 

HOSAH (refuge), a city of Asher, 
Josh. 19 : 29, the landmark on the coast 
next to Tyre ; probably el-Ezziyah. 
392 



HOSAN'NA (Save, roe beseech!), 
the exclamation with which Christ was 
greeted at his last entry into Jerusalem. 
Matt. 21 : 9. It is taken from Ps. 118 : 
25, which was recited as a part of the 
Great Hallel, Ps. 113-118, at the feast 
of tabernacles, and which was therefore 
familiar to the Jews. 

HOSE'A (God is help) called Osee 
in Rom. 9 : 25, one of the twelve Minor 
Prophets, who prophesied between 790 
and 725 b. c. in the kingdom of Israel, 
under the reign of Jeroboam II., when 
the kingdom had reached the zenith of 
its earthly prosperity, and was fast ripen- 
ing for ruin. He was a contemporary of 
Isaiah. We know nothing of his life. 
His character appears in his book, which 
reveals a heart full of sadness and sym- 
pathy in view of the sins of the people, 
yet full of hope. He has been called the 
Jeremiah of Israel. 

The Booh of Hosea consists of 14 
chapters, and relates to the kingdom of 
Israel. The first part (chs. 1-3) belongs 
to the first period of his active life under 
Jeroboam ; the second (chs. 4-14) pre- 
sents his later labors, when judgment 
had already set in. The discourses are 
partly threatening, partly hortatory and 
comforting. He is one of the most ob- 
scure among the prophets. " He delivers 
his message as though each sentence burst 
with a groan from his soul, and he had 
anew to take breath before he uttered 
each renewed woe. Each verse forms a 
whole for itself, like one heavy toll in a 
funeral-knell." 

The greatest difficulty in the book is 
the marriage of the prophet with Gomer, 
" a wife of whoredoms," by divine com- 
mand, and the names of the offspring of 
this marriage — Jezreel, Lo-ruhamah, and 
Lo-ammi (1 : 2-9). The literal interpre- 
tation (of several of the Fathers, Dr. 
Pusey, Kurtz, and others) is scarcely 
reeoncilable with the law which forbids 
a, priest to marry an unchaste woman, 
Lev. 21 : 7-14. It is better, therefore, 
to explain the marriage (with many 
modern commentators) figuratively, as 
a vision or as a symbol of the monstrous 
sin of spiritual whoredom or apostasy 
from the true God. Lo-ruhamah means 
" unpitied," and Lo-ammi, " not-my- 
people." Immediately afterward the 
future acceptance is announced, where 
the people will know God by the term 



H03 



HOS 



Ishi, "my husband" (2: lfi). The pas- I 
sages 1 : 10 and 2 : 23 are quoted by 
Paul, Rom. 9 : 25, as a prophecy of the ! 
conversion of the heathen. The second ! 
section is free from symbolical acts. 

The style of Hosea is highly poetical, ! 
bold, vigorous, terse, and pregnant, but j 
abrupt and obscure. " Hosea is concise," 
says Jerome, " and speaketh in detached 
sayings." "In Hosea," says Ewald, j 
'• there is a rich and lively imagination, | 
a pregnant fulness of language, and 
great tenderness and warmth of expres- 
sion. His poetry is throughout purely 
original, replete with vigor of thought 
and puritv of presentation." 

HO'SEX (plural of hose), Dan. 3 : 
21. The word originally meant short 
trousers or trunk-hose, as well as stock- 
ings. It stands in our translation for a 
Chaldee word signifying "tunics." 

HOSHAI'AH {whom Jehovah 
saved). 1. A repairer of the wall of 
Jerusalem, Neh. 12 : 32. 

2. A prominent Jew's father, Jer. 42: 
lj 43:2. 

HOSHAMA (whom Jehovah hears), 
a son of Jehoiachin, the last king of Ju- 
dah, 1 Chr. 3 : IS. 

HOSHE'A {God is help). 1. The 
same with Joshua, Deut. 32 : 44. 

2. The son of Elah, and the last and 
best of the kings of Israel. 2 Kgs. 15 : 
30. In the ninth year of his reign the 
Assyrian king, provoked by an attempt 
which Hoshea made to form an alliance 
with Egypt, and so throw off the Assyr- 
ian yoke, marched against Samaria, and 
after a siege of three years took it, and 
carried the people away into Assyria. 2 
Kgs. 17 : 1-6 ; Hos. 13 : 16 ; Mic. 1 : 6. 

3. An Ephraimite chief, 1 Chr. 27 : 
20. 

4. One who sealed the covenant, Neh. 
10:23. 

HOSPITAI/ITY is the free (un- 
remunerated) provision of lodging and 
board to a stranger. Our word "guest," 
in its original form, is the Sanscrit r/has, 
meaning " to eat." We come as stran- 
gers into this world, and are from our 
birth thrown upon the hospitality of our 
friends. God, too, regards us as his 
guests, and himself sets the most beau- 
tiful example of lavish and noble hos- 
pitality. Ps. 5 : 7, ,8 j 23 : 5 ff. The joys 
of heaven, both in parable and vision, 
are pictured under the figure of a feast. 



The invitation is given to every one 
— to the poor, indeed, rather than the 
rich. Luke 14 : 15 if. ; Rev. 19 : 9. God's 
Son was in this respect his exhibition, 
for he fed the multitudes who waited 
upon his. ministry not only with spir- 
itual but with natural food. AVhen, 
therefore, the N. T. writers enjoin hos- 
pitality upon believers, they are only 
calling upon them to do what God so 
constantly does. Rom. 12 : 13 ; 1 Tim. 
3 : 2 ; 5 : *10 ; 1 Pet. 4:9. In Heb. 13 : 
2 we are encouraged to the duty by 
the fact that some have entertained an- 
gels unawares, referring to Gen. 18, 19. 
The story of Abraham's treatment of his 
guests there related is a faithful descrip- 
tion of an Oriental's conduct, and is illus- 
trated by the hospitality of the Bedouins. 
For to-day, as in the hoary past, the sheikh 
sits in his tent to receive the passers-by ; 
he rejoices to dispense his kindness; pay- 
ment is refused; the host considers him- 
self sufficiently repaid by the gratitude 
of his guest. 

The exercise of hospitality is com- 
manded, Lev. 19:33, 34; 25 : 14 ff. ; 
Deut. 15 : 7. Instances are given in- 
cidentally in the histories of Abra- 
ham, Lot, Jethro, Ex. 2 : 20, Manoah, 
Jud. 13 : 15, the old man of Gibeah, 
Jud. 19 : 17 ff. By a study of these 
chapters an accurate understanding of 
the practice can be derived. The host 
Avas surety for the safety of his guest, 
even as to-day to have eaten salt, al- 
though accidentally, with a Bedouin is 
to have his protection. National hatred 
and fanaticism, however, occasionally 
suppressed this kindly feeling. Thus 
the Jews had no dealings with the Sa- 
maritans, John 4 : 9, and therefore the 
Samaritans refused to give our Lord 
lodgment, Luke 9 : 53. In the early 
Christian Church the command of uni- 
versal brotherly love, Gal. 6 : 10, was 
implicitly obeyed. Their readiness in 
discharging the duty of hospitality won 
the admiration of the heathen. "Be- 
lievers scarcely ever travelled without 
letters of communion, which testified the 
purity of their faith and procured for 
them a favorable reception wherever the 
name of Jesus Christ was known." It 
was thought disgraceful for a Christian 
to be obliged to stop at an inn if there 
were Christians in the place. See Inn. 

HOST. See Hospitality, Inn. 
393 



HOS 



HUN 



HOSTAGES are spoken of 2 Kgs. 
14:14; 2 Chr. 25:24. 

HO'THAM (signet-ring), an Asher- 
ite, 1 Chr. 7 : 82. 

HO'THAJf (signet-ring), father of 
two of David's guard, 1 Chr. 11 : 44. The 
same name as the preceding. 

HOTHIR (fulness), a Kohathite 
Levite. son of Heman, 1 Chr. 25 : 4, 28. 

HOUGH (pronounced hok), to dis- 
able by cutting the sinews of the ham 
(hamstring), Josh. 11 : 6, 9. 

HOUR. The term is employed to 
indicate an indefinite period of time, as 
in Dan. 3:6; 4: 19, and Matt. 9 : 22 ; 
John 7 : 30, etc. It also indicates a def- 
inite period. At the time of our Lord 
the Jews reckoned the hours from sun- 
rise to sunset, and divided the night into 
watches. Six in the morning was count- 
ed the first, noon the sixth, and 6 p. m. 
the twelfth hour of the day. In the 
parable of the laborers, Matt. 20 : I'- 
ll), this division into hours is clearly 
shown. The husbandman engages la- 
borers early in the morning, and sub- 
sequently during the day at the third, 
sixth, ninth, and eleventh hours. Jesus 
was crucified at the third hour, Mark 15 : 
25, or about 9 A. m., and the darkness 
continued from the sixth to the ninth 
hour (12-3 p.m.), Matt. 27:45. This 
mode of reckoning is employed in the 
Acts, as is plainly seen in ch. 2 : 15. 
There were thus twelve hours in every 
day between the sun's rising and setting, 
and the hours varied in length with the 
brevity or length of the day. 

The Romans computed time from mid- 
night to noon, and divided this period 
into equal portions*, whose beginning 
was indicated by the expressions first, 
third, sixth, and ninth hour. It is al- 
together probable, although opinions 
differ, that John's Gospel observes this 
method. The tenth hour, therefore, of 
ch. 1 : 39 coincides with 10 a. m. j the 
sixth hour, ch. 4 : 6, with 6 p. wr. The 
period mentioned for the last scene in 
the trial of our Lord, John 19 : 14, as 
the sixth hour was 6 a. m. The exact 
expression must be emphasized, " about 
the sixth hour." If we take into account 
the necessary delay before arriving at 
Calvary, an almost exact harmony is 
made out between John and the other 
evangelists. See Day. 

HOUSE. See Dwellings. The word 
394 



"house "is also used to denote a family, 
Gen. 12 : 17 ; 1 Tim. 5 : 8, a race or lin- 
eage, Luke 2 : 4, and property, 1 Kgs. 
13:8. 

"House of the rolls," Ezr. 6:1, and 
"treasure-house," Ezr. 5 : 17, both refer 
to the same depository of public docu- 
ments. 

HOUSE OF GOD, a translation 
in the A. V. of the place Bethel. It is 
the place where the ark was, and not the 
ark, which is called "the house of God." 
See Bethel. Jud. 20: 18, 26; 21:2; 
cf. Jud. 20:27. 

HUK'KOK (ditch, moat), a city on 
the borders of Asher and Naphtali, Josh. 
19 : 34; now Yakuk, north of the Sea of 
Galilee, and 7 miles south of Safed. 

HU'KOK. See Helkath. 

HUU (circle), a grandson of Shem, 
Gen. 10 : 23. His descendants may have 
peopled pai-t of the Lebanon country. 
The point is disputed. 

HUL/DAH (weasel), the wife of 
Shallum, and a well-known prophetess. 
When the book of the Law was found, 
Josiah sent to her to inquire of the Lord. 
Her answer is found in 2 Kgs. 22 : 15-20. 

HUMIU'ITY is the opposite of 
pride, and one of the cardinal graces of 
the renewed heart. It consists in a man's 
not thinking of himself more highly 
than he ought to think, and in giving 
all glory to God alone. It is urged 
with great force upon all who profess to 
be Christ's disciples, 1 Pet. 5:5. In 
this as in all other respects our divine 
Saviour's life furnishes us with a perfect 
example, Phil. 2 : 5-8. The sacred 
Scriptures abound with promises of 
grace and favor to the humble and 
threatenings of sorrow and punishment 
to the proud. 

HUMTAH (place of lizards), a city 
in the mountains of Judah, the next to 
Hebron. Josh. 15 : 54. 

HUNT'ING is the necessity of man 
in the wild state, and his recreation when 
civilized. Before the Flood animal food 
does not seem to have been eaten, but 
the killing of animals, both tame and 
wild, was expressly permitted to Xoah, 
Gen. 9 : 3. Nimrod achieved a repu- 
tation as "a mighty hunter before the 
Lord," Gen. 10 : 9. In Palestine the' 
patriarchs probably lived very quietly 
with their flocks and herds, but they 
may have occasionally indulged in the 



HUP 



HUS 



pleasures of the hunt; at all events, we 
know that Isaac was very fond of veni- 
son, Gen. 27:3,4. After the Exodus 
we have proof in the promise of God to 
drive out the wild animals that Pales- 
tine was at that time plentifully sup- 
plied with beasts of the chase, Ex. 23 : 
29. But their utter destruction was pro- 
vided against. Ex. 23 : 1 1 ; Lev. 25 : 7. 
We find mention made of lions, Jud. 14: 
5 ; 1 Sam. 17 : 34 : bears, 1 Sam. 17 : 34; 
2 Kgs. 2 : 24; jackals, Jud. 15 : 4; foxes, 
Song Sol. 2:15; hart, roebucks, and 
fallow-deer, Deut. 12 : 15 ; 1 Kgs. 4 : 23. 
The manner of catching these animals 
was either by digging a pitfall, which 
was the usual manner with the larger 
animals, as the lion, 2 Sam. 23 : 20 ; Eze. 
19 : 4, 8, or, secondly, by a trap, which, 
set under ground, Job 18 : 10, in the run 
of the animal. Prov. 22 : 5, caught it by 
the leg, Job 18 : 9, or, lastly, by a net 
stretched across a ravine, into which 
the animals were driven and then des- 
patched. The game was for food, 
Prov. 12 : 27, and the blood of these 
wild animals was poured out in the 
same manner as that of the tame. Lev. 
17 : 13. 

Birds were eaten by the Hebrews, Lev. 

17 : 13, who exercised considerable inge- 
nuity in the capture of them. The most 
usual method was by the trap, which was 
" a net strained over a frame, and a stick 
to support it, but so placed that it should 
give vvav at the slightest touch." Job 

18 : 9 ; Eccl. 9:12; Prov. 7 : 23. Be- 
sides the trap, a snare, by which the 
bird's leg was caught, Job 18 : 10, a net 
to close with a string, and a decoy, Jer. 
5 : 26, 27, were occasionally used. 

HU'PHAM (coast-dweller), a son of 
Benjamin, Num. 26:39. 

HUPHAMITES, THE, de- 
scendants of the preceding. 

HUP'PAH (covering), a priest, head 
of the thirteenth course," 1 Chr. 24 : 13. 

HUP'PIM (protection), a Ben- 
jamite. Gen. 46 : 21 ; 1 Chr. 7 : 12. 

HUR (hole). 1. The man who with 
Aaron held up the hands of Moses on 
the mountain at the battle with Amalek, 
and one of the chief men of the Israel- 
ites. Ex. 17:10; 24:14. 

2. Grandfather of Bezaleel. Ex. 31 : 2 ; 
35:30; 38:22. 

3. A Midianite chief. Num. 31 : 8 ; 
Josh. 13 : 21. 



4. Father of one of Solomon's com- 
missariat officers, 1 Kgs. 4 : 8. 

5. One whose son helped to repair the 
wall of Jerusalem, Neh. 3 : 9. 

HU'RAI (linen-weaver), one of Da- 
vid's guard,. 1 Chr. 11:32. 

HU'RAM (noble-bom). 1. A Ben- 
jamite, 1 Chr. 8 : 5. 

2. The form of tho name Hiram which 
is used in Chronicles — both that of the 
king and the artificer. 

HU'RI (linen-weaver), a Gadite, 1 
Chr. 5 : 14. 

HUSBAND, a man lawfully join- 
ed to one woman in marriage, Gen. 3 : 
16, the house-band. A man betrothed, 
but not married, was called a husband, 
as the betrothals were considered sacred 
and inviolable, Matt. 1:16. 

The husband is the head of the wife, 
Eph. 5 : 23, inasmuch as he is the head 
of the household (though she is associ- 
ated with him), and as such he is enti- 
tled to the respect and affection of all. 
See Maruiagb. 

HUSBANDMAN, one whose pro- 
fession and labor is to cultivate the 
ground, John 15 : 1. It is among the 
most ancient and honorable occupations. 
Gen. 9:20; Isa. 28 : 24-28. 

Our Lord used the term in parables 
and elsewhere figuratively to designate 
God's relation of Disposer and Guardian 
of human affairs and destiny. See Ag- 
riculture. 

HU'SHAH (haste), a name in the 
genealogv of Judah, 1 Chr. 4 : 4. 

HUSHAI (rapid), an Archite, and 
a particular and faithful friend of David, 
2 Sam. 16 : 16. He gained such influence 
over Absalom as to prevail with his advice 
over Ahithophel, 2 Sam. 17 : 14. During 
this time he remained David's friend. 

HUSHAM (haute), one of the 
earlier kings of Edom before the Israel- 
itish monarchy. Gen. 36: 34, 35; 1 Chr, 
1 : 45, 46. 

HU'SHATHITE, THE, the des- 
ignation of two of David's guard. 1. 
Sibbechai, 2 Sam. 21 : 18; 1 Chr. 11:29. 
2. Mebunnai, 2 Sam. 23 : 27. But prob- 
ably the latter name is a mere corruption 
of the former. 

HUSHIM (haute). 1. The son of Dan, 
Gen. 48 : 23; called Shuham.Num. 26 : 42. 

2. A Benjamite, 1 Chr. 7 : 12. 

3. The wife of a Benjamite, 1 Chr. 8: 
8, 11. 

395 



HUS 



HYM 



HUSKS, Luke 15 : 16. Undoubted- 
ly the fruit of the carob tree (Ceratonia 
siliqua), which is common in Palestine, 
and is used for food by the poor, and for 
the fattening of cattle or swine. When 
ripe it is like a crooked bean-pod, 6 to 
10 inches in length, brown, glossy, and 
filled with seeds. Miss M. E. Rogers 
says : " I found it when new rather too 
sweet to suit my taste. Children seem 
to enjoy it, and they thrive on it, eating 




Husks. Fruit of the Carob Tree.. (Ceratonia siliqua.) 

the shell as well as the seeds." The 
carob tree belongs to the same family as 
the American "locust," and is often 
called by that name by English au- 
thors. Some suppose that it was upon 
these "locusts" that John the Baptist 
subsisted. Hence this fruit is often 
called " St. John's bread." . But the 
better critics reject this opinion. 

HUZ [the fttrong), the eldest son of 
Nahor and Milcali, Gen. 22 : 21. 

HUZ'ZAB appears in the A. V. as 
396 



a proper name, a queen of Nineveh in 
the days of Nahum, 2: 7. Many schol- 
ars/ hoWever, take it as a geographical 
term meaning " the country of Zab." 
But perhaps it is best regarded as a 
part of speech, and read: "And it is 
decreed." 

HYiE'NA. "Speckled bird" in Jer. 
12 : 9 means, according to some, a vul- 
ture or other bird of prey, but according 
to other excellent authorities (the Sep- 
tuagint, Gesenius, etc.), it 
should be translated "hy- 
aena." " Zeboim," which 
occurs in 1 Sam. 13 : 18; 
Neh. 11 : 34, means hy- 
aenas. Otherwise there is 
no reference to this animal 
in the Bible. 

The striped species (Hy- 
eena striata) is found in all 
Oriental countries, especial- 
ly in Egypt and the desert. 
In Palestine it is more com- 
mon than any carnivorous 
animal except the jackal. 
In general appearance it 
resembles the wolf, but it is 
of a dirty gray color, with 
dai*k transverse stripes upon 
the sides and limbs. The 
body is high at the shoul- 
ders (about 3 feet), declines 
apidly toward the tail. It 
has a mane of erect, bristly 
hair along the back. 

What the vulture is among 
birds this creature is among 
animals. The odor from its 
food of carrion adds to the 

t disgust caused by its hide- 

ous appearance. The hy- 
aena, in spite of every pre- 
caution, often succeeds in 
digging up and devouring 
human corpses. Though 
cowardly in its nature, it is very savage. 
AVhen driven by hunger, it will some- 
times kill cattle. The strength of its 
jaws is so great that it can crack the 
bones of an ox with ease, but as the hy- 
aena is neither swift nor courageous, it 
is not dreaded by man. When in bands, 
however, it fears neither the lion nor the 
tiger. It inhabits the numerous tombs 
of the Holy Land, the caves, and even 
the open desert. 

HYMEN.EUS {hymeneal) is men- 



HYM 



HYS 




The Striped Hyaena. 
tinned once with Alexander and once with 
Philetus. He is first, 1 Tim. 1 : 20, rep- 
resented as having made shipwreck of his 
faith, and then as having denied the doc- 
trine of a future resurrection of the body, 
2 Tim. 2 : 17. Paul delivered him up to 
Satan, which probably refers to ecclesi- 
astical excommunication. 

HYMN. In the N. T. we have the 
hymn mentioned with the psalm and the 
spiritual song. Eph. 5:19; Col. 3 : 16. 
Paul and Silas sang hymns (A. V., 
"praises") in the prison at Philippi, 
Acts 16 : 25, and after the Last Supper 
our Lord and the disciples sang a hymn 
together. Matt. 26 : 30. 

HYSSOP, Ex. 12 : 22. A plant 
often used in the ceremonies of purifica- 
tion. Lev. 14 : 4, 6, 51 ; Ps. 51 : 7. One 
of its characteristics is referred to in 1 
Kgs. 4 : 33. It is associated with our 
Saviour's last hours, John 19 : 29. More 
than twenty different plants have been 
urged as the species intended. Tristram 
and other recent authorities favor the 
caper-bush. But Dr. Post of Beirut, 
Syria, in the Sunday-School World for 
March, 1879, argues very conclusively, 
on philological and other grounds, in 
favor of a species of marjoram. For 
such reasons, he says, "hyssop should 
be a labiate plant with aromatic odor 
and capable of furnishing a reed-like 
stem suitable for binding the sponge 
upon and presenting it to the mouth of 



sage in John (above) : " 
in the narrative that 
would forbid the idea 
of the sponge saturated 
with vinegar having 
been bound with a 
bunch of hyssops on an 
ordinary reed (comp. 
Mark 15: 36), in which 
case there would be no 
need of supposing the 
hyssop to have a reed- 
like stem." Bochart 
also decides in favor of 
the marjoram, or some 
plant like it. Ancient 
tradition likewise 
points to the same con- 
clusion. The Hebrew 
word was probably 
applied to aromatic 
plants of the hyssop 
family, and not alone 
to one particular herb ; 
this family is destitute 
of deleterious secre- 
tions, and the plants 
are fragrant as well 
as aromatic. As this 
family of plants 
abounds in Syria and 
the Sinaitic penin- 
sula, there seems to 
be no valid objection 
view. 



Jesus, John 19: 29. Of 
the labiate plantsof Pal- 
estine, none so well ful- 
fils these indications as 
the Oriyamim maru, the 
Za'atar of the Arabs. 
Its thyme-like odor and 
pungent taste would 
have aided with the 
vinegar to assuage 
thirst. Most labiates 
have similar properties. 
Scarlet wool and hyssop 
were early associated in 
the ceremonial act of 
purification. It is re- 
markable that thymol, 
a product of a plant 
closely allied to the hys- 
sop and origanum, is 
now extensively used as 
an antiseptic." He fur- 
ther adds upon the pas- 
There is nothing 



Origanum maru, or 
Hyssop. 

to Dr. Post's 
397 



IBH 



IDO 



IB'HAR (whom God chooses), a son of 
David. 2 Sam. 5 : 15 ; 1 Chr. 3 : 6; 14 : 5. 

IB'LEAM (consuming the peo2)le), a 
city of Manasseh, but in the territory of 
either Issachar or Asher, Josh. 17: 11; 
Jud. 1 : 27 ; 2 Kgs. 9 : 27, and doubtless 
identical with Bileam. 1 Chr. 6 : 70. It 
is proposed by some to identify Ibleam 
with Jelama, north of Jenin ; by others, 
with Belameh. 

IBNE'IAH (Jehovah builds), a Ben- 
jamite. 1 Chr. 9 : 8. 

IBNI'JAH (Jehovah builds), a Ben- 
jamite. 1 Chr. 9 : 8. 

IB'RI (Hebrew), a Merarite Levite. 
1 Chr. 24:27. 

IB'ZAN (beautiful ?), a Bethlehem- 
ite who ''judged" Israel for 7 years after 
Jephthah. Jud. 12 : 8, 10. 

ICE. See Crystal. 

ICH'ABOD (where is the glory? or 
inglorious), the son of Phinehas, and 
grandson of Eli, the high priest. 1 Sam. 
4:21, 22." He was born just after his 
mother received the sad tidings that her 
husband and father-in-law were dead and 
the ark of God taken by the Philistines. 

ICO'NIUM (place of images?), a 
large and rich city of Asia Minor, in 
the province of Lycaonia. It was sit- 
uated on the great Roman highway from 
Ephesus to Tarsus, Antioch, and the Eu- 
phrates, and near the confines of Phrygia 
and Pisidia, at the foot of Mount Taurus, 
in a beautiful and fertile country, about 
200 miles south-east of Constantinople 
and about 120 miles inland from the 
Mediterranean. Mountains covered with 
snow rise on every side, except toward 
the east, where there is an extensive 
plain. Its importance as a centre for 
the spread of the gospel is therefore ob- 
vious. Paul visited it on his first and 
second missionary iournevs. Acts 13 : 
51 ; 14: 1, 19, 21; 16 : 2 ; 2 Tim. 3 :1J. 

It is now called Konieh, and has a pop- 
ulation of about 30,000. In 1 832, on the 
great plain before Konieh, the Turkish 
army was totally defeated and dispersed 
by the Egyptians under Ibrahim Pasha. 
There are important ruins of the Sara- 
cenic period around the town. 
398 



IDA'LAH, or ID'ALAH, a place 
in Zebulun, Josh. 19 : 15; possibly Ed- 
Dalieh, in Carmel. 

ID'BASH (stout), a son of Abi-etam. 
1 Chr. 4 : 3. 

ID'DO. The name occurs six times 
in the A. V., but is the uniform rendering 
of three different names. 

1. (timely). A prophet who is quoted as 
the author of an historical writing, 2 Chr. 
12 : 15; 13 : 22; also of visions against 
Jeroboam. 2 Chr. 9 : 29. 

2. The grandfather of the prophet 
Zechariah. Zech. 1:1,7. 

3. The father of Abinadab. 1 Kgs. 4 : 
14. 

4. A Gershonite Levite. 1 Chr. 6: 21. 

5. (calamity). A Nethinim chief. Ezr. 
8:17. 

6. (favorite). A ruler of Manasseh. 
1 Chr. 27:21. 

IDLE, Matt. 12:36, in this connec- 
tion means morally useless. 

IDOL, IDOLATRY. What- 
ever receives the worship which is due 
only to God is an idol. In a figurative 
sense, the word denotes anything which 
draws the affections from God, Col. 3 : 5, 
and in a restricted sense, it denotes any 
visible image or figure which is conse- 
crated to religious worship. Deut. 29 : 
17. 

Idolatry consists (1) in worshipping 
as the true God some created object, as 
stars or animals or men : (2) in worship- 
ping the Deity through the medium of 
symbolical representations, as pictures 
and statues. It is the greatest sin, and 
strictly forbidden in the first and sec- 
ond commandments. Ex. 20 : 3, 4: 
Deut. 5:7; 6 : 14, 15: 8 : 19, 20; Jer. 
44 : 3-8. 

The origin of idolatry is involved in 
obscurity, and goes back to the remotest 
antiquity. All the heathen are idolaters, 
and they embrace two-thirds of the hu- 
man race. The ancient Chalda?ans wor- 
shipped the forces and phenomena of 
nature, as the sun and the moon and the 
stellar luminaries ; the ancient Egyptians 
all sorts of animals, as bulls, beetles, even 
cats, monkeys, and crocodiles. The an- 



IDO 



IDO 



eient Greeks and Romans worshipped 
men and women representing all human 
virtues and vices. Some degraded na- 
tions have made the devil himself an ob- 
ject of worship, and made images of the 
spirit of evil for purposes of devotion. 
St. Paul gives the best description of the 
progress of idolatry, with its attending 
immorality, in Rom. 1:18 ff. The Is- 
raelites showed a constant tendency to 
relapse into the idolatry of the surround- 
ing nations. The principal heathen 
gods mentioned in the 0. T. are Dagon, 
Molech, Baal, and Ashtaroth. 

History of Idolatry among the Hebrews. 
— The first definite allusion to idols in 
the Bible is in Gen. 31 : 19, where Rachel 
is said to have stolen her father's house- 
hold gods, the teraphim. To what extent 
Laban worshipped them it is difficult to 
say, for he also seems to have acknow- 
ledged the true God of Abraham. Gen. 
31 : 53. The Israelites became tainted 
with idolatry in Egypt. Josh. 24 : 14. 
In the wilderness, so potent was the in- 
clination in this direction that the people 
clamored till they induced Aaron, in im- 
itation of the Egyptian Apis-worship, to 
make the golden calf, which is expressly 
termed an idol by Stephen, Acts 7 : 41. 
In the days of Joshua the worship of the 
true God seems to have been universal, 
but during the period of the Judges 
there was a vacillation between the 
worship of Jehovah and idolatry. Al- 
tars to Baal were erected, and, upon the 
whole, the people leaned toward the 
abom inations of the neighboring nations. 
from which they were recalled only by 
special visitations. During the lifetime 
of Samuel and David a purer worship 
prevailed, but in the reign of Solomon 
idolatry was prominent. Solomon's own 
heart was turned away after other 
gods, 1 Kgs. 11 : 4, and his wives had 
their own special heathen altars. By 
polygamy and idolatry the wisest man 
became the greatest fool, and left the 
world the sad lesson, "Vanity of vani- 
ties, all is vanity." 

The subsequent history of the divided 
kingdom is the history of a contest be- 
tween idol-worship and the worship of 
the true God. At the time of Elijah the 
whole kingdom of the Ten Tribes seemed 
to have bowed the knee to Baal, and 
there were only 7000 exceptions. After 
the Babylonish captivity the people were 



more steadfast, and despite the influ- 
ence of the Greek religion remained true 
to the worship of Jehovah. 

The causes of this vacillation and fall- 
ing away into idolatry are not far to seek. 
To Israel alone were committed the ora- 
cles of God. The other nations had only 
the light of natural religion, and were, 
for the most part, grossly idolatrous. 
Constant contact with these peoples, the 
intermarriage of the common people and 
their kings with " strange women," 1 
Kgs. 11 : 4, 5, and an innate propensity 
of depraved human nature for idolatry, 
sufficiently explain the frequent defec- 
tions of the Hebrew nation from the wor- 
ship of the one God. 

It may well be expected, among a 
people one of the chief designs of whose 
existence was to conserve the doctrine 
of God's unity and spirituality, that 
idolatry would be visited with severe 
punishments. The first two command- 
ments of the Decalogue forbid it. The 
individual offender was devoted to de- 
struction. Ex. 22 : 20. Idolatry was a 
criminal offence against the state and 
treason against Jehovah. A favorite 
figure of speech in the 0. T. represents 
the Israelitish people as sustaining a 
relation of marriage with Jehovah, and 
idolatry is represented by the later 
prophets as a state of whoredom or 
conjugal infidelity. Hos. 2:2. 4, etc. : 
Eze. 16 : 28 ; Jer. 3 : 3. Whenever a 
good and God-fearing king came to the 
throne, as Josiah, Asa, Hezekiah, ho 
considei-ed it his first duty to wage a 
war against the altars, images, and pil- 
lars of idolatrous worship. The Canaan- 
ites are frequently referred to as meriting 
national extermination on account of 
their idolatry. Deut. 12 : 29-31 ; Ex. 
34 : 15, lfi, etc. The prophets speak of 
idolatry as defiling and polluting in its 
influences, Eze. 20 : 7, etc., and Isaiah 
ridicules the idea of divinity in false 
gods and idols by a reference to a piece 
of wood of which a part is thrown into 
the fire and a part shaped into an image. 
Isa. 44 : 15-17. 

The rites of idolatry were often ob- 
scene and licentious. When the people 
assembled around the golden calf in the 
wilderness for worship, they went about 
naked, or unruly, as some translate. Ex. 
32 : 25. Feasting and revelry were fre- 
quently connected with this worship. 
399 



IDU 



IMA 



The Christian Church is exposed to 
the same peril of falling into the sin of 
idolatry as was the Jewish Church, al- 
though it assumes more refined forms, 
such as worship of saints, images, and 
relics, of wealth, glory and pleasure. 
Paul calls covetousness, or the worship 
of mammon, " idolatry." Col. 3 : 5. The 
last verse in the First Epistle of John 
is the warning, " Little children, keep 
yourselves from idols." 

IDUMiEA, the Greek name for 
Edom. Isa. 34 : 5, 0; Mark 3 : 8. See 
Edom. 

IDUM^ANS, or E'DOMITE S. 
The inhabitants of Idumaea or Edom, 
commonly called Edomites, were de- 
scendants of Esau (Gen. 36 : 1, 8), and 
dwellers in the clefts of the rocks in the 
Sinaitic peninsula. Jer. 49 : 16. Petra, 
their stronghold in Amaziah's day, 2 
Kgs. 14 : 7, and chief city, was literally 
cut in the rocks, and the southern part of 
the country abounds in cave-dwellings. 
They had kings long before the Hebrews. 
Gen. 36 : 31. Though they were of the 
same primitive parentage as the Hebrews, 
they were by no means friendly to them. 
They perpetuated the enmity between 
Esau and Jacob. They opposed their 
passage through their country when Is- 
rael came from the wilderness. Num. 20 : 
20, 21. But finally they allowed a pas- 
sage through their eastern border, ac- 
cepting also Israel's offer to pay for pro- 
visions. Deut. 2 : 28, 29. The Edomites 
were conquered by Saul in the early part 
of his reign, 1 Sam. 14 : 47, and by Da- 
vid likewise, 2 Sam. 8 : 14 ; but at the in- 
stigation of Hadad they revolted against 
Solomon. 1 Kgs. 11 : 14. Edom was for 
a long time a vassal of the kingdom of 
Judah, but again revolted, and after a 
struggle got its independence in the 
reign of Jehoram. 2 Kgs. 8 : 20-22. 
The later kings attacked and were at- 
tacked by the Edomites. In the days 
of the Maccabees they were again active 
foes to the Jews, but Judas Maccabseus 
defeated them and John Hyrcanus com- 
pletely subjected them, compelling them 
to adopt the Mosaic Law. But out of 
this humbled but turbulent people came 
Antipater, who obtained the government 
of Judaea, B. c. 47 ; and his son was 
Herod the Great. The prophets fore- 
told the desolation of the descendants of 
Esau and their country. Jer. 49 : 1 7, 18 : 
400 



Ob. 8. Thirty ruined towns within three 
days' journey from the Red Sea attest 
their former greatness and their present 
desolation. 

FGAL (whom God redeems). 1. The 
spy of the tribe of Issachar. Num. 13 : 7. 

2. One of David's guard. 2 Sam. 23? 
36 ; called Joel, 1 Chr. 11 : 38. 

IGDAIil'AH (whom Jehovah makes 
great), a prophet in the days of Jeremi- 
ah ; mentioned only once. Jer. 35 : 4. 

IG'EAJj (whom God redeems), a de- 
scendant of David. 1 Chr. 3 : 22. 

TIM (ruinous heojis). 1. Num. 33 : 
45. See Ije-abarim. 

2. A town in the south of Judah, Josh. 
15 : 29, which Wilton connects with Azem 
and identifies with el-Aujeh, near the 
Wddy el- A in. 

IJ'E-AB'ARIM (ruins of Abarim), 
a station of the Israelites in the south 
of Moab, Num. 21 : 11 ; 33 : 44 ; the same 
as Iim, and near to the stream Zared. 

I' J ON (ruin), a city of Naphtali, 
lying in the north of Palestine; taken 
and plundered by the captains of Ben- 
hadad, 1 Kgs. 15 : 20 ; 2 Chr, 16 : 4, and 
again by Tiglath-pileser, 2 Kgs. 15 : 29. 
Robinson identifies it with the ruin Dib- 
bin, on the plain Merj Ayfin, about 10 
| miles north-west of Banias (Caesarea- 
Philippi) ; Conder with el-Khidm. 

IK'KESH (perverse), the father of 
one of David's guard. 2 Sam. 23 : 26 : 
1 Chr. 11 : 28 : 27 : 9. 

I'LAI (exalted), one of David's guard. 
1 Chr. 11 : 29. 

ILLYR'ICUM, a Roman province 
of south-eastern Europe, lying along the 
eastern coast of the Adriatic, from the 
boundary of Italy on the north to Epi- 
rus on the south, and contiguous to 
Mcesia and Macedonia on the east. On 
account of the insurrection of the Dal- 
matians, b. c. 11, the province was di- 
vided, and the northern portion called 
Dalmatia: the southern portion remain- 
ed one of the Senate's provinces. Paul 
preached round about unto Illyricum. 
Rom. 15:19. 

IMAGE. We are told that God 
"created man in his oion image," Gen. 
1 : 26, 27, and Christ is said to be " the 
image of God." Col. 1:15; Heb. 1 : 3. 
The term used of our Lord imports 
a complete likeness, like that which 
exists between a seal and its impres- 
sion when the original is perfectly 



IMA 



IMP 



preserved in the representation. Used 
of man, the term refers especially to 
man's knowledge and capacity to com- 
prehend God, Col. 3:10; to his original 
holiness, Eph. 4 : 24, thus being like God 
in the tone of his moral nature ; and to 
his dominion over the creatures of the 
earth. Gen. 1 : 28. The word is usually 
employed to denote an object of idola- 
trous worship. See Man, Idol. 

IMAGE OF JEAL'OUSY. Eze. 
8 : 3, 5. This was not any particular 
idol, but a general phrase for the idol- 
atrous practices which excited the jeal- 
ousy of Jehovah. 

IMAGERY, CHAMBERS 
OF, Eze. 8 : 12, or CHAMBERS 
OF IMAGES. The phrase refers to 
the custom, so extensively followed by 
the Egyptians and Assyrians, of paint- 
ing pictures of the gods upon the walls 
of temples and other buildings. 

IM'LA {filled), father of Micaiah, 
the Jehovah-prophet who foretold the 
defeat at Ramoth-gilead, 2 Chr. 18 : 7, 
8; called Imlah, 1 Kgs. 22 : 8, 9. 

IM'LAH. Same as preceding. 

IMMAIV'UEL, a Hebrew word sig- 
nifying " God with us," and used as one 
of the distinctive titles of the Messiah. 
Isa. 7:11: Matt. 1 : 23. See Christ. 

IM'MER {talkative), father of a 
priestly family. 1 Chr. 9 : 12 ; Ezr. 2 : 
37; Neh. 11:13. 

IM'MER, apparently the name of a 
place in Babylonia. Ezr. 2 : 59 ; Neh. 7 : 
61. 

FMMORTAI/ITY. 1 Cor. 15 : 53. 
The immortality of the soul was held as 
a popular belief by the Egyptians and 
other ancient nations, and taught by 
some of the greatest philosophers of the 
heathen world — Socrates, Plato, Cicero, 
and others. In the 0. T. a belief in it 
is taken for granted, and the doctrine is 
not specially taught. 

Particular passages and the cases of 
individuals are a sufficient proof that the 
Hebrew people believed in a future life. 
The translation of Enoch and the Avith- 
drawal of Elijah are evidences of this. 
One of the great questions dependent upon 
the central question of the book of Job 
is whether a man that dies shall live 
again. 14 : 14. A most emphatic affirm- 
ative answer follows in ch. 19 : 25, where 
the patriarch looks forward to another 
state of being for his vindication. Such I 
26 



passages as Ps. 17 : 15 admit us to the 
assurance of the Hebrews on this point. 
The expressions " gathered unto his peo- 
ple," Gen. 25 : 8, and " bury me with my 
fathers," Gen. 49:29, so frequently re- 
curring, are often interpreted to refer to 
the future life. The books of Moses do 
not refer specially to the immortality 
of the soul, but the doctrine is assumed ; 
for otherwise the sacrificial and peniten- 
tial system of the Mosaic Law would be 
unintelligible. The exhortations and 
commands thus made are based upon 
the certainty of rewards and punishments 
in a future state of existence. More- 
over, God is frequently called, in the 
Mosaic writings, the God of Abraham, 
Isaac, and Jacob, and this designation 
our Lord uses as an argument for the 
immortality of the soul. Matt. 22 : 32. 

In the N. T. the doctrine of the immor- 
tality of the soul is definitely taught in 
close connection with the resurrection of 
the body. 

Our Lord speaks of the future state 
of the soul, when it shall suffer either 
unending pain or enjoy unending bliss. 
Matt. 25 : 46. The parable of Lazarus 
and Dives presupposes the same funda- 
mental truth. In the Epistles of Paul 
we have prolonged references to this 
subject and discussions of it, Phil. 1 : 
21-23 ; 2 Cor. 5 : 1-6 ; 1 Thess. 4 : 13-18, 
and especially in the fifteenth chapter 
of First Corinthians. 

In our English Version, God is said to 
be " immortal." 1 Tim. 1:17. The word 
is the same as that translated " uncor- 
ruptible," Rom. 1 : 23, and should be so 
translated here. 

IM'NA (holding back), an Asherite. 
1 Chr. 7 : 35. 

IM'NAH (success). 1. Asher's first- 
born. 1 Chr. 7 : 30. 

2. A Levite. 2 Chr. 31:14. 

IMPLEAD', a technical term ; "to 
prosecute by a due course of law." Acts 
19 : 38. 

IM'POTENT, "sick." John 5:3; 
Acts 4 : 9 : 14 : 8. 

IMPRISONMENT. See Punish- 
ments. 

IMPUTE'. Rom. 4 : 8. The Greek 
word of which this is a translation is 
rendered in our English Bible by no less 
than eleven different terms ; for example, 
"reckon," Rom. 4:4; "lay to one's 
charge," 2 Tim. 4 : 16 ; "account." Gal. 
401 



IMR 



INN 



3 : 6. The meaning of the word is "to 
put to the account of a person that of 
which he is or is not possessed." In the 
former sense, God is said to impute sin, 
Rom. 4:8; in the latter sense the right- 
eousness of Christ is said to be imputed 
to man on condition of the exercise of 
faith in Christ's sacrifice. Rom. 4 : 11-24. 

IM'RAH {obstinacy), an Asheiite. 1 
Chr. 7:36. 

IM'RI {eloquent). 1. A Judite. 1 
Chr. 9:4. 

2. Father of a wall-builder. Neh. 3 : 2. 

INCANTATIONS. See Divina- 
tion. 

IN'CENSE. Ex. 30 : 8. This was 
a compound of frankincense and other 
gums or spices, the materials and manu- 
lacture of which are particularly pre- 
scribed. Ex. 30 : 34-36. See Frankin- 
cense. It was the business of the priest 
to burn it morning and evening upon 
an altar specially erected for this purpose, 
and thence called the altar of incense. 
The preparation of it for common use 
was positively forbidden ; neither could 
any other composition be offered as in- 
cense on this altar, nor could this be 
offered by any but the priest. The offer- 
ing of incense was symbolical of prayer, 
or, as some think, rather of that which 
makes prayer acceptable — the interces- 
sion of Christ. See Altar, Censer, 
Frankincense. 

Incense was considered sacred, and 
might be offered by tha priest only. 
When King Uzziah attempted to use it 
in the temple, he was struck with lep- 
rosy. 2 Chr. 26 : 16-21. Incense was 
offered to heathen deities and idols, Jer. 
11 : 12, 17, and the angels offer it in 
heaven. Rev. 8:3. 

IN'DIA. The Persian king Ahas- 
uerus is described as reigning " from 
India unto Ethiopia." Esth. 1:1; 8:9. 
The India of the book of Esther is not 
the peninsula of Hindostan, but the 
country surrounding the Indus, the 
Punjab, and perhaps Seinde. Later, 
India is reckoned among the countries 
which Eumenes, king of Pergamus, re- 
ceived out of the former possessions of 
Antiochus the Great. 1 Mace. 8:8; 11 : 
37. The people and productions of that 
country must have been tolerably well 
known to the Jews. An active trade 
was carried on between India and west- 
ern Asia. The trade opened by Solo- 
4U2 



mon by his navy and through Hiram, 
king of Tyre, consisted chiefly of In- 
dian articles. 1 Kgs. 10 : 10-22. 

INGATHERING, FEAST OF. 

See Tabernacles, Feast of. 
INHERITANCE. In the 0. T. 

we have no record of wills. The prop- 
erty-holder made a disposition of his 
property during his lifetime. There do 
not seem to have been very definite laws 
stipulating the exact proportion to be 
given to each heir. The sons had pri- 
ority of right, and, in case there were 
no sons, the daughters became heirs. 
Num. 27 : 8. As between the children 
of concubines and the children of legal 
wives, the latter seem to have received 
the whole inheritance, Gen. 21 : 10 ; 24: 
36, while gifts were bestowed upon the 
former. Gen. 25 : 6. However, while 
these principles were acted upon by 
Abraham, we dare not make the sweep- 
ing assertion that they were of universal 
application. Jacob blessed both sons of 
his concubines and sons of his legal 
wives. Gen. 49 : 1 ff. According to 
Deut. 21 : 15-17, the first-born son re- 
ceived a double portion. 

Believers have for their inheritance 
salvation, Heb. 1 : 14, and the kingdom 
of heaven. Jas. 2 : 5. They are declared 
to be "joint-heirs " with Christ and heirs 
of God because of their sonship. Rom. 
8:17. 

INIQUITY. Gen. 15:16. What- 
ever is done contrary to the law of God. 
To "bear the iniquity of the congrega- 
tion," Lev. 10: 17, is to make that ex- 
piation or atonement which is a pre- 
requisite to their forgiveness. Isa. 53 : 
6. " The mystery of iniquity," 2 Thess. 
2 : 7, should be rendered " the mystery 
of lawlessness." 

INK, INK/HORN. Jer. 36: 18; 
Eze. 9:2, 3, 11; 2 Cor. 3 : 3; 2 John 
12 ; 3 John 13. See Writing. 

INN. In the Bible the " inn " was not 
a hotel in our sense. The word so trans- 
lated means either a "lodging-place for 
the night" — not necessarily a covered 
place, but a mere station of caravans, 
where water could be obtained ; such 
was the " inn " at which Joseph's breth- 
ren stopped, and Avhere Moses was met 
by the Lord, Gen. 42 : 27 ; Ex. 4: 24— 
or else a khan or caravanserai, which 
was, and is, a large square building en- 
closing an open court, in whose centre 



INS 



INW 



is a fountain ; the building contains a 
number of rooms. There is no provision 
for meals or feed for the animals ; the 
travellers carry such necessaries with 
them. These caravanserais are often 
built by benevolent persons. Jer. 9 : 2. 




Inn. 

Another kind of " inn " is that mentioned 
in the parable of the Good Samaritan. 
Luke 10 : 34. This had a host, who was 
probably paid to attend to the wants of 
travellers. And it was in one of the sta- 
bles of a mere caravanserai provided for 
the horses of travellers that our Lord 
was born. 

In modern Syria, in villages where 
there is no khan, there is a house for the 
entertainment of travellers, with a man 
appointed to look after it; for its accom- 
modations, meagre as they are, payment 
is exacted, and the keeper likewise gets 
a fee. 

INSPIRATION. By "inspira- 
tion," in the theological sense, is meant 
that influence of the Spirit of God upon 
the mind of the sacred writers by which 
lie communicated the knowledge of re- 
ligious truths or future events, and 
guarded them against error in deliver- 
ing these truths to others, either orally or 
by writing. The prophets and apostles 
spake "as they were moved by the Holy 
Ghost." 2 Pet. 1:21. They were, how- 
ever, not merely passive : the}' were in 
a condition of receptivity, and their 
faculties were raised to the highest ex- 



ercise. The divine Spirit acted upon 
each author according to his individual- 
ity, and used him, not as a machine, but 
as a free and responsible agent. Hence 
the differences of style and mode of 
treatment. The Bible is both human 
and divine, like the per- 
son of Christ, whom it 
reflects. 

There are various 
theories of inspiration, 
as to its mode and de- 
grees, which lie outside 
of our purpose ; but all 
Christians agree that in 
the Bible, and i n t h e 
Bible alone, we have a 
full and perfectly trust- 
worthy revelation of 
God, and that it is the 
infallible rule of our 
faith and practice. 

INSTANT, IN- 
STANTLY, used 
five times in the A. V. 
for " urgent," " earn- 
est." Luke 7:4; 23: 
23; Acts 26: 7; Rom. 
12: 12; 2 Tim. 4: 2. 
INSTRUMENTS OF MUSIC. 
See Music. 

INTERCESSION, Heb. 7: 25, 
means interposition by prayer for others, 
1 Tim. 2: 1, and implies wants and 
needs. 

Our Lord, by reason of his high- 
priestly office, performs the functions 
of intercessor or advocate. 1 John 2 : 
1. He performed this office while on 
earth. The most conspicuous instance 
is found in the so-called sacerdotal 
prayer, John 17, where intercession is 
made for the disciples, v. 9, and for 
future believers, v. 20. Our Lord con- 
tinues to make intercession for us in his 
state of exaltation. Heb. 9 : 24 : Rom. 
8 : 34. The Holy Spirit is also said to 
make intercession. Rom. 8 : 26. This 
is accomplished through his dwelling in 
the hearts of believers, praying in them 
and enabling them to pray. Believers 
also have the privilege of making inter- 
cession for one another and for the un- 
converted. Gen. 18 : 23-33; 1 Thess. 5: 
25 etc. 
INTEREST. See Loan. 
INTER'PRETER. See Prophet. 
IN 7 WARD, used in the A. V. of 
403 



IPH 



ISA 



Job 19:19 for "familiar/' '-confiden- 
tial." 

IPHEDE'IAH {whom Jehovah 
frees), a Benjainite. 1 Chr. 8 : 25. 

IR (a city), a Benjamite. 1 Chr. 7: 
12 ; called Iri, v. 7. 

IRA {watchful). 1. One of David's 
" chief rulers." 2 Sam. 20: 26. 

2, 3. Two warriors of David. 2 Sam. 
S3 : 26, 38 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 28, 40 • 27 : 9. 

I'RAD {feet), a grandson of Cain. 
Gen. 4: 18. 

TRAM {watchful), an Edomite chief- 
tain. Gen. 36 : 43 ; ] Chr. 1 : 54. 

IR-HAHERES, Isa.l9:18. The 
Hebrew reads heres, " destruction ;" the 
Syriac, Arabic and Latin, and several 
MSS. read chares, "the sun;" the Chal- 
dee combines both readings; while the 
Septuagint reads " city of righteousness." 
These varied readings lead to various 
interpretations of this expression: (1) 
That it refers to the city of the sun, 
Heliopolis, in Egypt; (2) To a city de- 
stroyed, meaning one of the five cities 
noticed by the prophet; (3) To one of 
these same cities which should be pre- 
served from destruction. 

FRI {watchful), a Benjamite. 1 Chr. 
7: 7, 12. 

IRI'JAH {Jehovah sees), a captain 
of the ward, who arrested Jeremiah. 
Jer. 37 : 13, 14. 

IRNA/HASH {serpent city). In the 
margin it is called " the city of Nahash." 
1 Chr. 4:12. Jerome regards it the 
same as Bethlehem, but this is not 
probable. Van de Velde proposes to 
identify the town with the village and 
ruins called Deir Nahhaz, east of Beit- 
Jibrin, on the road to Hebron. 

IRON. Prov. 27:17. Some of the 
uses of this well-known and most val- 
uable metal were probably understood 
at a very early period. Gen. 4 : 22. 
We find it mentioned as the material 
for tools, Deut. 27:5; 2 Kgs. 6:6; 
weapons of war. 1 Sam. 17 : 7 ; furni- 
ture, Deut. 3:11; implements of hus- 
bandry, 2 Sam. 12:31; Jer. 28:14; 
and chariots of war, Josh. 17 : 16, etc. 
By "northern iron," Jer. 15 : 12, prob- 
ably is intended a species of iron-ore 
or manufacture remarkable for its hard- 
ness, found in a region bordering on the 
Euxine Sea, and of course north of Ju- 
daea. The expression "a land whose stones 
are iron," Deut. 8:9, seems to describe 
404 



an abundance of iron-ore, which is cer- 
tainly true of the northern parts of Pal- 
estine, as shown by recent exploration. 
See Steel. 

IRON {pious), one of the cities of 
Naphtali, Josh. 19 : 38 : now Yarun. 

IR'PEEL {Godheals)j a town of Ben- 
jamin, Josh. 18 : 27, which the Pal. Me- 
moirs identify with the modern Rd-fdt, 
15 miles west of Jerusalem. 

IR-SHE'MESH {city of the sun), 
a place in Dan. Josh. 19 : 41 ; probably 
'Ain Shems. See Beth-shemesh. 

I'RU {watch), the eldest son of Caleb, 
the faithful spy. 1 Chr. 3:15. 

I'SAAC ( laughter), the son which 
Sarah bore to Abraham when he was a 
hundred years old. He was the second 
of the Hebrew patriarchs, and lived the 
longest of the three — to the age of 180. 
Gen. 35:28. The origin of his name, 
which signifies " laughter " or " mock- 
ing," is given in Gen. 17:17; 18: 12; 
21 : 6. The only event recorded of his 
earlier years is the most significant of his 
life for the history of the Church : he 
appears in the sacrificial scene as the 
victim. Directed of God, Abraham led 
his son to the mountain of sacrifice ; 
Isaac was wholly unconscious of the 
disposition that was to be made of him- 
self, and is represented in the narrative, 
Gen. 22 : 1-13, as artlessly inquiring 
about the lamb to be offered, while he 
himself was to be the offering. The di- 
vine interposition intervened just as the 
gleaming knife was about to do its 
bloody work in the hands of the de- 
spondent father. Josephus says this 
event occurred when Isaac was 24 years 
old, but no indication of time is given 
in the narrative. This occurrence is 
considered typical of the later sacrifice 
of the only Son of God on Calvar}'. 
The record of Isaac's wooing and mar- 
riage is graphic and beautiful. Abra- 
ham sent his trusty servant Eliezer with 
gifts to Padan-aram fortius purpose. He 
there found Rebekah, the daughter of 
Bethuel, whom Isaac married at the age 
of 40. Gen. 25 : 20. The account of their 
meeting and of the preliminaries of the 
marriage, Gen. 24, gives a most charm- 
ing picture of the manners of that early 
day. 

Isaac seems to have been a prosperous 
agriculturist, Gen. 26:12, and a rich 
herder, v. 14, but was not without his 



ISA 



ISA 



domestic troubles with Jacob and Esau. 
The promise that was given to Abraham 
of an indefinite increase of his seed, and J 
of the blessings to flow from it to the 
world, was repeated to him. Gen. 26 : 4. 
The N. T. refers to the intended sacrifice 
of Isaac, Heb. 11:17; Jas. 2:21, and | 
contains an allegorical allusion to him | 
and Ishmael. Gal. 4:28, 38. 

The life of Isaac was a comparatively 
uneventful one, but in it we have the 
record of an honest, humble, and pious 
nomad. He excelled in the domestic ' 
traits of character; his disposition was J 
peaceable, Gen. 27 : 22 ; his married life 
is assumed to have been peculiarly tran- j 
quil and happy, and prominent in his ; 
biography stands out his tender regard 
for his mother. Gen. 24: 67. 

Isaac is a type of the Saviour in the 
peculiar meekness and humility of his 
disposition. His signal patience and 
resignation at the intended sacrifice and 
the humility of his life are typical of the 
Son of man, who '"'opened not his mouth." 

I'SAAC, twice used as a poetic syno- 
nvm for Israel — i. e. the ten tribes, Am. 
7:9, 16. 

ISA'IAH (Jehovah's salvation), j 
Very little is known of the personal his- 
tory of this eminent prophet. He was 
the son of Amoz. Isa. 1:1; 2 Kgs. 23 : j 

1. He began his prophetic career under 
Uzziah, probably in the last years of j 
his reign, Isa. 6:1, and continued it; 
during the succeeding reigns of Jo- 
tham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. 7 : 1. This j 
would throw his prophetic activity be- , 
tween the years b. c. 760 and 713 or 698, j 
the year of Hezekiah's death. He was 
married and had two sons. 7:3; 8:3, 
etc. His wife is called a prophetess, 
and his children, like himself, had pro- 
phetical names emblematic of Israel's ; 
future. He wore a hair-cloth dress. 20 : j 

2. He seems to have been held in high 
esteem, especially by Hezekiah. 37:2; 
38:1. In addition to the prophecies { 
which we have by this prophet, he wrote | 
a history of Uzziah's reign. 2 Chron. 26 : 
22, which is lost. The Bible does not j 
indicate the mode of his death. A Jew- 
ish tradition (in the Talmud), however, 
states that when nearly 90 years old he 
was sawn asunder in a hollow caroh tree, i 
in Manasseh's reign. Comp. Heb. 11 : 37. \ 
The '"mulberry tree of Isaiah," in the j 
Kedron valley, near Jerusalem, marks 



the traditional spot of his martyrdom. 
"It signifies much that he was not a 
celibate, but had a family; that he was 
not a wanderer in the desert or over hill 
and vale, but had a house and home ; 
that he lived not in a secluded retreat 
or remote village, but in the great city, 
at the capital and court of Judah, the 
seat of all Hebrew blessings and hopes, 
with all its social, political, and religious 
influences. He is the first prophet since 
Elisha of whom Ave have any details. 
Of himself, like the apostle John, he 
says almost nothing." He mentions, 
however, distinctly his divine call and 
commission. 6 : 1-8. 

Isaiah is the evangelist among the 
prophets of the 0. T. He comes nearest 
to the N. T., and is more frequently 
quoted than any other. In him the 
Messianic prophecies reach their highest 
perfection. He draws the picture of the 
suffering and triumphing Saviour of 
Israel and the world, lineament after 
lineament, until at last he stands before 
us in unmistakable clearness and ful- 
ness. Isaiah is also one of the greatest 
of poets. "In him we see prophetic 
authorship reaching its culminating 
point. Everything conspired to raise 
him to an elevation to which no proph- 
et, either before or after, could as writer 
attain. Among the other prophets each 
of the more important ones is distin- 
guished by some one particular excel- 
lence and some one peculiar talent ; in 
Isaiah all kinds of talent and all beau- 
ties of prophetic discourse meet together, 
so as mutually to temper and qualify 
each other; it is not so much any single 
feature that distinguishes him as the 
symmetry and perfection as a whole. 
. . . In the sentiment he expresses, in 
the topics of his discourses and in the 
manner, Isaiah uniformly reveals him- 
self as the king-prophet." — Eicald. 

Prophecy of. Isaiah is divided into 
two parts. The first, comprising the 
first thirty-nine chapters, is composed 
of a variety of individual prophecies 
against nations and denunciations of 
sin. Social vices, ch. 3, and idolatry, 
ch. 8, are rebuked without mercy. As- 
syria, Babylon, 13:19 aq., Moab, 15, 
Ethiopia, 18, Egypt, 19, and Tyre. 23, 
pass successively before the prophet's 
mind, and their doom is predicted. The 
prophecies of Babylon's desolation and 
405 



ISC 



ISH 



of Tyre's ruin are among the most 
poetic and the sublimest passages in 
all literature. Chs. 38-39 are concerned 
with Sennacherib's invasion and episodes 
in the life of Hezekiah. 

The second part of Isaiah begins ab- 
ruptly with the fortieth chapter: "Com- 
fort ye, comfort ye my people." It takes 
its position at the close of the Babylo- 
nian captivity, and prophesies its close 
and the glories of the Messianic period 
of Israel's history. Of all the prophetic 
writings, none are more evidently in- 
spired and truly evangelical than these 
last twenty-seven chapters. 

Isaiah prophesies of the Messiah with 
distinctness and in a way that his pre- 
decessors had not done. We find prophe- 
cies of his birth, 7 :14; 9 : 6, of his Da- 
vidic descent, 11 : 1, 2, etc. But the full- 
est as well as the most distinct of the 
predictions is contained in the fifty-third 
chapter. It may be called the Gospel of 
the 0. T., on account of the graphic and 
faithful picture it gives of the Messiah, 
as the " Man of sorrows," suffering in 
the stead of mankind. This chapter of 
itself will stand always as an evidence 
of prime importance for the divine mis- 
sion of Christ. 

The authenticity of the second part 
of Isaiah, from chs. 40-66, has been 
assailed by modern critics, who regard 
it as a later production of some " great 
unknown " prophet at the end of the 
Babylonian exile. But it is character- 
istic of prophetic vision to look into the 
far future as if it were present ; and it 
makes not much difference for the di- 
vine character of the prophecy whether 
it was uttered 500 or 700 years before 
its fulfilment. The description of the 
servant of God who suffers and dies for 
the sins of the people in ch. 53 applies 
to no other person in history, with any 
degree of propriety, but to Jesus Christ. 

IS'CAH (she looks abroad), a sister 
of Lot. Gen. 11:29. 

ISCAR/IOT. See Judas Iscariot. 

ISH'BAH (praising), a Judite. 1 
Chr. 4:17. 

ISH'BAK (leaving behind), a son 
of Abraham by Keturah. Gen. 25 : 2 ; 1 
Chr. 1 : 32. From him sprang the north- 
ern Arabians. 

ISH'BI-BE'XOB (dwelling in 
rest), a son of Rapha, a Philistine giant 
slain bv Abishai. 2 Sam. 21 : 16. 17. 
*406 



ISH'-BO , SH'ETIl(manof shame), 
son and successor of Saul, was persuaded 
by Abuer to go up to Mahanaim and as- 
sume the government while David reign- 
ed at Hebron, 2 Sam. 2:8, 11 ; and all 
Israel except Judah acknowledged him 
as king. A severe battle soon after oc- 
curred at Gibeon, between the army of 
David, under Joab. and the army of 
Ish-bosheth, under Abner, in which the 
latter was utterly defeated. Abner was 
killed afterward by Joab. Ish-boshetl , 
thus deprived of his strongest supportet, 
was assassinated at noonday upon his 
bed after a brief reign of two years. 2 
Sam. 4 : 5-7. 

FSHI (saving). 1, 2. Judites. 1 Chr. 
2 : 31 : 4 : 20. 

3. A Simeonite. 1 Chr. 4:42. 

4. A Manassite. 1 Chr. 5 : 24. 
I'SHI, Hos. 2:16, signifying my 

husband, and BAAIil, in the same 
passage, signifying my Lord, are figura- 
tively used to denote that Israel once 
played the whore in serving idols, but 
would now serve the living God. The 
latter having been used in idol-worship, 
would become obsolete in this sense. 
Hos. 2:17. 

ISHI'AH (whom Jehovah lends), a 
chieftain of Issachar. 1 Chr. 7 : 3. 

ISHI'JAH (whom Jehovah lends), 
one who had a foreign wife. Ezr. 10:31. 

ISH'MA (desolation), a Judite. 1 
Chr. 4 : 3. 

ISH'MAEL (whom God hears). 1. 
The son of Abraham by Hagar. Pre- 
vious to his birth, when his mother, 
being ill-treated by Sarah, had fled 
from the house, the angel of the Lord 
announced to her that her seed s-hould 
be innumerable, and that her ofispring 
should be of a belligerent and wild dis- 
position : " He will be a wild man ,• his 
hand will be against every man's hand, 
and every man's hand against him.'' 
Gen. 16: '12. 

Ishmael was circumcised at the nge of 
13. Gen. 17: 25. Subsequently, lie jeal- 
ousy of Sarah was aroused by Ishinael's 
mocking at Isaac, Gen. 21 \9, and she 
demanded that the offender and his 
mother be sent away from the home. 

Abraham, granting Sarah's request, 
sent the bondwoman and her sen off, 
after supplying them with water and 
bread. Departing, they went off into 
the wilderness of Beer-sheba. The stock 



ISH 



ISL 



of water became exhausted, and the lad, 
overcome with fatigue and thirst, sunk 
down, apparently to die. God appeared 
for their deliverance, directed Hagar to 
a fountain of water, and renewed his 
promise to make of him a great nation. 
Ishmael remained in the wilderness and 
became a hunter. Gen. 21 : 13-20. At 
length he married an Egyptian woman, 
and so rapidly did his progeny multiply 
that in a few years afterward they are 
spoken of as a trading nation. Gen. 
37 : 25. 

The last we see of the first-born son 
of Abraham is at the cave of Machpelah, 
where he joins with Isaac in interring 
the remains of his father. Gen. 25 : 9. 

Ishmael no doubt became a wild man 
of the desert, the progenitor of the 
roaming Bedouin tribes of the East, 
so well known as robbers to this day 
that travellers through their territory 
must be well armed and hire a band of 
robbers to protect them against their 
fellow-robbers. Ishmael is also the spir- 
itual father of the Mohammedans, who 
are nothing but bastard Jews. They ap- 
ply to themselves the promise of a large 
posterity given to Ishmael. Gen. 21 : 
13, 18. 

2. A descendant of Saul. 1 Chr. 8 : 
38; 9:44. 

3. A Judite. 2 Chr. 19:11. 

4. A Judite, one of the captains who 
assisted Jehoiada to set Joash on the 
throne. 2 Chr. 23 : 1. 

5. A priest who had a foreign wife. 
Ezr. 10 : 22. 

6. Ishmael, "the son of Nethaniah, 
the son of Elishama, of the seed royal" 
of Judah, murdered, atMizpah, Gedaliah, 
the governor of Judsea, appointed by Neb- 
uchadnezzar, who, although warned by 
Johanan. had unsuspiciously received 
him. Every circumstance contributed 
to increase the baseness of the deed — 
the generous incredulity of Gedaliah, 
the fact that the murder took place im- 
mediately after a feast given by Geda- 
liah to Ishmael and other prominent 
Jews who had conspired with him, and 
the slaughter of all the attendant Jews 
and also of some Chaldsean soldiers. The 
secrecy of the deed was so profound that 
the town knew nothing of it until the sec- 
ond day, when Ishmael hypocritically re- 
ceived eighty devotees who came bearing 
offering and incense to the house of the 



Lord, and murdered all but ten of them, 
who purchased their lives by promise of 
money. This carnival of blood being 
over, Ishmael surprised the town and 
carried away to the Ammonites the in- 
habitants, including the daughters of 
Zedekiah. But Johanan followed him, 
met him in battle at "the great waters" 
— probably the Pool of Gibeon — defeated 
him, rescued the prisoners, and compel- 
led Ishmael to flee to the Ammonites, 
See Jer. 41; 2 Kgs. 25 : 23, 25. See also 
Gedaliah. The motives of Ishmael 
were partly corrupt, since he had been 
tampered with by Baalis, king of the Am- 
monites, and partly mistaken patriotism, 
bitter hatred, and craven fear of the Chal- 

ISH'MAELITES, the descendants 
of Ishmael. Gen. 37 : 25. The company 
of Ishmaelites to whom Joseph was sold 
are elsewhere called Midianites. Gen. 37 : 
28. Probably they were Ishmaelites who 
dwelt in Midian. It is evident, however, 
that the two names Avere sometimes ap- 
plied to the same people, Jud. 8 : 22. 24, 
though we know the descendants of Mid- 
ian were not Ishmaelites, for Midian was 
a son of Abraham bv Keturah. 

ISHMAIAH (Jehovah hears), the 
ruler of Zebulun during David's reigr.j, 
1 Chr. 27:19. 

ISHMEELITE. 1 Chr. 2: 17. See 
Ishmaelites. 

ISHMERAI {whom Jehovah keeps), 
a Benjamite. 1 Chr. 8 : 18. 

I'SHOD (man of renown), a Manas- 
site. 1 Chr. 7:18. 

ISHPAN {bald), a Benjamite chief. 
1 Chr. 8 : 22. 

ISH'TOB {men of Tob), apparently 
a small kingdom which formed a part 
of the country of Aram, and named 
with Zobah, Rehob, and Maachah. 2 
Sam. 10 : 6. 8. See Tob. 

ISH'UAH (quiet), the second sor. 
of Asher, Gen. 46:17; called Isuah 1 
Chr. 7:30, 

ISH/UAI {quiet). A son of Asher. 
1 Chr. 7 : 30. 

ISHUI {quiet). 1. The third son 
of Asher, 1 Chr. 7 : 30 ; called Isui and 
Jesui Gen. 48 : 17 ; Num. 26 : 44. 

2. A son of Saul, 1 Sam. 14:49; not 
elsewhere mentioned; he probably died 
young. 

ISLES OF THE GENTILES. 
Gen. 10 : 5; Zeph. 2 : 11; Ps. 72 : 10; 
407 



ISM 



ISR 



Eze. 28:15. The Hebrew word signi- 
fies any land bordering on the sea, and 
" the isles of the Gentiles " refers to the 
coasts of the Mediterranean, Black, and 
Caspian Seas. 

ISMACHFAH (whom Jehovah sup- 
ports), a Levitical overseer of offerings 
under Hezekiah. 2 Chr. 31 : 13. 

ISMAI'AH {Jehovah hear.,), a Gib- 
eonite chief who joined David at Ziklag. 
1 Chr. 12:4. 

IS'PAH (bald), a Benjamite chief. 
1 Chr. 8:16. 

ISRAEL. Gen, 35:10. The sur- 
name of Jacob, given to him by the an- 
gel at Peniel. Gen. 32 : 28 ; Hos. 12 : 3. 
It signifies " the prince that prevails with 
God." One of the finest hymns of Charles 
"Wesley describes that mysterious wrest- 
ling with God in prayer, and begins, 

"Come, O thou Traveller unknown, 

Whom still I hold, but cannot see; 
My company before is gone, 

And I am left alone with thee: 
With thee all night I mean to stay, 
And wrestle till the break of day. 

******* 
"What though my shrinking flesh com- 
plain, 

And murmur to contend so long? 
I rise superior to my pain ; 

When I am weak,"then I am strong: 
And when my all of strength shall fail, 
I shall with the God-man prevail.'.' 

We find the name "Israel" soon after 
used for the whole race of Jacob's pos- 
terity, Ex. 3 : 16; also for the kingdom 
of the ten tribes, as distinguished from 
Judah, 2 Kgs. 14 : 12; and again, in a 
spiritual sense, for the whole body of 
true believers. Bom. 9:6; 11 : 26. 

Land of. See Canaan. 

ISRAELITE, a member of Israel. 

ISRAEL, KINGDOM OF, a 
term not infrequently applied to the 
united kingdom before the revolt of 
the ten tribes, 1 Sam. 13 : 1, 4; 15 : 28 ; 
16: 1 j 2 Sam. 5 : 12; 7: 16; 1 Kgs. 
2 : 46 ; 4: 1; but the term was also 
used to designate the country of the ten 
tribes only during the dissensions which 
followed the death of Saul. After the 
death of Solomon and the revolt under 
Behoboam, 1 Kgs. 12 : 20, 28, 32, it was 
generally, but not uniformly, applied to 
the independent kingdom formed by the 
ten tribes in the north of Palestine; so 
that thenceforth the kings of the ten 
tribes were called "kings of Israel," and 
408 



the descendants of David, who ruled 
over Judah and Benjamin, were called 
" kings of Judah." In the prophets 
" Judah " and " Israel " are often men- 
tioned. Hos. 4: 15; 5: 3,5; 6:10; 7: 
1; 8: 2, 3, 6, 8; 9: 1, 7; Am. 1: 1; 2: 
6; 3: 14; Mic. 1:5; Isa. 5: 7. The 
two kingdoms are sometimes called "the 
two houses of Israel." Isa. 8 : 14. 

The area of the kingdom of Israel is 
estimated at about 9000 square miles, or 
about the same as that of the State of 
New Hampshire, and its population at 
from 3,000,000 to 4,000,000. The king- 
dom lasted 254 years, b. c. 975-721 . The 
capitals were Shechem, 1 Kgs. 12 : 25, 
Tirzah, 14: 17, and Samaria, 16: 24. 
Jezreel was also a summer residence of 
some of its kings. Of the 19 kings, not 
counting Tibni, not one was a godly 
man. The idolatry introduced by Jero- 
boam was continued, notwithstanding 
the partial reformations of Elijah, Elisha, 
and other faithful prophets. 

The following admirable summary of 
the history of the kingdom in four 
periods is given in Smith's Abridged 
Dictionary, by W. A. Wright. 

"(«) B. C. 975-929.— Jeroboam had 
not sufficient force of character in him- 
self to make a lasting impression on his 
people. A king, but not a founder of a 
dynasty, he aimed at nothing beyond 
securing his present elevation. The army 
soon learned its power to dictate to the 
isolated monarch and disunited people. 
Baasha, in the midst of the army at 
Gibbethon, slew the son and successor 
of Jeroboam : Zimri, a captain of chari- 
ots, slew the son and successor of Baasha ; 
Omri, the captain of the host, was chosen 
to punish Zimri; and after a civil war 
of four years he prevailed over Tibni, 
the choice of half the people. 

"(b) B. C. 929-884.— For forty-five 
years Israel was governed by the house 
of Omri. That sagacious king pitched 
on the strong hill of Samaria as the site 
of his capital. The princes of his house 
cultivated an alliance with the kings of 
Judah, which was cemented by the mar- 
riage of Jehoram and Athaliah. The 
adoption of Baal-worship led to a re- 
action in the nation, to the moral tri- 
umph of the prophets in the person of 
Elijah, and to the extinction of the house 
of Ahab, in obedience to the bidding of 
Elisha. 



ISR 



ITA 



"(c) B. C. 884-772.— Unparalleled 
triumphs, but deeper humiliation, await- 
ed the kingdom of Israel under the dy- 
nasty of Jehu. Hazael, the ablest king 
of Damascus, reduced Jehoahaz to the 
condition of a vassal, and triumphed for 
a time over both the disunited Hebrew 
kingdoms. Almost the first sign of the 
restoration of their strength was a war 
between them, and Jehoash, the grand- 
son of Jehu, entered Jerusalem as the 
conqueror of Amaziah. Jehoash also 
turned the tide of war against the Syr- 
ians, and Jeroboam II., the most pow- 
erful of all the kings of Israel, captured 
Damascus and recovered the whole an- 
cient frontier from Hamath to the Dead 
Sea. This short-lived greatness expired 
with the last king of Jehu's line. 

«(d.) B. C. 772-721.— Military vio- 
lence, it would seem, broke off the hered- 
itary succession after the obscure and 
probably convulsed reign of Zachariah. 
An unsuccessful usurper, Shallum, is 
followed by the cruel Menahem, who, 
being unable to make head against the 
first attack of Assyria under Pul, became 
the agent of that monarch for the op- 
pressive taxation of his subjects. Yet 
his power at home was sufficient to en- 
sure for his son and successor, Pekahiah, 
a ten years' reign, cut short by a bold 
usurper, Pekah. Abandoning the north- 
ern and trans-Jordanic regions to the 
encroaching power of Assyria under 
Tiglath-pileser, he was very near subju- 
gating Judah, with the help of Damas- 
cus, now the coequal ally of Israel. But 
Assyria, interposing, summarily put an 
end to the independence of Damascus, 
and perhaps was the indirect cause of 
the assassination of the baffled Pekah. 
The irresolute Hoshea, the next and last 
usurper, became tributary to his invader, 
Rhalmaneser, betrayed the Assyrian to 
the rival monarchy of Egypt, and was 
punished by the loss of his liberty and 
by the capture, after a three years' siege, 
of his strong capital, Samaria. Some 
gleanings of the ten tribes yet remained 
in the land after so many years of re- 
ligious decline, moral debasement, na- 
tional degradation, anarchy, bloodshed, 
and deportation. Even these were gath- 
ered up by the conqueror and carried to 
Assyria, never again, as a distinct peo- 
ple, to occupy their portion of that 
goodly and pleasant land which their 



forefathers won under Joshua from the 
heathen." 

After the destruction of the kingdom 
of Israel, B. c. 721, the name "Israel" 
began again to be applied to the whole 
surviving people. "Israel" is some- 
times put for the true Israelites, the 
faithful worthy of the name. Ps. 73 : 1 ; 
Isa. 45 : 17 ; 49 : 3 ; John 1 : 47; Rom. 
9:6; U: 26. See Juijah. 

IS'SACHAR ( God hath given me my 
hire). 1. The fifth son of Jacob and. 
Leah. Gen. 30: 18. The prophetical 
description of him uttered by his father, 
(ien. 49 : 14, 15, was fulfilled in the fact 
that the posterity of Issachar were a la- 
borious people and addicted to rural em- 
ployments, and were subject to the trib- 
utes of marauding tribes. See Tribes. 

2. A Korhite Levite. 1 Chr. 26 : 5. 

ISSACHAR, THE TERRI- 
TORY OF, included the great plain of 
Esdraelon, or Jezreel, and lay above that 
of Manasseh ; its boundaries are given in 
Josh. 19 : 17-23. It extended from Mount 
Carmel to the Jordan, and from Mount 
Tabor to En-gannim. Zebulun was on 
the north, Manasseh on the south, and 
Gilead on the east, across the Jordan. 
It contained 16 noted cities and their 
villages. Among them were Megiddo, 
Jezreel, Shunem, Beth-shan, Endor, 
Aphek, Taanach ; and Jezreel stood al- 
most exactly in the centre of the terri- 
tory. This region was one of the richest 
and most fertile in Palestine. Many 
historical events of great interest took 
place within the territory. It furnished 
two kings to Israel — Baasha and Elah. 1 
Kgs. 15: 27; 16 : 6. Their portion of 
Palestine is still among the most fertile 
of the whole land. See Jezreel, Plain 
of, and Palestine. 

ISSHFAH (whom Jehovah lends). 
1. A descendant of Moses, 1 Chr. 24: 
21 : called Jeshahiah 1 Chr. 26 : 25. 

2. A Kohathite Levite. 1 Chr. 24 : 
25. 

IS'UAH (quiet), second son of Asher. 
1 Chr. 7: 30. 

IS'UI (quiet), third son of Asher. 
Gen. 46: 17. 

ITAL'IAN BAND, a cohort, com- 
posed of native Italians, stationed at 
Cassarea. Acts 10 : 1. Cornelius was 
their centurion. 

ITALY, a well-known country in 
the south of Europe, and including the 
409 



ITH 



IZR 



whole of the peninsula west of the 
Adriatic Sea. It has an area of about 
100,000 square miles and a population 
of over 25,000,000. It is named in the 
N. T. only three times : (1) as the coun- 
try from which Aquila and Priscilla were 
expelled, Acts 18 : 2 ; (2) Paul sailed for 
Italy, Acts 27 : 1 ; and (3) in the Epistle 
to the Hebrews some of that country 
joined in the salutations sent. Heb. 
13 : 24. 

ITH'AI (with Jehovah), a Benjamite, 
one of David's guard, 1 Chr. 11:31; 
called Ittai 2 Sam. 23: 29. 

ITHAMAR [laud of pa I mo), a son 
of Aaron. Ex. 6 : 23. After the violent 
death of Nadab and Abihu for their act 
of desecration, Lev. 10 : 1, 2, he and 
Eleazar were alone left for the priestly 
office. Lev. 10 : 6, 12. Eli was the only 
high priest of the line of Ithamar, 1 Chr. 
24 : 6, and, in fact, his house does not 
seem to have exercised as much influence 
as that of Eleazar. 1 Chr. 24 : 4. 

ITHIEL. (God is with me). 1. A 
Benjamite. Neh. 11 : 7. 

2. A friend of Agur. Prov. 30 : 1. 

ITH'MAH (orphanage), one of Da- 
vid's guard. 1 Chr. 11 : 46. 

ITH'NAN {bestowed), one of the 
towns in the extreme south of Judah, on 
the borders of the desert. Josh. 15 : 23. 
Wilton says it is identical with el-Hora, 
east of Beer-sheba; but this is only con- 
jectural. 

ITH'RA (abundance), David's bro- 
ther-in-law. 2 Sam. 17 : 25. See Jetiier. 

ITH'RAN (abundance). 1. A Hor- 
ite. Gen. 36 : 26 ; 1 Chr. 1: 41. 

2. An Asherite. 1 Chr. 7: 37. 

ITH'REAM (residue of the people), 
a son of David, born at Hebron. 2 Sam. 
3: 5; 1 Chr. 3: 3. 

ITH'RITE, THE, the designa- 
tion of two of David's warriors. 2 Sam. 
23 : 38 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 40. 

IT TAH-KA ZIN (time of the 
fudge), one of the landmarks of Zebu- 
lun, Josh. 19 : 13. 

IT'TAI fin time). 1. A native of 
Gath, and high in position in the army 
of David during the rebellion of Absa- 
lom. 2 Sam. 18:2. He was sincerely 
attached to David. 2 Sam. 15: 19-22. 
He reminds us of the attachment of 
Ruth to Naomi, and his words of devo- 
tion, 2 Sam. 15 : 21, are only inferior to 
hers, Ruth 1:16, for pathos. 
410 



2. One of David's guard. 2 Sam. 
23 : 29. 

ITURiE'A (an enclosed region), a 
small province on the north-western 
border of Palestine, and at the south- 
eastern base of Hernion, between Tra- 
chonitis and Galilee. It derived its 
name from " Jetur," a son of Ishmael. 
Gen. 25 : 15 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 31; 5 : 19. This 
district is now called Jedur, and is about 
17 miles from north to south by 20 from 
east to west. The greater portion is a 
fine plain, with a rich and well-watered 
soil; the sub-stratum is black basalt. 
The district contains 38 villages, 10 of 
them entirely desolate ; the others have 
a few peasant families living in wretch- 
edness and amid ruins. Philip was 
" tetrarch of Itursea and of the region 
I of Trachonitis." Luke 3 : 1. 

I'VAH, or A'VAH, an Assyrian or 
Babylonian city mentioned with Hena 
and Sepharvaim, 2 Kgs. 18 : 34; 19 : 13 ; 
comp. Isa. 37: 13, and with Babylon 
and Cutha, 2 Kg?. 17 : 24. Rawlinson 
identified it with Bit, on the Euphrates. 

IVORY (tooth), the substance of the 
tusk of the elephant. From the mean- 
ing of the Hebrew word, it is seen that 
the Jews of Solomon's time understood 
that it was obtained from a tooth, not 
from a horn. That which is brought 
from Ceylon is regarded as most valua- 
ble. It was among the merchandise of 
Tyre, Eze. 27: 15, and Tarshish. 1 Kgs. 
10 : 22. Solomon's throne was built of 
it, 2 Chr. 9 : 17, 21 ; and so lavishly was 
it used in various kinds of architecture 
and in cabinet-work as to justify the ex- 
pressions found in Am. 3 : 15 ; 6:4 and 
Eze. 27 : 6. 

"Ivory palaces," Ps. 45 : 8, probably 
refers to boxes richly wrought or inlaid 
with ivory, in which perfume was kept. 

IZ'EHAR. Num. 3: 19. Sec Izhar. 

IZ'HAR (oil), a son of Kohath, and 
grandson of Levi. Ex. 6: 18, 21; Num. 
3: 19; 16: 1; 1 Chr. 6: 2, 18. 

IZ'HARITES, descendants of Iz- 
har. 

IZRAHI'AH (whom Jehovah causes 
to sparkle), a chieftain of Issachar. 1 
Chr. 7:3. 

IZ'RAHITE, THE, the designa- 
tion of one of David's captains, 1 Chr. 
27 : 8 ; probably a Zahrite. 

IZ'RI (built), a Levite, leader of the 
fourth course. 1 Chr. 25: 11. 



JAA 



JAB 



JA'AKAN (he shall adorn, or one 
sagacious), the son of Seir the Horite. 
Deut. 10 : 6. See Bene-jaakan. The 
name is given as Jakan in 1 Chron. 1 : 
42. 

JAAK'OBAH (heel-catcher, sup- 
planter), a chieftain of Simeon. 1 Chr. 
4 : 36. 

JAA'LA, JAA'LAH (a wild she- 
goat), one of the descendants of Solo- 
mon's slaves who returned with Zerub- 
babel from Babylon to Jerusalem. Ezr. 
2:56; Neh.7:58. 

JAA'LAM (ivhom God hides), a son 
of Esau by his wife Aholibamah, and a 
chief of Edom. Gen. 36 : 5, 14, 18 ; 1 
Chr. 1 : 35. 

JA'ANAI (whom Jehovah answers), 
a chief of Gad. 1 Chr. 5 : 12. 

JAAR'E-OR'EGIM (forests of the 
weavers), the Bethlehemite whose son 
Elhanan slew the brother of Goliath. 2 
Sam. 21 : 19. In 1 Chr. 20 : 5 he appears 
as J air. 

JA'ASAU (whom Jehovah has made), 
one mentioned, Ezr. 10: 37, as having a 
foreign wife. 

JAA'SIELi (whom God has made), 
the son of Abner, and chief of the tribe 
of Benjamin. 1 Chr. 27:21. 

JAAZANI'AH (whom Jehovah 
hears). 1. A captain who joined Geda- 
liah at Mizpah, 2 Kgs. 25:23, and who 
subsequently fought against Ishmael, 
and then later went to Egypt. Comp. 
Jer. 41 : 11 ; 43 : 2. 

2. The probable chief of the family 
of the Rechabites at the time of Jere- 
miah. Jer. 35 : 3. 

3. One of the seventy elders seen by 
Ezekiel in his vision. Eze. 8 : 11. 

4. A prince against whom Ezekiel 
was directed to prophesy. Eze. 11 : 1. 

JAA'ZER, AXD JA'ZER (Jehovah 
helps), a city of Gilcad, east of the Jor- 
dan, which was conquered and assigned 
to Gad and to the Levites. Num. 21 : 32 ; 
32 : 1 : Josh. 21 : 39. In the time of 
David it was held by Hebronites or Ko- 
hathites, 1 Chr. 26 : 31, but in later 
times .it was subject to Moab, and is 
often denounced in prophecies against 



that nation. Isa. 16 : 8, 9 ; Jer. 48 : 32. 
It was situated at the massive ruins 
called Sar, about 4 hours (15 miles) 
north-east of Heshbon. Below the hill 
is a fountain with a stream which flows 
to the Jordan. Tristram found ancient 
terraces, probably vineyards, in illustra- 
tion of Isa. 16 : 9 ; Jer. 48 : 32. There 
are mounds and rows of foundations at 
the head of the valley. In the A. V. the 
" Sea of Jazer " is referred to, Jer. 48 : 
32 ; but the passage may be rendered : 
" Thy shoots have overshot the sea, to 
Jazer have they reached;" the ''sea" 
would then be the Salt or Bead Sea. 

JAAZI'AH (whom Jehovah con- 
soles), a Levite of the family of Merari. 
1 Chr. 24:26, 27. 

JAA'ZIEE (whom God consoles), a 
Levite who played before the ark. 1 Chr. 
15 : 18. In v. 20 he is called Aziel. 

JA'BAL (a stream), the son of La- 
ntech, descendant of Cain; described as 
the " father of such as dwell in tents and 
have cattle." Gen. 4:20. 

JAB'BOK (emptying), a stream ris- 
ing about 25 miles east of the north end 
of the Dead Sea, and flowing east, then 
northward and westward, and finally 
south-west, into the Jordan about midway 
between the Sea of Galilee and the Dead 
Sea. It is now called the Zerka or 
"blue" river. It has a small branch 
flowing into it past Gerosh, but no 
branch from the north-east as indicated 
on most maps. Across this stream Jacob 
sent his family, and here his wrestling 
for a blessing occurred. Gen. 32 : 22-24. 
The Israelites conquered the kingdoms 
of Og and Sihon, but not the Ammon- 
ite country nor the upper Jabbok, 
which explains Deut. 2 : 37. Com- 
pare Num. 21 : 24: Deut. 3 : 16; Josh. 
12:2; Jud. 11:13, 22. The Jab- 
bok before it enters the Jordan valley 
flows through a deep, narrow ravine, the 
hills being from 1500 to 2000 feet in 
height. They are covered with verdure 
and are very picturesque. The stream 
in most of its course is perennial, 
swollen, deep, and rapid in winter; it 
abounds in small fish of excellent flavor. 
411 



JAB 



JAC 



JABESH {dry), the father of Shal- 
lum, the fifteenth king of Israel. 2 Kgs. 
15:10, 13, 14. 

JA'BESH,andJA'BESH- 
GIL/EAD {dry Gilead), a city east of 
the Jordan; destroyed by the Israelites, 
Jud. 21:8-14; delivered from Nahash 
by Saul, 1 Sam. 11: 1-11, and in grati- 
tude therefor its people brought the 
bodies of Saul and his sons, which the 
Philistines hung upon the walls of Beth- 
shan, to Jabesh, and caused them to be 
buried in a wood near by. 1 Sam. 31 : 
11-13. David blessed them, 2 Sam. 2 : 
4-6, but afterward removed the bones to 
Saul's ancestral burying-place. 2 Sam. 
2:4-6; 21:12-14. Robinson identifies 
it with ed-Deir, 23 miles south-east of 
the Sea of Galilee on the south side of 
Wady Yabis. Dr. S. Merrill, however, 
questions this as not conforming to the 
location assigned to it by Eusebius. He 
would identify Jabesh with the ruins of 
a town found about 7 miles from Pella, 
on the north side of Wady Yabis, on the 
mountain Jebel Aijlun, about 2300 feet 
above the Jordan valley. This seems 
to conform to the biblical statements 
concerning the place. 

JA'BEZ {he causes pain), the name 
of one whose prayer was answered. 1 
Chr. 4:9, 10. 

JA'BEZ {lie causes pain), apparent- 
ly a place : named only in 1 Chr. 2 : 55, 
and doubtless named from Jabez of 1 
Chr. 4: 9, 10, though the Targumist re- 
gards it not as the name of a place, 
but of a person. 

JA'BIN {ivhom 7>e—i. e. God— ob- 
serves). 1. King of Hazor, a northern 
district of Canaan. Josh. 11: 1. He at- 
tempted by a formidable alliance to op- 
pose the progress of Joshua. He and 
his allies were utterly defeated in a bat- 
tle at Merom, the city of Hazor was 
taken, and Jabin put to death. 

2. Another king of the same name 
and place, who had great wealth and 
power and oppressed the children of 
Israel for 20 years. Jud. 4 : 2. His army 
was defeated by Deborah and Barak, 
and Sisera, his principal general, put to 
death. 

JAB'NEEL* {Jehovah causes to be 
built). 1. A town of Judah ; called also 
Jabneh. Josh. 15 : 11 ; 2 Chr. 26 : 6. Uz- 
ziah captured it from the Philistines 
and destroyed its fortifications. It was 
412 



noted during the wars of the Maccabees, 
and called by Josephus, Jamnia. It 
was a large and populous place, and 
after the destruction of Jerusalem was 
for some time the seat of a famous Jew- 
ish school of learning and of the San- 
hedrin. It is identified with YebnaTi, a 
considerable village about 3 miles from 
the Mediterranean and 12 miles south of 
Joppa. The Crusaders built a fortress 
here, of which the ruins still remain. 
A tomb is shown, reputed as the tomb 
of Gamaliel, a descendant of the noted 
Gamaliel who instructed Paul. There 
are the ruins of an ancient church. The 
port of Yebnah is naturally one of the 
best on the coast of Palestine below 
Caasarea, but there are dangerous reefs 
hidden beneath the Avaters. 

2. A place in Naphtali, Josh. 19 : 33 ; 
called, in the Talmud, Caphar Yama. 
Conder identifies it with Yemma,^ miles 
south-west of the Sea of Galilee. 

JAB'NEH. See Jabneel. 

JA'CHAN {affliction), a Gadite 
chief. 1 Chr. 5 : 13. 

JACHIN {he shall establish). 1. 
Fourth son of Simeon. Gen. 46 : 10; Ex. 
6:15. 

2. Head of the twenty- first course of 
priests. 1 Chr. 9:10; 24:17; Neh. 11: 
10. 

JA'CHIN {he shall establish) AND 
BOAZ {lively) were the names of the 
two pillars Solomon set up. They were 
probably named after the givers. See 
Boaz. 

JA'CHINITES, THE, the de- 
scendants of Jachin, son of Simeon. 
Num. 26:12. 

JACINTH, or HYACINTH, 
probably the same as the ligure, Ex. 28 : 
19, a gem of a yellowish-red or a dark- 
purple color, resembling the amethyst. 
Rev. 9:17; 21 : 20. In the former pas- 
sage there is reference merely to its 
color. 

JA'COB {heel -catcher, snpplaxter), 
the third of the Jewish patriarchs, the 
son of Isaac and Rebekah, and twin- 
brother to Esau. He received his name 
from the circumstance which occurred at 
his birth. Gen. 25 : 26. The family were 
then living at Lahai-roi. The twins 
greatly differed in tastes : Esau was a 
hunter, Jacob ''a plain man, dwelling in 
tents." Gen. 25:27. But though do- 
mestic, he was selfish and scheming. 



JAC 



JAC 



He bought the birthright from Esau, 
taking advantage of the latter's tem- 
porary weakness. 25 : 29-34. "When 
Isaac, fearing a sudden death, desired 
to bless Esau, whose manly charac- 
ter made him his favorite, while the 
more pliable Jacob was the favorite of 
Rebekah, Jacob was ready to fall in with 
his mother's plan, and, by deceiving his 
blind and agsd father, to secure the elder 
brother's blessing. The event, so mo- 
mentous to all parties, is related in de- 
tail in Gen. 27. 

The hate of Esau, naturally aroused, 
compelled Jacob in fear to flee some- 
where, and the anxiety of Rebekah lest 
Jacob should marry a daughter of Heth 
was the ostensible reason for turning his 
steps toward Padan-aram, where her 
brother Laban lived. Previous to his 
departure Isaac blessed him again, and 
thus with the assurance of divine favor, 
but with a heavy and fearful heart, did 
this man of at least 50 years (it is 
usual to call him 78 years old) turn his 
back upon his home and wearily go 
among strangers. But, though unwor- 
thy, he was the heir to the promises ; 
and accordingly, God cared for him. At 
Bethel his eyes were opened to see a 
glorious vision and his ears to hear the 
voice of God. On awaking he made a 
vow to serve the Lord, giving the tenth, 
if the Lord on his part would protect 
and prosper him. Gen. 28 : 20-22. 

An every-day incident introduced him 
to the family of Laban ; an act of gal- 
lantry won him a home at once. Loving 
Rachel, he promised to serve Laban for 
her. But when the time was fulfilled, 
Laban, favored by the marriage-customs 
of the Orient, fraudulently married him 
to the elder daughter, Leah, but after- 
ward to Rachel also. Jacob contrived 
an expedient whereby his flocks became 
larger and healthier than Laban's, and 
thus in the course of time the desire of 
his heart after the things of this life was 
gratified. He had " increased exceed- 
ingly, and had much cattle, and maid- 
servants, and men-servants, and camels, 
and asses." Gen. 30 : 43. Eleven sons 
and one daughter had been born to him 
by his two wives and their two servants, 
who were his concubines. 

But he yearned after his native land 
and determined to brave his brother's 
anger. Secretly, knowing Laban's feel- 



ings, he fled, but was followed and over- 
taken. A parley ensued. Jacob assert- 
ed his grievance : " I served thee four- 
teen years for thy two daughters, and 
six years for thy cattle : and thou hast 
changed my wages ten times." A cove- 
nant of peace was made, of which a pil- 
lar was a reminder, Gen. 31 : 45-54, and 
Laban left him with expressions of good- 
will. 

- Still dreading Esau, he sent messen- 
gers to him, and found Esau was ap- 
proaching — he feared with hostile in- 
tentions. He prudently guarded against 
destruction by separating his company 
into two bands and by sending a hand- 
some present to Esau. Fear acted like 
a slave to bring him to God. He prayed 
humbly, not to say cringingly, quoting 
the divine promises. After sending his 
family over the brook Jabbok, he tarried 
behind to see that nothing was forgotten, 
when there appeared " a man " who 
wrestled with him till the breaking of 
the day. The wrestling forms an ex- 
traordinary scene. 32 : 24-32. God pre- 
vailed not against man. But when the 
day dawned the exhausted son of Isaac 
was no longer Jacob, but Israel ; for 
though the sinew of his thigh shrank 
under the angel's touch, and though 
after this he was to know much sorrow, 
the all-night conflict had brought vic- 
tory, so that the angel of the Lord could 
say, " As a prince hast thou power with 
God and with men ; and hast prevail- 
ed." With the new name came the new 
nature. The man who met Esau was not 
Jacob, the supplanter, but Israel, the sol- 
dier of God. Behind him lay the guilty 
past; before him stretched the illimita- 
ble future, whose near part was full of 
trial, but whose far part was full of 
glory. Like many other awaited ills, the 
meeting with Esau was an agreeable dis- 
appointment. Esau was all kindness, 
and Jacob was compelled to refuse his 
friendly offers. 

After the brothers separated, Jacob 
finally settled near the city of Shechem, 
where he bought some land. Gen. 33. 
In retaliation for the ravishment of 
Dinah by Shechem, the son of the 
prince of the country, by a stratagem 
the city was destroyed. See Dinah. 
The patriarch was therefore compelled 
to leave that part of the land. 

By divine direction he came to Bethel, 
413 



JAC 



JAC 



where he paid the vow he had made so 
many years before, and here God again 
appeared unto him. On their way to 
Hebron, at Bethlehem, Benjamin was 
born, but Rachel, the beloved wife of 
Jacob, died. The memory of tbe event 
was ineffaceable. 35 : 19. Shortly after 
his arrival, it would seem, Isaac died, and 
he and Esau buried him. Gen. 35 : 29. 

The history now is taken up with Jo- 
seph, and Jacob does not play a promi- 
nent part until, lying upon his death- 
bed, he utters his prophetic blessing, 
tracing from the starting-point of indi- 
vidual character the fortunes of the 
tribes his twelve sons were destined to 
found. But the future was revealed to 
him only a little while before he 
belonged to the past for ever, for ^ 

scarcely had he spoken out the 
pride, affection, apprehension, 
and warning of his fatherly heart 
than he "yielded up the ghost," 
aged 147 years, " and was gath- 
ered unto his people." Gen. 49 : 
33. He was buried with great 
pomp ; his body was embalmed 
by the court-physicians and car- 
ried to Hebron, and there at last, 
after 147 years of wandering and 
trouble, Jacob rested with his an- 
cestors in the cave of Machpelah. 
Gen. 50 : 13. 

Jacob had more weaknesses 
and faults by nature than his 
father and grandfather, but his 
life was also more checkered and 
troubled, and his character puri- 
fied by affliction. Abraham ex- 
emplifies heroic faith; Isaac, quiet hu- 
mility; Jacob, patience and persever- 
ance. His checkered life teaches us the 
lesson that through many tribulations 
we must enter the kingdom of heaven. 

The terms " Jacob " and the " seed " 
or " children of Jacob " are often applied 
to the body of true believers generally. 
Deut. 33 : 1 : Ps. 14:7; 22:23; 105: 
6 ; 135 : 4 ; Isa. 14 : 1 ; 44 : 2 ; Mic. 7 : 
20. 

JACOB'S WELL, the well at 
which Jesus sat and talked with the 
Samaritan woman, John 4 : 5, 6, near 
Shechem ; comp. Gen. 33 : 19 ; Josh. 24 : 
32. Here our blessed Lord, weary of 
travel, but not of his work of saving 
love, offered to a poor woman the living 
water of eternal life and revealed to her 
414 



the sublime truth of the true worship of 
God, who is a Spirit, in spirit and in 
truth. Here he sowed the seed for the 
harvest of the apostles. Acts 8. This is 
one of the few places in the Holy Land 
which can be identified with certaintj". 
Christians, Jews, Mohammedans, Samar- 
itans, all agree in regard to the site of 
Jacob's well. It is situated a mile and 
a half south-east of the town of Ndb- 
lus, the ancient Shechem, at the eastern 
base of Mount Gerizim, near the edge of 
the plain of Moreh (MnJcna), and close 
to the highway from Jerusalem to Gali- 
lee. The well is in an almost square en- 
closure, which measures 192 feet by 151 
feet; the wall of this enclosure is almost, 



%«H 




Jacob's Well. 

entirely destroyed, and the ground is 
covered with shapeless ruins forming 
a large mound. 

The well is now 75 feet, deep, 7 feet 6 
inches in diameter, and the upper part 
lined with rough masonry. It must have 
been very much deeper in ancient times, 
for in the course of 10 years it decreased 
10 feet in depth, and Robinson in 1838 
found it 105 feet deep. Captain Ander- 
son estimates that it has been filled up 
to probably more than half of its origi- 
nal depth by the stones thrown into it by 
visitors for the sake of hearing them 
strike, and by the debris from the ruined 
church built over the well during the 
fourth century. The bottom of the well 
is at times entirely dry, but in some sea- 
sons it contains water. 



JAD 



JAH 



Money has been contributed to the 
British Palestine Exploration Fund for 
the purpose of clearing out the well and 
preserving its sacred associations. 

JA'DA (knowing), a descendant of 
Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 28, 32. 

JADA'U (loving), one who had a 
foreign wife. Ezr. 10 : 43. 

JADDUA (known). I. One who 
sealed the covenant. Neh. 10:21. 

2. The son of Jonathan, high priest 
of the Jews, who officiated a consider- 
able time after the Captivity, and who 
is believed to be the same who lived in 
the time of Alexander the Great " by 
those who maintain that the list, Neh. 
12:11, of high priests from Joshua to 
Jaddua, or from b. c. 538-b. c. 336, can- 
not, in its present shape, have proceed- 
ed from Neheiniah's hand, or from that 
of a contemporary." — Bible (Speaker's) 
Commentary. He is the last of the high 
priests mentioned in the 0. T. 

JA'DON (judge), ODe who helped 
build the wall of Jerusalem. Neh. 3 : 7. 

JA'EIi (mountain-goat) , the wife of 
Heber the Kenite. Jud. 4:17. After 
the defeat of Jabin's army by Deborah 
and Barak, Sisera, the general, fled 
toward her tent, because Heber and Ja- 
bin were at peace. It was not unusual 
for the women to have a tent separate 
from the men, as in Sarah's case, Gen. 
24:67, and Leah's. Gen. 31:33. This 
was a place of security, for then as now 
among the Arabs a stranger would not 
venture into the women's tent unasked. 
Jael invited him in, and concealed him. 
Fatigued and thirsty, he asked for water, 
and she gave him buttermilk, which 
greatly refreshed him. After instruct- 
ing Jael to stand at the door of the 
tent, and to deny that he was within if 
any one should inquire for him, he fell 
into a sound sleep. She then took a 
tent-pin, and with a hammer drove it 
through his temples into the ground. 
Jud. 4 : 21. Her act was treacherous, 
cowardly, and inhuman. It causes only 
a momentary perplexity, as we have no 
warrant for supposing her divinely com- 
missioned. Hence, although Deborah 
appears to praise her in her song, Jud. 
5 : 24-27, she does not express any ap- 
proval of the act upon moral grounds. 
Jael was a murderess from the Christian 
standpoint, and at best we can only jus- 
tify her act by emphasizing the barbar- 



ity of her time and the usage of war- 
fare, which is organized cruelty. 

JA'GUR, a city on the south-east- 
ern frontier of Judah, near Edom, Josh. 
15:21; perhaps to be associated with 
the following word. See Ktnah. 

JAH. Ps. 68 : 4. A contraction of 
the word "Jehovah," which imports the 
attribute of self-existence. It is part 
of the compound words "Adonijah" 
(" God is my Lord") and "Hallelujah " 
(" Praise the Lord"). See Jehovah. 

JAHATH (union). 1. A descend- 
ant of Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 2. 

2. A Levite of the family of Ger- 
shom, and progenitor of Asaph. 1 Chr. 
6:20. 

3. A Levite, head of a branch of the 
same family. 1 Chr. 23 : 10, 11. 

4. A Levite of the Kohathites in the 
reign of David. 1 Chr. 24 : 22. 

5. A Merarite Levite in the reign of 
Josiah, an overseer of the repairing- 
work in the temple. 2 Chr. 34: 12. 

JA'HAZ (place trodden down), a 
Moabitish city situated near the desert; 
afterward reckoned to the tribe of Reu- 
ben and assigned to the priests. Num. 
21 : 23 ; Deut. 2 : 32 ; Isa. 15 : 4 ; Jer. 
48 : 34. It is also called Jahaza, Josh. 
13:18, Jahazah, Josh. 21:36; Jer. 
48 : 21, and Jahzah. 1 Chr. 6 : 78. At 
this place the Israelites gained a vic- 
tory over Sihon and conquered the ter- 
ritory between the- Arnon and the Jab- 
bok: but in later times Jahaz seems to 
have been occupied by the Moabites. 
Osborn locates Jahaz a mile south of 
the Arnon and 12 miles east of the 
Dead Sea. 

JAHAZA, JAHAZAH, JAH'- 
ZAH. See Jahaz. 

JAHAZ I' AH (whom Jehovah he- 
holds), one who helped Ezra in his mar- 
riage-reform. Ezr. 10 : 15. 

JAHA'ZIEL (whom God beholds). 
1. A Benjamite chief who joined David 
at Ziklag. 1 Chr. 12 : 4. 

2. A priest appointed by David to 
blow the trumpet before the ark. 1 Chr. 
16:6. 

3. A Kohathite Levite. 1 Chr. 23 : 
19 ; 24 : 23. 

4. A Levite of the sons of Asaph " in- 
spired to encourage Jehoshaphat when 
marching against the Moabites and Am- 
monites." 2 Chr. 20 : 14. 

5. The father of the chief of the sons 

415 



JAH 



JAM 



of Shecaniah who returned to Jerusalem 
with Ezra. Ezr. 8 : 5. 

JAH'DAI (whom Jehovah directs), a, 
name in the genealogies of Judah. 1 Chr. 
2:47. 

JAH'DXELi (whom God makes joy- 
fid), the head of a family in the trans- 
Jordanic half-tribe of Manasseh. 1 Chr. 
5:24. 

JAH'DO (his union), a Gadite. 1 
Chr. 5 : 14. 

JAHLEEL (hoping in God), the 
youngest son of Zebulun, and founder 
of the Jahleelites. Gen. 46:14; Num. 
26:26. 

JAHLEELITES, THE, de- 
scendants of Jahleel. Num. 26:26. 

JAH'MAI (whom Jehovah guards), 
a man of Issachar. 1 Chr. 7 : 2. 

JAH'ZEEL (whom God allots), the 
eldest son of Naphtali, and founder of 
the Jahzeelites. Gen. 46:24; 1 Chr. 7: 
13. 

JAH'ZEELITES, THE, de- 
scendants of Jahzeel. Num. 26:48. 

JAHZERAH (whom God leads 
back), a priest of the house of Immer, 
1 Chr. 9 : 12 ; called Ahasai in the dupli- 
cate passage in Neh. 11 : 13. 

JAHZIEL,. 1 Chr. 7: 13. The same 
as Jahzeel, which see. 

JAI'LER. See Prison, Punishment. 

JA'IR (whom Jehovah enlightens). 
1. A chief warrior under Moses, descend- 
ed from the most powerful family of Ju- 
dah and Manasseh by his father and 
mother respectively. He took all the 
country of Argob (the modern Lejah) 
on the east side of Jordan, and, be- 
sides, some villages in Gilead, which he 
called Havoth-jair, "villages of Jair.'' 
1 Chr. 2 : 21-23; Num. 32 : 41 ; Deut. 
3:14; comp. Josh. 13:30. 

2. Jair the Gileadite, who judged Is- 
rael 22 years. " He had thirty sons who 
rode on thirty ass-colts, and they had 
thirty cities, which are called Havoth- 

iair, which are in Gilead." Jud. 10: 
3-5. 

3. A Benjamite, father of Mordecai. 
Esth. 2 : 5. 

4. In 1 Chr. 20 : 5 in the A. V., Jair 
occurs, but it is a totally different name 
in Hebrew, meaning " whom God 
awakens." This Jair was the father 
of Elhanan, who killed Laehmi, the 
brother of Goliath. He is called Jaare- 
oregim in 2 Sam. 21 : 19. 

416 



JAIRITE, THE, a descendant 
of Jair. 2 Sam. 20 : 26. 

JAI'RUS (whom Jehovah enlightens), 
an officer of the Jewish church who 
applied to Christ to restore to life his 
daughter, who was at the point of death 
when he left home. He evinced very 
strong faith. Christ with his disciples 
went to the ruler's house, and his daugh- 
ter was restored. Mark 5 : 42. 

JA'KAN (sagacious), a son of Ezer 
the Horite : identical with Jaakan. 1 
Chr. 1:42. 

JA'KEH (pious), the father of 
Agur, whose " words " are recorded in 
Prov. 30. 

JA'KXM (whom God sets up). 1. A 
Benjamite. 1 Chr. 8 : 19. 

2. Head of the twelfth course of the 
priests. 1 Chr. 24 : 12. 

JA'LiON (abiding), a descendant of 
Judah. 1 Chr. 4:17. 

JAM'BRES. See Jannes and Jam- 

BRES. 

JAMES (the same as "Jacob," the 
siqjplanter). 1. James the Elder, one 
of the three favorite apostles, a son of 
Zebedee and Salome, and a brother of 
John the evangelist. With Peter and 
John, he was present at the raising of 
Jairus's daughter, the transfiguration, 
and the agony in Gethsemane. He was 
beheaded by order of King Herod 
Agrippa, and became the first martyr 
among the apostles, A. d. 44, thus ful- 
filling our Saviour's prediction con- 
cerning the baptism of blood. Matt. 4: 
21 ; 20 : 20-23 ; 26 : 37 : Mark 1 : 19, 20 ; 
10 : 35 ; Acts 12 : 2. His apostolic labors 
seem not to have extended beyond Jeru- 
salem and Juda?a. Clement of Alexan- 
dria relates that the accuser of James, 
on the way to the place of execution, 
stung by remorse, confessed faith and 
asked forgiveness ; whereupon James 
said to him, " Peace be with thee !" gave 
him a brotherly kiss, and had him for a 
companion in martyrdom. His place was 
filled partly by James the brother of the 
Lord, partly by Paul. 

2. James the Less, or the Little, also 
one of the twelve apostles, a son of 
Alpheus and Mary. Mark 15 : 40 ; 16 : 1 ; 
Matt. 10:3; 27:56; Acts 1 : 13. He 
labored, according to the tradition of 
the Greek Church (which distinguishes 
him from James, the brother of the 
Lord), in the south-western part of 



JAM 



JAM 



Palestine, afterward in Egypt, and was 
crucified in Lower Egypt. He is re- 
garded by many as a cousin of Jesus. 

3. James, "the brother of the Lord," 
Gal. 1:19; comp. Matt. 13 : 55 ; Mark 
6:3, or simply James, Acts 12 : 17 ; 
15 : 13 ; 21 : 18 ;' Gal. 2:9: 1 Cor. 15 : 7. 
By ecclesiastical writers he is also called 
James "the Just" and "the bishop of 
Jerusalem." Commentators are divi- 
ded as to his relation to James the Less. 
Some identify him with the younger 
apostle of that name, and regard him 
simply as a cousin of Jesus, Avhile others 
distinguish the two, and understand the 
designation " brother of the Lord " in 
the strict sense either of a uterine 
brother or a half-brother of Jesus. See 
Brother and Brethren of Jesus. It 
is certain, from the Acts of the Apostles, 
that this James, after the dispersion of 
the disciples and the departure of Peter, 
Acts 12:17, occupied the most promi- 
nent position in the church of Jerusa- 
lem, and stood at the head of the Jewish 
converts. He presided at the apostolic 
council, and proposed the compromise 
which prevented a split between the 
Jewish and the Gentile sections of the 
church. Acts 15 and Gal. 2. He stood 
mediating between the old and the new 
dispensations, and conformed very nearly 
to the Jewish traditions and temple-ser- 
vice as long as there was any hope of 
a national conversion. He stood in high 
repute even among the Jews, but never- 
theless was (according to Josephus) sen- 
tenced to be stoned by the Sanhedrin, 
A. D. 02. Hegesippus, an historian of the 
second century, puts his martyrdom later, 
A. D. 69, shortly before the destruction of 
Jerusalem, and adds that he was thrown 
by the Pharisees from the pinnacle of 
the temple, and then despatched with a 
fuller's club while on his knees, in the 
act of praying for his murderers. 

Epistle of James, "a servant (not an 
apostle) of God and of the Lord Jesus 
Christ," the same who is also called 
"the brother of the Lord." It is one of 
the catholic or general Epistles, and con- 
sists of five chapters. The design of the 
Epistle is, (1) To correct errors into 
which the Jewish Christians had fallen, 
^ especially relating to justification by 
faith; (2) To animate their hope, and 
strengthen their faith, in view of afflic- 
tions felt and feared ; and (3) To excite 
27 



the unbelieving Jews to repentance to- 
ward God and faith in the rejected 
Messiah. It is remarkable that the 
name of our blessed Lord occurs but twice 
in this Epistle, but with great reverence 
as the divine Master, 1: 1, and as "the 
Lord of glory." 2 : 1. The gospel is de- 
scribed as the perfect law of freedom. The 
Epistle strongly resembles the preaching 
of John the Baptist and the Sermon on the 
Mount. The main stress is laid on works 
rather than faith. It enforces an emi- 
nently practical Christianity which mani- 
fests itself in good fruits. Its doctrine of 
justification, ch. 2, apparently conflicts 
with that of Paul, Rom. 3 and 4, but 
in reality the two apostles supplement 
each other, and guard each other against 
abuse and excess. James opposes a 
dead orthodoxy, an unfruitful theoreti- 
cal belief, and insists on practical dem- 
onstration of faith, while Paul, in op- 
position to Pharisaical legalism and 
self-righteousness, exhibits a living faith 
in Christ as the principle and root of all 
good works. The one judges the tree by 
its fruit, the other proceeds from the 
root. 

The Epistle of James was written 
before A. D. 62, perhaps much earlier, 
probably from Jerusalem, the scene of 
his labors, and is addressed to the twelve 
tribes scattered abroad, 1 : 1 — that is, 
either to all the Jews of the Dispersion, 
or only to the Jewish Christians, as to 
the true spiritual Israel. The style is 
lively, vigorous, and impressive. What 
kindling words on patience in suffering, 
joy in sorrow, heavenly wisdom, the 
power of prayer as the most certain un- 
failing thing, from deep personal experi- 
ence! There is a resemblance between 
the Epistle and the pastoral letter of the 
Council of Jerusalem, which was no doubt 
written by the same James as the pre- 
siding officer ; both have the Greek form 
of "greeting." Acts 15: 23; Jas. 1 : 1, 
which otherwise does not occur in the 
N. T. or is changed into " grace and 
peace." This is an incidental proof of 
the genuineness of the Epistle. The 
theory recently advocated by Bassett 
( Commentary on the Catholic Epistle of St. 
James, London, 1876), that it was written 
by the elder James, the son of Zebedee, 
before A. r>. 44, has little to support it. 
He assumes thatthe Epistle was addressed 
to all the Jews of the dispersion with the 
417 



JAM 



JAR 



view to convert them by a moral rather 
than doctrinal exhibition of Christianity. 

JA'MIN {prosperity, right hand). 1 . 
The second son of Simeon, founder of j 
the Jaminites. Gen. 46 : 10 j Ex. 6 : 15 ; 
1 Chr. 4: 24; Num. 26: 12. 

2. A man of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 27. 

."'. A Levite who expounded the Law 
with Ezra. Neh. 8 : 7. 
v JA'MINITES, THE, descend- 
ants of Jamin. Num. 26 : 12. 

JAM'LECH {whom God makes 
king), a chief of Simeon. 1 Chr. 4: 34. 

JANGOiING means " babbling " in 
1 Tim. 1: 6. 

JAN'NA {whom Jehovah bestows), 
one of our Lord's ancestors. Luke 3 : 24. 

JAN'NES and JAM'BRES, two 
famous magicians of Egypt, who are sup- 
posed to have used their art to deceive 
Pharaoh. 2 Tim. 3: 8; Ex. 7:9-13. 

JAN O 'AH {rest), a town of Naph- 
tali, in northern Palestine, taken by the 
king of Assyria. 2 Kgs. 15 : 29. Van de 
Yelde and Porter propose to identify it 
with ruins at the village Hunin, between 
Abel-beth-Maachah and Kedesh : Conder 
with Yanuh, near the western limit of 
the ancient territory of Naphtali. 

JANO'HAH {rest), a town on the 
north-east borders of Ephraim. Josh. 16 : 
6, 7. At Yanun, about 8 miles south-east 
of Nablus, are extensive ruins, entire 
houses and walls, covered with immense 
heaps of earth, and these are identified 
as the site of Janohah. 

JA'NUM {slumber), a place in the 
tribe of Judah. Josh. 15 : 53. The mar- 
gin has " Janus " ("flight"). It was not 
far from Hebron, and Conder proposes to 
identify it with Beni Nairn. 

JA'PHETH {enlargement), the sec- 
ond son of Noah. Gen. 5: 32; 10: 21. 
The prophetic blessing pronounced on 
Japheth by his father, Gen. 9 : 27, was 
accomplished to the full extent of the 
promise. From him have come, (1) Go- 
mer, or the Cymri or Celts; (2) Magog, 
or the Scythians and Sarmatians (Sla- 
vonians); (3) Madai, or the Medes or 
Aryans; (4) Javan, or the Greeks; (5) 
Tubal, or the Tibareni ; (6) Meshech, or 
the Moschi ; (7) Tiras, or the Teutons. 
The Japhetic races have occupied " ' the 
isles of the Gentiles' — i. e. all the coast- 
lands in Europe and Asia Minor and isl- 
ands of the Mediterranean — whence they 
spread northward over Europe and 
418 



much of Asia, from India and Persia 
in the east to the extreme west of Europe, 
and now to America and Australia." — 
Fausset: Englishman's Bible Cyclopae- 
dia. The other branch of prophecy, "he 
(God) shall dwell in the tents of Shem," 
was fulfilled when the divine Presence 
was manifested in the tabernacle and 
temple; or if we read, "he (Japheth) 
shall dwell in the tents of Shem," it was 
fulfilled literally when the Greeks and 
Romans (descended from Japheth) sub- 
dued Judaea, the inheritance of Shem, 
and figuratively when the descendants 
of Japheth (the Gentiles) received the 
gospel, which the Jews, who were of the 
seed of Shem, rejected. 

JAPHI'A {splendid), the king of 
Lachish, one of the five kings of the 
Amorites who united against Joshua, 
but were defeated at Beth-horon and 
killed at Makkedah. Josh. 10 : 3. 

JAPHI'A {splendid), a place in the 
tribe of Zebulun. Josh. 19: 12. It is 
identified with a small village, called 
Yafa, a short distance south-west of 
Nazareth. See Josephus : Wars, 2 : 20, 0. 
Drake described some caves at this place 
unlike any other he had seen in Pales- 
tine. A passage 12 feet long leads into 
a circular chamber, in the floor of which 
are circular " man-holes" leading to two 
lower caves, which in turn lead to others. 
All the chambers are connected by in- 
tricate passage-ways. Mr. Drake con- 
ceives that they were not tombs, but 
places for the storage of grain. 

JAPH'LET {whom God delivers), 
an Asherite. 1 Chr. 7 : 32, 33. 

JAPH'LETI, a landmark of Eph- 
raim west of Beth-horon. Josh. 16: 3. 

JATHO. Josh. 19 : 46. See Joppa. 

JA'RAH {honey), a descendant of 
Saul, 1 Chr. 9 : 42 ; called in the parallel 
list, ch. 8 : 36, Jehoadah. 

JA'REB (an adversary). The mar- 
ginal reading would indicate that it was 
the name of a place, but that is forbidden 
by the form of 'the original word. Hos. 
5: 13; 10: 6. Some make it the name 
of a king, but it is better to translate 
it " the hostile king" — i. e. " the king of 
Assyria." 

JA'RED {descent), the father of 
Enoch. Gen. 5 : 15-20 ; Luke 3 : 37. In 
1 Chr. 1 : 2 he is called Jered. 

JARESIAH {whom Jehovah fat- 
tens), a Beujaniite chief. 1 Chr. 8 : 27. 



JAR 



JAV 



JAR'HA (meaning uncertain), an 
Egyptian servant of Sheshan, and mar- 
rie 1 to his daughter. 1 Chr. 2 : 34, 35. 

JA'RIB {an adversary). 1. A son 
of Simeon, 1 Chr. 4: 24; called Jachin 
in Gen. 48 : 10. 

2. A companion of Ezra, " a chief 
man." Ezr. 8: 10. 

3. A priest married to a foreign wife. 
Ezr. 10 : 18. 

JAR'MUTH. 1. A town in the 
low country of Judah. Josh. 15 : 35. Its 
king, Piram, was one of the five who 
conspired to punish Gibeon for having 
made alliance with Israel, and who were 
defeated at Beth-horon and were hanged 
by Joshua at Makkedah. Josh. 12 : 11 j 
15 : 35. It was peopled after the Cap- 
tivity. Neh. 11 : 29. It is identified with 
Yarmuk, 16 miles south-west of Jerusa- 
lem, on the crest of a rocky ridge, where 
hewn blocks of stone and other ruins 
of a town are found. 

2. A city of Issachar, allotted with 
its suburbs to the Gershonite Levites, 
Josh. 21 : 29, and called Reneth and 
Ramoth. Josh. 19: 21; 1 Chr. 6: 73. 
Conder proposes to identify it with 
Ham eh. 

JARO'AH (moon), a Gadite. 1 Chr. 
5: 14. 

JA'SHEN (sleeping), the father of 
some of David's warriors. 2 Sam. 23 : 32. 

JA'SHER, BOOK OF (upright). 
Twice referred to, Josh. 10 : 13; 2 Sam. 
1:18: probably a collection of national 
songs, now lost. 

JASHOBEAM (to whom the people 
turns), the chief of David's captains, 
who came to him at Ziklag and dis- 
tinguished himself and his band by 
slaving 300 men at one time. 1 Chr. 
11 : 1 1 ; 12 : 6 ; 27 : 2. He is the same 
with Adino the Eznite, 2 Sam. 23 : 8, the 
difference in the Hebrew being slight. 

JASH'UB (he turns). 1. One of the 
sons of Issachar: founder of the Ja- 
shubites. Num. 26 : 24 ; 1 Chr. 7: 1: 
called Job in Gen. 46: 13. 

2. One who had a foreign wife. Ezr. 
10: 29. 

JASHUBII.E'HEM (turner bach 
for food), either a person or a place 
mentioned in the genealogical list of 
Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 22. 

JASH'UBITES, THE, descend* 
ants of Jashub, 1. Num. 26 : 24. 

JA'SIEl* (whom God has made). 



one of David's warriors, 1 Chr. 11 : 47 ; 
same as Jaasiel. 

JA'SON(o»eH>7iowi7f AertZ)>a,Thessa- 
lonian, and probably a relative of Paul, 
whom he entertained, and in conse- 
quence received rough treatment at the 
hands of the unbelieving Jews. Acts 17 ; 
cf. Rom. 9:3: 16: 21. 

JASPER, the last stone in the 
breastplate of the high priest, and the 
first in the foundations of the new Jeru- 
salem. Ex. 28 : 20 ; Rev. 21 : 19. Jasper 
is an opaque species of quartz, of differ- 
ent colors, often banded or spotted, and 
susceptible of a high polish. The dark- 
green kind is supposed to be the variety 
of the Bible. From the apparent incon- 
sistency of Rev. 4:3; 21 : 11 with the 
opaque character of this stone, it has 
been suggested that some transparent 
gem was denoted by jasper in the N. T. — 
perhaps the diamond or the translucent 
chalcedony. See Stones, Precious. 

JATH'NIEL (whom God bestows), a, 
Levite porter or doorkeeper in the tab- 
ernacle. 1 Chr. 26 : 2. 

JAT'TIR, a town of Judah in the 
mountain-districts, Josh. 15 : 48 ; 21 : 14 ; 
David sent presents thither. 1 Sam. 30 : 
27 : 1 Chr. 6 : 57. Robinson identifies it 
whh'Attir, 6 miles north of Molada and 
11 miles west of south of Hebron. Tris- 
tram noted there over 30 crypts, and 
found remains of terraces, many old 
wells, now dry and filled with rubbish, 
but only one modern building, a Moslem 
tomb. 

JA'VAN, the fourth son of Japh- 
eth, and the ancestor of the Grecians 
or Ionians. Gen. 10 : 2 ; 1 Chr. 1: 5, 7. 
Hence the word " Javan " in the 0. T. de- 
notes Greece, or the Greeks. Isa. 66 : 19 j 
Eze. 27:13. 

JAVAN. 1. In Isa. 66: 19 it is 
coupled with Tarshish, Pul, and Lud, and 
with Tubal and the "isles afar off:" 
again, in Eze. 27 : 13, it is joined with 
Tubal and Meshech, as carrying on coin- 
j merce with the Tyrians, who imported 
from these countries slaves and brazen 
vessels ; in Dan. 8:21; 10 : 20 ; 11 : 2, 
in reference to the Macedonian empire ; 
and in Zech. 9 : 13, in reference to the 
Graaco-Syrian empire. From these pas- 
sages it appears that " Javan " was re- 
garded as a title for the Greek people 
and the Grecian empire. 

2. A town in the southern part of 
419 



JAV 



JEC 



Arabia ( Yemen), whither the Phoenicians 
traded, Eze. 27:19; probably Uzal, a 
name of the capital of Yema, in Arabia, 
and famous for the manufacture of sword- 
blades. 

JAVELIN. See Arms. 

JAZER, Josh. 21:39, ok JAA'- 
ZER, Num. 21 : 32, a city of the Am- 
monites, near the river Jabbok, the ruins 
of which are still visible at Sar, about 15 
miles from Hesban. 

Sea of, Jer. 48 : 32, may be a lake 
existing in ancient times near the city 
of Jazer. There are round pools of 
water near Sar, but scholars have not 
agreed what the Sea of Jazer refers to. 

JA'ZIZ (whom God moves), the Ha- 
gerite who was over David's flocks. 1 
Chr. 27:31. 

JEAI/OUSY. It is most frequent- 
ly used to denote a suspicion of conjugal 
infidelity. 2 Cor. 11:2. It is sometimes 
used for anger or indignation, Ps. 79 : 
5 ; 1 Cor. 10 : 22, or an intense interest 
for the honor and prosperity of another. 
Zech.lrW; 8:2. 

The same term, in a similar sense, is 
used in speaking of God, for he is rep- 
resented as a husband, related to his 
Church by a marriage-covenant that 
binds her to be wholly for him, and not 
for another. The more sincere and con- 
stant the love, the more sensitive is the 
heart to the approach of a rival; and 
the thought of such affection being 
alienated or corrupted fills the soul with 
grief and indignation. So God com- 
mends the purity, the fervency, and the 
sincerity of his love to his Church by 
the most terrific expressions of jealousy. 

The various significations of the word 
"jealousy" are denoted usually by its 
connection. It is one of the strongest 
passions of our nature. Prov. 6 : 31; Sol. 
Song 8 : 6. 

The Image of Jealousy, Eze. 8: 3, 5, 
is the same with Tammuz, in v. 14. See 
Tammuz. 

Jealousy-offering, or Waters of 
Jealousv. See Adultery. 

JEARIM, MOUNT {mount of 
forests), a place named in noting the 
northern boundary of Judah. Josh. 15 : 
10. The boundary ran from Mount 
Seir to "the shoulder of Mount Jearim, 
which is Chesalon"' — that is, Chesalon was 
the landmark on the mountain. Kesla 
stands 7 miles due west of Jerusalem, 
420 



on a high point on the north slope of a 
lofty ridge, which is probably Mount 
Jearim. Considerable woods still exist 
there. 

JEAT'ERAI (whom Jehovah leads), 
a Gershonite Levite, 1 Chr. 6 : 21 ; called 
Ethni in v. 41. 

JEBERACHI'AH (whom Jehovah 
blesses), the father of the Zechariah whom 
Isaiah took as a witness. Isa. 8 : 2. 

JE'BUS {place trodden down, thresh- 
ing-floor), the ancient name of Jerusa- 
lem among the Canaanites, Jud. 19 : 10, 
11; 1 Chr. 11:4,5; probably derived 
from a descendant of Canaan, the son 
of Ham. Gen. 10 : 16. The Jebusites 
were partially subdued by Joshua, Josh. 
10 : 23, 40 ; 12 : 10 ; 15 : 63 ; Num. 13 : 
29; and they were permitted to remain 
after the conquest of Jebus bv David. 
2 Sam. 5 : 6-9 ; 24 : 16-25 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 4- 
8; Ezr. 9:1,2. "Jebusi " is sometimes 
put for the city Jebus. Josh. 18 : 16, 
28; Zech. 9:7. Jebus was more accu- 
rately the south-west hill afterward 
called Mount Zion, or "city of David." 
Being surrounded on all sides by deep 
ravines, it was a place of great natural 
strength. See Jerusalem. 

JEBUSI. Josh. 15:8: 18:16, 28. 
A name for Jebus. See Jebus and Je- 
rusalem. 

JEBUSITES, the name of a 
tribe inhabiting the portion of Canaan 
about Jebus or Jerusalem in the time 
of Joshua, and which the Israelites were 
commanded to destroy. Deut. 7:1: 20 : 
17. They joined Jabin against Joshua. 
Their king, Adoni-zedek, was slain 
and they defeated, Josh. 11 : 3 ; 10 : 15, 
26 ; later their city was burnt, but re- 
occupied bv the Jebusites. Jud. 1 : 21 
and Josh. *15 : 63 ; 19 : 10-22. David 
conquered their stronghold, and it be- 
came a part of his capital, Jerusalem. 2 
Sam. 5: 6, 8; 1 Chr. 11 : 4-6. Solomon 
made the Jebusites pay tribute, 1 Kgs. 
9:20, and some were known after the 
captivity. Ezr. 9:1. David bought the 
place of Araunah the Jebusite for an 
altar, and this afterward became the 
site of the temple. 2 Sam. 24:16-25. 

JEB'USITES, inhabitants of 
Jebus. 

JECAMI'AH (whom Jehovah gath- 
ers), one of the line of David, 1 Chr. 
3: IS; same with Jekamiah of 2:41. 

JECHOLIAH (able through Jeho- 



JEC 



JEH 



vah), the mother of Azariah, or Uzziah, 
king of Judah. 2 Kgs. 15 : 2. She is 
called Jecoliah in 2 Chr. 26 : 3. 

JECHQNI'AS. Matt. 1 : 11, 12. 
Greek form of Jecoxiah or Jehoiachix, 
which see. 

JECOLI'AH. See Jecholiah. 

JECONI'AH {whom Jehovah estab- 
lishes). See Jehoiachin. 

JEDA'IAH (praise Jehovah). A. 1. 
A Simeonite, ancestor of Ziza, a chief 
of his tribe. 1 Chr. 4 : 37. 

2. One who helped repair the wall. 
Neh. 3 : 10. 

B. The same name in the A. V., but 
different in the Hebrew, meaning Jeho- 
vah cares for him. 

1. The head of the second course of 
priests, 1 Chr. 24 : 7. " Most probably 
this course or the representative of it, 
divided afterward into two branches, is 
intended in 1 Chr. 9 : 10 ; Ezr. 2:36: 
Neh. 7:39; 11:10; 12:6, 7, 19, 21." 
—Ayre. 

2. One who returned from Babylon, 
to whom a memorial crown was given. 
Zech. 6: 10, 14, 

JEDI'AEL (known of God). 1. A 
son or descendant of Benjamin, 1 Chr. 
7 : 6, 10, 11, and progenitor of the most 
powerful family in the tribe. 

2. One of David's warriors. 1 Chr. 
11:45. 

3. Perhaps the same as the chief of 
Manasseh who joined David on the 
march to Ziklag. 1 Chr. 12 : 20. 

4. A Levite temple-doorkeeper in the 
time of David. 1 Chr. 26:2. 

JEDI'DAH (one beloved), the moth- 
er of King Josiah. 2 Kgs. 22 : 1. 

JEDIDI'AH (beloved of Jehovah), 
the name Nathan gave to Solomon. 2 
Sam. 12 : 25. It was a play on the word 
David, "beloved," which comes from the 
same root as " Jedid ;" so, as the father 
was beloved, the child was the beloved of 
Jehovah. 

JED'tJTHUN (praising), an emi- 
nent master of the temple-music, to 
whom several of the Psalms are in- 
scribed, see Ps. 39, 62, 77, etc., or by 
whom, as some suppose, they were 
written. Probably he was identical 
with Ethan. 1 Chr. 6:44; 15:17, 19; 
16 : 38, 41, 42 ; 25 : 1-6. " We find sub- 
sequently his division officiating when 
the temple was completed, 2 Chr. 5 : 12, 
in Hezekiah's reformation, 29 : 14, and 



also under Josiah, 35:15; moreover, 
after the Captivity, a descendant of his 
house is mentioned. 1 Chr. 9:16; Neh. 
11 : 17. Three Psalms have Jeduthun 
in their titles, 39, 62, 77 ; probably they 
were to be sung by his musical division." 
— A)/ re. 

JEE'ZER (father of help), short- 
ened form of Abiezer; a descendant 
I of Manasseh through Gilead. Num. 28: 
30. See Abiezer. 

JEE'ZERITES, descendants of 
the above. 

JE'GAR-SAHADU'THA (heap 
of testimony), the Aramaean name of the 
stone memorial between Jacob and La- 
ban. Gen. 31 : 47. The Hebrew word 
"Galeed" does not exactly represent it. 

JEHALE'LEEL (who praises 
God), a Judite. 1 Chr. 4:16. 

JEHALELEL (who praises God), 
a Levite. 2 Chr. 29 : 12. 

JEHDE'IAH ( whom Jeh ovah 
makes joyful). 1. A Levite. 1 Chr. 24: 
20. 

2. He who had charge of David's she- 
asses. 1 Chr. 27:30. 

JEHEZEKEL (whom God makes 
strong), the head of the twentieth priest- 
ly course, 1 Chr. 24 : 16; same name 
as Ezekiel. 

JEHI'AH (Jehovah lives), a door- 
keeper for the ark. 1 Chr. 15 : 24. 

JEHFEJL (God lives). 1. A Levite 
porter appointed 'by David for musical 
service. 1 Chr. 15 : 18, 20 : 16 : 5. 

2. A Gershonite Levite who had 
charge of the treasures of the house 
of the Lord. 1 Chr. 23 : 8 ; 29 : 8. 

3. An officer under David. 1 Chr. 27 : 
32. 

4. A son of Jehoshaphat, slain by his 
brother Jehoram. 2 Chr. 21 : 2. 

5. A Levite engaged in Hezekiah's 
reformatory work. 2 Chr. 29 : 14. 

6. A ruler of the house of God during 
Josiah's reign. 2 Chr. 35 : 8. 

7. A Levite "overseer." 2 Chr. 31: 13. 

8. Father of Obadiah, who returned 
with Ezra, Ezr. 8 : 9. 

9. One whose son proposed to Ezra 
the putting away of the foreign wives. 
Ezr. 10:2. 

10 and 11. Two men who had to sep- 
arate their wives. Ezr. 10 : 2, 21, 26. 

JEHIEL (treasured of God?), a 
distinct name in Hebrew from the last. 

1. The father of Gibeon of Benjamin, 
421 



JEH 



JEH 



and an ancestor of Saul. 1 Chr. 9:35; 
comp. 8:29. 

2. A member of David's guard. 1 Chr. 
11 : 44. 

JEHI'ELI, a patronymic; the de- 
scendants of Jelriel. 1 Chr. 26: 21, 22; 
comp. 23:8; 29:8. 

JEHIZK1AH {whom Jehovah 
strengthens), the same name as Hezekiah. 
One of the Ephraimite chiefs who second- 
ed the prophet Oded in his efforts to re- 
lease the captives of Judah during Ahaz's 
reign. 2 Chr. 28 : 12. 

JEHO'ADAH (lehom Jehovah 
adorns), one of the descendants of Saul, 

1 Chr. 8 : 36 ; in 9 : 42 called Jarah. 
JEHOADDAN (the feminine form 

of the above), the queen of Joash and 
mother of Amaziah, the succeeding king 
of Judah. 2 Kgs. 14: 2; 2 Chr. 25 : 1. 

JEHO'AHAZ (whom Jehovah 
holds). 1. Son and successor of Jehu, 
king of Israel for 17 .years, b. c. 856- 
840. See 2 Kgs. 13:1-9. His reign 
was disastrous to the kingdom. The 
kings of Syria, Hazael and Benhadad, 
oppressed and spoiled the country. The 
army was but a shadow. When his 
troubles multiplied he sought the Lord, 
whom he had forsaken, and God ulti- 
mately raised up a deliverer in the per- 
son of Jehoash, his son. v. 25. 

2. Son and successor of Josiah, king 
of Judah, 2 Kgs. 23 : 30 ; called Shal- 
lum 1 Chr. 3 : 15 ; Jer. 22 : 1 1. Though 
he was the fourth son, yet the people 
chose him king. He was an evil-doer, 

2 Kgs. 23 : 32, and referred to as a young 
lion by Ezekiel. 19 : 3. He reigned only 
three months, B.C. 610. It has been 
plausibly conjectured that his irregular 
election offended Pharaoh-necho, who 
got Jehoahaz into his power at Riblah, 
in Syria, whence he sent him a prisoner 
loaded with chains into Egypt, and there 
he died, Jer. 22 : 11, 12, and his brother 
Jehoiakim became king in his stead. 2 
Kgs. 23 : 30, 35. 

3. The same with Ahaziah and Aza- 
riah. Comp. 2 Chr. 21: 17; 22: 1, 6, 
8,9. 

JEHO'ASH (whom Jehovah be- 
stowed), original uncontracted form of 
the name commonly written Joash, and 
applied to two kin<rs. See Joash, 3 and 4. 

JEHOHANAN (whom Jehovah- 
gave), a name contracted into Johanan, 
and thus into the familiar John. 
422 



1. A Levite porter of the Korhite 
family. 1 Chr. 23 : 3. 

2. Chief milifary leader under Je- 
hoshaphat, 2 Chr. 17 : 15, and probably 
the father of Ishmael, with whom Jehoi- 
ada conspired to set Joash on the throne. 
2 Chr. 23:1. 

3. One who put away his foreign wife. 
Ezr. 10 : 28. 

4. A priest under the high priest Joi- 
akiin. Neh. 12: 13. 

5. A priest who officiated in the service 
of song at the dedication of the wall of 
Jerusalem. Neh. 12: 42. 

JEHOI'ACHIN (whom Jehovah has 
appointed). Jeconiah, 1 Chr. 3:17; Co- 
niah, Jer. 22 : 24; Jeconias, Matt. 1 : 12. 
Son and successor of Jehoiakim, king 
of Judah, B.C. 598. 2 Kgs. 24: 8. He 
was eighteen years old when he began 
to reign, and reigned only three months 
and ten days, at which time Nebuchad- 
nezzar besieged the city and carried (he 
king and royal family, the chief men of 
the nation and great treasures unto Baby- 
lon. 2 Kgs. 24:6-16. He merited this 
punishment. Jer. 22 : 24-30. For thirty- 
seven years he was a captive, but Evil- 
merodach on his accession liberated him 
and made him share the royal bounty 
and be head of all the captive kings in 
Babylon ; and so to the end of his life he 
enjoved a position befitting his rank. 

JEHOI'ADA (whom Jehovah 
knows). 1. The father of Bfnaiah, 1, 
which see. 2 Sam. 8:18; 1 Kgs. 1 : 32 
ff. ; 1 Chr. 18:17. This Jehoiada was 
the chief priest. 1 Chr. 27 : 5, and there- 
fore he was the leader of the priests who 
came to David at Hebron. 1 Chr. 12 : 
27. By a copyist's error, Benaiah is said 
to have been the father of Jehoiada in- 
stead of the son. 1 Chr. 27:34. 

2. A high priest of the Jews, and hus- 
band of Jehosheba. 2 Kgs. 11 : 4. See 
Athaliah and Joash. His administra- 
tion was so auspicious to the civil and 
religious interests of the nation. 2 Kgs. 
12 : 2 ; 2 Chr. 23 : 16, that when he died, 
at an advanced age, he was buried in the 
royal sepulchres at Jerusalem. 2 Chr. 
24: 16. Many do not accept the age of 
132 years assigned to him, for the reason 
that if he lived so long, then, when he 
married the daughter of Jehoram, he 
must have been 80, while Jehoram was 
only 32. It has been proposed to read 
" S3 " instead. 



JEH 



JEH 



3. The second priest in the reign of 
Zedekiah. Jer. 29 : 25-29. 

4. One who helped repair the wall. 
Neh. 3 : 0. 

JEHOIAKIM (whom Jehovah sets 
vp), eldest son of Josiah, and the brother 
and successor of Jehoahaz, king of Ju- 
dah. 2 Kgs. 23 : 36. His original name 
was Eliakim, but it was changed by order 
of the king of Egypt, 2 Kgs. 23 : 34, who 
put him on the throne. The iniquity of 
his reign is strongly depicted by the his- 
torian and prophet, 2 Kgs. 24 : 4 ; 2 Chr. 
36 : 8 ; Jer. 22, 23. 36. His end was in 
strict accordance with the prediction con- 
cerning him. 

For the first four years of his reign 
Jehoiakim was subject to the king of 
Egypt, and paid an enormous tribute. 
Then he became tributary for three years 
to Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, 2 
Kgs. 24 : 1, but he rebelled, in punish- 
ment was attacked by neighboring tribes, 
and then Nebuchadnezzar took him pris- 
oner and at first bound him with chains 
to carry him to Babylon, 2 Chr. 36 : ; 
Dan. 1 : 2, but afterward set him at 
liberty and left him at Jerusalem, to 
reign as a tributary prince. The whole 
time of his reign was eleven years, b. c. 
609-598. 

The expression Jer. 38 : 30 is not to be 
taken strictly, and yet, as the reign of 
Jehoiachin was for only thirteen weeks, 
Jehoiakim may be said to have been 
comparatively without a successor. The 
same explanation applies to 2 Kgs. 23 : 
34, where Eliakim is said to have suc- 
ceeded his father, Josiah; whereas the 
reign of Jehoahaz intervened. This was 
so short, however, as not to be reckoned 
in the succession. 

Jehoiakim was a bad king, extrava- 
gant, irreverent, and vicious. His 
burning of Jeremiah's roll revealed his 
ungodly life. Jer. 36 : 23. His murder 
of Urijah, Jer. 26 : 23, and treatment 
of Jeremiah indicated his reckless cru- 
elty. The latter prophet bravely de- 
nounced the oppression, injustice, cov- 
etousness, luxury, and tyranny of this 
miserable monarch. Jer. 22 : 13-17. He 
was murdered in the eleventh year of 
his reign, and was " buried with the 
burial of an ass." Jer. 22 : 19. 

JEHOFARIB [whom Jehovah de- 
fends), the head of the first course of 
priests. 1 Chr. 24 : 7. 



JEHON'ADAB, or JONA'BAB 

{whom Jehovah incites), the son of Re- 
chab, the founder of the Rechabites, 
which see. He joined Jehu in the 
slaughter of the Baalites. 2 Kgs. 10 : 
15-23. 

JEHONATHAN (ichom Jehovah 
gave), very frequently JONATHAN. 
1. Superintendent of storehouses of Da- 
vid. 1 Chr. 27 : 25. 

2. A Levite sent out by Jehoshaphat 
to teach the Law to the people of Judah. 
2 Chr. 17 : 8. 

3. A priest, representative of the fam- 
ily of Shemaiah. Neh. 12 : 18. 

JEHORAM, frequently JO'RAM 
(ichom Jehovah has exalted). 1. The 
eldest son of Jehoshaphat, and his suc- 
cessor as king of Judah. He reigned 
eight years, b. c. 892-885, perhaps for 
the first years as the associate of his 
father. 1 Kgs. 22 : 50 ; 2 Kgs. 8 : 16, 17 j 
2 Chr. 21 : 1-3. He married Athaliah, 
the daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, and 
proved himself as wicked as his rela- 
tives. One of the first acts of his gov- 
ernment was to put to death his six 
brothers and sevei-al of the chief men of 
the kingdom. 2 Chr. 21 : 4. To punish 
him for this and other abominations of 
his reign, 2 Chr. 21 : 11-13, the Edom- 
ites, who had long been subject to the 
throne of Judah, revolted, and secured 
their independence. 2 Chr. 21 : 8-10. 
One of his own cities also revolted, and 
about the same time he received a writ- 
ing from Elijah, admonishing him of 
the dreadful calamities which he was 
bringing on himself by his wicked con- 
duct. In due time these calamities came 
upon him and his kingdom. Their ter- 
ritory was overrun with enemies ; the 
king's palace was plundered, and the 
royal family, except the youngest son, 
made prisoners. The king himself was 
smitten with a terrible and incurable 
disease, which carried him to the grave 
unlamented. and he was buried without 
royal honors. 2 Chr. 21 : 14-20. 

2. Jehoram, the son of Ahab and 
Jezebel, and king of Israel, b. c. 896- 
884. 2 Kgs. 1:17; 3:1. He was not 
so bad as his parents, but yet he did 
evil in the sight of the Lord, bowing 
down to the golden calves. 2 Kgs. 3: 2, 
3. The friendly intercourse between 
Jehoshaphat, the king of Judah, and 
Ahab was kept up by Jehoram, and so, 
423 



JEH 



JEH 



■when the king of Moab rebelled, he ob- 
tained the help of Judah and Edom to 
bring him to terms. Distressed by lack 
of water after a seven days' march, on the 
insistence of Jehoshaphat, they inquired 
of the Lord through Elisha, who prophe- 
sied victory if an odd plan -was adopted — 
viz., to dig trenches which, when filled 
■with water by the Lord, would appear 
streams of blood to the Moabites, who 
would conjecture that there had been 
internal strife, and so would be induced 
to attack the camp without the usual 
caution. The ruse was successful, and 
the Moabites were repulsed with great 
loss. The allies pursued them into Moab, 
beating down the cities and stopping up 
wells and felling trees, thus devastating 
the land. In the city Kir-haraseth was 
the king of Moab brought to bay. He 
attempted to cut his way through, but, 
foiled in that, he offered his eldest son 
as a propitiatory sacrifice unto the Mo- 
abitish war-god, Chemosh — a perform- 
ance which so horrified the Israelites 
that they abandoned the siege and re- 
turned home. See 2 Kgs. 3 : 4-27 (v. 27, 
second clause, best reads, " There was 
great indignation in Israel"). When 
fighting against Syria, Jehoram was in- 
formed of their king's secret counsels by 
Elisha, but when the Sj^rian army was 
miraculously delivered into his power 
the prophet forbade their slaughter. 2 
Kgs. 6 : 8-23. Subsequently, Samaria 
was besieged by Benhadad and reduced 
to dreadful straits. Jehoram laid the 
blame upon Elisha and determined his 
death, but afterward changed his mind. 
Man's extremity was God's opportunity. 
By a miracle plenty was restored unto 
the famishing city, as Elisha announced, 
and after this event the king's friendly 
feeling for the prophet returned. 2 Kgs. 
8 : 4-6. The seven-year famine of 2 
Kgs. 8 : 1 may have been that men- 
tioned in ch. 4, vs. 38-44. A revolution 
in Syria gave Jehoram opportunity, in 
connection with his nephew Ahaziah, to 
recover Ramoth-gilead from the Syrians, 
but in the battle he was wounded, and 
while in Jezreel, whither he had gone 
for healing, Jehu revolted and slew him 
as he tried to escape, and his body was 
cast " in the portion of the field of Na- 
both the Jezreelite," according to the 
prophecy of Elijah. 1 Kgs. 21 : 21-29 ; 
see 2 Kgs. 8 : 28 and 9 : 14-27. With 
424 



the life of Jehoram ended the reign of 
the house of Omri. 

3. A priest employed by Jehoshaphat 
to instruct the people. 2 Chr. 17 : 8. 

JEHOSHAB'EATH (her oath is 
Jehovah). See Jehosheba. 

JEHOSH , APHAT(R7io;» Jehovah 
judges). 1. The royal '"recorder" or 
annalist under David and Solomon. 2 
Sam. 8 : 16 ; 20 : 24 ; 1 Kgs. 4:3; 1 Chr. 
18:15. 

2. Solomon's purveyor for the tribe 
of Issachar. 1 Kgs. 4:17. 

3. The son and successor of Asa, king 
of Judah, 1 Kgs. 15:24; 2 Chr. 17 : 1 ; 
called Josaphat in Matt. 1:8, and in 2 
Chr. 21 : 2 the king of Israel, where the 
writer uses the generic term. He came to 
the throne at the age of 35, and reigned 
25 years, b. c. 914-890. He was a prince 
of distinguished piety, and his reign was 
powerful and prosperous. 2 Chr. 17 : 3-6. 
Among other evidences of his piety and 
benevolence, we are told that he caused 
the altars and places of idolatry to be 
destroyed, a knowledge of the law to be 
diffused throughout the kingdom, and 
the places of judicial and ecclesiastical 
authority to be filled by the wisest and 
best men of the land. 2 Chr. 17 : 6-9 : 
19: 5-11. His sin in forming a league 
with Ahab, contrary to the counsel of 
Micaiah, against Ramoth-gilead, 2 Chr. 
18, was severely censured by Jehu. 2 
Chr. 19 : 2, and had nearly cost him his 
life. 2 Chr. 18:31. 

A few years after this the kingdom 
of Judah was invaded by a confederacy 
of Edomites, Moabites, and others. 
They collected their forces at En-gedi, 
and threatened to overthrow the king- 
dom. Jehoshaphat proclaimed a fast, 
and the people from all parts of the 
kingdom — men, women, and children — 
came up to Jerusalem : and being as- 
sembled in one place, the king him- 
self made supplication to God for help 
in their extremity. 2 Chr. 20:6-12. 
His prayer was answered, and a certain 
and easy victory was promised by the 
Lord through Jahaziel, a Levite. On the 
following day the army of Judah went 
forth to meet the enemy, preceded by a 
company of singers, who praised the 
name of the Lord. The enemy were 
panic-struck and fell into irrecoverable 
confusion, and instead of facing their 
adversaries turned their swords against 



J EH 



JEI-I 



each other, until they were utterly rout- 
ed and overthrown ; so that Jeboshaphat 
and his men had no occasion to engage 
in the conflict. And such abundance 
of spoil remained in the camp that the 
men of Judah were employed three days 
in collecting it. 2 Chr. 20 : 14-27. 

Still later in his life, Jehoshaphat con- 
nected himself with Ahaziah, son and 
successor of Ahab, king of Israel, in a 
naval expedition; but this alliance with 
a wicked king turned out disastrously, 
as had been predicted by Eliezer, the 
son of Dodovah; for while the fleet lay 
at Ezion-geber it was utterly destroyed 
by a violent storm. 2 Chr. 20 : 35, 37. 
See Ahaziah. 

Again he involved himself in an alli- 
ance with Jeh'oram, the second son of 
Ahab, and also with the Edomites, for 
the purpose of invading the land of 
Moab; but while they attempted to 
make their way through the wilderness 
their water failed, and the whole army 
must have perished with thirst had not 
a miraculous supply been granted in an- 
swer to the prayers of Eiisha, who ac- 
companied the army. 2 Kgs. 3 : 6-20. 
Jehoshaphat left seven sons, .one of 
whom, Jehoram, succeeded him. 

It may be said of his reign, as of that 
of many others in ancient and modern 
times, that his schemes of reform were 
dependent on his personal influence, 
and, not being in conformity with the 
popular sentiment and general policy of 
the country, were not of permanent 
utility. 

4. The father of King Jehu. 2 Kgs. 
9 : 2, 14. 

5. A priest in the time of David. 1 
Chr. 15 : 24. 

JEHOSHAPHAT, VALLEY 
OF (valley of the judgment of Jehovah), 
a place named only in Joel 3 : 2, 12. 
Three leading explanations have been 
given. 

1. That the valley referred to is the 
same as the " valley of Berachah," where 
the forces allied against Israel were de- 
feated by Jehoshaphat. 2 Chr. 20 : 16- 
26. This event took place 100 years 
before Joel, and may have given rise to 
this expression of the prophet. 

2. That the valley is that of the Ke- 
dron, east of Jerusalem. Jews, Mo- 
hammedans, and Christians have identi- 
fied the Kedron with the Valley of 



Jehoshaphat. The Mohammedans point 
out a stone on which they think taa 
prophet will be seated at the last judg- 
ment, and rnediseval Christian tradition 
also indicated a stone on which it was 
then believed that Christ would sit at 
the judgment. The valley is a favorite 
burial-place, and some expect that the 
sides of the valley will move apart at 
the resurrection to afford room for a 
great assembly. When the name " Val- 
ley of Jehoshaphat" was given to the 
Kedron is not known, but there is no 
trace of it in the Bible nor in Josephus, 
but it is traced to the fourth century A. D. 
This identification of Jehoshaphat with 
the Kedron is now generally regarded as 
based upon a misinterpretation of Joel. 
3. That the name does not refer to any 
special place, but to either (a) the scene 
of great victories, as those of the Macca- 
bees ; or (b) the general judgment at the 
end of the world; or (c) the truth that 
God's persecuted people he will defend 
and vindicate. 

JEHOSHEBA (her oath is Jeho- 
vah), the wife of Jehoiada, the high 
priest, daughter of King Jehoram, but, 
it has been conjectured, not by Athaliah ; 
if so, half-sister to Ahaziah. 2 Kgs. 11 : 
2, 3 ; 2 Chr. 22 : 11. When Athaliah 
attempted the entire destruction of the 
seed royal Jehosheba saved her infant 
nephew, Joash, and for six years, doubt- 
less with the. connivance of Jehoiada, 
he was hid in the temple. 

JEHOSH'UA, or JEHOSH- 
UAH (Jehovah ishis help), full form for 
Joshua; used in Num. 13 : 16 and 1 Chr. 
7:27. 

JEHOVAH (he icill be), a title 
of the supreme Being, indicative of the 
attribute of eternal and immutable self- 
existence. Ex. 6:3. It is similar in 
import to the title I am. Ex. 3 : 14. In 
the English Bible it is usually translated. 
"Lord" and printed in small capitals. 
It occurs first in the second chapter 
of Genesis. As distinct from Elohim, 
it signifies the God of revelation 
and redemption, the God of the Jews, 
while Elohim is the God of nature, the 
Creator and Preserver of all men. See 
Jah, Goo. 

JEHO'VAH.JI'REHf/e/^ 

will nee, or provide), the name given 

by Abraham .to the place on which he 

had been commanded to offer Isaaej 

425 



J EI I 



jp;h 



Gen. 22 : 14, and probably the same as 
Mount Moriah, in Jerusalem. 

JEHO'VAH-NIS'SI {Jehovah my 
bauitei-), the name given by Moses to the 
altar which he built as a memorial of the 
discomfiture of the Amalekites. Ex. 17 : 
15. 

JEHOVAH-SHALOM (Jeho- 
vah [isj peace), an altar erected by Gid- 
eon in Ophi-ah, where the angel greeted 
him with "Peace be unto thee!" Jud. 
6: 24. 

JEHOVAH-SHAM'MAH (Jeho- 
vah there), in the marginal reading in 
Eze. 48 : 35 ; in the text the words are 
translated. 

JEHOVAH- TSIDKENU (Je- 
hovah oar righteousness), the marginal 
reading in Jer. 23 : and 83 : 16. Our 
translators' " hesitation whether they 
should render or transfer the expression 
may have been the greater from their 
supposing it to be one of the Messianic 
titles." — Smith. 

JEHOZ'ABAD, commonly con- 
tracted into JOZ'ABAD (whom Jeho- 
vah lestoics). 1. One of Joash's servants, 
who slew him. 2 Kgs. 12: 21; 2 Chr. 
24 : 26. 

2. One of the Levite porters. 1 Chr. 
26:4. 

3. A Benjamite who was a prominent 
warrior under Jehoshaphat. 2 Chr. 17 : 
18. 

JEHOZ'ADAK (whom God makes 
just), the son of the high priest Seraiah, 
who was murdered at Riblah by Nebu- 
chadnezzar. 2 Kgs. 25 : 21. He was car- 
ried into captivity, 1 Chr. 6: 14, 15, and 
never became high priest, but his son, 
Jeshua. attained unto this office, Ezr. 3 : 
2 ; Xeh. 12 : 26, and his descendants 
held it until Aleimus. See High Priest. 
He is more frequently called Jozadak or 
Josedech. 

JEHU (Jehovah is he). 1. Was the 
son of Hanani the seer, with whom Asa 
was so much enraged as to cast him into 
prison. 1 Kgs. 16: 7; 2 Chr. 16 : 7-10. 
He was appointed to carry a message to 
Baasha from God, threatening to visit 
upon him the most fearful judgments. 
He was afterward employed on a simi- 
lar errand to Jehoshaphat. 2 Chr. 19 : 
1, 2. 

2. 1 Kgs. 19: 16. Comp. 2 Kgs. 9 : 2. 
The grandson of Nimshi, and son of 
Jehoshaphat, selected by God to reign 
426 



I over Israel, and to be the instrument 
of inflicting his judgments on the 

J house of Ahab. 1 Kgs. 19: 17: 2 Kgs. 

: 9 : 1-10. In executing this commission 

j he commenced with the reigning king, 
Joram, who was then lying ill at Jezreel. 
Having been proclaimed king by a few 
adherents who were with him at Ba- 
moth-gilead, he proceeded toward Jez- 
reel. Upon his approach within sight 
of that place Joram despatched two or 
three messengers to ascertain his design ; 
and finding they did not return, he went 
out himself to meet him. It happened 
that they met on the ground of Naboth 
the Jezreelite, 1 Kgs. 21: 1-24; and 
Jehu at once charged him with his gross 
iniquities, and immediately shot him 
dead in his chariot. Comp. 1 Kgs. 21 : 
19 and 2 Kgs. 9 : 25. 

Jehu rode on to Jezreel, and as he 
was passing in at the gate, Jezebel, who 
was looking out at a window, said some, 
thing in allusion to what had happened 
to Ahab. By Jehu's order she was 
thrown down, and the prophecy was ex- 
actly fulfilled. 1 Kgs. 21 : 23 ; 2 Kgs. 9: 
32-37. He then exterminated the family 
of Ahab through the agency of the el- 
ders of the city, in which the 70 sons of 
Ahab were. 2 Kgs. 10 : 7. The next 
morning he ordered a general slaughter 
of all Ahab's family and adherents in 
the town of Jezreel. He then set out for 
Samaria, and meeting on his way a party 
of 42 persons, all the family of Ahaziel 
(a branch of Ahab's house), he seized 
and slew them. 

But the most revolting of these deeds 
of blood was the slaughter of all the 
Baalites he could get together under 
pretence of a festival. 2 Kgs. 10 : 18- 
28. This dreadful extermination of the 
house of Ahab, and of the idolatrous 
worship which he sanctioned, was in 
accordance with the divine command, 
and received the divine approbation. 2 
Kgs. 10 : 30. Jehu himself, however, 
was ambitious and tyrannical, and fell 
into idolatrous practices. 2 Kgs. 10:31. 
His reign lasted 2S years, B. c. S84-856, 
and he was succeeded by his son Jehoa- 
haz. 

3. A descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 
2:3S. 

4. A Simeonite. 1 Chr. 4:35. 

5. A Benjamite with David. 1 Chr. 
12 : 3. 



JEH 



JEP 



JEHUB'BAH (he will be hidden), 
an Asherite chief. 1 Chr. 7 : 34. 

JE'HUCAL, ok JU'CAL ( potent), 
one of those whom Zedekiah the king 
sent to Jeremiah the prophet, and Avho 
afterward asked for the latter's death. 
Jer. 37:3: 33:1. 

JE'HUD (celebrated), a town of the 
Danites, Josh. 19 : 45 ; identical with the 
villages/- Yehudiyeh, about 10 miles east 
of Jaffa, and now a place of 800 to 1000 
inhabitant^. 

JEHU'DI (a Jew), one mentioned 
in Jer. 33:14, 21, 23 as being sent by 
the princes to tell Baruch to fetch the 
roll of Jeremiah's prophecies, and who, 
at the king's order, brought it and read 
it before him. 

JEHUDI'JAH (the Jewess), not a 
proper name, but applied to one of the 
wives of Mered to distinguish her from 
the other, who was an Egyptian.! Chr. 
4 : 18. The word " Hodiah," v. 19, is the 
same word contracted. 

JE'HUSH (a collector), one of Saul's 
descendants. 1 Chr. 8:39. 

JEI'EL (treasure of God). 1. A 
Eeubenite chief. 1 Chr. 5 : 7. 

2. A Levite porter, one of the musi- 
cians of the second degree. 1 Chr. 15 : 
18, 21; 16:5. 

3. A Levite of the sons of Asaph. 2 
Chr. 20:14. 

4. A scribe in the time of Uzziah, 
"who kept the account of the number 
of his irregular predatory warriors." 2 
Chr. 23:11. 

5. A Levite who assisted in Hezekiah's 
reforms. 2 Chr. 29 : 13. 

6. One of the chief Levites in Josi- 
ah's time. 2 Chr. 35 : 9. 

7. One who came back with Ezra. 
Ezr. 8:13. 

8. One who had taken a foreign wife. 
Ezr. 10 : 43. 

JEKAB'ZEEL (which God gath- 
ers), a place in the southern part of Ju- 
dah, Neh. 11:25; also called Kabzeel 
(God's gathering), Josh. 15:21; 2 Sam. 
23:20. 

JEKAME'AM (who gathers the peo- 
ple), a Levite in David's time. 1 Chr. 
23:19: 24:23. 

JEKAMI'AH (whom Jehovah gath- 
ers), a descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 
18. 

JEKU'THIEL (piety toward God), 
a descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 4: IS. 



JEMIMA (dove), the eldest of Job's 
three daughters, born after his recovery. 
Job 42: 14. 

JEMU'EL (day of God), the eldest 
son of Simeon. Gen. 48 : 10 ; Ex. 6:15. 
The name is given Nemuel in Num. 23: 
12: 1 Chr. 4:24. 

JEPH/THAE, the Greek form of 
Jephthah. Heb. 11 : 32. 

JEPH'THAH (whom God sets 
free), one of the judges of Israel, was 
the illegitimate son of Gilead, Jud. 11: 

I ; and this fact made him so odious to 
the other children of the family that 
they banished him from the house, and 
he took up his residence in the land of 
Tob, a district of Syria not far from 
Gilead, and probably the same with Ish- 
tob. 2 Sam. 10 : S. Here he became the 
head of a marauding-party ; and when a 
war broke out between the children of Is- 
rael and the Ammonites, he probably sig- 
nalized himself for courage and enter- 
prise. This led the Israelites to seek 
his aid as their commander-in-chief; 
and though he objected at first, on the 
ground of their ill-usage of him, yet, 
upon their solemn covenant to regard 
him as their leader in case they suc- 
ceeded against the Ammonites, he took 
command of their army. After some 
preliminary negotiations with the Am- 
monites, in which the question of the 
right to the country is discussed with 
great force and ingenuity, and every 
attempt to conciliate them proved abor- 
tive, the two armies met. The Ammon- 
ites were defeated with great loss of life, 
and their country secured by the Israel- 
ites. 

On the eve of the battle Jephthah made 
a vow that if he obtained the victory he 
would devote to God whatever should 
come forth from his house to meet him 
on his return home. This turned out to 
be his daughter, an only child, who Avel- 
comed his return with music and dan- 
cing. Jephthah was greatly afflicted by 
this occurrence : but his daughter cheer- 
fully consented to the performance of his 
vow, which took place at the expiration 
of two months, and the commemoration 
of the event by the daughters of Israel 
was required by a public ordinance. Jud^ 

II : 34-t0. 

The Ephraimites quarrelled with Jeph- 
thah because they had not been invited 
to join in the war. But Jephthah again 
427 



JEP 



JER 



put himself at the head of his army, de- I 
feated them, and by the word " shibbo- I 
leth " detected those Ephraimites who I 
tried to cross the Jordan, and slew them. | 
In all, 42,000 Ephraimites, were slain. 
Jephthah judged the trans-Jordanic 
region six years. Jud. 12 : 1-7. 

The perplexing question what Jeph- 
thah did with his daughter will perhaps 
never obtain a satisfactory answer. The 
passage reads thus : " And Jephthah 
vowed a vow unto the Lord, and said, 
If thou shalt without fail deliver the 
children of Ammon into mine hands, then 
it shall be that whatsoever cometh forth 
of the doors of my house to meet me, 
when I return in peace from the chil- 
dren of Ammon, shall surely be the 
Lord's, and I will offer it up for a burnt- 
offering." Jud. 11 : 30, 31. An unpreju- 
diced reading of the text leads natu- 
rally to the conclusion that Jephthah 
offered her up as a burnt-sacrifice, but 
the other opinion, that he devoted his 
daughter to a life of celibacy, is de- 
fended by these arguments : 1. The par- 
ticle van, which in the A. V. is translated 
" and " (" and I will offer it up"), should 
be translated "or." But there is a Hebrew 
word with that meaning. 2. The em- 
phasis is laid upon ''him," which is 
made to refer to the Lord, and the vow 
is thus interpreted as contemplating two 
things: (1) a person to be consecrated 
to Jehovah, and (2) the additional offer- 
ing of a burnt-sacrifice. But such a 
construction would be a solecism in 
Hebrew. 3. The "burnt-offering" has 
been taken in a spiritual sense, but that 
is to put an interpretation upon the word 
which the Hebrew will not bear. 4. 
Jephthah could not vow to God a 
human sacrifice, so abhorrent to him, 
and so contrary to the whole spirit of 
the Hebrew religion. Lev. 20 : 2-5: 
Deut, 12:31. But it must be borne in 
mind that Jephthah was a rude warrior 
in the semi-barbaric age of the Judges. 
Celibacy of a voluntary and religious cha- 
racter was unknown in Israel. Jephthah's 
daughter, on this supposition, would 
have been the first and last Hebrew nun. 
The Jews looked upon the family as a 
divine ordinance, and upon the unmar- 
ried state as a misfortune equalled only 
by that of being a childless wife. It 
may not be correct to say that each 
Hebrew woman looked forward to be- 
428 



ing the mother of the Messiah, but at 
all events. to be a mother was to fulfil 
the function in society God had design- 
ed for her. A vow of celibacy, there- 
fore, would have been contrary to the 
spirit of the Jewish religion as much 
as a vow of bloody sacrifice. The so- 
journ of Jephthah's daughter in the 
mountains for two months is inconsist- 
ent with any such dedication to Jehc- 
vah. But if she were to be sacrificed, 
her home would indeed be filled with 
too mournful associations, whereas the 
open air, especially to such a girl, and 
the solitude of the hills, would be real 
aids in preparation for death. Jeph- 
thah's intense sorrow when she came 
forth to meet him likewise harmonizes 
with the literal and natural interpre- 
tation. 

JEPHUNNEH (may he be regard- 
ed 10 ith favor!). 1. The father of Caleb 
the spy, a Kenezite. Num. 13: 6; Josh 
14:14; 1 Chr. 4:15. 

2. An Asherite chieftain. 1 Chr. 7 : 38. 

JERAH (moon), a people descended 
from Joktan, who gave name to a region 
of Arabia, Gen. 10:26; 1 Chr. 1:20; 
perhaps the Moon Coast and Moon Moun- 
tains, near Hazarmaveth. Bochart pro- 
poses to identify this people with the 
Alilsei, or Beni-Hilal, "sons of the new 
moon," dwelling in the south of Chawlan. 

JERAHMEEL (on whom God has 
mercy). 1. The son of Hezron, Judah's 
grandson, 1 Chr. 2 : 9, 25, 26, 27, 33, 42 ; 
founder of the Jerahmeelites, 1 Sam. 27 : 
10 ; 30 : 29, a tribe in the southern part 
of Judah. 

2. A Merarite Levite. 1 Chr. 24 : 29. 

3. A man emploved to arrest Jeremiah 
and Baruch. Jer. 36:26. 

JERED (descent). 1. 1 Chr. 1 : 2. 
See Jared. 

2. A descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 4: 
18. 

JEREMAI (dwelling in heights), 
one who had a foreign wife. Ezr. 10 : 33. 

JEREMIAH (whom Jehovah set* 
up). 1. The father of Hamutal, the wife 
of Josiah. 2 Kgs. 23 : 31 ; 24 : 18. 

2. The head of a house in Manasseh. 
1 Chr. 5 : 24. 

3. A Benjamite who came to David at 
Ziklag. 1 Chr. 12:4. 

4. 5. Gadite warriors. 1 Chr. 12 : 1 0. 13. 
6. One of the priests who sealed the 

covenant. Nek. 10 : 2. 



JER 



JER 



7. One of the Rechabites. Jer. 35 : 3. 

8. Jeremiah, one of the four great 
prophets. He was the son of Hilkiah of 
Anathoth, in the land of Benjamin, Jer. 
1:1, and lived under various kings from 
Josiah to the Captivity. In the English 
Version he is, by unnecessary variation, 
called " Jeremy " in Matt. 2 : 17, and " Je- 
remias," Matt. 16 : 14. " There is no one 
in the ' goodly fellowshipof the prophets ' 
of whom, in his work, feelings, and suf- 
ferings, we have so distinct a knowledge, 
although it is derived almost exclusively 
from his book. He is for us the great 
example of the prophetic life. It is not 
to be wondered at that he should have 
seemed to the Christian feeling of the 
early Church a type of Him in whom 
that life received its highest comple- 
tion." — Prof. Plumptve. He was not 
only the prophet of sorrow and public 
calamity, but also the prophet of a new 
and better covenant of the heart. 

Jeremiah was very young when he was 
called to the prophetic office, and on that 
account declined it, Jer. 1:6; but God 
promised him grace and strength suffi- 
cient for his work, and for forty-two years 
he persisted in this arduous service with 
unwearied diligence and fidelity, in the 
midst of the severest trials and perse- 
cutions. It was probably owing to his 
youth at the time, and his residence in 
Anathoth, that when the book of the 
Law was found in the house of the Lord 
the king sent to Huldah the prophetess, 
instead of to him, to inquire of the 
Lord. 2 Kgs. 22:14. 

Jeremiah's task was a thankless one. 
He was the divine means, not of encour- 
agement, but of discouragement. His 
voice was constant^ heard calling upon 
the people to submit to their enemies. 
During all this time Jerusalem was in a 
most distracted and deplorable condi- 
tion, and the prophet was calumniated, 
imprisoned, and often in danger of 
death. But no ill-treatment or threat- 
enings could deter him from denouncing 
the judgments of Grod, which were com- 
ing upon the nation and that devoted 
city. His exhortations to the king and 
rulers were to submit at once to the arms 
of Nebuchadnezzar, for by that means 
they would preserve their lives; and he 
assured them, as a message received 
from God, that their continued resist- 
ance would have no other effect than to 



bring certain and dreadful destruction 
upon Jerusalem and on themselves. At 
this time Jerusalem swarmed with false 
prophets, who contradicted the words of 
Jeremiah and flattered the king and his 
courtiers that God would rescue them 
from the impending danger ; and after 
the city was taken and part of the peo- 
ple carried away to Babylon, these 
prophets confidently predicted a speedy 
return. On the other hand, Jeremiah 
sent word to the captives that the time 
of their captivity would be long, and 
that their best course was to build 
houses and plant vineyards in the land 
to which they were carried, and to pray 
for the peace of the country in which 
they resided. Indeed, he expressly fore- 
told that the captivity would endure for 
seventy years ; which duration, he inti- 
mated, was to make up for the sabbatical 
years which they had neglected to ob- 
serve. He also foretold the deliverance 
of the people and their return to their 
own country. Toward the close of his 
life he was carried into Egypt against 
his will by the Jews who remained in 
Judaaa after the murder of Gedaliah. 
On this occasion he was requested by 
Johanan and his followers to inquire of 
the Lord whether they should flee into 
Egypt; in answer, after accusing them 
of hypocrisy, he warned them in the 
most solemn manner, from the Lord, not 
to go down to 'Egypt, but they disre- 
garded the commandment of God and 
went, and took Jeremiah forcibly with 
them, where, in all probability, he died, 
some think as a martyr. 

" It is to Jeremiah, even more than to 
Isaiah, that the writers of the apostolic 
age, Heb. 8 : 8, 13; 10 : 16. 17, look back 
when they wish to describe the dispen- 
sation of the Spirit. He is the prophet, 
beyond all others of the N. T. covenant, 
which first appears in his writings ; and 
the knowledge of this new truth shall no 
longer be confined to any single order or 
caste, but ' all shall know the Lord, from 
the least unto the greatest.' " — Stanley. 

The Prophecy of Jeremiah is a faith- 
ful reflection of his sad and tender cha- 
racter and the calamities of his age. It 
embraces a period of upward of 40 years, 
between b. c. 626 and b. c. 586. Jeremiah 
entered upon the office of a prophet in 
the thirteenth year of the reign of Jo- 
siah, Jer. 1 : 2, and his prophecy relates 
'429 



JER 



JER 



to the judgments that were to come 
upon the people for their gross idolatry 
and corruption : to the restoration which 
awaited them whenever the} r would re- 
pent of their sins and forsake them ; and 
to the future glory which would arise on 
the Church of God and on such as were 
steadfast in his service when all flesh 
should see the salvation of God. 

The order of this book is as follows : 

1. The prophecies uttered in Josiah's 
re ; gn, chs. 1-12. b. c. 629-608. 

2. In Jehoiakim's, chs. 13, 20. 22, 23, 
35. 36, 45-48, 49 : 1-33. b. c. 607-597. 

3. In Zedekiah's, chs. 21, 24, 27-34, 
37-39, 49 : 34-39 ; 50, 51. c. c. 597-586. 

4. In Gedaliah's, chs. 40-44. 

Thb Lamentations of Jeremiah (the 
book immediately succeeding the proph- 
ecy) are a series of four elegiac poems, in 
which the fate of Jerusalem is described, 
with one, the third, cf a personal cha- 
racter, written, it has been reasonably 
conjectured, when Jeremiah was in Ra- 
mah, whither he had been carried as a 
captive, but where he was released by 
Ncbuzar-adan, the captain of the guard 
under Nebuchadnezzar. The poems are 
artistically composed. Chs. 1, 2, and 4 
consist of 22 verses each, as many as 
there are letters in the Hebrew alphabet, 
and each successive verse begins with a 
successive letter of that alphabet. Ch. 3 
has three verses under each letter, fol- 
lowing them down in the same way. In 
ch. 5 there is the same number of verses, 
but not the peculiar alphabetic order. 
The prophet's theme is sorrow, but his 
genius keeps him from triteness, while 
the reality and intensity of his grief 
give the utmost variety to his pictures 
of the condition of his passionately be- 
loved land. The poem is a fit companion 
of the prophecies of Jeremiah, a sort of 
a funeral dirge of the fall of Jerusalem. 
By giving free vent to the grief of the 
soul, it is at the same time a source of 
comfort to the Church, especially in 
seasons of public calamity. The place 
where it is said to have been composed 
is called " the Grotto of Jeremiah," a few 
yards north of the Damascus gate, in 
Jerusalem, and is by some modern 
writers (Fisher Howe, Conder,) identi- 
fied with the true Calvarv. 

.lEREflU'AS. Sec Jf.RFMTAH. 8. 

JER'EMIE, THE EPISTJ.E 

OF, is the title of a pretended letter 
430 



from the prophet Jeremiah appended to 
the Apocryphal book of Baruch. It 
purports to be a warning from him to 
the captives in Babylon against idolatry. 
Its style is rhetorical. It is an imitation 
of Jer. 10: 1-16. The author is un- 
known. 

JER'EIOTH (heights). 1. Head 
of a Beniamitc family. 1 Chr. 8 : 14. 

2. A Merarite Lev'ite, 1 Chr. 23 : 23 ; 
called Jerimoth in 24 : 30. 

3. The head of the 13th course of mu- 
sicians. 25 : 22. In v. 4 the name is 
Jerimoth. 

4. 5. Two who had foreign wives. Ezr. 
I 10 : 26, 27. 

1 JEREMY. See Jeremiah, 8. 

JERI'AH ( founder/ by Jehovah), a 
| Kohathite Levite. 1 Chr. 23: 19; 24: 
23. He is called Jerijah in 26 : 31. 

JER'IB AI {whom Jehovah defends ?), 
one of David's heroes. 1 Chr. 11 : 46. 

JERICHO, an ancient and cele- 
brated city in O. T. and N. T. history. 
The name, is now generally thought to 
signify "fragrance," but an older expla- 
nation connects it with the moon, which 
may have been early worshipped there. 
Situation. — Jericho was in the valley 
of the Jordan, about 5 miles west of the 
river, and 6 or 7 miles north of the Salt 
or Dead Sea. The portion of the plain 
on which it stood was noted for its fer- 
tility, being watered by a large spring 
known as the " Fountain of Elisha." 
See illustration p. 432. The city has 
occupied at least two different sites : 
(1) Ancient Jericho, near the fountain 
es-Sultan, or " Elisha's Fountain." at 
the foot of the Quarantania Mountain, 
and about a mile and a half above the 
opening of the Valley of Achor. (2) 
The Jericho of the Gospels, south-east 
of the ancient one, near the opening 
to the valley. The modern village 
Er-Riha, its present representative, is 
about two miles farther east. 

Biblical History. — Jericho is first 
mentioned as the city over against which 
the Israelites were encamped before en- 
tering the Promised Land. Moses look- 
j ed clown upon the plain of Jericho from 
i the summit of Kebo. Deut. 34 : 3 : Num. 
| 22 : 1 ; 26 : 3. The town was of consid- 
| erable size, stronglv fortified. Josh. 2 : 
. 1."); very rich. Josh. 6 : 24 ; 7:2], and 
a royal residence. Spies were sent into 
! the city and received by Rahab. Josh. 



JEE 



JEE 



2 ; Heb. 11 : 31. The wall fell after be- 
ing compassed 7 days, and the city and 
its inhabitants were destroyed. Josh. 6 : 
20, 21 ; 24: 11. A curse was pronounced 
upon any one who should thereafter re- 
build it. Josh. 6 : 2(5. This curse was 
fulfilled upon Hiel, 533 years later. 1 
Kgs. 16 : 34. But the curse seems to 
have been for fortifying the city, rather 
than for dwelling in its neighborhood, 
since the site was assigned to Benja- 
min, Josh. 18 : 21, and was a boundary 
of Ephraim, Josh. 16: 7, and afterward 
belonged to Judah. In spite of many 
conquests Jericho continued to flourish. 
Eglon, king of Moab, possessed it 18 
years. Jud. 3 : 13. David's messengers 
tarried there, in accordance with his ad- 
vice, " until your beards be grown." 2 
Sam. 10 : 5. 

A school of the prophets, often visited 
by Elijah, flourished at Jericho, 2 Kgs. 
2, and Elisha miraculously healed its 
waters, 2 Kgs. 2 : 19-22. King Zedekiah 
and his men, fleeing from Jerusalem, 
were captured in the plains of Jericho. 
2 Kgs. 25 : 5 ; Jer. 39 : 5. After the 
return from the Babylonish captivity, 
Jericho was re-occupied, Ezr. 2 : 34: Nch. 
7 : 36, and its people helped to rebuild 
the walls of Jerusalem. Neh. 3 : 2. 

Jericho is mentioned 03 times in the 
Scriptures — 56 times in the 0. T., and 7 
in the N. T. 

The Roman Antony presented the dis- 
trict to Cleopatra,whosoldittoHerod,and 
that monarch embellished the city with 
palaces and made it his winter residence, 
as being the most beautiful spot for the 
purpose in his dominions. He died there. 

It was at Jericho that the Jewish pil- 
grims going up to Jerusalem (who had 
taken the route east of the Jordan) used 
to assemble on their way to the temple. 
Hence Christ passed through it in his 
journeys. There he made the acquaint- 
ance of Zacchaeus, who was the chief 
revenue officer for the wealthy district 
of Jericho, Luke 19 : 1-9, and near this 
city also he healed the blind men. Matt. 
20: 24-34; Mark 10: 46-52; Luke 18: 
35-43. It was on the rocky road from 
Jericho to Jerusalem (even in this gen- 
eration the haunt of robbers) that Christ 
laid the scene of the parable of the Good 
Samaritan. 

Jericho of the N. T. had an interest- 
ing history. It appears to have been 



at an early day the seat of a Christian 
church, as in the fourth century the coun- 
cils of the Church were attended by the 
bishops at Jericho. The emperor Jus- 
tinian caused a " church of the Mother 
of God " at Jericho to be restored. A 
monastery of St. Stephen existed there 
A. n. 810. In the time of the Crusaders 
"New Jericho" sprang up near the site 
of the present village. 

Present Apjiearance. — Modern Jericho 
(er-Rlha) consists of a group of squalid 
hovels inhabited by about 60 families. 
The character of the place seems not to 
] have changed for at least 650 years, since 
| Brocardus, in a. c, 1230 styled it " a vile 
place," and Maundrell, in a. d. 1697, "a 
I poor, nasty village." The inhabitants 
j are looked upon by the Arabs as a de- 
based race, perhaps made degenerate by 
the enervating influence of the hot and 
unhealthy climate. A writer in Smitlfs 
Dictionary says that "they are probably 
nothing more nor less than veritable gyp- 
sies." The palm trees which once gave the 
city the r.ame of the " city of palm trees " 
have all disappeared. One solitary tree 
was standing in 1838 ; but there are 
numerous petrified palm trunks floating 
upon the Dead Sea. Tristram notes 
that a few of the sycamore fig trees, 
Luke 19 : 4, are still found among the 
ruins by the wayside of ancient Jerkho. 
The vegetation is of a semi-tropical cha- 
racter, as the plain is 900 feet below the 
level of the Mediterranean, and while 
snow is falling at Jerusalem linen cloth- 
| ing is comfortable at Jericho. There is 
an inn kept by a Greek, where Dr. 
Schaff' spent a night in 1877, disturbed 
by vermin. The surrounding garden 
shows what a little industry can do in 
that fertile soil and climate. 

The " Fountain of Elisha," by which 
Jericho was once supplied with water, is 
an object of special interest. It wells 
forth copiously from the earth, and runs 
into an old basin of hewn stone, 13 yards 
long and 8 yards wide. Numerous small 
fish swim about in the water, the tem- 
perature of which is 84° F. The earliest 
pilgrims found a tradition already exist- 
ing here that this was the water which 
Elisha healed with salt. 2 Kgs. 2 : 19, 20, 
whence it is called " Elisha's Spring" 
by the Christians. Above the spring the 
site of the house of Rahab was formerly 
shown. In the village itself there is a 
431 



JER 



JER 



half-ruined tower, now occupied by a 
Turkish garrison, which is pointed out 
as Zacchfeus's house, but it probably 



■ ■ 







'Ain Sultan, or Fountain of Elisha. (After 
Photographs.) 

dates from the Frank period, when it was 
erected for the protection of the crops 
against the incursions of the Bedouin. 

JE'RIEL. (founded of God), a de- 
scendant of Issachar. 1 Chr. 7: 2. 

JERI'JAH (founded of Jehovah). 
See Jeiuah. 

JERIMOTH (heights). 1,2,3. Ben- 
jamites. 1 Chr. 7 : 7, 8 ; 12 : 5. 

4, 5. See Jeremoth, 2, 3. 

6. Ruler of Naphtali in David's reign. 
1 Chr. 27: 19. 

7. One of David's sons, who was father 
to one of Rehoboam's wives. 2 Chr. 11 : 18. 

8. An overseer in the temple under 
Hezekiah. 2 Chr. 31 : 13. 

JE'RIOTH (cm-tains), the wife of 
Caleb, son of Hezron. 1 Chr. 2:18. 

JEROBOAM (whose people is 
many). 1. The son of Nebat, is distin- 
guished as "the man who made Israel 
to sin," and was the first king of the ten 
tribes, B. c. 975-954. He came of the ■ 
tribe of Ephraim ; and distinguishing 
himself, he was made by Solomon the | 
superintendent of all the workmen fur- j 
nished by his tribe. While thus em- 
ployed the prophet Ahijah, by a sym- 
bolical act, informed him that the king- 
dom of Solomon was to be divided and 
he was to become the head of the ten | 
tribes. What he did on receiving this 
information we know not; possibly he. 
432 



may have endeavored to hasten matters 
by raising the standard of revolt : but at 
any rate Solomon was alarmed, and took 
measures to apprehend Jeroboam, who 
fled to Egypt and remained there till 
Solomon's death. 1 Kgs. 11 : 26-40. Af- 
ter Solomon's death the smouldering 
fires of discontent burst into a fame. 
Rehoboam, his successor, acted foolishly, 
returning an insulting answer to the 
people's mild demands. Accordingly, 
the ten tribes threw off the yoke and elect- 
ed Jeroboam, who had returned, as the 
one best qualified to be their king. Thus 
was prophecy fulfilled. He fixed his 
residence at Shechem, which, with other 
cities, he fortified for the furtherance of 
bis plans. Fearing that if the revolted 
tribes should go up to the solemn na- 
tional feasts at Jerusalem they would 
be persuaded to return to their allegi- 
ance, and forgetting his obligations to 
God and his dependence on him, he 
caused two golden calves to be erected, 
one at Dan and the other at Bethel, the 
extremities of his dominions, and caused 
a proclamation to be made, requiring the 
worship of these idols. 1 Kgs. 12 : 26- 
33. Jeroboam, having set up the idols, 
assembled the people at the latter place, 
to engage in the solemn worship of them ; 
and to show his zeal for the service he 
officiated at the altar himself. But while 
he was thus occupied a prophet from the 
land of Judah appeared in the midst of 
the assembly, and in the hearing of all 
the people uttered a prediction that a 
man by the name of Josiah should arise 
and destroy that altar, and should burn 
upon it the bones of the priests; and to 
confirm his authority he gave this sign, 
that the altar should immediately be 
broken in pieces and the ashes upon it 
be poured out; and it was so. Jero- 
boam, greatly provoked by this bold 
interference, put forth his hand to seize 
the prophet : but in a moment it was 
stiffened, so that he could not draw it in. 
Intimidated by this miraculous judg- 
ment, and convinced that the man was 
indeed a prophet of the Lord, he begged 
that he would intercede for him that his 
arm might be restored, which was done 
accordingly. Jeroboam, however, was 
not reformed by this divine message and 
double miracle, but continued to cause 
Israel to sin in worshipping the calves 
which he had set up. His son was ta- 



JER 



JER 



ken sick, and he instructed his wife to 
disguise herself and go to Ahijah, who 
was now blind with age, and consult 
with him as to the result of the disease. 
The prophet was forewarned of her ap- 
proach ; and as soon as he heard her 
footsteps he called her by name, and af- 
ter recounting the sins of Jeroboam he 
predicted the disgrace and ruin and ut- 
ter extirpation of his whole family, and 
also the captivity and dispersion of the 
people of Israel. He also told her that 
the child should die, and that the nation 
should mourn for him as the only indi- 
vidual of the house of their king who 
should come to a peaceful end, and also 
as one who in the midst of all the idola- 
try and wickedness of the times had 
some pious emotions, even in the house 
of Jeroboam. As she entered the door of 
her house the child d,ed. 3 Kgs. 14 : 17. 

Jeroboam reigned in Israel 22 years, 
and was succeeded by his son Nadab. 
During his life there were almost un- 
ceasing wars between him and the house 
of David. 

2. The son of Joash, and the great- 
grandson of Jehu, reigned 41 years, 
B. c. 825-784, and followed the for- 
mer Jeroboam in his idolatrous wor- 
ship. 2 Kgs. 14 : 23-29. The Lord, 
however, by him, according to the pre- 
dictions of the prophet Jonah, raised 
the kingdom of the ten tribes to its 
greatest splendor. All the countries 
on the east of the Jordan he reduced. 
" The full extent of ancient sovereign- 
ty was recovered, no king of the north- 
ern state having ever been so victorious 
as he." It appears from the writings 
of Hosea and Amos that idleness, ef- 
feminacy, pride, oppression, injustice, 
idolatry, and luxury greatly prevailed 
in his reign. Am. 2:6-16; 5:6. Nor 
was it long after his death before the 
Lord, according to the predictions of 
Amos, cut off his family with the sword. 
2 Kgs. 15:10: Hos. 1:1, etc. 

JEROHAM [who find* mercy). 1. 
Samuel's grandfather. 1 Sam. 1:1; 1 
Chr. 6:27, 34. 

2, 3. Benjamites. 1 Chr. 8:27; 9:8. 

4. A priest, 1 Chr. 9:12; perhaps the 
same person as in Xeh. 11 : 12. . 

5. The father of some of David's 
warriors; a Benjamite. 1 Chr. 12: 7. 

6. The father of the prince of Dan 
in David's reign. 1 Chr. 27 : 22. 

28 



7. The father of one who assisted Je- 
hoiada in placing Joash on the throne. 
2 Chr 23 ' 1 

JERUB -BAAL {with whom Baal 
contends). Jud. 6 : 32. AND JERUB'- 
BESHETH {with whom the idol con- 
tends). 2 Sam. 11 : 21. See Gioeox. 

JER/UE1L ( founded of God), THE 
WII/DERINESS OF, the place in 
' which Jehoshaphat met and defeated 
the Ammonites, Moabites, and their al- 
j lies. 2 Chr. 20 : 16. It was near Te- 
koah and the valley of Berachah, on 
the west of the Dead Sea, probably the 
tract known as el-Hasasah, on the road 
from En-gedi to Jerusalem. 

JERUSALEM, the capital of the 
Hebrew monarchy and of the kingdom 
of Judah, the most important city iu 
biblical history, and the most sacred and 
the most desecrated city of the world. 
"Beautiful for situation," "the joy of 
the whole earth," " the perfection of 
beauty," — so sings the Psalmist of this 
wonderful city. Ps. 48 : 2, 3 ; 50 : 2. 
Yet Jesus wept over it tears of sorrow in 
view of its unfaithfulness and approach- 
ing doom : " Jerusalem, thou that killest 
the prophets and stonest them which are 
sent unto thee, how often would I have 
gathered thy children together, even as 
a hen gathereth her chickens under her 
wings, and ye would not ! Behold, your 
house is left unto you desolate." Matt. 
23 : 37-39. 

I. Names. — "Jerusalem," in He- 
brew, means '"'the possession" or "in- 
heritance of peace." It is called " Salem " 
in Ps. 76 : 2, and Jewish commentators 
affirm that it is identical with the Salem 
of Melchizedek, Gen. 14 : 18 ; but Jerome 
and others dispute this. The Jews also 
believe that it includes the mount upon 
which Abraham offered Isaac, and which 
he named "' Jehovah-jireh." Gen. 22 : 14. 
It is called " Jebusi," Josh. 18 : 28, and 
" Jebus," Judg. 19 : 10, 11, and it first 
appears as "Jerusalem" in Josh. 10 : 1. 
It was known as "the city of David" 
and of " Zion," 1 Kgs. 8 : 1 ; 2 Kgs. 14 : 
20 ; " city of Judah," 2 Chr. 25 : 28 ; 
" city of God," Ps. 46 : 4 : " city of the 
great King," Ps. 48 : 2 ;. "the holy city," 
Neh. 11: 1 ; "Ariel," Isa. 29 : 1 : in the 
LatinVersion it is "Hierosolyma." By the 
Roman emperor Hadrian it was named 
JElia Capitolina ; by the Mohammed- 
ans, Arabs, and Turks it is now known 
433 



JER 



JER 



as el-Khuds, or " the holy," and Beit-el- 
Makhuddis, or " the holy house" or "the 
sanctuary." The Moslems regard it as 
their most holy city, next to Mecca and 
Medina, and believe that the general 
judgment will take place in the valley 
of Jehoshaphat, under the direction of 
Mohammed and Jesus. 

II. Situation and Extent. — Jeru- 
salem is situated near the summit of the 
range of mountains which forms the wa- 
ter-shed between the Mediterranean and 
the Dead Sea, and which has been call- 
ed the " backbone " of Palestine. Its 
distance from the Mediterranean is 32 
miles, and from the Dead Sea IS miles, j 
The latitude of the city, as determined 
by the most trustworthy observations, is 
31° 46' 35" north, and the longitude 35° 
18' 30" east from Greenwich. Accord- 
ing to the late British Survey, the di- 
mensions of the Jerusalem of to-day 
are as follows : Length of the northern 
wall (measuring straight from point to 
point), 3930 feet ; eastern wall, 2754 
feet; southern wall, 3245 feet; western 
wall, 2086 feet; total circumference of 
the walls, 12,015 feet, or 2-^%\ miles. 
Dr. Robinson, measuring with a tape- 
line as closely as possible to the walls, 
found the aggregate length 12,978 feet, 
or nearly 2h miles. Maundrell, an Eng- 
lish traveller, who visited Jerusalem at 
Easter in 1697, paced the walls round, 
and reckoned the distance at 12,501 feet. 
A pedestrian can walk around the city 
in an hour, taking a very leisurely gait. 
Josephus stated the entire circuit of the 
exterior walls in his day at 33 stadia, or 
a little less than 4 English miles. The 
ancient city included the southern slopes 
of Zion and Ophel, which are now with- 
out the walls, and the former is under 
cultivation, thus fulfilling the prediction 
of 2500 years ago: "Zion shall be 
ploughed like a field." Jer. 26 : 18. The 
area included within the city walls is 
only 209£ acres, or less than one-third 
of a square mile. About 465 acres are 
supposed to have been enclosed in the 
Holy City during the period of its great- 
est extent, after the third wall had been 
built by Herod Agrippa, but the old 
walls (of Solomon and Zerubbabel) only 
included an area of 155 acres. 

III. Physical Features. — Surface. 
— The city stands upon a tongue of land 
which is separated from the surrounding 

434 



country on all sides save the north by 
deep ravines. On the east is the Valley 
of the Kedron, called also the Valley of 
Jehoshaphat, and on the west and south 
the Valley of Hinuoin. These depres- 
sions, which begin near together in the 
north, unite at Joab"s Well, half a mile 
south of the city wall, and pass off east- 
ward toward the Dead Sea. A third val- 
ley, called the Tyropceon, or the Valley 
of the Cheesemongers, falls into the Ke- 
dron Valley at the Pool of Siloani. There 
has been much discussion as to whether 
the Tyropceon Valley extended to the 
Jaffa or to the Damascus-gate. Dr. Rob^ 
inson favors the former opinion, and the 
British Survey the latter. The matter is 
important, because the position of vari- 
ous other places is decided by that of the 
Tyropceon. The view of the British Sur- 
vey, here followed, is the latest and most 
scientific, and therefore the most likely 
to be correct. By the Tyropceon the 
tongue of land was divided into two 
parallel ridges, of which the eastern 
was Mount Moriah (the site of the tem- 
ple), and the western Mount Zion (the 
site of David's house and later of 
Herod's palace), which was 110 feet 
higher than Moriah, and constituted 
the " upper city " of Josephus. North 
of Zion was the Akra, the "lower city" 
of Josephus. North of Moriah was the 
hill Bezetha, and south of it the hill 
Ophel. 

" The mountains round about Jerusa- 
lem " approach near enough to the city 
to receive our notice only upon one side. 
Across the valley of the Kedron, upon 
the north-east, is the hill Scopus, from 
which Titus looked down upon the de- 
voted capital of the Jews. South of 
Scopus and directly east of the city is 
the long ridge of the Mount of Olives, 
having three principal summits, of which 
the central one is designated as the Mount 
of the Ascension. Still farther to the south 
is the Mount of Offence, so called from its 
being the seat of Solomon's idol-worship. 
Across the Valley of Hinnom and direct- 
ly south of Moiiht Zion is the Hill of 
Evil Counsel, where Judas is reputed to 
have bargained for the betrayal of our 
Lord. Upon the slope of this hill is the 
Aceldama, or " field of blood." The dis- 
tance from Scopus to the Mount of 
Olives (according to the British Sur- 
vey) is 5243 feet; from thence to the 



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JEK 



JER 



Mount of Offence is 4731 feet, and from 
the last point to the Hill of Evil Coun- 
sel, 3772 feet. From Jerusalem to the 
summit of Olivet, which is approached 
by three paths, the mean distance is 
about half a mile. 

Elevations. — The elevation of various 
points above the Mediterranean, as given 
by the British - Survey, is as follows : 
Mount Scopus, 2715 feet ; Viri Galilasi, 
2682 feet; Mount of Olives, 2665 feet; 
Mount of Offence, 2409 feet; Hill of 
Evil Counsel, 2552 feet ; Mount Moriah, 
2440 feet; Mount Zion, 2550 feet; Cas- 
tle of Goliath (highest point within the 
city), 2581 feet; Valley of the Kedron, 
2190 feet; the general level of the city, 
2610 feet; the hill Ophel, at the triple 
gate, was 300 feet above the Pool of Si- 
loam. The topography of Jerusalem 
will be more fully treated toward the 
close of this article. 

Climate. — The rainy season extends 
from October to March. Snow some- 
times falls to the depth of a foot or 
more, and the pools are covered with a 
thin coating of ice; but the ground 
never freezes, and many winters pass 
without any signs of either snow or 
ice. The natives build no fires merely 
for warming themselves. During the 
summer, rain is almost unknown. A 
north-westerly breeze from the Mediter- 
ranean then prevails between the hours 
of 9 A. M. and 10 p. m. The meteorolog- 
ical observations of Dr. Thomas Chap- 
lin, an English physician, at Jerusalem 
for 8 years (1863-72) showed that the 
mean temperature was 62.8° ; February 
was the coldest month, being 47.9°; 
August the warmest, averaging 76.1°. 
The range of the thermometer was 78.5°; 
or f-om 25° Fahr. on Jan. 20, 1864, to 
103.5° on June 24, 1869, the former be- 
ing the coldest day for 21 years. 

Dr. Barclay says that nearly every 
species of vegetable in common use in 
the United States has been successfully 
cultivated in the vicinity of Jerusalem. 
Oranges, limes, and lemons are to be 
had in the greatest profusion and per- 
fection almost the entire year round. 
The oranges of Jerusalem mostly come 
from Jaffa, where they are grown in 
great abundance. 

IV. History. — The Jerusalem of dmr 
Lord and of his apostles is buried from 
20 to 80 feet beneath the ruins and rub- 
436 



bish of centuries ; the " City of David " 
lies still deeper below the surface of mod- 
ern Jerusalem. In the 15 centuries from 
Joshua to Titus, the city was besieged 
not less than 17 times ; twice it was 
razed to the ground, and twice its walls 
were destroyed. There is no trace on 
the surface now to be seen of the city in 
its glory. The ancient streets, walls, and 
buildings have long since disappeared, 
and the old sites and historical places 
have long been the subject of specula- 
tion and most bitter controversy. The 
topography of ancient Jerusalem, even 
since the valuable discoveries of Robin- 
son, Warren, Wilson, and others, is more 
confused and unsettled by new theories 
and speculations than ever before. It 
will be convenient to treat of the history 
of the city under successive periods ; as 
Jerusalem of the Jebusites ; of the Kings; 
of the Captivity, including that of the 
Ptolemies and the Maccabees : the Je- 
rusalem of N. T. times ; of the Romans 
and the Christian emperors; of the Sar- 
acens and the Crusaders; the Jerusalem 
of the Turks; and modern Jerusalem. 

1. The Jebusite Period. — In respect tr 
the identity of Salem, of which Melchiz 
edek was king, Gen. 14 : 18, with Jerusa 
lem, the weight of authorities is about 
equally divided in favor of and against 
it. An incidental proof in favor of this 
theory is supposed to be found in Ps. 
76 : 2, and it was held by Josephus, 
Eusebius, and many later scholars. The 
earliest definite notice of Jerusalem is 
found in the description of the boun- 
daries of Judah and Benjamin, where 
it is called Jebusi, after the people who 
inhabited it. See Josh. 15:8; 18:16, 
28. The Jebusites still held the city 
after the conquest of the land under 
Joshua, Josh. 15 : 63, but soon after his 
death the children of Judah besieged the 
city, took it and burned it, and destroy- 
ed its king, Adoni-bezek, Jud. 1:7, 8 ; 
yet it would appear from Jud. 1 : 21 that 
the entire city was not subdued, and Jo- 
sephus states that the siege lasted some 
time, that the lower city only was taken, 
and that the upper city was so strong, 
from its walls and the nature of the place, 
that they abandoned the attempt of com- 
pleting the capture. Compare Jud. 19 : 
10, 11. Through the rule of the Judges 
and the reign of Saul the stronghold con- 
tinued in the possession of the Jebusites. 



JER 



JEK 



After David became king of all Israel he 
made Jerusalem his capital, and the city 
of the Jebusites was taken by his chief 
captain, Joab ; it was called '• the strong- 
hold of Zion," or "the city of David." 
2 Sam. 5:7; 1 Chr. 11 : 6. From this 
time the rising grandeur and glory of 
Jerusalem as the seat of one of the 
noted empires of the East caused the 
city to take rank along with Nineveh, 
Babylon, and Tyre. 

2. Under the Kings.— David began im- 
mediately to strengthen and to fortify the 
city by building a wall around it, and 
to increase the strength of the strong- 
hold by connecting it with the city. 
This citadel he made his residence. He 
also brought the ark from Kirjath- 
jearim to the house of Obed-edom, and 
thence to the " city of David," 2 Sam. 6 : 
2-16, thus making it the political and 
religious capital of the Israelitish na- 
tion. This choice of a capital was made 
by David, as elsewhere declared, under 
divine direction, Deut. 12 : 5-21 ; 1 Kgs. 
11 : 36. It was the place where the Lord 
had chosen to put his name, Ps. 78 : 68, 
as he may have done with the earlier spir- 
itual capitals, Gilgal, Bethel, Shiloh, and 
Gibeon. The city of Zion also became 
the sepulchre of David and of the kings 
who succeeded him, and his royal gardens 
were in the valleys below. Under Solo- 
mon the city reached its greatest mag- 
nificence. His three important addi- 
tions to ths capital as founded by his 
father, David, were the temple, with 
its massive east wall, the royal palace, 
and the extension and strengthening of 
the walls of the city. The temple was 
built on the site which David purchased 
of Araunah the Jebusite, 2 Sam. 24 : 20- 
25 ; 1 Chr. 21 : 22-28; 2 Chr. 3 : 1, and 
which was in Mount Moriah. David 
had also gathered a large portion of the 
wealth and of the materials required for 
erecting this magnificent sanctuary to the 
Lord, and had designed to build it him- 
self, but was forbidden of the Lord be- 
cause he had been a man of war. 1 Kgs. 
8 : 18, 19. In this vast work Solomon 
was aided by Hiram, king of Tyre, who 
furnished timber out of Lebanon, and 
cunning workmen in every kind of 
metal, and those skilled, no doubt, in 
the mechanical arts, as the Tyrians are 
known to have been unsurpassed in their 
day in this class of work. In seven years 



the temple was completed and dedicated, 
and thus Jerusalem became the one cen- 
tral place of all the world to the true 
worshipper " of Jehovah. See Temple. 
A palace of grandeur corresponding to 
the extent and power of his empire, Solo- 
mon erected for himself within the chosen 
capital, taking 13 years for its construc- 
tion ; he also built another royal edifice 
to beautify the city, and which is called 
the ''house of the forest of Lebanon," 
perhaps from the '"'pillars of cedar" 
around it, 1 Kings 7 : 2-7 ; a palace was 
likewise built for the queen, the daugh- 
ter of Pharaoh. 1 Kgs. 7:8. He ex- 
tended the walls of the city probably 
around the newly-built portions, added 
towers, and increased the height of the 
walls made by David; so that the Jeru- 
salem of that period, with the splendor 
of Solomon's court, was unsurpassed for 
magnificence and brilliancy by any of 
the noted capitals of the East. The fame 
of it reached unto Sheba, whose queen 
came to behold it ; and she declared 
that the half of the glory of the king- 
dom <?f which Jerusalem was the centre 
had not been told her, 1 Kgs. 10 : 7 ; 
2 Chr. 9 : 1-12. 

The division of the kingdom under Re- 
hoboam, which followed the death of Solo- 
mon, exposed the city to attack from for- 
eign foes. Shishak, jealous of the glory 
of Jerusalem, which had for two genera- 
tions excelled that of Egypt, tempted by 
the treasures of the famous city, and per- 
haps influenced by Jeroboam, who had 
been an exile in Egypt and was the lead- 
er of the revolting tribes, invaded the 
land and made the southern kingdom 
tributary to the Pharaohs, bearing away 
the accumulated treasures of the temple, 
including 500 golden shields, computed 
to represent $720,000 — a vast sum for 
those days. Thirty years later, under 
Asa, Jerusalem regained her independ- 
ence after the great battle with Zerah 
at Mareshah. 2 Chr. 14 : 9-15. As the 
fruit of this victory, Asa replaced the 
vessels of the Lord's house taken by 
Shishak, rebuilt the altar, and probably 
added a new court to the temple, 2 Chr. 
15 : 5, 8 ; these treasures were soon after 
granted to the king of Syria to secure 
his aid in a war against Baasha, king of 
Israel. 2 Chr. 16 : 1, 2. 

In the idolatrous and troubled times 
which followed the alliance of the house 
437 



JER 



JEE 



of Jehoshaphat with that of the wicked 
Ahab, the glory of Jerusalem fell into a 
decline, but it revived fur a time under 
Joash, who repaired the temple, only to 
despoil it when Hazael of Syria invaded 
the country and threatened the capital. 
2 Chr. 24: 10-14, 23; 2 Kgs. 12: 17, 
18. Later, under Amaziah, a large por- 
tion of the walls of Jerusalem was broken 
down bv the armies of the northern king- 
dom of Israel. 2 Chr. 25 : 23. Uzziah 
repaired the walls and renewed the for- 
tifications of the city, which were still 
further strengthened by his son Jotham, 
especially that part of the city on Moriah, 
Zion, and Ophel. It again declined under 
the wicked Ahaz, but was improve! and 
made to approach the former magnifi- 
cence attained in the days of Solomon 
bv the extensive and remarkable works 
of Hezekiah. 2 Chr. 32 : 30 ; Isa. 22 : 
9-11. Manasseh built a wall outside of 
the city of David, enclosing Zion, and 
raised the tower of Ophel to a great 
height. 2 Chr. 33 : 14. With the am- 
ple supply of water provided by Heze- 
kiah through the pools and conduits 
which he built, and the towers of de- 
fence constructed by Manasseh, the city 
was regarded as very strong, if not im- 
pregnable. Compare 2 Kgs. 20 : 20 ; 2 
Chr. 33 : 14 ; Lam. 4 : 12. The king- 
dom was, however, subject to Assyria. 
The subject king revolted ; the capital 
was attacked, and was compelled to sur- 
render to the forces of Nebuchadnezzar, 
who carried away all the treasures of the 
temple and the palace, and took as cap- 
tives the princes, men of wealth, and the 
skilled artisans, numbering 10,000, so 
that only the poorest of the people were 
left in the land, over whom Zedekiah 
was made king. Trusting to the aid 
of Pharaoh-hophra, Zedekiah rebelled, 
and Nebuchadnezzar again laid siege 
to Jerusalem, erecting forts, mounds, 
and engines of war to batter down the 
walls. This siege was temporarily raised 
by the approach of an Egyptian army, but 
the Assyrians speedily returned to the 
city, and invested it more closely than 
ever. Its inhabitants, shut up within 
its walls, suffered from all the horrors 
of famine, pestilence, and war for a 
year and a half, when the walls were 
broken and the place taken b. c. 586, 
the temple, palace, and chief buildings 
burned, the walls thrown down, and the 
438 



I city made a " heap of rubbish " by order 
of Nebuchadnezzar. The dreadful hor- 
I rors of this siege and destruction are viv- 
■ idly portrayed by Jeremiah. Lam. 2 and 
| 5. For oi) years the city lay in ruins. 

3. Jerusalem of Ezra and the Ptolemies. 
I — Under the decree of Cyrus the captives 
1 returned to Jerusalem, rebuilt the tem- 
ple, and made the city again habitable; 
j and later, under Nehemiah, the city was 
! fortified, and the walls, which had beeu 
broken for 140 years, were re-constructed, 
notwithstanding the opposition of San- 
ballat and Tobiah. Nch. 4 : 7-22; 6 : 
j 1—16. The extent of the walls built by 
j Nehemiah is clearly indicated in Neh. 
! 3, and they must have enclosed a far 
j larger- space than the reduced popula- 
! tion could require. The followin * de- 
| scription of the city and its extent is 
from Baedeker's Handbook of Syria 
(1876) : ''The wall extended up' the hill 
; from the pool of Siloam toward the 
north. On the highest point of Ophel 
rose a bastion, which was also intended 
to protect the horse-gate, an entrance of 
the temple toward the cast. Ne ir the 
horse-gate, and within the precin :ts of 
the temple, were the dwellings of the 
priests. On the east side it is common- 
ly supposed that there was a second gate, 
called the water-gate. There were also 
fortifications at the north end of the 
temple terrace, the most important be- 
ing the Bira, a large bastion restored 
bv Nehemiah, afterward the site of Baris. 
The city was further defende I on the 
north side by the tower of Han in eel. 
There was also the tower of Mea, about 
50 yards south of the other; but the 
site of both seems to be far from l-eing 
even approximately determined. . . . 
The wall which enclosed the upper 
city ran toward the west and ha 1 two 
gates — the gate of the centre, which led 
from one part of the city to the other, 
and, to the extreme west, the ra/lej/-gate, 
afterward called Gennath, situated to the 
east of the present Jaffa-gate, where Uz- 
ziah once erected a tower of defence. In 
the suburb to the north was, first, the 
corner - gate, which was probably the 
same as the old gate, and perhaps also 
the gate of Ephraim, the site of which, 
however, is quite uncertain. From the 
upper part of the city a gate lei west 
toward the valley of Hinnom, calle I the 
dung-gate, where a rock staircase has been 



JEK 



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discovered. To the south a wall ran 
across the Tyropoeon, at the outset of 
which lay the spring-gate, or the valley 
between the two walls. The situation of 
the potters' gate, leading to the valley of 
Hinnoiu, is a matter of mere conjecture." 

The city prospered under Nehemiah 
as a Persian governor. In B. c. 366, 
Jeshua was murdered by his brother, 
Johanan, through rivalry for the high 
priesthood, and liagoses, the Persian 
genera], entered the sanctuary, and im- 
posed a tax of 50 darics or drachmas 
for every lamb offered during the life- 
time of Johanan, which was 7 years. 
The two sons of Johanan, Jaddua and 
Manasseh, held the high priest's office 
jointly until after their father's death, 
when Manasseh joined the Samaritans, 
and became the first high priest of their 
temple on Mount Gerizim. See Samari- 
tan's. In B. c. 332, Alexander the Great, 
after the famous battle of Issus, in which 
he gained a decisive victory over the 
Persians, visited Jerusalem, according 
to Josephus, and the high priett read to 
him the writings of Daniel, predicting 
the overthrow of Persia by the Greeks. 
This secured to the Jews various favors, 
among them an exemption from tribute 
during the sabbatical year. In B. c. 320, 
Ptolemy Soter captured Jerusalem be- 
cause the Jews would not fight on the 
Sabbath, and large numbers of the people 
were transported to Africa. In b. c. 300, 
Simon the Just, a favorite hero among 
the Jews, became high priest, and added 
deep foundations to the temple, probably 
to gain greater surface on the top of the 
hill, sheathed the great sea with brass, 
strengthened and fortified the walls, 
and sustained the temple-service with 
great pomp and ceremony. Ptolemy 
Philadelphus, under whose direction the 
Septuagint Version of the 0. T. is re- 
puted to have been made, at Alexandria, 
also made rich gifts to the temple and 
its service. 

Jerusalem soon after became the prey 
of rival parties ; was visited by Ptolemy 
Philopator, who attempted to offer sacri- 
fice in the temple, but was prevented by 
Simon, the high priest, and by a super- 
natural terror, which caused him to fall 
paralyzed upon the floor of the court. 
He afterwards showed great hostility to 
the Jews. 

Jerusalem was taken by Antiochus the 



Great, b. c. 203. and retaken by Scopas, 
the Alexandrian general, B. c. 199, but a 
year later was opened by the Jews to 
Antiochus, who rewarded them with largo 
presents of money and materials for re- 
pairing the temple, and with considerable 
remission in taxes, declaring their temple 
inviolable. The city again had great 
apparent prosperity. After the death of 
Antiochus the Great, B. c. 187, and under 
the reign of the infamous Antiochus 
Epiphancs (since B. c. 175), it became ; 
I again the scene of commotion through 
; strifes and disgraceful Greek customs, 
i young men being trained naked in a 
| new gymnasium set up by Jason the 
high priest, to whom Antiochus had 
sold the office : bribery, fraud, pillage. 
! and riot were common : the holy place 
| of the temple was polluted ; a foreign 
: garrison was placed in the hill of Da- 
I vid, overlooking the temple: heathen 
worship was ordered to be celebrated in 
the sanctuary of Jehovah, and the Jews 
not slain were forced to submit to every 
species of indignity. Many of them re- 
sisted the efforts of Antiochus to destroy 
| their religion, and suffered torments and 
bitter persecutions. See 1 Mace. 1 : 13 ; 2 
; Mace. 4:9, 12 : 6 : 10-31 : 7. The Jews 
finally made a general revolt against the 
j monstrous tyranny of Antiochus Epiph- 
j anes. A large army was raised under 
Judas Maccabeus, who gained a victory 
over Lysias, the Antiochian general, and 
the Jews re-entered Jerusalem, B. c. 165. 
2 Mace. 8. 

At the death of Judas Maccabseus, 
B. c. 161, the city again had a period of 
disturbance and trouble, caused by the 
dissensions of local rulers, until the time 
of John Hyrcanus, b. c. 135, when it was 
attacked by the king of Syria, who en- 
circled it with seven camps, erected on 
the north a hundred towers of attack, 
each three stories high; and partially 
undermined the wall. A truce was, how- 
ever, secured; the Syrians were induced 
to end the siege, and the walls were 
carefully repaired. After the death of 
Hyrcanus the city was the scene of mur- 
derous strifes and Woody wars between 
the petty rulers and the two leading 
sects, the Pharisees and Sadducees, no 
fewer than 50,000 persons having fallen 
in these feuds in six years. 

The city was captured, b. c. 63, by the 
Pioman Pompev, who left the valuable 
439 



JEE 



JER 



treasures of the temple intact ; Crassus, 
in B. c. 54, however, plundered the tern- 
pie and city of the treasures which 
Pompey had spared, amounting, it is 
computed, to 10,000 talents, or from 
$S,000,000 to $10,000,000. The city was 
captured by the Parthians under Anti- 
gonus, b. c. 40, but the next year Herod, 
afterward the Great, laid siege to Jeru- 
salem, supported by a Roman army : the 
outer walls and lower city were taken in 
less than 60 days, and after prolonging 
the siege for five months the citadel and 
temple were captured by storm. Later, 
Herod was made king by the Romans. He 
speedily began to improve and beautify 
the city, one of the chief of his works 
being the enlarging of the temple, which 
occupied 46 years. Under his rule the 
city was restored to something like its 
ancient magnificence. 

4. Jerusalem in N. T. Times. — Jeru- 
salem, in the time of our Lord, stood in 
all the strength and grandeur to which it 
had been brought by Herod. This king 
died a few months after the birth of 
Jesus, but the royal palace, the renewed 
temple, the fortress of Antonia, built 
from the older Baris tower, the grand 
theatre where games were instituted in 
honor of Caesar, the three great towers 
of Hippicus, Phasselus, and Mariamne, 
the bridge of Herod, between the upper 
city and what had been a portion of 
Solomon's palace, — these magnificent 
structures of Herod remained. The ruin 




Robinson's Arch. 

now known as "Robinson's Arch" is a 
part of the bridge of Herod. Except 
the aqueduct built under Pilate for the 
440 



better supply of the city with water, 
no important improvements were made 
from the time of Herod the Great until 
the reign of his grandson, Herod A grip- 
pa, A. D. 41. The second wall enclosed 
the northern part of the central valley 
of the city ; beyond this lay Bezetha, 
or "new town," which Agrippa enclosed 
by a third wall, that doubled the size 
of the city. After his death Judgea again 
became simply a Roman province, ruled 
by reckless and oppressive procurators, 
and Jerusalem was the scene of dis- 
content, insurrections, riots, and petty 
rebellions, until Vespasian and Titus be- 
gan a war to put down the insurrection. 
Jerusalem was besieged. The terrible 
sufferings and agony of the Jews shut 
up in the invested city, the loss of up- 
ward of 1,000,000 lives in the siege, the 
complete destruction of the city, A. d. 
70, form one of the darkest pages in the 
history of this remarkable people. The 
rebellion was kept up for about 3 years 
after the fall of the city, when the Jewish 
power was completely destroyed and the 
Jews denied access to their ancient 
capital. 

5. Jerusalem under Roman and Chris- 
tian Emperors. — The city and kingdom 
having been destroyed by Vespasian 
and Titus, a new Roman Jerusalem was 
founded by Hadrian upon the site of the 
ancient city, and called iElia Capito- 
Una ; a temple of Jupiter was erected 
on the ruins of the temple of Jehovah. 
The Jews were not allowed to enter the 
city, and this law continued until the 
country came under the rule of the Chris- 
tian emperors of the Eastern empire. 
Constantine restored the old name Jeru- 
salem, and his mother, the empress 
Helena, devoted herself to re-discovering 
the lost sites of importance to Christians, 
erecting costly churches to commemorate 
some of the supposed holy places. In 
the reign of Julian — commonly called 
the Apostate — an attempt was made tore- 
build the temple, but an earthquake and 
other supernatural occurrences caused 
the work to be abandoned, and the event 
has been regarded as a judgment of God 
upon an impious attempt to falsify the 
words of Christ. Ammianus Marcel- 
linus, a heathen historian, philosopher 
and a soldier of Julian, thus describes 
the failure of this attempt to rebuild the 
temple : " Whilst Alypius, assisted by the 



JER 



JER 



governor of the province, urged with vigor 
and diligence the execution of the work, 
horrible balls of fire breaking out near 
the foundations, with frequent and reit- 
erated attacks, rendered the place from 
time to time inaccessible to the scorched 
and blasted workmen ; and the victorious 
element continuing in this obstinately and 
resolutely bent, as it were, to drive them 
to a distance, the undertaking was aban- 
doned." Chrysostom declares that per- 
sons of his time were witnesses of this 
defeat of the effort to rebuild the temple, 
and that the above occurrences were the 
reason assigned for the failure of the 
project. This view has been strongly 
advocated by Bishop Warburton. The 
emperor Justinian founded a fine church 
in honor of the Virgin, A. r>. 529, which 
some would locate upon the site of the 
mosque el-Aksa. In a. d. 614 the Per- 
sians, under Chosroes II., captured Jeru- 
salem, slew thousands of the monks and 
clergy, and destroyed the churches. 

6. Jerusalem of the Crusaders and 
Turks.— In a. d. 637 the city fell into 
the hands of Caliph Omar, and Chris- 
tians were allowed to worship there, but 
not to erect churches. After unusual 
severities upon Christians by a Turkish 
ruler, the Crusaders captured the city in 
A. d. 1099; it was reconquered, 1187, 
by the Mohammedans under Saladin. 
Thrice afterward it was in Christian 
hands; in 1517 it came into the posses- 
sion of the Osmans, and has remained in 
the hands of the Turks until the present 
time. (A description of modern Jerusalem 
Avill be found near the close of the article. ) 

V. Topography. — The Jerusalem of 
to-day is built upon the ruins of several 
successive cities, each erected and de- 
stroyed upon the same site, and each 
adding to the debris of some former 
town. The foundations of the Jerusa- 
lem of the 0. T. and of Christ and his 
apostles, so far as they exist, are far 
below the surface of the present town. 
"The city shall be builded upon her 
own heap," said Jeremiah, 30: 18; and 
this we know has been fulfilled many 
times. Owing to this repeated burial 
of the Jerusalem of the various periods 
described above, the precise location of 
the biblical sites and ancient holy places 
in and about the city has led to long and 
sharp controversy. Even the location 
of Zion and Moriah has been disputed 



with great ability and learning. The 
energetic and successful explorations of 
the English Palestine Fund proved that 
remains of the ancient enclosing walls 
about the temple still exist, about 80 
feet below the present surface. Upon 
these immense stone blocks, lying at that 
depth upon a rocky foundation, there 
were discovered Phoenician quarry- 
marks. The shafts sunk by Captains 
Warren and Wilson have since been 
filled up, and Jerusalem topography is 
still confused by the mazes of many 
conflicting opinions. A brief statement 
of the general divisions and features 
of Jerusalem has already been given 
under Physical Features, p. 434. 

The theory of Mr. Fergusson, in 
Smith's Dictionary, which would iden- 
tify Zion with the hill on which the 
temple stood, has been generally re- 
jected by scholars. The lower eastern 
hill, known as Mount Moriah, is the 
site of Solomon's temple; west of it was 
the higher hill of Zion, called also the 
city of David. Bezetha was on the 
north of Zion, according to Josephus. 

Walls of David and of Nehemiah. — As 
the walls of the old city rebuilt by Ne- 
hemiah were, it is believed, upon the old 
foundations, the city, as renovated after 
the great captivity, must have been upon 
the same site, and have covered nearly 
the same area as the Jerusalem of Da- 
vid and Solomon." Dr. Howard Crosby, 
in Johnson's Cyclopsedia, says of the 
city as restored by Nehemiah : " Elia- 
shib the high priest is first mentioned 
as leading the workers at the sheep- 
gate, and at the wall as far as the 
tower of the Hundred (Ha Meah) and 
the tower of Hananeel. These places 
we must, of course, find in the temple- 
region. . . . The description in Nehe- 
miah follows the wall from the centre 
of the east side of the city northward. 
The sheep-gate must have been in the 
centre of the temple-precinct wall. . . . 
If the probatika of John 5 : 2 be the 
sheep-gate, and the Pool of Bethesda 
be the Fountain of the Virgin, with its 
intermittent flow, then we should sup- 
pose the sheep-gate to be farther south ; 
but the Pool of Bethesda may have been 
within the temple-precinct, and the pres- 
ent Fountain of the Virgin may re- 
ceive to-day the intermittent effects 
which in former times showed them- 
441 



JER 



JER 



selves in another pool, now filled up. 
We are inclined to think that this sheep- 
gate is the same as the Miskneh x or 
4 second gate,' of Zeph. 1 : 10, and the 
'college' of 2 Kgs. 22:14, where the 
prophetess Huldah lived. In this case 
the fish-gate would be the first gate (see 
Zeph. 1 : 10), and would represent the 
north-eastern corner of the city, oppo- 
site the Mount of Olives. Between the 
fish-gate and the sheep-gate would stand 
the tower of Hananeel and the tower of 
Meah (or the Hundred). The ' old gate ' 
would be found next as we follow the 
north wall north-westward. The course 
would be along the 'second wall' of Jo- 
sephus, for the first or old wall seems to 
have been the northern fortification of 
Zion. The ' old gate ' may be really the 
Jeshanah gate. 2 Chr. 13:19. . . . The 
' gate of Ephraim ' comes next in Nehe- 
nii-ih (not in his account of the build- 
ing, but in his record of the dedication, 
12 : 39), and may have occupied the site 
of the present Damascus gate. Then 
follows the ' broad wall' (some local pe- 
culiarities of the wall, perhaps for de- 
fence;, and then we reach the 'Tower 
of the Furnaces,' which may have stood 
over the western valley, as the towers of 
Hananeel and the Hundred overlooked 
the eastern. The 'valley-gate' would 
correspond with the present Jaffa-gate. 
Near this was the * JJ .-agon- well.' Neh. 2 : 
13. The ' dung-gate ' (if our supposi- 
tions above are correct) would be 1000 
cubits south of the Jaffa-gate, Neh. 3 : 
13— that is, on the south-western part 
of Zion, over against the Birket es-Sul- 
tan (Pool of the Sultan). The 'foun- 
tain-gate' would lie on the opposite 
side of Zion, facing the Pool of Siloam. 
The • stairs' that go down from the city 
of David would be found between the 
fountain-gate and the south-western 
temple-corner. They were probably an 
ascent from the king's gardens to the 
Davidian palace on Zion. The sepul- 
chres of David, the ' king's pool/ Neh. 
2:14, and the house of the mighty were 
probably at the corner of Zion, over 
against the south-western temple-cor- 
ner, where the wall crossed the Tyro- 
pcoon. The 'armory' is in this neigh- 
borhood, at the very corner where the 
wall turns abruptly southward to encir- 
cle Ophel. The 'house of the high 
priest' and the 'house of Azariah' are 
442 



near this. After turning the extreme cor- 
ner of Ophel southward,we reach the ' tow- 
er which lieth out from the king's high 
house,' which may be the extra tower 
discovered by Capt. Warren's subterra- 
nean explorations (Eecovery of Jerusa- 
lem, p. 229). As he himself suggests, it 
may have been built out in order to 
guard the fountain of the Virgin. The 
■ water-gate ' would be so called in rela- 
tion to this fountain. By this water- 
gate, on Ophel, was a broad street of 
square, where assemblies could be held 
in the immediate vicinity of the temple. 
Neh. 8 : 1, 3, 16. Near by was the ' horse- 
gate,' famous as the spot where Atha- 
liah was put to death. . . . The gate 
'Miphkad' may mark some angle of 
the walls connected with the division, 
as a special corner is here mentioned, 
Neh. 3 : 32, before we rea.ch the sheep- 
gate again." 

The next important view of Jerusa- 
lem topography is that during our 
Lord's day, and until its destruction by 
the Romans, A. d. 70. The only full de- 
scription of the city near that date which 
has come down to us is found in Josephus. 
The city was defended on the east, south, 
and west by a single wall ; upon the north 
three walls were successively built, the sec- 
ond outside of the first, and the third out- 
side of the second. The position of these 
walls is one of the disputed questions in 
Jerusalem topography. In reconstruct- 
ing the city as it appeared in our Lord's 
day the reader must remember that the 
third wall, which enclosed the new city, 
Bezetha. on the north, was built by 
Herod Agrippa, about A. D. 42, and 
therefore after the crucifixion and as- 
cension of Christ. All the three walls 
noticed by Josephus are upon the north 
of the upper city, or Zion, but there is 
much controversy respecting the course 
of these walls, particularly the second 
and the third wall. It must be further 
borne in mind that the ancient walls 
probably included the southern portions 
of the hills of Zion and of Ophel. which 
are outside the present walls of the city. 

The following description of the city 
before its destruction by Titus is con- 
densed from Josephus, Jewish War, v., 
4; several of his points in the course 
have not been identified. 

" 1. Jerusalem was fortified with three 
walls on such parts as were not en- 





SF?3^f§ 




Eastern Wall of Jerusalem and Muslim Tombs. {After Photograph by Bonfils.) 
There are many cemeteries, sepulchres, and tombs about Jerusalem, but the favorite burviug-place of the 
Muslims is along the east wall, adjoining the Haram esh-Sherif, since, according to their traditions, the general 
judgment will take place in this locality. They say that all men will then assemble in the Valley of Jehoshaphat 
(at the left of the picture!. A thin wire rope will be stretched across the valley to the Mount of Olives. Christ 
will sit ou the wall and Mohammed on the mount, as judges. All men must pass over the intervening space 
on the rope. The richteous will be kept by the angels from falling, while the wicked will be precipitated into 
the abyss of hell. Near the centre of the picture can be seen the Golden Gate, which has been kept closed 
from a very early period. 




The Interior of the Jaffa-Gate. {After Photograph by Bonfils.) 
The JafFa-gate, called also " Yafa-gate," '• Hebron-gate," and by the Arabs Bab el-Kliulil, is on the west side 
of Jerusalem. It consists of a massive square tower, the entrance to which from without is on the northern 
side. ;,ncl the exit within on the eastern. A 11 the roads from the country south and west converge to this gate. 
One street — and it is generally the one first trodden by Western pilgrims — leads from the Jaffa-gate eastward 
past the space by the citadel, and down the side of the ridge and across the valley to the princiual entrance of 
the Haram. This street is called by some the " Street of David." Outside the Jaffa-gate is the usual camping- 
place of all travellers reaching Jerusalem by way of Jaffa and from Hebron or Bethlehem. 



JEE 



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compassed -with impassable valleys; in 
such places it hath but one wall. The 
city was built upon two hills. Of these 
hills, that which contains the upper city 
is much higher, and was called the cita- 
del by King David, but it is by us called 
the upper market-place. The other hill, 
which was called .4 era and sustains the 
lower city, is of the shape of a moon 
when she is horned. Over against this 
there was a third hill, but naturally 
lower than Acra, and parted formerly 
from the other by a broad valley. How- 
ever, in those times when the Asamonge- 
ans reigned they filled up that valley 
with earth, and had a mind to join the 
city to the temple. They then took off 
part of the height of Acra, that the 
temple might be superior to it. Now, 
the Valley of the Cheesemongers, which 
distinguished the hill of the upper city 
from that of the lower, extended as far 
as Siloam, a fountain that hath sweet 
water. But on the outsides these hills 
are surrounded by deep valleys ; and by 
reason of the precipices to them belong- 
ing on both sides, they are everywhere 
impassable. 

"2. Now, of these three walls, the old 
one was hard to be taken, both by reason 
of the valleys and of that hill on which it 
was built. But besides that great ad- 
vantage as to the place where they were 
situated, it was also built very strong, 
because David and Solomon and the 
following kings were very zealous about 
this work. Now, that wall began on the 
north at a tower called Hippicus, and ex- 
tended as far as the Xistiis, and then, 
joining to the council-house, ended at 
the west cloister of the temple. But if 
we go the other way westward, it began 
at the same place, and extended through 
a place called Bethso to the gates of the 
Essenes; and after that it went south- 
ward, having its bending above the 
fountain Siloam, where it also bends 
again toward the east at Solomon's 
Pool, and reaches as far as a certain 
place which they called Oj>hlas, where 
it was joined to the eastern cloister of 
the temple. The second wall took its 
beginning from that gate Gennath which 
belonged to the first wall; it only en- 
compassed the northern quarter of the 
city, and reached as far as the tower An- 
tonia. The beginning of the third wall 
was at the tower Hippicus, whence it 
444 



reached as far as the north quarter of 
the city and the tower Psephinus, and 
then was so far extended until it came 
over against the monuments of Helena, 
queen of Adiabene, the daughter of 
Izates : it then extended farther to a 
great length, and passed by the sepul- 
chral caverns of the kings, and bent 
again at the tower of the corner, at the 
Monument of the Fuller, and joined to 
the old wall at the valley called the Val- 
ley of Cedron. Agrippa added to the 
old city, by this wall, a fourth hill, 
called Bezetha, or 'new city.' It lies 
over against the tower Antonia, but is 
I divided from it by a deep valley, which 
| was dug to strengthen the tower. The 
I father of the present king, Agrippa, 
I began the third wall, but he left off 
building it when he had only laid the 
foundations, out of the fear he was in 
of Claudius Caesar, lest he should sus- 
pect that so strong a wall was built in 
I order to make some innovations in pub- 
lic affairs ; for the city could no way 
have been taken if that wall had been 
finished in the manner it was begun, as 
its parts were connected together by 
stones 20 cubits long and 10 cubils 
broad, which could never have been 
either easily undermined by any iron 
tools or shaken by any engines. The 
wall was, however, 10 cubits wide; after 
that it was erected with great diligence 
by the Jews as high as 20 cubits, above 
which it had battlements of 2 cubits, 
and turrets of 3 cubits' altitude, inso- 
much that the entire altitude was 25 
cubits." 

This third wall is said to have been 
defended by 90 towers. The strongest 
of these was the Psephinus tower, at the 
north-western angle, which was upward 
of 100 feet in height and stood on the 
highest ground in the city (2572 feet 
above the sea). 

The First Wall. — In respect to the 
course of the first wall there is, in the 
main, greater agreement among scholars 
than in respect to either of the other 
two. This wall began at the tower of 
Hippicus on the west, ran to the south 
around the pinnacle of the hill, enclos- 
ing Siloam, and extended to the eastern 
wall of the temple-precincts. South of 
this north wall stood the palace of Herod, 
the Xistus, and the bridge which crossed 
the Tyropoeon to the temple. Another 



JEE 



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wall ran down on the western margin of 
the Tyropoeon tj defend the upper part 
of the city. 

The Second Wall and Site of Calvary. — 
No certain traces of the second wall have 
been discovered. Respecting the course 
of this wall there has been sharp dispute, 
for upon it depends the question of the 
genuineness of the " holy sepulchre "' and 
of the site of Calvary. Robinson, Tobler, 
Hupfeld, Arnold, John Wilson, Thom- 
son, Barclay, Bonar, Fergusson, Porter, 
Meyer, Ewald, Schaff, Crosby, Conder, 
and others, dispute the traditional site of 
the holy sepulchre, since in their view the 
second wall included its site within the 
city. On the other hand, Roman Catholics, 
as De Vogue, De Saulcy, and Sepp, and 
able Protestants, as Rev. Geo. Williams, 
Krafft, Ritter, Schultz, Rosen, Von Schu- 
bert, Raumer, Fiirrer, P. A. Strauss, and 
Lewin, argue that the second wall ex- 
cluded the site of the holy sepulchre, and 
therefore they accept the old tradition 
that it is the true site of the crucifixion. 
From the account in the Gospels it is 
clear that the place of the crucifixion was 
outside the city. Matt. 23 : 11 : Mark 15 : 
20, 21 ; Luke 23:26; John 19 : 1 7 ; Heb. 
13 : 12, 13, but it was also nigh to the 
city, John 19 : 20, and near a common 
thoroughfare frequented by many, Matt. 
27 : 39 ; Mark 15 ; 29 ; John 19 : 20 ; and 
again, it was on a conical elevation 
(hence called ''Place of a Skull" or 
Calvary, but not Mount Calvary, for 
which there is no Scripture warrant), 
Matt. 27 : 33 ; Mark 15 : 22 ; Luke 23 : 33 ; 
John 19 : 17; and lastly, it was in a gar- 
den which had a sepulchre hewn in a 
rock, where Christ was buried. Matt. 
27 : 60 : John 19 : 38-42. 

Several writers of the fourth and fifth 
centuries ascribe the discovery of the site 
of Calvary to Helena, mother of Constan- 
tine, who found three crosses there, and 
who also discovered which was the true 
cross of our Saviour by a miracle of 
healing which its touch produced upon 
a sick woman. Helena caused a splen- 
did church to be erected on the spot, a. 
d. 335. It has since been several times 
destroyed and rebuilt, but tradition has 
fixed upon this spot as the place of 
Christ's crucifixion and burial. The ad- 
vocates of this tradition must prove that 
the old city excluded this site. The 
Rev. Geo. Williams sums up the argu- 



ments in favor of the traditional view, 
and Robinson presents, with marked abil- 
ity, the objections to it. Dr. Schaff, in 
Through Bible Lands, says : " The old 
city was much larger and more densely 
inhabited than the present, and conse- 
quently more likely to include the site 
of that church [Holy Sepulchre] than to 
exclude it. ... The champions of the 
tradition, therefore, are bound to prove 
that the location of the city has greatly 
changed, and that the second wall of 
Josephus (which ran circuitously from 
the gate Gennath — i. e. the garden-gate, 
near the tower of Hippicus — to the for- 
tress of Antonia, on the north of the 
temple-area) excluded the church of 
the Holy Sepulchre. This has not been 
proved. It is possible, but very im- 
probable." Recent excavations made 
(18S5-86) between the Joppa gate and 
the Holy Sepulchre exposed an old 
scarped wall 15 feet high (or deep), 
which Dr. Merrill traced for 120 feet, in 
a course that, if continued, would pass 
around and include the Holy Sepulchre. 
He was sure this must be the old sec- 
ond wall. See Calvary. The precise 
course of the second wall can only be 
unquestionably settled by further exca- 
vations, and this, if settled, would de- 
cide whether the church of the Holy 
Sepulchre covers the true site of Cal- 
vary, as tradition claims, or whether 
Calvary must be - sought elsewhere, as 
the weight of scholarship now seems to 
require. Some of those who reject the 
traditional site locate Calvary a few 
minutes' walk north of the present Da- 
mascus-gate, not far from the Grotto of 
Jeremiah. Here is a skull-shaped, rocky 
elevation, about half a mile from the 
fortress Antonia ( Pilate's j udgment-hall ), 
and the same distance from Mount Zion 
(Herod's palace) and on the highway to 
Damascus. The spot is encircled by 
rock-caverns and tombs. It answers all 
the requirements of the Gospel narra- 
tives, and is accepted by Bishop Gobat 
of Jerusalem, Conrad Schick, Schaff, and 
others, and a similar view was advo- 
cated by Fisher Howe of Brooklyn, 
1871, and more recently by Conder, 1878. 
The Third Wall. — The situation of 
the third wall is likewise disputed by 
topographical writers. Some, as Kie- 
pert, Fergusson, Wilson, and others, 
make it reach to, and possibly include, 
445 



JEK 



JER 



the so-called royal tombs and the whole I 
northern mountain-plateau, on which 
many ruins and cisterns lie scattered. ! 
Robinson places the third wall about the I 
middle of this locality; to this Baedeker 
objects on strategical grounds. Others 
suggest that this third wall occupied 
about the same site as the present north j 
wall of Jerusalem, which view is claimed j 
to accord with the distances given by Jo- j 
sephus (4 stadia to the royal tombs, 7 
stadia to the Scopus), but Josephus is 
not always accurate. Capt. Warren 
advocates this latter view, that the po- 
sitions of the third wall and of the pres- 
ent northern wall are identical, though 
he acknowledges that he found no de- 
cisive evidence on the subject. The 
reader will not be surprised at the gen- 
eral uncertainty which prevails in re- 
gard to the ancient walls and sacred 
sites in the Holy City when he remem- 
bers that it has been 27 times besieged 
and 17 times conquered, and often deso- 
lated. The present walls are of recent 
date, being built by Suleiman the Mag- 
nificent in 15+2. 

Plans of the City. — Mr. Besant, secre- 
tary of the Palestine Exploration Fund, 
received 18 different reconstructions of 
ancient Jerusalem, by as many eminent 
scholars, yet all based on the authors' 
views of the statements in the Bible, 
Josephus, and by late explorers. The most 
important plans are those of Robinson, 
Schultz, Williams, Fiirrer, Barclay, Van 
de Velde, Tobler, British Ordnance Sur- 
vey, and Schick. Fergusson's plan 
(Smith's Bible Dictionary), although 
the view of a distinguished architect, 
is too untenable to be of value or inter- 
est to the ordinary student. The chief 
of these plans are given upon another 
page. ' 

The Temple-site. — The site of the tem- 
ple has long been a subject of contro- 
versy among scholars, but nearly all agree 
that it was on Mount Moriah, which is at 
present occupied b} r the Haram, wherein 
stands the mosque of Omar. Some place 
it in the south-western corner of the area 
now known as the Haram esh-Sherif, 
but the discovery of immense stones at 
the base of the south-eastern corner of 
the present Haram wall, lying in place 
on a rocky foundation cut out to receive 
them, 80 feet below the present surface, 
and bearing Phoenician quarry-marks, 
446 



seems to confirm the earlier view that 
remains of the buildings of Solomon 
still exist there, and that Solomon's tem- 
ple stood upon the centre of the Haram 
area or the site of the mosque of Omar, 
and shows the fallacy of Mr. Fergusson's 
view that the temple-area reached only 
600 feet east from the south-western cor- 
ner of the present Haram area, since 
these discovered stones at the south- 
eastern corner are 900 feet eastward. 
The explorations of Capts. Wilson and 
Warren prove that the south-eastern 
corner is unchanged, while the south- 
western has undoubtedly been added, 
probably by Herod. Beneath the Ha- 
ram area there are aqueducts, subterra- 
nean passages, and tanks, some of them 
constructed, doubtless, for proper drain- 
age and use of the temple; hence the 
inference from recent discoveries is that 
the present Haram area very nearly 
coincides with that of the old ternple- 
area. 

Zion and the Ti/ropceon. — Two other 
places of interest in the Holy City be- 
sides Calvary — which has been noticed 
under the second wall — are the hill of 
Zion and the Tyropceon Valley. Zion 
is a broad hill with an abrupt front 
nearly 400 feet high at one point above 
the southern valley, the hill having a 
length of 2400 feet to the Jaffa-gate, 
and from the Tvroposon to the western 
valley a breadth of about 1600 feet. The 
" first wall " was built along the north- 
ern brow of Zion. The plateau of Zion 
included about half the ancient city. 
Zion is scarcely 200 feet lower than 
Olivet. The Tyropceon valley, known 
also as the "Vallej- of the Cheesemon- 
gers," extended from the junction of the 
Hinnom and Kedron valleys northward, 
dividing Zion from Moriah, and, accord- 
ing to one view, continued northward 
toward the present Jaffa-gate, but, ac- 
cording to another view, turned toward 
the present Damascus-gate: while a 
third view supposes that it covered the 
two branches reaching to the two gates 
above named. The portion of the val- 
ley between Zion and Moriah increased 
rapidly in depth as it extended south- 
ward, and at the south-western corner of 
the temple-area the bed of the valley was 
90 feet below the present surface, giving 
an entire altitude of wall amounting to 
150 feet, and in Herod's time to over 200 




Plans of Ancient Jerusalem. 



The five plans given above indicate the views of some 
of the best authorities in regard to the topography of 
ancient Jerusalem. 

The first wall enclosed th" old part of the town, or 
" upper city," upon Mount Zion, and extending to the 
►alls of the temple-enclosure. 

The second wall enclosed the old suburb, or " lower 
city," upon Acra. The plan of Sepp (Roman Catlio- 
]i.-) puts the site of the present church of the Holy 
Sepulonre outside that wTill, in accordance with the 
traditional view. The other plans include that site 
within the second wall, in which case it cannot have 
been 'he place of the crucifi.\iou, which took place 
outside of the city. 



The third wall was built by Agnppa, eleven years 
after the death of Christ. 

Date of plans: Robinson. 1841-1856: Sepp, 1873; 
Tobler, 1849-1858; Schick, 1876; Conder, 1879. 

For the Church of the Holy Sepulchre as the genuine 
Calvary are: De Vogu6, lie Saulcy, Sepp (Roman 
Catholic), Williams, Ritter. KrafTt, Schultz, Strauss 
(Protestants) ; also Furrer, in Sehenkel's Bibellcxikon, 
ii. 5UH. 

Against the traditional view : Robinson, Tobler, John 
Wilson, Thompson. Barclay, Bonar, Kergusson, Porter, 
Van de Velde, Meyer, Ewald (all Protestants); also 
Schaff, Jlirouqh Bible Lands, p. 259, a -id Conder, in 
Handbook of the Bible, p. 350. 



JEE 



JER 



feet ; so that the statement of Josephus 
no longer seems a foolish exaggeration : 
" If any one looked down from the top 
of the battlements, he would be giddy, 
while his sight could not reach to such 
an immense depth." The gates, pools, 
and environs of the Holy City may be 
appropriately noticed under the descrip- 
tion of modern Jerusalem. 
VI. Modern Jerusalem. — Thepres- 
ent city is built upon the ruins of the an- 
cient Holy City. The buildings, walls, 
towers, and bridges of the city of David 
and Solomon, of Hezekiah, of Nehemiah 
and Ezra, of the Maccabees, and of 
Herod, have been demolished, so that 
the depth of the rubbish around the 
temple-walls is nearly 100 feet; on the 
hill of Zion the rubbish is 40 feet deep, 
and on the Via Dolorosa it is from 15 to 
30 feet deep. The buildings, walls, 
streets, and towers now standing on these 
sacred hills cannot with any certainty 
be identified with the structures which 
adorned the city 2000 years ago, and 
whose very foundations, so far as dis- 
covered, lie buried many feet below the 
present surface. 

Environs of Jerusalem. — To gain a 
clear view of the places immediately 
around modern Jerusalem we may begin 
on the east side of the city, near the 
Mount of Olives. Passing by the Blr- 
het- Israel, identified by some as the Pool 
of Bethesda, we go out of St. Stephen's 
gate, and cross a bridge leading over the 
Kedron or " black brook," which runs 
southward through a deep valley, now 
dry above the springs. This valley is 
also called the Valley of Jehoshaphat, 
and an old tradition makes it the scene 
of the last judgment, founded on a mis- 
interpretation of Joel 3:2. At the resur- 
rection the sides of the valley, according 
to this tradition, will move apart to give 
sufficient room for the vast assembly. Be- 
yond the Kedron is the modern chapel of 
the Tomb of the Virgin, near which is the 
traditional Cavern of Agony, and a short 
distance farther on, upon the slope at 
the foot of Olivet, is the garden of Geth- 
semane. It is now enclosed and in charge 
of Franciscan monks. It contains a 
number of venerable olive trees, whose 
large trunks, some of them 19 feet in 
circumference, are burst from age, and 
have been shored up with stones. These 
trees are said to date from the time of 
448 



Christ ; but this is questionable, since it 
is certain Titus and Hadrian cut down 
all the trees about Jerusalem. They 
are, however, of great age, and may be 
the descendants of some trees that were 
standing here in our Lord's day. See 
Gethsemane. From this garden three 
roads lead up the slopes of Olivet — one 
to the south, around the top of the 
mount, another to the north, and a third, 
or middle path, leads up the steepest 
part to the summit. See Olivet. The 
view of Jerusalem from Mount Olivet is 
the finest that can be secured. Bethany 
lies a short distance east of the summit 
of Olivet. See Bethany. In the valley 
south of Olivet are the Tombs of the 
Prophets, no doubt belonging to the 
Jewish period. To the west of Geth- 
semane a road leads down the Kedron 
valley, by which stands the so-called 
Tomb of Absalom (see Absalom), and 
beyond are the Tomb of Jehoshaphat 
and the Tomb or Pyramid of Zacharias. 
Above these, to the east, the whole slope 
of the hill is covered with Jewish tomb- 
stones, and to the south of these lies the 
village of Sihoan, or Siloah. The southern 
part of the Mount of Olives, on which 
this village is situated, is called also the 
Mount of Offence, from 1 Kgs. 11 : 7. 
To the west are the valleys of Jehosha- 
phat and of Hinnom. To the south, 
down the Valley of Jehoshaphat, is the 
Pool of Siloah and St. Mary's Well, 
which is fed by an intermittent spring ; 
still farther down the valley is Job's 
Fountain, probably the " En-rogel" or 
fullers' spring of Josh. 15 : 7 and 1 
Kgs. 1:9. To the west of this is the 
mouth of the Valley of Hinnom, always 
dry, on the south of which is the Mount 
of Evil Counsel, upon which tradition, 
probably correctly, places Aceldama, 
" potter's field" or "the field of blood." 
Matt. 27 : 7, 8. The hill is full of rock- 
tombs. At the foot of this mount, the 
bottom of the Valley of Hinnom was 
called Tophet. 2 Kgs. 23 : 10 ; Isa, 30 : 
33 : Jer. 7 : 31 ; 19 : 11. North of this 
valley, and upon the southern portion 
of the hill of Zion — which was formerly 
included within the walls of the city, 
but is now outside the city (as the 
present walls only embrace the north- 
ern portion of Zion) — are the Jewish 
and Christian burying-grounds. In the 
portion of Zion outside the city walls 



JER 



JER 



Porter saw oxen ploughing, in fulfilment 
of the prophecy, " Zion shall be ploughed 
like a field." Jer. 26 : 18 ; Mic. 3 : 12. An 
old aqueduct runs past Zion's gate 
and into the city between that gate and 
the gate eastward of it, supposed to 
be the dung-gate. Across the Valley 
of Hinnom, to the westward, is the large 
Jewish hospice, a modern structure 
founded by Sir Moses Montefiore, while 
between this and the south-western corner 
of the present wall is the Pool of the 
Sultan, 175 yards long, 73 yards wide, 
and from 35 to 41 feet deep, partly filled 
with rubbish. This pool is by some 
identified with the "lower pool" of Isa. 
22 : 9. North of this pool is a conduit, 
which runs from Solomon's pools into the 
city, a Greek monastery, a leper hospi- 
tal, and the Birket-Mamilla, or " Mamil- 
la pool," 291 by 192 feet, and 19 feet 
deep, which may be the "upper pool" 
Gihon, Isa. 7 : 3, or, as Baedeker pro- 
poses, the Serpent's pool of Josephus. 
These are upon the south side of the road, 
leading from Jaffa (Joppa) into Jerusa- 
lem by the Jaffa-gate on the west side 
of the city. Crossing this road to the 
north are the Russian buildings, a church, 
a monastery, and a hospice ; outside the 
city, and farther north, in the city wall, 
is the Damascus-gate, to the north of 
which, outside the wall, is the Grotto 
of Jeremiah, near which many place the 
true site of Calvary. Farther from the 
city wall, to the north, are the so-called 
Tombs of the Kings, and beyond these 
the hill Scopus, which is the northern 
extension of Olivet and completes our 
circuit of the city. 

The City and its Divisions. — The pres- 
ent city of Jerusalem stands upon the 
northern portions of the hill of Zion 
and of Moriah, the part of the old city 
known as Acra, and upon Bezetha, a 
portion of Jerusalem which dates from 
Agrippa, A. d. 42. The walls now ex- 
clude the southern sections of the hill of 
Zion and of Ophel. The city is also 
divided into four quarters by the main 
streets, and these quarters are named 
from the classes of inhabitants which 
dwell in Jerusalem. The largest division, 
in the north-eastern part of the city, is 
known as the Mohammedan quarter; 
west of this is the Greek and Frank, or 
Christian quarter; to the south of it 
lies the Armenian quarter ; while to 
29 



the east of the Armenian and to the 
south of the Mohammedan lies the Jew- 
ish quarter. 

Jerusalem is now enclosed by a wall 
(dating from Suleiman in the sixteenth 
century), 38^ feet high, having 34 towers 
and 7 gates. The town as thus walled in 
forms an irregular quadrangle of about 
2£ miles in circumference, around which 
a person can easily walk in an hour. The 
city has few open spaces ; the streets are 
generally narrow, crooked, and poorly 
paved ; and the narrower streets are 
mere blind-alleys, exceedingly filthy after 
a rain. The chief streets form the boun- 
daries of the principal quarters of the 
town. The Damascus and Bazaar streets, 
from the north, separate the Moslem from 
the Christian or Greek quarter, and 
farther south divide the Jewish from the 
Armenian quarter. The main street, 
running from the Jaffa-gate to the Ha- 
ram area, first divides the Christian from 
the Armenian quarter, and to the east- 
ward separates the Moslem from the 
Jewish quarter. See Baedeker's Pales- 
tine. The seven important gates are : in 
the west wall, (1) The Yafa or Jaffa gate; 
in the north wall, (2) the Damascus gate, 
and (3) Herod's gate, closed for 25 years, 
but of late opened a portion of the year ; 
in the east wall, (4) St. Stephen's gate 
and (5) the Golden gate, long since walled 
up ; in the south wall, (6) Babel-Maghar- 
ibeh, or the so-called dung-gate, and (7) 
Sion's gate. There are also other gates, 
now closed up ; as, the triple gate, the 
double or Huldah gate, and another old 
gate adjoining it, walled up. 

The city has no springs, but it is sup- 
plied with water by cisterns filled from 
the rain-falls on the roofs of the houses, 
by pools, of which there are six or more 
in and about the city, and by conduits 
and wells or springs outside the town. 
The chief pools have been already no- 
ticed. They may be here grouped to- 
gether: The Birket-Mamilla, Birket- 
Sultan, Pool of Siloam, Fountain or Pool 
of the Virgin, Birket-Israel, and the 
Pool of Hezekiah. "The Birket-Ma- 
milla," says Crosby, "is supposed to be 
the upperpool, Isa. 7 : 3 ; 2 Kgs. 18 : 17. It 
lies 2000 feet west of the Jaffa-gate. The 
Birket-Sultan is a section of the great 
western valley dammed up for more than 
500 feet. The Pool of Siloam, Neh. 3 : 
15; John 9 : 7, is in the mouth of the 
449 



jeb 



JEH 



Tyropoeon, at its junction with the Hin- 
nom and the Kedron valleys. It was 
probably used to irrigate the king's gar- 
den. It is connected, by a long, rude, 
and crooked subterranean passage, with 




Pool of Hezekiah, inside the Jaffa-gate. (After 
a Photograph by Bonfils.) 

the Fountain of the Virgin, on the other 
side of Ophel, from which the water 
flows softly. . . . The Fountain of 
the Virgin is a pool on the eastern 
side of the Ophel rook, to which is a de- 
scent of 28 steps. The water comes into 
it from the direction of the temple, but 
has never been traced. It has a periodic 
and sudden rise of a foot in height, the 
periods varying from two to three times 
a day to once in two or three days. This 
periodic troubling of the water seems to 
mark the Fountain of the Virgin as the 
Pool of Bethesda, unless we may suppose 
that a pool farther up on the temple-mount 
formerly received this intermittent flow. 
The requirements of the sheep-gate (see 
above) seem to put Bethesda farther 
north. The Birket-Israel, just inside 
St. Stephen's gate and north of the Ha- 
ram (supposed by Robinson to be the 
trench of Antonia), is the damming up 
of the valley that runs east of Bezetha 
in a south-eastern direction, originally 
under the north-eastern corner of the 
Haram into the Kedron. . . The Pool 
of Hezekiah is north of the Jaffa-gate 
street; ... is supplied by an aqueduct 
from the Birket-Mamilla. ... A system 
of wells and aqueducts in the Kedron 
ravine below Jerusalem (the En-rogel of 
antiquity) presents features of peculiar 
interest. One of the several ancient 
450 



aqueducts still conducts the water from 
Solomon's pools beyond Bethlehem to 
the city." Crosby in Johnson's Cyclopae- 
dia, vol. ii. p. 1398. 

The Buildings. — The houses in Jeru- 
salem are built chiefly of stone, and are 
two or three stories high, and owing to 
the scarcity of timber even many of the 
roofs are also of stone. The roofs are 
generally flat, supported by vaults and 
arches below. Some, however, are dome- 
shaped. There are few windows open- 
ing on the streets ; these openings are 
chiefly toward the interior open court of 
the house. The more important build- 
ings are — those in the Haram enclos- 
ure on Mount Moriah : the " Dome of 
the Rock" or mosque of Omar, mosque 
El-Aksa, the mosque known as the 
Throne of Solomon ; those in the Chris- 
tian quarter : the church of the Holy 
Sepulchre, Coptic convent, Abyssinian 
monastery, Muristan, or ruins of the 
knights-hospitallers, nine convents, and 
two hotels ; those in the Mohammedan 
quarter : church of Mary Magdalene, 
church of St. Anne, two convents, Pi- 
late's hall, two mosques, the city prison ; 
in the Jewish quarter : two synagogues, 
three hospitals, and a spot of the deep- 
est interest, known as the "Jews' Wail- 
ing-place;" in the Armenian quarter: 
tower of David, tower of Hippicus, four 
convents, the lepers' quarter, and the 
church of St. James. 

Haram esh-Sherif. — The extent of this 
enclosure, which covers the ground on 
which the temple stood, is, according 
to the British Ordnance Survey, on the 
north wall, 1042 feet: east, 1530 feet; 
south, 922 feet ; west, 1601 ; or a total 
circumference of 5095 (nearly a mile), 
and the total area is 35 acres. Near the 
centre of the enclosure is a raised plat- 
form, upon which once stood the temple 
of Solomon, later the less glorious tem- 
ple of Zerubbabel, and last the temple 
of Herod, which was built in the time 
of Christ, and was destroyed by the 
Romans, A. d. 70. The attempt to re- 
build the Jewish temple under Julian 
the Apostate, A. D. 362, was a complete 
failure, as already noticed. See p. 440. 
During the reign of Hadrian. A. d. 136, 
a temple of Jupiter occupied this sacred 
spot, and a shrine of Venus was placed 
upon the site of the Holy Sepulchre. In 
place of the temple now stands the Kub- 



JEB 



JEft 



bet es-Sakhara, " Dome of the Rock," 
or mosque of Omar — "perhaps," says 
Hepworth Dixon, "the very noblest 
specimen of building-art in Asia." " It 
is," says Schaff, "the most prominent as 
well as the most beautiful building in the 
whole city, It stands out conspicuously 
in every picture of Jerusalem. ... It is 
the second mosque of Islam, inferior 
only to that of Mecca, as Jerusalem is 
its second sacred city. . . . The mosque 
stands on an irregular base of 10 feet 
in height, and is approached by three 
flights of steps, which terminate in 
elegant arcades, called ' scales,' because, 
according to tradition, the scales of judg- 
ment are to be suspended here. The 
mosque is an octagonal building, each 
side measuring 67 feet." Baedeker says : 
" Each of the eight sides is 66 feet in 
length, and is covered externally as far 
as the pedestal with porcelain tiles of 
the Persian style, and lower down with 
marble. Each tile has been written 
upon and burned separately. Passages 
from the Koran, beautifully inscribed in 
interwoven characters, run round the 
building like a frieze." The whole 
structure is 170 feet high, and is sur- 
mounted by a dome supported on 4 
great piers and 12 Corinthian columns. 
The design of the building is Byzan- 
tine, and Sepp regards it as originally 
a church of Justinian ; others trace its 
origin to Omar. It has four gates, fa- 
cing the four cardinal points of the 
compass. The most interesting object 
in the mosque is the rock beneath the 
dome, which is 57 feet long and 43 feet 
wide, and rises from 1 to 5 or 6 feet 
above the mosaic marble pavement. 
It is enclosed by an iron railing. Jew- 
ish tradition marks this spot as the 
place where Melchizedek offered sacri- 
fice, where Abraham offered Isaac, 
where the ark of the covenant in the 
holy of holies stood, where the un- 
speakable name of God was inscribed 
upon the rock, which Jesus was able to 
read, and which gave him his power to 
perform miracles ; and finally, that this 
spot was the centre of the earth. The 
Mohammedans, not to be outdone by 
the Jews, accept all these traditions or 
have improved on them. The excava- 
tions of Capts. Wilson and Warren have 
thrown much light on this portion of Je- 
rusalem, covered as deeply with tradi- 
452 



tions as with rubbish. By means of a 
shaft sunk at the west wall and south- 
ern extremity of Wilson's Arch, War- 
ren found twenty-one courses of bevelled 
stones, from 3 feet 8 inches to 4 feet high, 
making in all 75 feet above the founda- 
tion-rock, and all these were in their 
original position, but covered with 
debris. These stone blocks, of which 
the topmost are from 35 to 55 feet be- 
low the present surface, are hewn 
smooth on every side except the out- 
side, where they are bevelled, and are 
jointed with mortar or cement, but so 
accurately that a knife cannot be in- 
troduced between them. The wall is 
not perpendicular, but slopes outward 
toward its base. He inferred that this 
formed a part of the wall of Solomon's 
temple. The southern wall, from the 
double gate to the south-eastern angle, 
he also regarded as of Solomonic age 
and as forming a part of Solomon's 
palace. The south-western portion was 
more modern, and he supposes a square 
of 300 feet was added by Herod, and 
that Herod's temple occupied the whole 
southern portion of the present sanc- 
tuary. On the south-east are immense 
vaults, and beneath the temple-area 
immense cisterns were found, of which 
thirty-three were described. They were 
cut out of the soft rock, and had a 
depth of from 25 to 50 feet and a ca- 
pacity estimated at from 10,000,000 to 
12,000,000 of gallons— enough to fur- 
nish a year's supply of water for the 
whole city. A single cistern, called 
the " Great Sea," would hold 2,000,000 
gallons. The water was supplied part- 
ly by the rain and partly by an aque- 
duct, which connected these reservoirs 
with Solomon's Pools, beyond Bethlehem 
and 13 miles from Jerusalem. The over- 
flow from these cisterns was conducted 
through a rock-cut channel into the 
valley of the Kedron, which also 
served as a sewer to carry away the 
refuse arising from sacrifices of the 
temple. In the eastern wall of the 
Haram area a stair ascends to the top 
of the wall, and the stump of a column 
built in horizontally may be seen pro- 
truding from the wall. The Moslems 
say that all men will assemble in the 
Valley of Jehoshaphat when a trumpet- 
blast proclaims the last judgment, and 
that from this column a thin wire will be 













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Wady Umm el ' Anab (or Wady es 

Wady el Hamarah. [Samar). 

'Ain el Madowerah. 

Ras es Sillini. 

Ras el Madbaseh. 

Ard es Samar. 

Ras el Mesharif (Scopus). 

Bir el Mesharif. 

Ras Abu Halawi. 

Khallet el 'Ajuz. 

'Ain es Suwan. 

Ras Umm et Tal'a. 

'Akabet es Suwan. 

Bir el Ka'ah. 

Kusr el Kutb. 

Kusr esh Shehabi. 

Kusr el Khatib. 

Kusr el Ka'ah. 

Kusi el Mufti. 

Bir eth Thogherah. 

Bir Zeitunat el Haweileh. 

Bir er Rasasyeh. 

Sheikh Jerrah. 

•Akabet Sheikh Jerrah. 

Bir el Yehudiyeh (and Tomb of 

Simon the Just). [23). 

Bir Sheikh Jerrah (in Court of 
Tombs of the Judges (or San- 

hedrin). [Tomb). 

Kabur es Salatan (Helena's 
Rujm el Kehakir. 
Mugharet el 'Anab. 
Sheikh Kamir. [ings). 

El Muskobiyen (Russian build- 



St. Stephen's (Ruins). [tion). 

¥,\ Heidhemiyeh (Place of Kxecu- 

Kurm esh Sheikh. ■ 

BirelHuwarah. 

Bir el Kos. 

Birket Mamilla. 

Birket es Sultan. [Cross). 

Deir es Salib (Convent of the 

Khallet et Tarhah. 

Khurbet el Bedr. 

Khurbet es Salah. 

Khallet el Kusab. 

Bir Abu Shalhek. 

Kurm Ahmed. 

Ras en Nadr. 

Kusr el Kurmeh. 

Wady Umm Ahmed. 

Kusr Ishenar (Schneller's Or- 
phanage). 

Sheikh Bedr. 

Khurbet e! Khamis. 

Wady el Wely. 

Khurbet el Khazuk. 

El Hawieh. [Evil Counsel). 

Jebel Deir Abu Tor (Mount of 

Sheikh Ahmed et Toreh (at 56). 

Bir Eyub. 

Wadv Kadflm. 

Bir el Khulil. 

Wady Deir es Sonneik. 

Batn el Howa. 

Sheikh Selman el Farsi. 

Kefr et Tor (Village, and Church 
of Ascension). 



Russian House on Olivet. 

Pater Noster Chapel. 

New Couvent of the Latins. 

Tombs of the Prophets. 

Bethphage Chapel. 

Jebel et Tor (Mount of Olives). 

El K'adi (where Christ sat). 

Rus Mesa'adet Sidna 'Aisa. 

Ahbal el Kibrit. [Tomb). 

Kubr Sitti Miriam (Virgin's 

El Khelweh (the Hermitage). 

Gethsemaue. 

Wady es Sahel. 

Silwan (the village of Siloam). 

'Ain Umm et Deraj (En Rogel 

and Gihon). 
Tantur Fer'6n(Absalom's Pillar). 
'Ain Silwan (Pool of Siloam). 
Neby Daud (the Ccenaculum). 
Wady en Nar (Kedron). 
Wady et Rababeh (Hinnom). 
Hummam Tubariya (Protestant 

Cemetery). 
Wadv Tubl (by 61). 
Khurbet Abu W'air. 
Sheikh el Mensi. 
Almshouses for Jews. 
Zahweileh (Zoheleth at 78). 
Rujum el Behimeh (near N. E.). 
'Akabet el Ghuzlau (near last). 
Kubbet el 'Abd (by 38). 
Birket es Sitti Miriam. 
'Arak et Tireh. [Aceldama. 

Hakk ed Dumm (south of 84) 

453 



JER 



JER 



stretched to the opposite Mount of Olives, 
that Christ will sit on the wall and Mo- 
hammed on the mount as judges, and that 
all men will be compelled to pass over the 
intervening space; the righteous, pre- 
served by angels, will pass quickly and 
safely over, but the wicked will fall and 
be thrown into the abyss of hell. 

The mosque El-Aksa also stands with- 
in the Haram area, and is a complex pile 
of buildings, ''the principal axis of which 
forms a right angle with the southern 
wall of the temple-precincts. It dates 
from Justinian, but has been sevei'al 
times partially in ruins and rebuilt. . . . 
The building is altogether 270 feet long 
and about 198 feet in width. The dome 
is of wood covered with lead, and the 
windows are in part of stained glass of 
about the sixteenth century." 

Just outside of the enclosure of the 
nosque El-Aksa, and near Robinson's 
' Irch, is the noted Wailing-place of the 




graphs.) 

Jews. The cyclopean foundation-wall 
of the temple which bears this name is 
156 feet in length and 56 feet in height. 
Nine of the lowest courses of stone con- 
sist of huge blocks ; above these are fif- 
teen layers of smaller stones. Some in- 
fer, and others deny, that these lower 
external layers are very ancient. The 
blocks are certainly old and of vast size, 
one in the western part being 16 feet, and 
another in the southern part 13 feet, 
in length. On Friday numbers of the 
Jews, old and young, male and female, 
gather here, kissing the stones, watering 
them with their tears, and bewailing the 
454 



downfall of their city, while they read 
or repeat from their well-worn Hebrew 
Bibles and prayer-books the Lamenta- 
tions of Jeremiah and suitable Psalms, 
as the 76th and 79th. The following is 
an extract from their litany : 

Leader: For the palace that lies desolate: 
— Response : We sit in solitude and mourn. 

L. For the palace that is destroyed : — JR. 
We sit, etc. 

L. For the walls that are overthrown : — 
R. We sit, etc. 

L. For our majesty that is departed:— 
R. We sit, etc. 

L. For our great men who lie dead : — 
R. We sit, etc. 

L. For the precious stones that are burn- 
ed :— R. We sit, etc. 

L. For the priests who have stumbled : — 
R. We sit, etc. 

L. For our kings who have despised Him : 
— R. We sit, etc. 

Another antiphon is as follows : — 

Leader : We pray Thee, have mercy on 
Zion ! — Response : Gather the children of 
Jerusalem. 

L. Haste, haste, Redeemer of Zion !— 
R. Speak to the heart of Jerusalem. 

L. May beauty and majesty surround 
Zion ! — R. Ah ! turn thyself mercifully to 
Jerusalem. 

L. May the kingdom soon return to Zion ! 
— R. Comfort those who mourn over Jeru- 
salem. 

L. May peace and joy abide with Zion ! — 
R. And the branch (of Jesse) spring up at 
Jerusalem. See Baedeker's Palestine. 

The Church of the Holy Sepulchre 
ranks next to the temple-area in inter- 
est to the Christian. It is a " collec- 
tion," says Schaff, " of chapels and altars 
of different ages, and a unique museum 
of religious curiosities from Adam to 
Christ.. . . In the centre of the rotunda, 
beneath the dome, is a small marble 
chapel, where pilgrims from every land 
in a ceaseless stream are going in and 
out, offering candles and kneeling before 
and kissing the empty [reputed] tomb 
of Christ." The church is also claimed 
to possess a piece of marble of Christ's 
sepulchre, the stone of anointment, three 
holes in which the crosses of Christ and 
of the two robbers were inserted, a cleft 
in the rock caused by the earthquake, 
the very spot where Christ was scourged, 
where his friends stood afar off, where 
his garments were parted, where the 
gardener appeared to Mary, the rock- 
hewn tombs of Nicodemus and Joseph 
of Arimathea, the tombs of Adam. Mel- 
chizedek, and John the Baptist, and " the 
centre of the world." It is of course 




Ecce Homo Arch, Via Dolorosa. 



JEE 



JEB 



claimed as the site of Calvary. See p. 
445. 

The Citadel and the Tower of David, 
opposite the Jaffa-gate, consist of an 
irregular group of five square towers, 
originally surrounded by a ditch. The 
foundations of the towers are of thick 
walls rising at an angle of about 45° ; 
for 39 feet from the bottom of the moat 
the masonry is of large drafted blocks 
with rough surfaces, and the forms of 
the stones higher up indicate that these 
foundations are ancient. In the north- 
eastern corner stands an ancient tower, 
bearing the name of David, but probably 
the remains of one of the towers of Her- 
od's palace. Robinson and Baedeker 
suggest that the building answers to the 
description given by Josephus of the 
Hippicus toioer, but others regard its di- 
mensions as agreeing better with those 
of the tower of Phasselus. 

The Castle of Goliath is at the north- 
western angle of the present wall, and 
upon the highest ground within the city 
limits. The Via Dolorosa, or " street of 
sorrows," is a portion of the street 
along which it is said our Saviour was 
led to his crucifixion; but the name 
dates only from the fourteenth century. 

Tombs. — Some of the rock-tombs about 
the city have already been noticed. The 
ground in the vicinity of Jerusalem has 
been described as one " vast cemetery." 
In the days of King Josiah " the graves 
of the children of the people" were in 
the valley of the Kedron. 2 Kgs. 23 : 6. 
The great Jewish cemetery is on the 
slope of Olivet ; tbe Tombs of the Pro- 
phets are near the southern peak of 
Olivet; the Tombs of the Kings are 
half a mile north of the Damascus- 
gate ; and about a mile beyond are the 
Tombs of the Judges. Portions of the 
western side of the valley of the Kedron 
are still full of tombs. 

The Inhabitants. — The present popu- 
lation of Jerusalem is variously estima- 
ted, as no census has been taken. Rob- 
inson, in 1841, made the total population 
11,500, but later was inclined to place 
it at 17,000. Drake (1874) puts it at 
20,900, Baedeker 24,000 ; Dr. Neuraan, a 
Jewish physician 15 years a resident of 
the city, estimates it at 36,000. Baedeker 
distributes the 24,000 as follows : 13,000 
Moslems, 7000 Christians, 4000 Jews. 
The Turkish statistics of 1871 give the 
456 



number of families or houses : 1025 
Moslem, 630 Jewish, 299 Orthodox 
Greek, 179 Latin, 175 Armenian, 44 
Coptic, 18 Greek Catholic, 16 Protestant, 
and 7 Syrian — in all, 2393 families. Dr. 
Neuman distributes his. estimate of 
36,000 into 15,000 Mohammedans, 13,000 
Jews, and 8000 Christians, including 
5000 Franks. In the Easter season about 
a dozen languages are now heard there 
besides the vernacular Arabic, illustrat- 
ing the scene during the Pentecost. 
Acts 2 : 7-11. Drake estimates that the 
Jews are increasing in Jerusalem at the 
rate of 1200 to 1500 per year. 

The religion of the people also repre- 
sents various faiths. The Greek Church 
is the strongest in wealth, numbers, and 
influence, having the support of the 
Russian power. Its members are chiefly 
Arabs, speaking Arabic, while the clergy 
are mostly foreign Greeks, speaking 
modern Greek. The Church has several 
monasteries, churches, two hospices, and 
two schools. The Old Armenian Church 
has a resident patriarch, a large monas- 
tery, with a printing-office, and a semi- 
nary with about 40 students, a nunnery, 
and a smaller monastery. The Coptic, 
Ancient Syrian,and Abyssinian Churches 
each has a small religious community. 
The Latins, or Roman Catholics, are 
said to number 1500. In their Francis- 
can monastery is a printing-press, chiefly 
used for printing school-books in Arabic, 
a school for boys, and the Latins also 
have a hospital and three other schools 
in the city. The Jews have four holy 
cities in Palestine : Jerusalem, Safed, 
Tiberias, and Hebron. In Jerusalem 
they live largely on the charity of their 
European brethren. They are divided 
into three sects; their quarter of the 
city is squalid, dirty, and uninviting. 
In Jerusalem, and there only, is the 
Hebrew language used (by the Jews) in 
ordinary conversation. The only news- 
papers printed in the city are .in the 
Hebrew language. The Protestant com- 
munity in Jerusalem is very small. 
There is a bishop jointly supported by 
the Prussian and the English Churches, 
which maintain a mission and have a 
church, schools, orphanages, and hos- 
pitals. The first Protestant bishop was 
Alexander, the second, Gobat (died 
1879), the third, Barclay (consecrated 
1879). There are three Protestant 



JER 



JES 



Churches, the English Church of Sion, 
the native Arab Church, and the Ger- 
man Church, on the property of the 
Prussian government. 

This is Jerusalem in her decay. Of 
Jerusalem in her grandeur we can only 
gain more certain knowledge by further 
thorough archaeological explorations. 
The Palestine Exploration Fund, under 
careful and extended excavations by 
Capts. Wilson (1864) and Warren (1867), 
made a noble beginning. Among the 
results of their work were: (1) That 
the ancient city lies deeply buried be- 
neath the present surface; (2) that the 
height of the temple-walls was great, as 
Josephus declares; (3) that Phoenician 
workmen were employed in building the 
temple, as stated in the book of Kings. 
(4) Strong proofs as to the location and 
extent of the temple-area have been 
furnished, especially showing the views 
of Mr. Fergusson and others, that the 
temple occupied a square of only 600 
feet in the south-western angle of the 
area, to be erroneous. (5) The conjec- 
ture of Robinson respecting the loca- 
tion of the bridge over the Tyropoeon 
has been verified. (6) The water-sup- 
ply of the city, and particularly of the 
temple, has been proved to be very ex- 
tensive and quite abundant. 

For the history of Jerusalem, ancient 
and modern, the following are among 
the works which may be consulted : Jo- 
sephus ; Eusebius's and Jerome's Ono- 
masticon, French ed., 1862 ; Reland's, 
Palestina ex Monumentis Veteribus II- 
lustrata, Traj. Batav. 1714, 2 vols. sm. 
4to; W. H. Bartlett, Walks in and 
about Jerusalem, 4th. ed., London, 1852, 
roy. 8vo, and his Topography of Jeru- 
salem, 1845; E. Robinson, Biblical Re- 
searches, New York, 1841, 3 vols. 8vo, 
and his later Biblical Researches, 1856, 
8vo ; W. Krafft, Die Topographie Jerusa- 
lems, Bonn, 1865; Fergusson, Essay on 
the Ancient Topography of Jerusalem, 
London, 1847, imp. 8vo, and The Holy 
Sepulchre and the Temple at Jerusalem, 
8vo ; Early Travels in Palestine, edited 
by T. Wright, London, 1848, post 8vo: 
G. Williams, 77ie Holy City, London,1849, 
2 vols. 8vo ; J. T. Barclay, The City of the 
Great King, 1 vol. 8vo, pp. 627, 1857; 
Churchill, Mount Lebanon, London, 1855- 
62, 4 vols. 8vo ; W. M. Thomson, The 
Land and the Book, New York, 1858, 2 



vols. 12mo, new ed. 1879 ; Pierotti, 
Jerusalem Explored, London, 1864, 2 
vols. fol. ; Lewin, Siege of Jerusalem by 
Titus, London, demy 8vo ; H. B. Tris- 
tram, The Land of Israel, London, 
1865, demy 8vo ; Titus Tobler's Pales- 
tinse Descriptions, 1869, 8vo; and To- 
pographie von Jerusalem, Berlin, 1854, 
2 vols.; Captains Wilson and War- 
ren, Recovery of Jerusalem, London, 
1871, demy 8vo ; Reynolds, The His- 
tory of the Temple of Jerusalem (Pub- 
lic. Oriental Trans. Com., vol. 451 ) ; J. L. 
Porter, Syria's Holy Places, 12mo, 1873 ; 
Thrupp's Ancient Jerusalem ; A. Thom- 
son, In the Holy Land, London, 1874, 
12mo ; Captains Wilson, Anderson, War- 
ren, etc., Our Work in Palestine, London, 
1875, 8vo ; Murray's Handbook of Syria 
and Palestine, 1875; Besant and Palmer, 
History of Jerusalem, London, cr. 8vo; 
Ordnance Survey of Jerusalem, with 
Notes by Captain Wilson, London, 2 
vols. Baedeker, Palestine and Syria, 
Leipsic, 1876 ; Warren's Underground 
Jerusalem, 1876; C. E. T. Drake, Mod- 
em Jerusalem, London, 1877, 8vo ; Schaff, 
Through Bible Lands, New York, 1878, 
12mo ; C. R. Conder, Tent-work in Pal- 
estine, 2 vols. 12mo, 1878; Quarterly 
Statements Palestine Exploration Fund, 
1872-1880, and the large Maps of that 
Society with the Memoirs, 1884. 

Jerusalem, New, Rev. 21 : 2, is a term 
employed metaphorically to represent 
the spiritual Church in the state of 
triumph and glory. The ancient Jews 
regarded the tabernacle, the temple, and 
Jerusalem itself, as descending directly 
from God, and they suppose that there 
is a spiritual tabernacle, temple, and city 
corresponding with them. Comp. Gal. 
4:26; 2 Pet. 3 : 10-13 ; Rev. 21. Jeru- 
salem of old was the city of God ; and 
Jerusalem above is called " the city of 
the living God," or " the heavenly Jeru- 
salem." Heb. 12 : 22 ; Rev. 3 : 12. The 
sublime and most comforting descrip- 
tion of the new Jerusalem with which 
the Bible closes has given rise to some 

| of the sweetest Christian hymns of 

j homesickness after heaven. 

JERU'SHA, or JERUSHAH 
{possessed), the mother of Jotham, king 
of Judah. 2 Kgs. 15 : 33 ; 2 Chr. 27 : 1. 

JESA'IAH (saum?). 1. One of Da- 
vid's posterity. 1 Chr. 3 : 21. 
2. A Benjamite. Neh. 11 : 7. 

4.57 



JES 



JES 



JESHA'IAH {help of Jehovah, same 
as Isaiah). I. A son of Jeduthun, and 
chief of the eighth division of the sing- 
ers. 1 Chr. 25:3, 15. 

2. A Kohathite Levite, a descendant 
of Moses, 1 Chr. 26 : 25 ; called Isshai- 
ah in 1 Chr. 24 : 21. 

3. One who came back with Ezra. 
Ezr. 8:7. 

4. A Merarite Levite who also return- 
ed. 8:19. 

JESH'ANAH, a town which, with 
its dependent villages, was one of the 
three taken from Jeroboam by Abijah, 
2 Chr. 13 : 19, and identified by Swartz 
with al-Samin, 2 miles west of Bethel ; 
but this requires confirmation. 

JESHAR'ELAH {right toward 
God), the head of the seventh division 
of the Levite musicians. 1 Chr. 25 : 14. 
In v. 2 he is called Asarelah. 

JESHEB'EAB (seat of one's fa- 
ther-), the chief of the fourteenth divis- 
ion of the priests. 1 Chr. 24:13. 

JE'SHER {uprightness), one of the 
sons of Caleb, the son of Hezron. 1 Chr. 
2:18. 

JESH'IMON {the waste), a name 
designating the position of Pisgah and 
Peor, which are described as " looketh 
toward Jeshimon." Num. 21 : 20 ; 23 : 28. 
The word may not be a proper name, 
but a general term for any wilderness, 
and may thus be applied to different 
places at different times. Grove would 
place Jeshimon on the west side of 
the Dead Sea, toward En-gedi : Porter 
suggests that there may have been two 
Jeshimons, one east of the Jordan con- 
nected with Pisgah, and another west of 
the Jordan ; Conder, with Grove, pro- 
poses to identify Jeshimon with the pla- 
teau above the Dead Sea, on its west side, 
and called el Bnkeia' , the most desolate 
country in Palestine. 

JESHISH'AI (offspring of an old 
man), a Gadite. 1 Chr. 5 : 14. 

JESHOHAI'AH (whom Jehovah 
bows down), a Simeonite. 1 Chr. 4:36. 

JESITUA, in one case JESH'- 
UAH (whom Jehovah helps). 1. The 
chief of the ninth division of the priests. 
Ezr. 2 : 36 : Neh. 7 : 39. He is called 
Jeshuah in 1 Chr. 24:11. 

2. A Levite in Hezekiah's reign placed 
over a city of the priests " to distribute 
the oblations of the Lord." 2 Chr. 31 : 1 5. 

3. A high priest after the Captivity, 

458 



son of Jehozadak. He was probably 
born in Babylon, as his father was a 
captive. 1 Chr. 6 : 15. He returned with 
Zerubbabel, and was active in rebuilding 
the temple and in re-establishing the or- 
dinances of religion. Ezr. 2:2: 3:2, etc. ; 
4:3; 5:2; 10 : 18 ; Neh. 7:7; 12:1, 
etc. By Zechariah he is represented as 
a type of Christ. By this prophet and 
by Haggai he is called Joshua. See Zech. 
3: 1, 3, 8, 9 ; Hag. 1 : 1, 12, 14 ; 2 : 2, 4. 

4. The head of the most numerous 
familv that returned with Zerubbabel. 
Ezr. 2:6; Neh. 7 : 11. 

5. Head of a Levitical house. Ezr. 2 : 
40 ; Neh. 7 : 43. 

6. A Levite. Ezr. 8 : 33. 

7. One whose son helped repair the 
wall. Neh. 3 : 19. 

8. A Levite who read the Law. Neh. 
8:7: 9 : 4, 5 ; 12 : 8, 24. 

9. Joshua, the son of Nun; mentioned 
thus Neh. 8 : 17. 

JESH'UA (Jehovah the salvation), 
one of the towns reinhabited by the 
people of Judah after their return from 
captivity. Neh. 11 : 26. Conder pro- 
poses S'awi, a ruin near Beer-sheba, as 
the site of Jeshua. 

JESHURUN (dearly beloved), a 
symbolical name for Israel, Deut. 32 : 
15 ; 33 : 5, 26, and once, by mistake, Jesu- 
run. Isa. 44 : 2. The "he" in Deut. 
33 : 5 refers not to Moses, who is never 
called a king, but to the Lord, who was 
the Head of the theocracy. 

JESI'AH (whom Jehovah lends). 1. 
A Koi-hite, one of David's mighty men 
who came to him in Ziklag. 1 Chr. 12 : 6. 

2. A Levite, same as Jeshaiah of 1 
Chr. 26 : 25 : 1 Chr. 23 : 20. 

JESIM'IEL (whom God has set up), 
a prince of Simeon. 1 Chr. 4: 36. 

JES'SE (strong), the father of Da- 
vid, and the grandson of Ruth. His 
genealogy is twice given in the 0. T.. 
Ruth 4 : 18-22: 1 Chr. 2 : 5-12, and 
twice in the N. T. Matt. 1 : 3, 5 ; Luke 
3 : 32-34. He is usually called " Jesse 
the Bethlehemite." 1 Sam. 16 : 1, 18; 
17 : 58, but his full and proper designa- 
tion is Jesse "that Ephrathite of Beth- 
lehem Judah." 1 Sam. 17: 12. This lat- 
ter verse calls him "an old man " at the 
| time of David's fight with Goliath. He 
| was the affectionate father of eight sons, 
and a man of wealth and position. 17 : 
12, 18. It is remarkable that David is 



JES 



JEW 



called " the son of Jesse" after his own 
fame was established. 1 Chr. 29 : 26 ; Ps. 
72 : 20. Jesse was through David the 
ancestor of the Judaic kings, and thus 
of Christ. The prophets announced this 
in so many words. Isa. 11 : 1, 10. 

JES'UI {level), an Asherite, founder 
of the Jesuites. Num. 26 : 44. Else- 
where he is called Isui, Gen. 46 : 17, 
and Ishuai. 1 Chr. 7 : 30. 

JES'UITES, THE, descendants 
of Jesui. Num. 26 : 44. 

JES'URUN. See Jeshurun. 

JE'SUS, the Greek form for Hebrew 
" Jehoshua," contracted to "Joshua." 
This term means " Saviour." Matt. 1 : 21. 
It occurs only in the N. T. ; and though 
it is not exclusively applied to Christ, 
it should be, for in Acts 7 : 45, Col. 
4 : 11, and Heb. 4:8," Joshua," and 
not " Jesus," is the proper rendering, 
although the two names have originally 
the same meaning. 

In the evangelical history our Saviour 
is designated by the name of " Christ " 
alone in nearly 300 passages ; by the 
name of "Jesus Christ," or "Christ 
Jesus," less than 100 times ; and by 
the name of the " Ldrd Jesus Christ " 
less than 50. See Christ Jestjs. 

JE'SUS, called Justus, a Jew, who 
was Paul's fellow-worker and a comfort 
to him in Rome. Col. 4:11. 

JESUS, SON OF SIRACH, 
BOOK OF. See Ecclesiasticus. 

JE'THER {excellence). 1. In mar- 
gin of Ex. 4:18. See Jethro. 

2. The eldest of Gideon's 70 sons. 
Jud. 8 : 20. 

3. The husband of Abigail, David's 
sister, and father of Amasa, captain of 
Absalom's host, 2 Sam. 17 : 25 ; called 
" Ithra, an Israelite," in that verse, but 
in 1 Chr. 2 : 17, more correctly, " Jether 
the Ishmaelite." 

4. A member of the tribe of Judah. 1 
Chr. 2 : 32. 

5. Another member. 1 Chr. 4:17. 

6. One of the sons of Asher. 1 Chr. 
7:38; probably identical with the Ith- 
ran of v. 37. 

JETHETH (a nail), one of the 
dukes of Edom. Gen. 36 : 40 : 1 Chr. 1 : 
51. 

JETH'LAH {high, exalted), a city 
of Dan. Jos. 19:42. Drake proposed 
the village of Shilta, north-west of the 
lower Beth-Horon, as the site of Jethlah; 



Conder, on a weak similarity of names, 
proposes Beit Tul as its site. Either 
view requires further confirmation. 

JE'THRO {his excellence), a priest 
or prince of Midian, and father-in-law 
of Moses. Ex. 3:1. He is called Raguel, 
Num. 10 : 29, and Reuel, Ex. 2:18, and 
was probably known by either name, 
while Jethro was his official title. It 
is highly probable, too, that he was 
a descendant of Abraham by Keturah, 
the mother of Midian, Gen. 25 : 2, but 
what was the nature of his office as 
priest (or prince, as some say it should 
be rendered) we know not. See Hobab. 

JE'TUR {an enclosure), one of the 
sons of Ishmael. Gen. 25 : 15 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 
31 ; 5 : 19. See Ittjrea. 

JE'UEL {treasured of God), one of 
the descendants of Judah. 1 Chr. 9 : 6. 

JE'USH {to whom God hastens). 1. 
A son of Esau by Aholibamah, and one 
of the Edomitish phylarchs or " dukes." 
Gen. 36:5, 14, 18; 1 Chr. 1 : 35. 

2. The head of a Beniamite house in 
David's reign. 1 Chr. 7:10. 

3. A Gershonite Levite. 1 Chr. 23: 
10, 11. 

4. A son of Rehoboam. 2 Chr. 11 : 18, 
19. 

JE'UZ {counselling), a Benjamite 
chief. 1 Chr. 8:10. 

JEWELS. This term is applied to 
ornaments made. of the precious metals 
and used to adorn the person. We find 
them among the presents which the 
servants of Abraham made to Rebekah 
and her family when they sought her in 
marriage for Isaac. Gen. 24 : 22. It is 
probable that much skill was attained 
at a very early period in the manufac- 
ture of metal ornaments, such as chains, 
bracelets, ear-rings, etc. Num. 31 : 50 ; 
Eze. 26:12; Hos. 2:13. The word is 
figuratively used to denote anything 
peculiarly precious ; as, the chosen peo- 
ple of God, Mai. 3 : 17, or wisdom, Prov. 
20:15. 

JEWRY, a word elsewhere rendered 
"Judah" and " Judaea." It occurs once 
in the 0. T., Dan. 5 : 13, where it might 
be rendered " Judah," and several times 
in the Apocryphal and N. T. books. See 
Judah and Judaea. 

JEWS. The word first occurs in 2 

Kgs. 16 : 6, and denotes the Judaeans, or 

men of Judah, in contradistinction from 

the seceding ten tribes, who retained the 

459 



JEZ 



JEZ 



name of Israel. The name Israelites 
was applied to the 12 tribes, or descend- 
ants of Jacob (Israel) as a body; but 
after the separation of the tribes, the 
above distinction obtained until the 
Babylonish captivity, which terminated 
the existence of the kingdom of Judah, 
and thenceforward, until the present 
day, the descendants of Jacob are called 
Jews, and constitute one of the two 
classes into which the whole human 
family is frequently divided — viz., Jews 
and Gentiles. " It is a more compre- 
hensive term than Hebrew, for Hellen- 
ists (Grecians) might be Jews, nor is it 
quite synonymous with ' Israelites/ which 
term seems, sometimes at least, to ex- 
press more decidedly covenant hopes 
and relationships. John 1 : 47 ; 2 Cor. 11 : 
22." — Ayre. See Hebrews. 

JEZANI'AH {whom Jehovah, hears), 
a Jew, Jer. 40 : 8 ; 42 : 1; called Azariah, 
Jer. 43 : 2. See Jaazaniah, 1. 

JEZ'EBEL {chaste), the wife of 
Ahab. king of Israel, was the daughter 
of a Zidonian king, 1 Kgs. 16 : 31, and 
of course educated in the idolatrous 
practices of her native country. She 
was the virtual ruler of Israel. She in- 
troduced the worship of Baal and other 
idols, maintaining 400 priests of As- 
tarte at her own expense, while Ahab 
maintained 450 priests of Baal. 1 Kgs. 
18:19. 

She resolved on the extermination of 
all the prophets of God. Obadiah, who 
was a pious man and principal officer 
of Ahab's household, rescued one hun- 
dred of them at one time from her grasp, 
and supplied them with bread and water 
while they were concealed in caves. 1 
Kgs. 18 : 3, 4, 13. Soon after this, Elijah 
caused the 450 priests of Baal support- 
ed by Ahab to be put to death. For 
this proceeding Jezebel threatened to 
take the life of Elijah, but her purpose 
was frustrated. Soon afterward she 
planned and perpetrated the murder of 
Naboth ; and by using the king's name 
and authority with the leading men of 
Jezreel, she secured their co-operation 
in the flagrant crime. 1 Kgs. 21 : 1-13. 
Her doom was predicted by Elijah, and 
was in due time visited upon her to the 
very letter. 2 Kgs. 9 : 30-37. See Ahab, 
Elijah, Jehu. 

In Rev. 2 : 20 the name Jezebel is used 
symbolically, and with us it is common 
460 



as a name of infamy. Shakespeare's Lady 
Macbeth is often, though improperly, 
compared to Jezebel. 

JE'ZER {frame), one of the sons 
of Naphtali. Gen. 46:24; Num. 26: 
49; 1 Chr. 7:13. 

JE'ZERITES, THE, the de- 
scendants of the above. Num. 26 : 49. 

JEZI'AH (whom Jehovah sprinkles), 
one who had a foreign wife. Ezr. 10 :25. 

JE'ZIEL {assembly of God), a Ben- 
jamite archer who joined David at Zik- 
lag. 1 Chr. 12 : 3. 

JEZLiI / AH {whom Jehovah deliv- 
ers), a Benjamite who lived in Jerusa- 
lem. 1 Chr. 8:18. 

JEZ'OAR {shining), one of the 
tribe of Judah. 1 Chr. 4:7. 

JEZRAHIAH {whom Jehovah 
brings forth), the Levite who led the 
singers at the dedication of the wall. 
Neh. 12:42. 

JEZREEL {God hath planted, or 
scattered). 1. A name in the genealo- 
gies of Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 3. 

2. The eldest son of the prophet Ho- 
sea. Hos. 1 : 4. 

JEZREEL {God hathplanted). 1. 
A city in the plain of the same name 
between Gilboa and Little Hermon. It 
was a boundary of Issachar. Josh. 19 : 
18. Ahab chose it for his chief resi- 
dence. The selection shows the ability 
of this wicked king. Near by were a 
temple and grove of Astarte, with an 
establishment of 400 priests supported 
by Jezebel. 1 Kgs. 18:19: 2 Kgs. 10 : 
11. The palace of Ahab, 1 Kgs. 21 : 1 ; 
18 : 3, probably containing his " ivory 
house," 1 Kgs. 22 : 39, was on the east- 
ern side of the city. Comp. 1 Kgs. 21: 
1 ; 2 Kgs. 9 : 25, 30, 33. Jezebel lived 
by the city wall, and had a high window 
facing eastward. 2 Kgs. 9 : 30. It had a 
watch-tower, on which a sentinel stood. 
2 Kgs. 9:17. An ancient square tower, 
now among the hovels of the modern 
village, may be on its site. The gateway 
of the city on the east was also the gate- 
way of the palace. 2 Kgs. 9 : 34. The 
vineyard of Naboth was on the vineclad 
hill outside the city to the eastward, ac- 
cording to Baedeker ; but this is not cer- 
tain. A spring near is now called 'Ain- 
Jalud. or the ''Spring of Goliath," and 
is the " fountain " or " spring " in " Jez- 
reel." 1 Sam. 29:1. After the fall of 
the house of Ahab, Jezreel also fell into 



JEZ 



JIP 



a decline. It is now a miserable village 
of a dozen houses, and known as Zerin. 
Around the village are many (some say 
300) cisterns and subterranean grana- 
ries, but ruins of the ancient royal 
buildings have not been discovered. 
The ground would indicate that careful 
excavations might bring rich results. 

2. A town in Judah, in the neighbor- 
hood of the southern Carmel. Josh. 15 : 
56. Here David in his wanderings took 
Ahinoam the Jezreelitess for his second 
wife. 1 Sam. 27 : 3 ; 30 : 5. 

JEZ'REEL, VALLEY OF, a tri- 
angular plain of central Palestine, called 
by Josephus "the great plain," extend- 
ing from the Mediterranean to the Jor- 
dan, and from the range of Carmel and 
Samaria to the mountains in Galilee. 
It is about 25 miles long from east to 
west, and 12 miles wide from north to 
south. 

It is a classic battle-field. There Barak 
and Gideon triumphed, Deborah sung 
her war-song; Saul and Jonathan fell 
near by, on the mountains of Gilboa ; 
here King Josiah was mortally wounded 
by the Egyptians. It furnished the apos- 
tle with a mystic name for the final bat- 
tle-field of the Almighty, Rev. 16 : 14-16, 
and here Napoleon gained a fruitless 
victory over a Turkish army of 30,000. 
On the west side is a narrow pass, open- 
ing into the plain of 'Akka. From the 
base of this triangular plain three 
branches stretch out eastward, divided 
by two bleak gray ridges, one called 
Mount Gilboa, the other Little Hermon. 
The central branch is the richest as well 
as the most celebrated. It is the "Val- 
ley of Jezreel" proper — the battle-field 
where Gideon triumphed and Saul and 
Jonathan were overthrown. Jud. 7 : 1, 
sq. ; 1 Sam. 29 and 31. The plain is 
noted for its wonderful richness. The 
modern Greek name of the plain Esdrae- 
lon is not found in the 0. T. or N. T., 
but occurs in the Apocrypha. It is now 
uninhabited, and only a small portion is 
cultivated. " Next to the plain of Sha- 
ron," says Schaff, " it is the most fertile 
district of Palestine, looking in spring 
like a green velvet carpet, . . . sadly ne- 
glected, and exposed to the ravages of 
the wild Bedouin, who from time to time 
make raids and pitch their black tents, 
kill peasants, plunder crops, and then 
ride back with their booty on camels 
462 



and horses to their lairs in the Hau- 
ran." 

Dr. N. Macleod writes concerning the 
plain of Jezreel : " On or near the spot 
where Ahab's palace is likely to have 
stood is an ancient tower, built I know 
not when nor by whom. We ascended 
to its upper story, and there, through 
three windows, opening to the east, west, 
and north, obtained an excellent/view of 
all the interesting portions of the sur- 
rounding landscape. Beneath us lay 
the famous plain, a rolling sea of ver- 
dure, yet lonely-looking, being without 
inhabitants. We saw no villages or 
huts dotting its surface, not even a soli- 
tary horseman, but only troops of ga- 
zelles galloping away into the distance, 
and some birds of prey, apparently vul- 
tures, wheeling in the sky, and doubt- 
less looking out for work from their 
masters, the Bedouins. This green 
prairie stretches for upward of 20 miles 
toward the Mediterranean. It is the 
more striking from its contrast with the 
wild, bare hills among which we had 
been travelling, and with those which 
look clown immediately upon it. It 
separates the highlands of southern 
Palestine from the hill-country of the 
more lowland north, as the plain alon 
which the railway passes from Loch 
Lomond to Stirling separates the high- 
lands of Rob Roy from the lowland hills 
of the Campsie range, that rise above the 
valley of the Clyde." 

JIB'SAM {pleasant), a descendant 
of Issachar. 1 Chr. 7 : 2. 

JID'LAPH (weeping), a son of Na- 
hor, and nephew of Abraham. Gen. 22 : 
22. 

JIMNA, OR JIM'NAH (good for- 
tune), the eldest son of Asher. Gen. 46 : 
17 ; Num. 26 : 44. He is also called 
Imnah in 1 Chr. 7 : 30. His descendants 
are the Jimnites. Num. 26 : 44. 

JIPH'TAH, one of the cities of 
Judah toward the sea-coast. Josh. 15 : 
43. 

JIPHTHAH-EL (God opens), the 
name of a valley forming one of the 
landmarks for the boundary of Zebulun 
and Asher. Josh. 19 : 14, 27. Dr. Rob- 
inson suggests that Jiphtbah-el was 
identical with Jotapata, the fortress 
I which Josephus defended and where 
| he was captured, and that they survive 
I in the modern Jefat, a village in the 



JOA 



JOA 



mountains, 15 miles west of the Lake 
of Galilee, and halfway between the Bay 
of Acre and the lake. 

JO'AB (tuhose father is Jehovah). 1. 
The eldest of the three sons of Zeruiah, 
David's sister, and the commander-in- 
chief of his army. 1 Chr. 2:16; 11:6. 
He was evidently a valiant man, but 
ambitious and revengeful. To revenge 
the death of his brother Asahel, whom 
Abner had killed in self-defence, 2 Sam. 
2 : 23, he treacherously assassinated this 
distinguished general. 2 Sam. 3 : 27. He 
brought about a reconciliation between 
Absalom and his father after the mur- 
der of Amnon ; but when Absalom re- 
belled, Joab adhered to his master, and 
under his generalship the troops of Da- 
vid, though much inferior in numbers, ob- 
tained a complete victory over the army 
of Absalom, and, contrary to the express 
orders of David, Joab put him to death 
with his own hand as he hung suspend- 
ed from the oak tree. 2 Sam. 18 : 14. 
After this event David promoted Ama- 
sa to be his general-in-chief, by which 
Joab was deeply offended, and secretly 
resolved on the death of his rival, and 
took the first opportunity of assassinat- 
ing him as he had done Abner. 2 Sam. 
20 : 10. David after this seems to have 
taken him again into favor. 2 Sam. 24 : 2. 
When David the king had become old, 
however, Joab combined with Abiathar 
the priest and others to set Adonijah on 
the throne in defiance of the will of Da- 
vid, who had, by divine direction, resolv- 
ed to make Solomon king. 1 Kgs. 1 : 7. 
The plot was seasonably defeated, and 
Solomon was proclaimed king the same 
day. But Joab now seemed to David 
so evidently an object of the divine dis- 
pleasure that he solemnly charged Sol- 
omon to punish him for all his enormous 
crimes, and especially for the murder of 
two valiant men, both better than him- 
self, Abner and Amasa. Joab, conscious 
that his life was forfeited, sought an 
asylum at the horns of the altar, which 
position he absolutely refused to relin- 
quish, and Benaiah, now advanced to be 
the captain of the host, slew him by the 
altar, agi-eeably to the command of the 
young king. He was buried in his 
own house in the wilderness. 1 Kgs. 2 : 
5-34. 

2. A descendant of Kenaz. 1 Chr. 4 : 
14. 



3. One whose posterity returned with 
Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 6 ; 8 : 9 ; Neh. 7 : 11. 

JO'AH (whose brother, i. e. helper, is 
Jehovah). 1. The son of Asaph, the 
royal recorder under Hezekiah. 2 Kgs. 
18 : 18, 26, 37 ; Isa. 36 : 3, 11, 22. 

2. A Gershonite, 1 Chr. 6:21; proba- 
bly same as Ethan, v. 42. 

3. A Korhite porter. 1 Chr. 26 : 4. 

4. A Gershonite Levite who took part 
in Hezekiah's reforms. 2 Chr. 29 : 12. 

5. The son of Joahaz, and recorder 
to Josaiah. 2 Chr. 34 : 8. 

JOAHAZ (whom Jehovah holds), 
the father of Joah, the recorder to Jo- 
saiah. 1 Chr. 34: 8. 

JO AWN A (whom Jehovah has gra- 
ciously given). 1. One of the ancestors 
of Christ. Luke 3 : 27. He has been 
identified with Hananiah. 1 Chr. 3 : 19. 

2. The wife of Chusa, the steward of 
Herod Antipas, and one who ministered 
unto our Lord, and who brought spices 
and ointments for his embalming. Luke 
8:3; 24:10. She seems to have been 
the subject of some miraculous cure by 
Christ, whom she followed, and to whom 
she ministered. Luke 24: 10. 

JOASH 2 Kgs. 13 : 1, or JEHO'- 
ASH, 2 Kgs. 12:1 (whom Jehovah be- 
stowed). 1. The father of Gideon, who 
had his own altar to Baal. His idola- 
try, however, would not seem very sin- 
cere, since he defended Gideon in de- 
stroying the idol. Jud. 6 : 11, etc. 

2. One of the sons of Ahab. 1 Kgs. 
22 : 26 ; 2 Chr. 18 : 25. 

3. The son and the successor of Aha- 
ziah, king of Judah. Jehosheba, or Je- 
hoshabeath, 2 Chr. 22:11, the wife of 
Jehoiada, the high priest, his aunt, pre- 
served him from the murderous designs 
of Athaliah, his grandmother, when he 
was but a year old, and kept him hid 
six years in a chamber belonging to the 
temple. 2 Kgs. 11 : 2, 3. See Athaliah. 
When he was seven years of age, Jehoi- 
ada entered into a solemn covenant with 
Azariah and others to set up young Jo- 
ash for their sovereign, and dethroned 
Athaliah. After preparing matters in 
the kingdom, and bringing the Levites 
and such others as they could trust to 
Jerusalem, they crowned him in the 
court of the temple with great solemni- 
ty. 2 Kgs. 11. Joash behaved himself 
well while Jehoiada, the high priest, 
lived and was his guide, but no sooner 

463 



JOA 



JOB 



was this good man removed, than he be- 
gan to listen to the counsels of his wick- 
ed courtiers. The worship of God fell 
into neglect and idolatry prevailed. 
Zechariah, the priest, son of Jehoiada, 
warned him of his sin and danger, but 
in consequence of his fidelity he was, by 
order of Joash, stoned to death between 
the temple and the altar. When dying 
he assured them that God would avenge 
his death, 2 Chr. 24 : 20-22, to which 
event our Saviour is generally supposed 
to refer. Matt. 23 : 35. Hazael invaded 
the kingdom, but Joash, with a large 
sum of money, including all the treas- 
ures and furniture of the temple and 
palace, redeemed his capital from plun- 
der. 2 Kgs. 12 : 18. After suffering 
other injuries from the Syrians, and 
after being loaded with ignominy, he 
was murdered by his own servants, 
after a reign of 41 years, B. c. 878-838. 
2 Chr. 24:24-27. 

4. 2 Kgs. 13 : 9. Son and successor 
of Jehoahaz, king of Israel, and grand- 
son of Jehu. He was associated with his 
father in the government for 2 years, but 
14 years he reigned alone, making in all 
16 years, B. c. 840-825. 

He was a wicked prince, though he 
was successful in three campaigns against 
the Syrians, and recovered the cities 
which they took from his father, accord- 
ing to the prediction of Elisha. 2 Kgs. 
13 : 15-25. He was also signally suc- 
cessful in a war with Amaziah, king of 
Judah (see Amaziah), soon after the ter- 
mination of which he died. 2 Kgs. 14: 
12-16. 

5. A descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 22. 

6. A Benjamite. one of David's heroes. 
1 Chr. 12 : 3. 

JO 'ASH (to whom Jehovah hastens, 
i. e., with help). 1. The son of Becher, 
and head of a house of Benjamin in the 
time of David. 1 Chr. 7 : 8. 

2. An officer of David who was over 
the oil-cellars. 1 Chr. 27 : 28. 

JO'ATHAM. Matt. 1:9. The 
Greek form of Jotham, 2, which see. 

JOB (desire /), the third son of Issa- 
char. Gen. 46 : 13 ; called Jashub, 1 
Chr. 7 : 1. 

JOB (one persecuted), the famous patri- 
arch of Uz (probably in eastern Edom), 
whose sorrows and whose words find faith- 
ful and immortal record in the book of Job. 
He lived in very primitive times — at least 
464 



was unacquainted with the Mosaic law 
and the Jewish worship. He appears in 
the book as a holy outsider, who was yet, 
like Melchizedek, a worshipper of the 
true God. "We have reference to Job as 
an historical character in Eze. 14: 14, 16, 
18, 20, and Jas. 5 : 11. These references 
must be accepted as conclusive not only 
as to his reality, but likewise as to his 
recovery. They are supported by Arab 
and Mohammedan traditions. But this 
view does not compel us to accept all the 
details, and especially all the speeches 
(which are too highly poetical to have 
been extemporized), as strictly historical. 
The book is a poem on an historical basis. 
He was a patriarchal prince of great 
wealth, piety, integrity, and happiness. 
By God's permission Satan tried him, 
destroying his property, his children, and 
his health, and visiting him with the most 
loathsome form of leprosy (elephanti- 
asis). But as he abode faithful, God 
grandly vindicated his righteousness, 
reversed Satan's sentence, gave him back 
all he had lost and much more. With 
daughters renowned for their beauty, 
with sons to perpetuate his name, with 
fulness of days and abundance of honor 
did he pass away, 140 years after his 
great trial. Hales places him before the 
birth of Abraham, Usher about 30 years 
before the Exodus, b. c. 1521. 

Book of. It is the record of Job's 
experiences. It is a didactic poem with 
a narrative prologue and a narrative 
epilogue in prose. The poem itself has 
a dramatic drapery, several speakers be- 
ing introduced, who carry on a metaphys- ( 
ical contest on the mysteries of divine 
government. It has been called a He- 
brew tragedy and theodicy. Its poetic 
merit is of the highest order, and ranks 
it, with Homer's Iliad, Dante's Divina 
Commedia, Shakespeare's dramas, and 
Goethe's Faust, among the immortal 
masterpieces of genius. Thomas Carlyle 
calls it " one of the grandest things ever 
written by man, a noble book — a book 
for all men. Such living likenesses were 
never since drawn. Sublime sorrow, 
sublime reconciliations ; oldest choral 
melody, as of the heart of manhood : so 
soft and great, as the summer midnight; 
as the world with its seas and stars, — 
there is nothing written. I think, of 
equal literary merit." With the excep- 
tion of the beginning and end, it is in 



JOB 



JOB 



poetry. It is uncertain who wrote it, 
but surely it is very old. Some ascribe 
it to Moses while in Midian, others carry 
it down to the age of Solomon. The 
speeches of Job and his friends discuss 
the problem of evil and its punishments, 
and the justice of God in the unequal 
distribution of happiness and misery. 
Why do the righteous suffer and why 
do the wicked prosper in this world ? 
The friends of Job charge him with se- 
cret crimes ; he in vain protests his inno- 
cence. All the speakers are silenced at 
last by almighty God, who appears as 
umpire on the scene and overwhelms 
Job with a sense of his infinite power 
and wisdom. 

The practical lessons of the book may 
be stated as follows : 

1. Not all the sufferings are punish- 
ments for sin. This is the one-sided 
view of the three friends of Job, who are 
for this reason censured by Jehovah and 
required to make an atonement for the 
injustice done to Job. ch., 42: 7. The 
general principle of the connection of 
sin and suffering is true enough, but the 
error and injustice consist in the appli- 
cation of this principle to all individual 
cases of suffering. Without sin there 
would have been no suffering; but in a 
fallen world sufferings are used by God 
as a school of discipline. 

2. The sufferings of the righteous are 
not punitive, but disciplinary and cor- 
rective. They are prompted by God's 
love rather than his justice. "Whom 
the Lord loveth he chasteneth." Prov. 3 : 
12; Heb. 12: 6. 

3. Affliction is the necessary condition 
for the development of disinterested vir- 
tue and the heroism of patience. As a 
means for such an end it is foreordained 
by God. 

4. The sufferings of the righteous are 
but temporary and lead to an abundant 
reward even in this life, or certainly in 
the life to come. 

5. It is wicked presumption in man 
to murmur against God and to find 
fault with his dealings or to call him to 
an account, instead of humbly adoring 
him and submitting to the mysteries of 
his almighty power and wisdom. 

6. The final solution of all the remain- 
ing mysteries of divine government is 
reserved for the future life. This idea 
is at least hinted at in that remarkable 

30 



and most comforting passage which 
stands right in the middle of the book, 
as the kernel in the shell, ch. 19 : 23-27, 
and which teaches, if not the resur- 
rection of the body, at all events the im- 
mortality of the soul. 

"Oh that my words were written down ! 
Oh that they were inscribed in a book ! 
That with an iron stile and lead, 
They were graven in a rock for ever ! 
Yea, I know that my Redeemer liveth, 
And will stand the last upon the dust (the 

grave); ■ 
And after this, my skin is destroyed, 
Even without (or, from off) my flesh, I shall 

see God. 
Yea, I, for myself, shall see him. 
And my eyes behold him, and no stranger. 
(For this) my heart is consumed within 



We add an analysis of the book of Job, 
which has suffered much from the tradi- 
tional division into chapters : 

The Prologue. 
Job's character and prosperity, ch. 
1 : 1-5. The divine decree to try Job 
through Satan by taking away his pos- 
sessions, 1 : 6-22, and his health, 2 : 1-10. 
The visit of his friends and their mute 
sympathy, 2 : 11-13. 

The Poem. 

I. The outbreak of Job's despair, ch. 3 : 

1-26. 

II. First series of controversies, chs. 4- 
14. 

Eliphaz's address, chs. 4 and 5. 
Job's reply, chs. 6 and 7. 
Bildad's address, ch. 8. 
Job's reply, chs. 9 and 10. 
Zophars address, ch. 11. 
Job's reply, chs. 12-14. 

III. Second series of controversies : 
Eliphaz's address, ch. 15. 

Job's reply, chs. 16 and 17. 
Bildad's address, eh. 18. 
Job's reply, ch. 19. 
Zophar's address, ch. 20. 
Job's reply, ch. 21. 

IV. Third series of controversies : 
Eliphaz's address, ch. 22. 
Job's reply, chs. 23 and 24. 
Bildad's address, ch. 25. 
Job's reply, ch. 26. 

V. Job's closing address to the van- 
quished friends, chs. 27 and 28. 

VI. Job's soliloquy, chs. 29-31. 

VII. Elihu's four discourses in condem- 
nation of Job and his friends, and in 

465 



JOB 



JOH 



vindication of the divine justice, chs. 
32-37. 

VIII. Jehovah's addresses to Job, chs. 
38, 39, 40, and 41. 

IX. Humiliation of Job and penitent 
confession of his sin and folly, ch. 
42 : 1-6. 

The Epilogue, or historical conclusion, 
ch. 42 : 7-17. Vindication of Job before 
his friends, vs. 7-10 ; the restoration of 
his former dignity and honor, vs. 11 and 
12 ; the doubling of his former earthly 
prosperity and happiness, vs. 12-17. 

JO'BAB (a desert). 1. A son of 
Joktan. Gen. 10 : 29 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 23. 

2. A king of Edom. Gen. 36 : 33, 34 ; 
1 Chr. 1: 44, 45. 

3. A king of Madon, who joined the 
league against Joshua. Josh. 11 : 1. 

4. 5. Two Benjainites, heads of their 
respective houses. 1 Chr. 8 : 9, 18. 

JOCHEBED {whose glory is Jeho- 
vah), the mother of Aaron, Moses, and 
Miriam, was the wife and aunt of Am- 
ram, and the daughter of Levi. Ex. 6 : 
20 ; Num. 26 : 59. 

JO'ED (his loitness is Jehovah), a 
Benjamite. Neh. 11: 7. 

JOEL (Jehovah is his God). 1. The 
first-born of Samuel. 1 Sam. 8 : 2 ; 1 Chr. 
6 : 33 : 15 : 17. By a curious error his 
name is given as Vashni, which means 
" second," in 1 Chr. 6 : 28, the word Joel 
having dropped out. The verse, there- 
fore, should read " The first-born Joel, 
and the second Abiah." 

2. A Simeonite chief. 1 Chr. 4 : 35. 

3. A Reubenite. 1 Chr. 5 : 4, 8. 

4. A Gadite chief. 1 Chr. 5 : 12. 

5. A Kohathite, 1 Chr. 6 : 36, but prob- 
ably merely a corruption of Shaul in 
verse 24. 

6. One of Issachar's posterity. 1 Chr. 
7:3. 

7. One of David's heroes : called Igal 
in 2 Sam. 23 : 36 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 38. 

8. A Gershonite chief. 1 Chr. 15 : 7, 
11. 

9. The Gershonite appointed with his 
brother over the treasures of the house 
of the Lord. 1 Chr. 23 : 8 ; 26 : 22. 

10. A Manassite chief on the west of 
Jordan. 1 Chr. 27: 20. 

11. A Kohathite in Hezekiah's reign. 
2 Chr. 29 : 12. 

12. One who had a foreign wife. Ezr. 
10 : 43. 

13. The Benjamite overseer of those 
466 



of his tribe and that of Judah who lived 
in Jerusalem. Neh. 11 : 9. 

14. The son of Pethuel, one of the 
minor prophets. Nothing is recorded of 
his personal history but the most likely 
conjectures assign him to the reign of 
Uzziah and make him reside in Judah. 

Joel, Book op. It may be divided 
into two parts : I. 1-2 : 17 describes 
a sore judgment which is to come upon 
the land, and grounds upon it a call 
to repentance. II. 2: 18-3: 21 contains 
the blessings which Jehovah will confer 
upon the chosen people, and announces 
when the Messiah has come, the out- 
pouring of the Spirit and the complete 
conquest of Judah over her foes, result- 
ing in absolute and unbreakable peace. 
The second chapter contains a prophecy 
of a terrible plague of locusts, but a 
symbolical use is made of the incursion 
to foretell the attack of Judah's foes. 
Joel's style is classical ; " it is elegant 
and perspicuous, and at the same time 
nervous, animated, and sublime." — Ayre. 
The fulfilment of his Messianic prophecies 
is noticed in the N. T. Acts 2 : 16-21 ; Bom. 
10 : 13. 

JOE'LAH (whom Jehovah helps), a 
Benjamite chief who united his forces to 
David's at Ziklag. 1 Chr. 12 : 7. 

JOE'ZEB (whose help is Jehovah), 
! a Benjamite who was a Korhite, who 
came to David at Ziklag. 1 Chr. 12 : 6. 

JOGBEHAH (elevated), a place 
in the tribe of Gad, Num. 32:35; Jud. 
8 : 11, east of the Jordan, and near 
where Gideon overcame Zebah and Zal- 
munna: it may be identical with Jubeiba, 
a ruin about 4 miles north of Ammdn. 

JOGLI (exiled), the father of a 
chief of Dan. Num. 34 : 22. 

JO'HA (whom Jehovah revives). 1. 
A chief of Benjamin. 1 Chr. 8 : 16. 

2. The Tizite. one of David's warriors. 

1 Chr. 11 : 45. 

JOHA'NAN (to whom Jehovah is 
merciful). 1. One of the captains of the 
army of Judah who came with their men 
unto Gedaliah, whom Nebuchadnezzar 
had appointed governor, and declared 
themselves " servants of the Chaldees." 

2 Kgs. 25 : 23-26. Having heard of 
the intention of Ishmael to kill Gedaliah 
he told the governor, at the same time 
requesting permission to kill Ishmael. 
but Gedaliah did not believe the report, 
and accused Johanan of lying. After 



JOH 



JOH 



Gedaliah was assassinated Johanan again 
took the lead, regathered the fugitives, 
and, although warned by Jeremiah 
against going down to Egypt, carried 
off the prophet and other Jews into that 
land, where he died. Jer. 40: 7-16: chs. 
41, 42, and 43. 

2. One of Josiah's sons. 1 Chr. 3:15. 

3. One of David's posterity. IChr. 3 : 24. 

4. Son of Azariah, of the high-priestly 
line. 1 Chr. 6 : 9, 10. 

5. 6. A Benjamite and a Gadite who 
came to David at Ziklag. 1 Chr. 12 : 4, 12. 

7. The father of an Ephraimite chief 
in the reign of Ahaz. 2 Chr. 28 : 12. 

8. One who returned with Ezra. Ezr. 
8: 12. 

9. One of the chief Levites, in whose 
chamber Ezra mourned for the trans- 
gressions of the captives. Ezr. 10 : 6 ; 
Neh. 12 : 23. 

10. The son-in-law of Meshullam. 
Neh. 6 : 18. 

JOHN, identical with JOHANAN 
(whom Jehovah lores ; comp. the German 
Gottlieb). 1. One of the high priest's 
kindred. Acts 4 : 6. 

2. The Hebrew name of Mark the 
evangelist. Acts 12 : 25 ; 13 : 5 : 15 : 37. 

3. John the Baptist, ..more properly 
"the Baptizer." Matt. 3 : 1. The son 
of a priestly family on both sides, his 
father, Zacharias, being a priest of the 
course of Abiah, and his mother, Elisa- 
beth, being of the daughters of Aaron, the 
prophet and forerunner of our Saviour, 
and the Elias of the N. T. His parents 
were old when they received the promise 
of his birth. Luke 1 : 18. See Zechariah. 
He was born about six months before 
Christ. His birth and work were predict- 
ed by the angel Gabriel, Luke 1 : 5-15, and 
by Isaiah, Isa. 40 : 3, and Malachi. Mai. 
4 : 5. He grew up in solitude, and when 
about 30 years of age began to preach 
in the wilderness of Judaea, and to call 
men to repentance and reformation. By 
divine direction he baptized with the 
baptism of repentance all who came 
unto him confessing their sins, Luke 3 : 
8 ; and many supposed he might be " the 
Christ." John 1 : 19-28. His manner of 
life was solitary, and even austere ; for 
he seems to have shunned the habitations 
of men and to have subsisted on locusts 
and wild honey, while his dress was 
made of the coarse hair of camels, and a 
leathern girdle was about his loins. 



John, moreover, announced to the Jews 
the near approach of the Messiah's king- 
dom, called the " kingdom of hea'ven." 
Matt. 3 : 2. Multitudes flocked to hear 
him, and to be baptized of him, from 
every part of the land ; and among the 
rest came Jesus of Nazareth, and ap- 
plied for baptism John at first hesita- 
ted on account of the dignity of the 
person and his own unworthiness; but 
when Jesus told him that it was neces- 
sary, John acquiesced: heaven was 
opened, and the Holy Ghost descended 
on Jesus in the likeness of a dove, and 
a "voice was heard from heaven, saying, 
"This is my beloved Son, in whom I 
am well pleased." Matt. 3 : 17. By this, 
John knew most certainly that Jesus of 
Nazareth was the Messiah, and afterward 
pointed him out to his own disciples and 
announced to the people that he was 
then among them. John 1:26-36. 

John was a man of profound humility ; 
and although he foresaw that his fame 
would be eclipsed by the coming of 
Christ, as the brightness of the morning 
star is dimmed by the rising of the sun, 
yet he rejoiced sincerely in the event, 
saying, " He must increase, but I must 
decrease." The testimony of John to 
the divine nature and offices of the Re- 
deemer is full and distinct. John 1 : 29 ; 
I 3 : 28-32. The message he sent by his 
'\ disciples while he was in prison was for 
their sakes rather than his own, al- 
though it is not impossible that his own 
faith was temporarily clouded by the 
gloom of the prison, Matt. 11 : 1-6. The 
preaching of John was awakening and 
alarming, and produced a deep impres- 
sion on the minds of his bearers, but 
with most it was but temporary. They 
rejoiced in his light only for a season. 

Among the hearers of John was Her- 
od, the tetrarch of Galilee. This wicked 
S prince not only heard him, but heard 
! him with delight, and reformed his con- 
' duct in many points in consequence of 
his solemn warnings, Mark 6:20; but 
| there was one sin which he would not 
relinquish. He had put away his own 
wife, and had married Herodias, the 
I wife of his brother Philip, who was still 
living. For this iniquity John faith- 
fully reproved the tetrarch, by which he 
was so much offended that he would 
have killed the preacher had he not 
feared an insurrection of the people, 
467 



JOH 



JOH 



for all men held John to he a prophet. 
Matt. 14 : 5. He went so far, however, 
as to shut him up in prison. The re- 
sentment of Herodias was still stronger 
and more implacable toward the man 
who had dared to reprove her sin. She 
therefore watched for some opportunity 
to wreak her vengeance on this prophet 
of the Lord. On Herod's birthday, when 
all the principal men of the country 
were feasting with him, Salome, the 
daughter of Herodias, danced so grace- 
fully before the company that Herod 
was charmed beyond measure, and de- 
clared with an oath that he would give 
her whatever she asked, even to the half 
of his kingdom. She immediately asked 
the advice of her mother, who told her 
to request the head of John the Baptist. 
Herod, whose resentment against him 
seems to have subsided, was exceedingly 
sorry, but out of regard to his oath, as 
he said, and respect for his company, he 
caused John to be beheaded. His head 
was brought on a platter and presented 
to the young dancer, who immediately 
gave it to her mother. 

Thus terminated the life of him who, 
of all the prophets of old, came nearest 
to Christ, and was in this sense the 
greatest born among women, yet less 
than " least in the kingdom" of Christ. 
Matt. 11 : 11. He was the promised Eli- 
jah — i. e. gifted with his power and 
spirit. He summed up the whole mean- 
ing of the Jewish dispensation, the Law, 
and the prophecy in its direct termina- 
tion in Christ, who came to fulfil the Law 
and the promise. 

Josephus, the Jewish historian, says 
of John, he " was a good man, and com- 
manded the Jews to exercise virtue both 
as to righteousness toward one another, 
and piety toward God, and so to come to 
baptism." He also speaks of his " great 
influence over the people, who seemed 
ready to do anything he should advise." 
Josephus also confirms the gospel account 
of the murder of John. Antiq., xviii. 5 $ 2. 

4. John, the apostle and evangelist, 
was the son of Zebedee and Salome, and 
probably a cousin of Jesus (if Salome 
was a sister of Mary), as may be inferred 
from John 19 : 25, " his mother's sister." 
Comp. with Matt. 27 : 56 : Mark 15 : 40 ; 
Luke 23 : 49. He was probably born at 
Bethsaida. Matt. 4 : 18, 21. His parents 
were in comfortable circumstances, for 
468 



his father had hired servants, Mark 1 : 20, 
and a partnership in business. Luke 5 : 
10. His mother was one of the women 
who gave of their substance for the sup- 
port of Jesus, Luke 8 : 3, and came with 
spices to embalm his body. Mark 16 : 1. 

The apostle himself was acquainted 
with the high priest and his court, 
John 18 : 1 5, and had property in Jeru- 
salem. John 19: 27. He with James, his 
brother, carried on the business of fish- 
ing with their father. But the fame of 
the new prophet, John the Baptist, 
reached Galilee, and with his friends, 
Peter, Andrew, and Philip, he eagerly 
advocated the claims of the Baptist, and 
became one of his followers. 

In this school he was prepared for a 
far higher service. He who faithfully 
obeyed the Forerunner was brought soon 
to the Lord. Doubtless John was one of 
the " two disciples " who heard the Bap- 
tist declare of Jesus, " Behold the Lamb 
of God !" John 1 : 36. He followed Jesus 
unto his abode, saw the marvellous works 
he performed, and from that hour was a 
convert to the new faith. But not as yet 
was he called. He resumed his trade for 
a time, until Jesus, walking by the Sea 
of Galilee, caught a glimpse of his old 
acquaintances, Peter and Andrew, James 
and John, and by the same command, 
" Follow me," counted them among the 
twelve apostles who form the first layer 
of God's spiritual building. Eph. 2 : 20. 
Unto John was the tender and expres- 
sive epithet given, " The disciple whom 
Jesus loved." This was intimated in his 
very name, "Jehovah is gracious." 
Comp. the German Gottlieb. Did we 
know nothing more of him than this, 
we should know enough to stamp him as 
the worthiest of sinful mortals ; he who 
was the chosen friend of the sinless One 
must have possessed rare qualities of 
heart and mind. He was, along with 
James and Peter, the spectator of all 
the more private events of the Saviour's 
life. He saw the glories of the trans- 
figuration, rejoiced in the restoration of 
Jairus's daughter, wondered at the resur- 
rection of Lazarus, leaned on the Sa- 
viour's breast at the Last Supper, and 
was nearest to him in the garden. He 
alone of the apostles attended the cruci- 
fixion. It was, then, fitting that to him, 
at the cross, should be committed the care 
of the widowed mother of Jesus. John 19 : 



JOH 



JOH 



26. With Peter he hastens to the sepul- 
chre on Easter morning, is among the dis- 
ciples when Jesus appears, and at our last 
glimpse of him in the Gospels he stands 
near to Peter, and the words are borne 
to us, " If I will that he tarry till I come, 
what is that to thee?" John 21 : 22. 

After the ascension Peter, James, and 
John are the pillar apostles. Gal. 2 : 
1-9. They work miracles, are the sources 
of counsel, and the heads of the infant 
Church. In the year 50, Paul meets 
them, and how cordial a greeting would 
the ardent lover of Jesus receive from 
John, whose mind was stored with those 
precious memories he was destined to 
write down for the edification and enjoy- 
ment of all future time ! But when Paul 
for the last time visited Jerusalem, in 
58, John was not there — so do we inter- 
pret Luke's silence, Acts 21 : 18 — having 
entered upon those wider labors which 
made him so much beloved. 

He made Ephesus the centre of his 
operations, and had, after Paul's mar- 
tyrdom, according to unanimous tradi- 
tion, the supervision in general of the 
churches of Asia Minor. This oversight 
began in the year 64. Under Nero, A. d. 
54-68, in the year 68, he was banished to 
Patmos, a solitary, barren, rocky island 
in the Mgean Sea. There he had the 
visions recorded in Revelation. Rev. 
1 : 9. The usual view assigns the Rev- 
elation to the close of Domitian's reign, 
A. D. 95, and his return to Ephesus to the 
reign of Nerva, a. d. 96; but strong in- 
ternal evidence favors a date prior to 
the destruction of Jerusalem, a. d. 70. 

One of the beautiful stories which are 
told of the aged apostle John is that 
when he was too old to preach, he was 
accustomed to say to the congregation 
the characteristic words, " Little chil- 
dren, love one another ;" and when asked 
why he always repeated this sentence 
only, he replied, " Because it is the com- 
mandment of the Lord, and enough is 
done if this one command be obeyed." 
Another story relates to an earlier pe- 
riod. It is said that once, on entering 
the bath at Ephesus, he perceived in it 
the heretic Cerinthus, the early Gnostic, 
whereupon John cried out, " Let us flee, 
that the roof do not fall upon us under 
which lingers Cerinthus, that enemy of 
the truth." These stories serve well to 
reveal the permanency of those traits 



of character which come out in the Gos- 
pels. Down to the close John was ''the 
son of thunder," intense in his feeling 
and vehement in his affection, and the 
" beloved disciple," of open mind and 
tender heart, of profound thought and 
burning zeal. When we compare him 
with the other apostles we learn his 
marked individuality. John is the 
"good" man, while James is the right- 
eous man. John is the pensive, quiet, 
thoughtful man, while Peter is the ac- 
tive, practical man. " Both these dis- 
ciples loved the Lord with all the heart, 
but, as Grotius finely remarks, Peter 
was more a friend of ' Christ,' John of 
'Jesus' — that is, the one revered and 
loved the Saviour chiefly in his official 
Messianic character, the other was at- 
tached most of all to his person, and 
was therefore personally still nearer to 
him, being, so to speak, his bosom- 
friend. John and Paul have depth of 
knowledge in common. They are the 
two disciples who have left us the most 
complete systems of doctrine. But while 
Paul is the representative of genuine 
scholasticism in the best sense of the 
term, being an exceedingly acute thinker 
and an accomplished dialectician, John 
is a representative of all true mysti- 
cism, learning from intuition and con- 
templation. Not inaptly has Peter been 
styled the apostle of hope, Paul the 
apostle of faith, and John the apostle 
of love. The first is the representative 
of Catholicism, the second of Protestant- 
ism, the third of the ideal Church in 
which this great antagonism shall re- 
solve itself into perfect harmony." — 
Schaff : Apost. Ch., pp. 410, 411. 

Full of days and of honors, highly priv- 
ileged and richly endowed, about the close 
of the century " the disciple whom Jesus 
loved" was summoned by the Master t® 
resume their loving companionship. 

John, Gospel of. It was the last Gospel 
written, and was probably composed, or at 
least put in its present shape, at Ephesus, 
between a. d. 70 and 95. The particular 
design of it is expressed by the author to 
be that we might believe that Jesus is the 
Christ, the Son of God, and that, believ- 
ing, we might have life through his name. 
John 20 : 31. Hence the subjects and 
discourses of this book have special rela- 
tion to our Lord's character and offices, 
and are evidently intended to prove his 
469 



JOH 



JOH 



nature, authority, and doctrines as di- 
vine. John probably had the other 
Gospels before him, or was familiar with 
their general contents. This fact affords 
substantial evidence of the genuineness 
of these writings, and also accounts for 
the omission of many important occur- 
rences which are particularly stated by 
the other evangelists. We should not 
regard John, however, as attempting to 
correct the other evangelists, or merely 
to supplement them. This idea is at 
once contradicted by his having many 
points in common with them. His work 
is all one effusion, and though it serves 
as a valuable complement to the other 
Gospels is yet a complete whole in itself. 
John wrought on a fixed plan. He 
grouped all the events around the sev- 
eral Jewish feasts, mentioning three — in- 
deed, probably four — Passovers, 2 : 1 3 ; 5 : 
1 ; 6:4; 11 : 55 ; 12 : 1 ; 13 : 1, one feast 
of tabernacles, 7 : 2, and one feast of 
dedication. 10:22. But there is likewise 
a certain inward order, a progressive de- 
velopment of the relation of Jesus to his 
disciples and the world ; especially is 
this to be traced in the growth of love 
and devotion on the one hand, and of 
hate and rage of the unbelieving Jews 
on the other. All through the history 
we hear the sound of the hammer in the 
making of his cross, but more loudly the 
shouting of the coming saints. 

The Gospel contains — A. The prologue, 
ch. 1 : 1-18 ; B. The history, ch. 1 : 19 to 
ch. 21. 1. The preparation for Jesus' 
public ministry, (a) by John, 1 : 19-36; 
(b) by the choice of disciples. 1 : 37- 
51. 2. The public labors of Jesus in 
doctrine and miracle, chs. 2-12. 3. Jesus 
in the private circle of his disciples, chs. 
13-17. 4. The history of the passion 
and resurrection or public glorification 
of the Lord, chs. 18-21. 

"The Gospel of John is the Gospel of 
Gospels. It is the most remarkable as 
well as most important literary produc- 
tion ever composed. ... It is a mar- 
vel even in the marvellous Book of 
books. It is the most spiritual and 
ideal of Gospels. It brings us, as it 
were, into the immediate presence of 
Jesus. It gives us the clearest view of 
his incarnate divinity and his perfect 
humanity." — Special In trod, by Dr. 
Schaff to Lange on John. 

The Gospel of John is a battlefield 
47Q 



of modei'n criticism, but the fight is in 
the main between belief and unbelief. 
It must also be confessed that the latter 
is fairly defeated. Both parties recog- 
nize the crucial character of the Gospel. 
Grant to it authenticity and genuine- 
ness, then the divinity of Christ, to 
which the Gosj;>el testifies in the plain- 
est, simplest, but also profoundest way, 
must be acknowledged as taught in 
the N. T. It is this fact which gives 
bitterness to the frequent and often 
learned and plausible attacks made 
upon it. The attempt has been made 
to assign it to some great " unknown " 
author in the second century, but at 
that time it was already widely known, 
and the second century is so far below 
the apostolic age that it could not pos- 
sibly have produced such a work. Up to 
a quite modern date the genuineness of 
this Gospel was undisputed. The verses 
24 and 25 of ch. 21 give the contem- 
porary Ephesian testimony. 2 Pet. 1 : 
14 alludes to 21:18. Ignatius, Poly- 
carp, the Epistle to Diognetus, Basilides, 
Justin Martyr, Tatian (especially in the 
light of the recent discovery of a com- 
mentary of Ephraem Syrus on Tatian's 
Diatessaron), impliedly quote from it. 
This carries the date up to the middle 
of the second century, when it was in 
current use. The external evidence is 
in favor of John's authorship, while in- 
ternally it is so befitting the known cha- 
racter and opportunities of John that 
it is either from him or else it is a 
forgery. But it cannot be a forgery ; it 
is too self-possessed, too well-balanced, 
too original, too profound, too divine. 
The heart of Christ throbs in no liar's 
breast. The high-priestly prayer came 
from the hand of no hypocritical or de- 
signing man. Read the Gospel and 
compare it with the productions of the 
Fathers, and you will endorse the state- 
ment, " Verily, no man in the second 
century, or of any other subsequent cen- 
tury, could have written the work. No 
man in the first century but John the 
apostle could have written it, and even 
John himself could not have written it 
without inspiration." — Schaff. And in 
this conclusion the heart of Christendom 
will always abide. 

The Epistles op John are three in 
number. They were written in Ephesus, 
after the Gospel, though before the date 



JOI 



JON 



of the Revelation. Dr. Lange assigns 
them between the years 96 and 100. 
The First has always been attributed to 
John, though his name is neither pre- 
fixed nor subscribed. It is a kind of 
practical application of the Gospel. It 
is addressed to Christians, and does not 
aim, therefore, to produce, but to nour- 
ish, the Christian life, to warn them 
against all errors, and to induct them 
into the mysteries of redeeming love and 
into the principles and duties which the 
religion of Christ enjoins, and to furnish 
them with certain signs or criteria by 
which to determine the genuineness of 
their faith. 

The Second Epistle is addressed to the 
" elect lady and her children." The elect 
lady is supposed to have been some 
honorable woman distinguished for pi- 
ety, and well known in the churches as 
a disciple of Christ. Some, however, 
hav^e thought some particular church 
and its members might be denoted. 
Those who adopt the latter opinion 
apply the term to the church at Jeru- 
salem, and the term " elect sister," v. 13, 
to the church at Ephesus. 

The title of " elder " was indicative of 
the apostle's office, with a reference also 
to his great age, then not far from 100 
years, as it is supposed. The substance 
of this letter is an exhortation to con- 
tinual obedience and an admonition 
Against deceivers, especially against a 
new form of error, that Christ was a 
man in appearance only, and not in 
reality, and therefore his sufferings and 
death were not real. 

The Third Epistle, which is addressed 
to G-aius, or Caius, a private individual, 
and is commendatory of his piety, was 
written about the same time with the 
others. 

John, Revelation of. See Revela- 
tion. 

JOI'ADA {whom Jehovah favors), 
one of the high priests. Neh. 12 : 10, 11, 
22. 

JOI'AKIM {whom Jehovah has set 
up). The name is a contraction of Jehoi- 
akim. A high priest, the son and suc- 
cessor of Jeshua. Neh. 12 : 10, 12, 26. 

JOI'ARIB {whom Jehovah defends). 
1. A man commissioned by Ezra to bring 
"ministers for the house of our God," 
priests qualified to give instruction. Ezr. 
8 : 16, 



2. A descendant of Judah. Neh. 

11 : 5. 

3. The founder of one of the courses 
of priests. Neh. 11 : 10. In 1 Chr. 9 : 10 
his full name is given, Jehoiarib. 

JOKDEAM {possessed by people?), 
a city in the mountains of Judah, Josh. 
15 : 56, apparently south of Hebron. 

JO'KIM {whom Jehovah has set up), 
one of Shelah's sons, and Judah's grand- 
sons. 1 Chr. 4 : 22. 

JOK'MEAM {gathered by the peo- 
ple), a city of Ephraim given to the 
Levites. 1 Chr. 6 :68. From 1 Kgs. 4: 

12 (where the A. V. incorrectly reads 
" Jokneam " for " Jokmeam"), it must 
have been in the Jordan Valley, between 
the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea. 

JOKNEAM {gathered by the peo- 
ple), a city of the tribe of Zebulun, al- 
lotted with its suburbs to the Levites. 
Josh. 21 : 34. Its modern site is Tell 
Keimun, near the east end of Carmel 
and about 12 miles south-west of Naza- 
reth. See Jokmeam. 

JOKSHAN {a fowler), the son of 
Abraham by Keturah. Gen. 25 : 2, 3 ; 1 
Chr. 1 : 32. 

JOK'TAN {who is made small), a 
descendant of Shem, ancestor of the 
Joktanite Arabs. Gen. 10 : 25-30 ; 1 Chr. 
1:19-23. 

JOKTHEEL {subdued of God). 
1. A city in the territory of Judah, and 
near Lachish, on the Philistine plain. 
Josh. 15 : 38. 

2. The name given to Sela after it 
was taken by Amaziah, 2 Kgs. 14 : 7 ; 
2 Chr. 25:11, 12 ; perhaps the strong- 
hold of Petra. See Sela. 

JO'NA {whom Jehovah bestows), the 
father of Peter. John 1 : 42. See Jonas, 2. 

JON'ADAB {whom Jehovah impels). 
1. The son of Shimeah, and nephew of 
David. " He seems to have been one of 
those characters who, in the midst of 
great or royal families, pride themselves 
and are renowned for being acquainted 
with the secrets of the whole circle in 
which they move." — Stanley. He ad- 
vised the rape of Tamar. 2 Sam. 13 : 3-5. 

2. The form, oft repeated, in Jer. 35 
for Jehonadab, which see. 

JO'NAH {dove), the prophet, son of 
Amittai, and born at Gath-hepher. Jon. 
1 : 1 ; 2 Kgs. 14 : 25. Nothing certain is 
known of his history beyond what is re- 
corded in his book. He was sent by the 
471 



JON 



JON 



Lord about B. c. 825 to Nineveh, the me- 
tropolis of ancient Assyria, to preach 
repentance. Instead of obeying the 
command, he took passage at Joppa for 
Tarshish (Tartessus in Spain). In pun- 
ishment, God caused a great storm to 
arise. The sailors cast lots to find out 
who was the guilty one. The lot fell 
upon Jonah, who confessed his sin and 
told them to cast him into the sea ; so 
should the storm cease. Although loth 
to do it, they after a time obeyed. Jo- 
nah was swallowed by "a great fish," 
probably a shark or sea-dog, since these 
creatures are found in the Mediterra- 
nean. After three days he was vomit- 
ed out upon the dry land. The Lord's 
command being repeated, Jonah went 
to Nineveh, delivered his message, and 
then sat down to see the destruction of 
the city. But the Ninevites repented ; 
the threatened punishment was averted, 
and Jonah was very angry. He with- 
drew from the city and sat down under 
a booth he built. The Lord, greatly to 
his comfort, caused a gourd to grow up, 
but then to wither away ; and this singu- 
lar book ends with the debate carried on 
between Jehovah and his servant, in 
which the gourd is mentioned, and in 
which the divine mercy extending over 
all creatures is plainly declared. See 
Gourd. And so the most intensely 
Jewish of the Hebrew prophets is com- 
pelled by the Spirit to pen words of a 
truly Christian import. See Nineveh. 

The difficulty with the book is the 
story of the great fish. The miracle is 
not that he was swallowed by a fish — 
for horses have been found whole in the 
bellies of sharks — but that he was kept 
alive within it for three days. But this 
miracle receives the strongest possible 
confirmation to a Christian from the use 
made of it by our Lord, who sees in it a 
type of the resurrection. Matt. 12 : 39-41 ; 
16 : 4. He also refers to the preaching of 
Jonah. Luke 11 : 29-32. 

Jonah, the Book of consists of two 
parts: I. Jonah's commission, refusal, 
and miraculous escape from death ; his 
prayer in the great fish. Chs. land 2, II. 
His second commission, obedience, the 
repentance of the Ninevites, and Jonah's 
hard spirit. The book is variously re- 
garded ; it has been called a fiction, a 
myth, a parable, but it is history, as is 
proven by its place in the Jewish canon, 
472 ' 



and by Christ's use of it, as already 
quoted. Some infidels went so far as 
to deny there was a city called Nineveh, 
but all such objectors have been grandly 




Traditional Tomb of Jonah. 

silenced by the excavations of Layard, 
Botta, and others, which have caused 
this old city on the Tigris to live again. 

The lesson of the book is that God's 
providence and his mercy extend beyond 
the covenant people unto the heathens. 
Although Jonah was at first the narrow- 
est of Jews, his book is the most catholic 
in the 0. T. It approaches most nearly 
the catholicity of Christianity. 

JO'NAN (whom Jehovah bestoics), 
son of Eliakim, in the genealogy of 
Christ. Luke 3 : 30. 

JO'NAS. 1. The Greek form of 
Jonah. Matt. 12 : 39-41 j 16 : 4; Luke 
11 : 30-32. 

2. The father of Peter and Andrew, 
John 21 : 15-17 ; called also Jona, 1 : 42. 

JON'ATHAN (ivhorn Jehovah gave). 
1. A Gershonite Levite who became by 
request the priest of Micah and after- 
ward went with the Danites to Laish, 
where he and his posterity were priests. 
Jud. 17:7-13 and 18. 

2. The son of Saul, and distinguished 
for piety and valor. He and his armor- 
bearer, being encouraged by an intima- 
tion from God, attacked a Philistine gar- 
rison, slew 20 men, and put the garrison 
to flight. Having ignorantly violated a 
decree of his father (the king) that no 
man should stop, on pain of death, in 



JON 



JOP 



the pursuit of the enemy to taste of food, 
the people interposed, and saved him 
from the penalty, which his father was 
ready to inflict. 1 Sam. 14 : 37-45. 

After David's defeat of the giant, 
Jonathan became acquainted with him, 
and their friendship for each other was 
so remarkable as to be minutely describ- 
ed by the sacred historian. 1 Sam. 18 : 
1-4; 19:2. The opportunity to show 
their friendship for each other was 
greatly extended by the bitter and re- 
lentless hostility of Saul to David. 1 
Sam. 19, 20, etc. Jonathan fell with 
his father and two brothers in the battle 
at Gilboa. The lamentation of David 
for his friend, 2 Sam. 1 : 17-27, is justly 
regarded as inimitably pathetic and 
beautiful, and his treatment of Mephib- 
osheth, Jonathan's son, shows the sin- 
cerity and strength of his affection for 
the father. 2 Sam. 9. 

3. The son of Abiathar, the high 
priest. 2 Sam. 15 : 27, 36 j 17 : 17, 20 ; 1 
Kgs. 1 : 42, 43. 

4. David's nephew, who slew a giant 
in Gath. 2 Sam. 21 : 20, 21 ; 1 Chr. 20 : 
6,7. 

5. One of David's valiant men. 2 Sam. 
23 : 32 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 34. 

6. A descendant of Jerahmeel. 1 Chr. 
2 : 32, 33. 

7. One of David's uncles. 1 Chr. 27 : 
32. 

8. The father of one who returned 
with Ezra. Ezr. 8 : 6. 

9. One who, with Ezra, investigated 
the mixed marriages. Ezr. 10 : 15. 

10. A high priest for 32 years, Neh. 
12 : 11 ; called Johanan in verses 22, 23. 

11. A priest. Neh. 12 : 14. 

12. A priest, and the father of one 
who joined in the dedication of the wall. 
Neh. 12 : 35. 

13. He in whose house was Jeremiah's 
prison. Jer. 37 : 15, 20 ; 38 : 26. 

14. A son of Kareah, and brother of 
Johanan. Jer. 40 : 8. 

JONATH-ELEM - RECHO' - 
KIM (a dumb dove of distant places), 
part of the title to Ps. 56 ; not found 
elsewhere in the Bible. Most likely it 
was the name of some popular melody 
to which tune the Psalm was to be sung. 

JOP'PA {beauty), an ancient mari- 
time city in the territory of Dan, on the 
Mediterranean, about 30 miles south of 
Caesarea, 35 miles north-west of Jerusa- 



lem, and upon a promontory, 116 feet 
high, jutting out into the sea. From its 
summit there is a fine view of the coast 
and the sea. Ezr. 3:7,- Jon. 1:3; Acts 
9 : 36-43 ; ■ 10 : 5-32 ; 11 : 5-13. It is 
also called " Japho." Josh. 19 : 46 ; 2 
Chr. 2 : 16, margin. The modern name 
of the city is Yd/a or Jaffa. 

History. — Joppa is said to be one of 
the oldest towns in the world. A Ro- 
man writer says that it antedates the 
deluge. When the chosen people di- 
vided the Holy Land amongst the seve- 
ral tribes, Japho, a Phoenician colony in 
the land of the Philistines, was one of 
the landmarks designating the territory 
of the tribe of Dan. Josh. 19 : 46. It 
was the seaport to which wood from 
Lebanon was brought for the building 
of Solomon's temple, 2 Chr. 2:16, and 
when the house of the Lord was rebuilt 
after the Captivity. Cedar trees were 
brought from Lebanon to Joppa. Ezr. 
3:7. It was at this port also that 
Jonah took ship for Tarshish. Jon. 
1 : 3. Thus the city is mentioned four 
times (once as Japho) in the O. T. 

In an inscription relating the victori- 
ous campaigns of Sennacherib, the town 
is called Ja-ap-pu, and its situation is 
correctly described. The Maccabees 
brought the city under the Jewish yoke. 
Afterward it fell successively under the 
Greek and the Roman sway. The Romans 
took it b. c. 63. In the N. T., Joppa is 
only mentioned in the book of Acts, and 
in connection with two events: (1) The 
raising of Tabitha to life by Peter, Acts 
9 : 36-43 ; (2) Peter's vision on the 
housetop. Acts 10: 11. Several bishops 
of Joppa are mentioned as having at- 
tended various Church synods. During 
the Crusades, Joppa was several times 
captured by opposing forces, and par- 
tially destroyed. Toward the end of 
the eighteenth century the town was 
surrounded by walls, which enabled the 
inhabitants to resist for several days the 
attacks of the French army under Kle- 
ber. The place was taken by storm, 
and 4000 prisoners were massacred by 
order of Napoleon, March 4, 1799. 

Present Appearance. — To the traveller 
approaching Joppa by sea the city pre- 
sents a beautiful appearance, but a closer 
contact is disappointing. Steamers are 
obliged to anchor half a mile from the 
quay, and passengers and baggage are 
473 



JOE 



JOR 



taken ashore in boats. The quay is 
very badly paved, and becomes a pond 
of mud after a rain. The streets are 
narrow, dirty, crooked, and steep. The 
houses, built of tufa-stone, are crowded 
together without any order. Among the 
prominent buildings are the Greek mon- 
astery, the Latin hospice (founded in 
1654), and the Armenian monastery. 
The traditional "house of Tabitha" 
and " the house of Simon the tanner " 
are still pointed out. 




Exterior of the supposed house of Simon the 
Tanner. (From Photograph of Pal. Fund. ) 

The open space is the little courtyard at the rear of the 
house, between the house and the wall overlooking the 
sea. The spectator has his back to the sea. The well 
from which Peter is said to have baptized is sunk in 
the ground on the right. 

In population Joppa has greatly in- 
creased within 25 years. A Turkish 
calendar enumerates 865 Moslem, 135 
Greek, 70 Greek Catholic, 50 Latin, 6 
Maronite, and 5 Armenian families. 
The city contains from 12,000 to 15,000 
inhabitants ; among them there is a 
flourishing German Protestant colony 
of the Temple Society, which settled 
there in 1857 under the lead of Rev. 
Christopher Hoffman, and introduced 
various industries. Miss Arnot, a Scotch 
lady, conducts a good school for girls. 
A considerable trade is carried on with 
Egypt, Syria, and Constantinople. But 
one of the chief means of livelihood for 
the people is the annual passage of nume- 
rous pilgrims and travellers through the 
town. It is the landing-place of most 
travellers to Palestine, and is connected 
with Jerusalem by a rough carriage-road 
— the only one in that country. A rail- 
road has been projected and may be 
built before many years. The oranges 
474 



of Joppa are famous and supply the 
market at Jerusalem. 

JO'RAH (early rain), one whose 
descendants returned with Zerubbabel. 
Ezr. 2:18. 

JO'RAI (whom Jehovah teaches), a 
chieftain of Gad. 1 Chr. 5: 13. 

JO'RAM (whom Jehovah hats exalt- 
ed). 1. A son of Toi, the king of Ha- 
math, sent to congratulate David on his 
victory over Hadadezer. 2 Sam. 8:10. ^ 

2. The son of Ahab. 2 Kgs. 8 : 16 
See Jehoram, 2. 

3. The son of Jehoshaphat. 2 Kgs. 8: 
24. See Jehoram, 1. 

4. A Levite of David's day. I Chr. 
26 : 25. 

JOR'DAN (the descender), the great 
river of Palestine, as the Nile is of Egypt. 

Name. — " Jordan " (the Hebrew Yar- 
den) signifies, from its derivation, "the 
descender." It is always joined with 
the article in the 0. T., with two ex- 
ceptions, Ps. 42 : 6 ; Job 40 : 23. The 
Arabs call it esh-Sheriah, or "the water- 
ing-place." A tradition as old as St. 
Jerome, A. D. 400, says that the Jordan 
derived its name from two rivers, the 
Jor, rising at Banias, and the Dan, ris- 
ing at Tell el-Kadi. But this tradition 
seems to be erroneous; for according to 
Gen. 13 : 10, the river was known to Abra- 
ham as the Jordan long before the chil- 
dren of Dan gave their name to Leshem, 
Josh. 19 : 47, or Laish. Jud. 18 : 29. 

Sources. — The Jordan rises among 
the mountains of Anti-Lebanon, and 
has four sources: (1). The Hasbdny, 
which issues from the large fountain 
'Ain Furar, near Hasbeya, at an alti- 
tude of 1700 feet above the sea. This 
pool, which the natives say is 1000 feet 
deep, Macgregor found to have a depth 
of 11 feet. (2) The Banias, which rises 
near the ruins of Banias (Ceesarea-Phil- 
ippi), at the base of Mount Hermon, 
1140 feet above the sea- level. (3) The 
Ledddn, rising in a large fountain on the 
west side of the Tell el- Kadi ("hill of 
the judge," the site of the city of Dan). 
In the midst of a thicket of oleander 
bushes is a large pool, 50 or 60 yards 
wide, with the water bubbling out of 
the ground in a full-grown stream. 
This, which Josephus calls the Little 
Jordan, is the most copious source. (4) 
The Esh-Shar, a minor tributary, only 
one or two yards broad. Besides the 



JOR 



JOR 



above four sources, there are numerous 
small streams from the springs of Leba- 
non, which find their way into the swamp 
above Lake Huleh, and contribute to swell 
the Jordan. 

Course of the Stream. — At a point 
about 4 miles below Tell el-Kadi the 
Hasbdny unites with the other two 
principal sources. At this point the 
Jordan is 45 feet wide, and flows in a 
channel from 12 to 20 feet below the 
level of the plain. After emerging 
from a broad morass the waters expand 
into Lake el-Hideh, 4£ miles long, 2| 
miles wide, having descended 1434 feet. 
See Merom, The Waters of. Issuing 
from the lake in a sluggish current, the 
descent soon makes it a rapid torrent, 
which in a course of 9 miles descends 
897 feet to the Sea of Galilee, 682* feet 
below the Mediterranean. See Galilee, 
Sea op. 

The popular notion that the waters of 
the river do not seem to mingle with 
those of the lake, but pass through in a 
united stream, is a " fable." From the 
Sea of Tiberias to the Dead Sea there is 
one deep depression, the hills from the 
east and west nearly meeting in many 
places. This depression is filled up to 
a certain level with an alluvial deposit, 
forming a vast plain called the Jor- 
dan Valley, or Ghor (the hollow). 
This is the "upper plain." It varies 
in width from 1 to 12 miles. The river 
has cut out for itself a plain lower 
than the preceding by some 50 to 100 
feet, and from a quarter of a mile to a 
mile wide. This is the " lower plain," 
through which the river, some 60 yards 
wide, winds its way. During the spring 
floods this lower plain is inundated. Al- 
though the distance in a straight line be- 
tween Tiberias and the Dead Sea is only 
66 miles, the actual distance the stream 
flows, on account of its many windings, 
is 200 miles, and the fall 667 feet. Twen- 
ty-seven threatening rapids were counted 
by Lieut. Lynch, besides many others of 
minor importance. The whole distance 
from the sources of the river to its mouth 
is not more than 136 miles in a straight 
line. The whole descent is 2999 feet to 
the Dead Sea, which, according to the 
latest determination of the British Sur- 
vey, is 1 292 feet below the sea-level, al- 
though Lynch had reported it at 1317 
feet. See Salt Sea. The width of the 
476 



stream varies from 45 to 180 feet, and its 
depth from 3 to 12 feet. 

Tributaries. — Between the Sea of Gal- 
ilee and the Dead Sea two considerable 
rivers enter the Jordan from the east. 
(1) Wady Mandhur (the Jarmuk or 
Yarmuk of the Rabbins, and the Hiero- 
max of Pliny). This stream formerly 
divided Bashan and Gilead. (2) Wady 
Zerka, the Jabbok, which enters the Jor- 
dan 20 miles north of Jericho and was 
formerly the northern boundary of Am- 
nion. Between the above two Dr. Selah 
Merrill found " no less than eleven living 
streams, more than half of which can be 
called large ones." Between the Jabbok 
and the Wady Nimrin there are no 
streams and the region is barren, but 
below the Wady Nimrin several living 

j streams were noted. Hot springs of 
considerable size have been found in as 
many as ten different localities in the 
Jordan Valley. The temperature of 
those at El-Hama, near the Yarmuk, is 
from 100 to 115 degrees. 

Bridges and Fords. — There are the 
remains of several bridges crossing the 
river, which date back to Roman times. 
One of these, a few hundred yards above 
Damieh (the "Adam" of Josh. 3 : 16), 
marks the crossing-place of the great 
road from central Palestine to the East. 
Dr. Merrill says there is reason to be- 
lieve that this bridge existed in Christ's 
time, and it is on the road by which the 
Saviour went from Galilee to Jerusalem. 
Below Lake Huleh is a bridge called 
" Bridge of Jacob's Daughter," probably 
built in the fifteenth century. 

There are four principal fords over the 
river : the lower one, opposite Jericho, 
near the famous bathing-place of the 
pilgrims ; another, eastward of Sakut ; 
and two others, nearer the Sea of Gali- 
lee. At low water there are many 
other points at Avhich the river might 
be easily forded, and the British Survey 

I discovered evidences of various fords. 

j During the floods the Arabs are fre- 
quently obliged to swim their horses 

I across the river. 

Climate and Vegetation. — The great 
depression of the Jordan Valley gives 
to it a semi-tropical character. " In its 
natural products it stands unique, a 

I tropical oasis sunk in the temperate 
zone." Under the intense heat vegeta- 

; tion advances with wonderful rapidity, 




Source of the Jordan. (After plans by Major Wilson, E. E.) 
The figures denote the heights in feet above the sea-level. 



JOB 



JOB 



but is as quickly scorched wherever the 
water-supply is not abundant. In the 
marshes of Huleh are acres of papyrus, 
the reeds sometimes reaching 16 feet in 
height. This reed is now wholly extinct 
in Egypt, according to Tristram {Natural 
History, p. 11), and to find it again one 
must travel either to India or to Abys- 



sinia. Farther south along the river's 
course are the jujube (a tropical tree), 
date-palm, oleander, tamarisk, " zuk- 
kum," or false balm of Gilead, osher, 
henna, etc. Even in the depth of win- 
ter the thermometer ranges from 60 
to 80 degrees. 

Scripture History. — The first mention 




Course of the Jordan from Sea of Galilee to Dead Sea. 
{After plans by Major Wilson, R. E.) 



of the Jordan is in " Gen. 13 : 10, where 
Lot beheld the plain of the Jordan as 
the garden of the Lord;" Jacob crossed 
and recrossed it, Gen. 32:10,- the Is- 
raelites passed over it in entering the 
Promised Land, Josh. 3, 4; Ps. 114 : 3. 
The phenomenon of the river overflow- 
ing its banks at the time of harvest is 
478 



still witnessed. The snows from Leba- 
non melt in the spring-time and swell 
the current of the" Jordan at the time 
of the harvest, which, in the hot climate 
of the Jordan Valley, comes in April. 
Prof. Porter of Belfast, at a visit in the 
middle of Api'il, found it impossible to 
cross the river at the usual ford near 



JOE 



JOS 



Jericho, and was compelled to go a ] 
day's journey up the banks to Damieh. 
Among those who crossed over the Jor- i 
dan were Gideon, " faint yet pursuing " 
after Zebah and Zalmunna, Jud. 8:4, 
5 ; the Ammonites, invading Judah, | 
Jud. 10 : 9 ; Abner, in flight, 2 Sam. 2 : 
29 ; David, in flight, 2 Sam. 17 : 22, and | 
returning to his capital, 19 : 15-18 j 
(mention is here made of a ferry- j 
boat, probably only a raft, the only i 
time in Scripture) ; David, to war with 
the Syrians; Absalom, in pursuit of 
his father, 2 Sam. 17 : 24; Elijah and 
Elisha, parting the waters with the 
mantle. 2 Kgs. 2 : 6-14. As two and a 
half tribes of Israel dwelt east of the 
river, the amount of crossing and re- 
crossing must have been considerable, 
and the best fords were well known. 
Comp. Josh. 2:7; Jud. 3 : 2S ; 7 : 24 ; 
12 : o, 6. The river was known to Job, 
Job 40 : 23, and Jeremiah speaks of 
"the swelling of Jordan." Jer. 12 : 5 ; 
49 : 19: 50:44. Noteworthy miracles, 
in addition to those already mentioned, 
were the curing of Naanian, 2 Kgs. 5 : 14, 
and the making the iron to swim. 6 : 6. 

The Jordan is mentioned about 180 
times in the O. T. In the N. T. it is 
mentioned 15 times. The chief events 
noted in connection with it in the N. T. 
are John's baptism of the multitudes, 
Matt. 3 : 6, and especially his baptism of 
Jesus. Mark 1 : 9. In commemoration of 
this latter event it is the custom for Chris- 
tian pilgrims in great numbers to bathe 
in the Jordan not far from Jericho at 
Easter. 

The cities mentioned in Scripture in 
connection with the Jordan are few. 
The chief ones near it were Jericho and 
Gilgal, Succoth and Bethshan. Traces 
of several towns have been noted on the 
east side, in the valley between the Sea 
of Galilee and the Dead Sea. 

The Jordan has been several times 
navigated in a boat in modern times — 
by Costigan, 1 835 ; by Molyneaux, 1847 ; 
by Lieut. Lynch, 1848 : by J. Macgregor 
(Rob Roy), 1869. "The sight of the 
Jordan," says Schaff, " is rather disap- 
pointing. It bears no comparison in 
majesty and beauty to the great rivers 
of Europe and America. Naaman 
thought the clear rivers of his native 
Damascus far superior, yet the Abana 
and Pharpar could not wash away his 



leprosy. Its chief importance is his- 
toric. In this respect the Jordan sur- 
passes the Hudson and the Mississippi, 
the Rhine and the Danube, and even 
the Nile. It marks the termination of 
the wanderings of the children of Israel 
from the banks of the Nile, and the be- 
ginning of their history as an indepen- 
dent nation in their own home. It 
blends the memories of the old and new 
Covenants as the culmination of John's 
testimony and the inauguration of 
Christ's kingdom." — Through Bible 
Lands, p. 299. "Surely," says Mac- 
gregor, "the Jordan is by far the most 
wonderful stream on the face of the 
earth, and the memories of its history 
will not be forgotten in heaven." — Rob 
Roy on the Jordan, p. 406. It is a sa- 
cred stream alike to Jew, Ishmaelite, 
Christian, and Mohammedan, and in 
this surpasses in interest any other 
river in the world. 

JO RIM {Jehovah exalts?), one in 
the ancestry of Christ. Luke 3 : 29. 

JOR'KOAM {paleness of the peo- 
ple), probably the name of a person ; 
but if a place, it is a town in the terri- 
tory of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 44. 

JOS'ABAD (whom Jehovah gives), 
a Benjamite who joined David at Zik- 
lag. 1 Chr. 12 : 4. 

JOSAPHAT, Greek form of Je- 
hoshaphat (see Jehoshaphat, 3) in 
| Matt. 1 : 8. 

JOSE, in Luke 3:29, for Joses, 
| which see. 

JOS'EDECH (whom Jehovah makes 
just). Hag. 1 : 1. See Jehozadak, Jo- 

ZADAK. 

JOSEPH (he will add). 1. The 
first son of Jacob and Rachel, born in 
Padan-aram after his mother had been 

J long barren, but " God hearkened to 
her." Gen. 30 : 24. The name she gave 
him indicated her confidence that God 
would give her another son — a confi- 

\ dence justified by the birth of Benja- 
min. 35 : 17. The two sons of Rachel, 

; Jacob's favorite wife, were the patriarch's 
delight. In the case of Joseph this 
fondness led to evil consequences, be- 
cause it excited the envy of his brothers. 

j The story of Joseph's life is told with so 

I much simplicity and graphic power that 

he is numbered among our acquaintances. 

We enter with the liveliest sympathy into 

all his troubles. He is ever the innocent 

479 



JOS 



JOS 



victim of spite and cruelty, and from the 
time he comes before us in his long coat 
with sleeves — not " coat of many colors " 
— down to the day the mourning of Egypt 
bursts forth over his corpse, his life has 
for us the interest of a romance height- 
ened by the knowledge that it is truth. 
Instead of repeating the twice-told tale 
— every one knows it, and the inspired 
record cannot be improved — we present 
a condensed translation of the article 
on " Joseph" by Prof. Ebers, the Egyp- 
tologist, in Riehm's Handworterbuch des 
biblischen Alterthums, (1878), which in- 
terprets the Egyptian setting and shows 
its complete harmony with modern re- 
searches. 

It is worthy of note that the money 
paid for Joseph by the Miclianites cor- 
responds exactly to the extreme price 
set by Moses upon a slave of his age. 
Comp. Gen. 37 : 28 with Lev. 27 : 5. The 
captains of the guard, of whom Potiphar 
was one, were commanders of regiments 
of 2000 men, and so long as they were in 
office as the king's body-guard the com- 
mander was the chief inspector of the 
state-prisoners, and chief executioner 
of corporal and capital punishment. 
Potiphar was a " eunuch." The word, 
however, may express nothing more 
than an officer. 

The Egyptian monuments make us 
acquainted with the daily life of an 
"overseer," which Joseph led in Poti- 
phar's household. Everything was con- 
ducted with the most scrupulous regu- 
larity — at least, in the pictures — and the 
position was one of great responsibility. 
The story of Joseph's trial of virtue is 
strikingly illustrated by an Egyptian 
tale of similar contents written for a son 
of Rameses II. (See Brugsch, Geschichte 
jEgypten*, p. 249). The belief in dreams, 
in revelations of the divine will, the of- 
fice of chief baker and chief butler, the 
custom of granting pardons and other 
favors upon Pharaoh's birthday, — all 
are confirmed by the monuments. The 
magicians and wise men consulted by 
Pharaoh after his two dreams — which 
are thoroughly Egyptian : seven was a 
sacred number — belonged to the priest 
caste. That Joseph, before appearing 
in the presence of Pharaoh, must shave 
himself, face and head, and change his 
raiment, brings out the Egyptian pas- 
sion for cleanliness. 
480 



The exaltation of Joseph receives ex- 
planation from the fact that the priests 
shared in the government, particularly in 
the allotment of the taxes, and for the 
latter purpose inspected the material 
condition of the country. Joseph's rank 
was described by two terms, "father" 
and " lord of all Egypt." " Father " 
was the usual term. Every feature of 
the following scenes in the narrative, 
all the circumstances of the investiture, 
are true to the life. The new name, or 
rather title, which he received — Zaph- 
nath paaneah — is interpreted "creator" 
or "preserver of life." The name of 
his wife is the genuinely Egyptian, and 
very common, feminine name of Sant 
or Snat. It is impossible to say how 
far Joseph became an Egyptian. He 
conformed to many of their customs, 
but ever retained his belief in Israel's 
God. His position during the famine 
resembles that of a certain Baba, who 
in his epitaph tells us : "I gathered 
grain, a friend of the god of harvest. I 
was watchful at the seed-time. And 
during a famine which lasted through 
many years, I distributed the grain 
through the town to every hunger- 
stricken one." Brugsch, indeed (Gesch. 
JEgyptens, p. 246), believed the famine 
referred to here is that of Genesis. 

The charge Joseph brings against his 
brethren was one often made, doubtless, 
at a time when there was constant dread 
of the irruption of the wandering tribes 
to the eastward of Egypt. That the 
Egyptians would not eat with the He- 
brews and that the latter were regarded 
with aversion are traits in keeping with 
the monumental records. But these 
show us that shepherds formed a sepa- 
rate caste and were not shunned, except 
the swineherds, who could not enter a 
temple. But the nomadic shepherds, as 
the Israelites, were ever looked upon with 
fear and disgust. Joseph's claim to the 
gift of divination was just what one 
would expect. The bubbles and move- 
ments of the water of a cup into which 
one had thrown a coin or a ring, or any 
other object, were watched, and by cer- 
tain rules the future read therefrom. The 
arrangements which Joseph made dur- 
ing the years of plenty and of famine, 
by which eventually the entire nation 
became the purchase of Pharaoh, and 
the land, with the exception of that of 



JOS 



JOS 



the priests, passed to the crown, have 
been much criticised. But they were 
not unparalleled in Egypt. Consider- 
ing the fertility of the land, the fifth 
part taken up during the plentiful years 
was not at all excessive, Gen. 41 : 34, 47- 
49; when the famine came it was natu- 
ral and proper to sell so long as there 
was any money left to buy therewith. 
And that it was the case in Egypt that 
the king and the priests owned all the 
land is asserted by the monuments and 
ancient historians. These latter also 
speak of the priests being free from tax. 
We see, then, in Gen. 47 : 22, 26, the 
statement of a fact and the explanation 
of a subsequent phenomenon. 

The question, Who was the Pharaoh 
of Joseph ? does not admit of a decisive 
answer. The name " Pharaoh," being 
a generic title of the sovereigns, does 
not help us any. The most satisfactory 
answer is that he belonged to an alto- 
gether different dynasty from that of 
the persecuting Pharaoh of Exodus. 
This throws the time back to some dy- 
nasty of the Shepherd-kings. Of these 
ti-adition singles out Apophis. one of 
the last of them. Manasseh and Ephraim, 
sons of Joseph by his marriage with 
Asenath, became the founders of the 
powerful tribes that bear their name, 
and Jacob's blessing was fulfilled. 

Joseph died at the age of 110, but his 
bones, by express command, were car- 
ried with the host, and not buried until 
the Israelites had conquered Canaan, 
Gen. 50 : 25, when they were deposited 
in Shechem. Josh. 24: 32. His tomb is 
shown within a stone's throw of Jacob's 
Well. But the Mohammedans claim 
that the body of Joseph is in the Mach- 
pelah, in Hebron, having been trans- 
ported thither from Shechem. 

2. The father of Igal, who was the 
spy from Issachar. Num. 13: 7. 

3. One who had married a foreign 
wife. Ezr.l0:42. 

4. A priest. Neh. 12 : 14. 

5. 6, 7. Three persons in the ancestry 
of Christ. Luke 3 : 24, 26, 30. 

8. The husband of Mary, the mother 
of Christ, was by occupation a carpen- 
ter, Matt. 13 : 55, at which trade our 
Lord himself labored until he entered 
upon his public ministry. Mark 6 : 3. 

Joseph is called a "just man," "a 
man of uprightness," Matt. 1 : 19. He 
31 



was informed by an angel that Mary was 
to be the mother of the promised Mes- 
siah, and accompanied her to Bethlehem 
to be registered in the tax-books, accord- 
ing to the command of the emperor, when 
Christ was born. When the babe was 40 
days old, Joseph and his wife went with 
him to Jerusalem, in observance of the 
Law of Moses ; and when about return- 
ing again to Bethlehem, he was divinely 
admonished to go into Egypt, for Herod, 
the king, was resolved to destroy the in-i 
fa/it Redeemer if he could get him into 
his power. After the death of Herod 
they set out again for Judaea, but, ap- 
prehensive that the king's successor, 
Archelaus, might be equally cruel, they 
went into Galilee, and took up their 
abode at Nazareth, their old home. 
When Jesus was 12 years of age, Jo- 
seph and Mary took him with them 
on their journey to Jerusalem to cele- 
brate the feast of the Passover. After 
that we find nothing more of Joseph in 
the sacred history. It is generally sup- 
posed he died before Christ began his 
public ministry, as he is not mention- 
ed with Mary, and as Christ commend- 
ed her to the care of one of the disciples. 
John 19 : 25-27. 

9. Joseph of Arimathea, Matt. 27 : 
57, 59, a wealthy citizen, probably re- 
siding in the vicinity of Jerusalem, a 
member of the Sanhedrin, and a man 
of eminent wisdom and piety. Mark 15 : 
43; Luke 23: 51. He was a disciple of 
Christ, though he did not appear openly 
as such. John 19 : 38. 

It is said that the Jews, as a mark of 
ignominy, did not allow the bodies of 
those executed as malefactors to be de- 
posited in the tombs of their fathers 
except the flesh had been previously 
consumed. It may have been to pre- 
vent this use of the body of Christ 
that Joseph so early asked leave to 
remove it and place it in his own tomb. 

10. A disciple called Barsabas, one 
of the candidates for Judas's place in 
the college of the apostles. Acts 1 : 23. 

JO'SES {whom Jehovah helps). J. 
One of our Lord's brethren. Matt. 13 : 
55; 27:56; Mark 6:3; 15:40,47. See 
James, 2. 

2. Acts 4: 36. See Barnabas. 

JOSHAH (whom Jehovah lets dwell), 
a chief of Simeon. 1 Chr. 4 : 34. 

JOSH'APHAT (whom Jehovah 
481 



JOS 



JOS 



judges), one of David's warriors. 1 Chr. 
11 : 43. 

JOSHAVI'AH {whom Jehovah 
makes to dwell), one of David's warriors. 
1 Chr. 11 : 46. 

JOSHBEK'ASHAH(«eafi'>iAard- 
ness), the head of the sixteenth course 
of musicians. 1 Chr. 25 : 4, 24. 

JOS'HEB-BAS'SEBET(//ewAo 
•s'7.9 in the seat), in the margin of 2 Sam. 
23 : 8. See Jasbobeam. 

JOSHUA {whose help Is Jehovah). 
1. The successor of Moses, was the san 
of Nun of the-tribe of Ephraim, and was 
born in Egypt. He is called the "min- 
ister" of Moses, Ex. 24 : 13, from the 
fact that he assisted him in the exercise 
of his office. The original name was 
" Oshea," Num. 13 : 8, but was changed to 
"Jehoshua," Num. 13 : 16, and he is also 
called " Hoshea." Deut. 32 : 44. " Josh- 
ua " is a contraction of "Jehoshua," 
and li Jesb.ua/- or "Jesus," is the Greek 
mode of writing "Joshua," as in Acts 7 : 
45 and Heb. 4 : 8, in which passages the 
Hebrew word "Joshua" ought to have 
been retained. 

Joshua is introduced to us at the time 
the Israelites were about to contend with 
the Amalekites at Rephidim. He was 
appointed by Moses to command the 
forces of Israel on that occasion. Ex. 
17 : 9. He was then about 44 years of 
age, though considered a young man. 
Ex. 33:11. Afterward he was the spy 
from his tribe, and he and Caleb were 
the only ones who told the truth. Num. 
14 : 6-9. 

In prospect of the death of Moses, 
Joshua was set apart to succeed him as 
the leader and deliverer of God's chosen 
people. Num. 27:16-18; Deut. 31:7- 
14 ; 34:9. At the age of 84 he passed 
over the Jordan at the head of the hosts 
of Israel, and entered the land of prom- 
ise. For six years he carried on a suc- 
cessful war against the Canaanites, and 
after conquering them he divided the 
land among the Israelites. We see in 
this long struggle the union of divine 
help and human exertion. If, on the 
one hand, Jericho falls without a blow, 
on the other, Ai is only taken after one 
repulse and by a stratagem. Josh. 8. 
Again, there is no protection against 
mistakes. The Gibeoniles, by trickery, 
succeed in saving their lives, albeit they 
become slaves. The conduct of Joshua 
482 



in keeping his oath is very noble, but it 
was a salutary lesson upon the folly of 
human wisdom unaided by divine light. 
Josh. 9. At the termination of the war 
6 nations, with 31 kings, had been pros- 
trated. There remained, however, " very 
much land to be possessed." The " Prom- 
ised Land," in its complete extent, was 
not then, and never was, conquered. 

After a period of rest, Joshua, feeling 
the approach of death, gathered the peo- 
ple together on two occasions, and de- 
livered the solemn and touching ad- 
dresses recorded in chs. 23, 24. In 
so doing he imitated the example of 
his great predecessor, Moses. The in- 
fluence of Joshua upon his generation 
is brought out by the statement : " Israel 
served the Lord all the days of Joshua, 
and all the days of the elders that over- 
lived Joshua, and which had known all 
the works of the Lord that he had done 
for Israel." Josh. 24:31. 




Tradition.il Tomb of Joshua, near Timnatli. 
(From Photograph Pal. Fund.) 

Joshua was a worthy successor of 
Moses. His presence Avas ever the har- 
binger of the divine favor. Piety was 
his characteristic, and earth and heaven 
repeat with fervor the famous vow of 
obedience to God: "As for me and my 
house, we will serve the Lord." Ch. 24: 
15. But at last to him, as to us all, 
came the end, and he died, being 110 
years old, "and they buried him in the 
border of his inheritance in Tininath- 
serah, which is in Mount Ephraim." 
Ch. 24 : 30. 



JOS 



JOS 



2. The dweller in Beth-shemesh in 
whose field stopped the two milch-kine 
wliich were drawing the cart containing 
the ark on its way back from the Philis- 
tines. 1 Sam. 6 : 14. 

3. A governor of Jerusalem, previous 
to Josiah's day, who gave his name to 
one of the gates. 2 Kgs. 23: 8. 

4. A high priest after the Captivity. 
Hag. 1:1, etc. Ezra and Nehemiah call 
him Jeshua. See Jeshua, 3. 

Joshua, The Book of. It may be di- 
vided into three parts : I. The conquest 
of the land, chs. 1-12; II. The partition 
of the land, chs. 13-22; III. The final 
addresses of Joshua, his death and bur- 
ial. Chs. 23, 24. It embraces a period 
variously estimated at from 17 to 30 
years. As to the authorship of the book, 
the name "Joshua" in the title may im- 
ply no more than that he is the hero of it. 
Still, in connection with ch. 24 : 26, "And 
Joshua wrote these words in the book of 
the law of God," the title may be allowed 
to weigh something more, and we may 
attribute the book, if not to Joshua, at 
least to one of his elders who was well 
acquainted with him. This theory is not 
inconsistent with a subsequent revision. 

The two difficulties in the book relate 
to the sun standing still, ch. 10 : 13 ; and 
to the wholesale slaughter of the Ca- 
naanites by the command of God. In 
regard to the first, the difficulty is manu- 
factured out of — it does not exist in — 
the text. The passage is a poetical quo- 
tation from the book of Jasher, which 
was probably a collection of sacred 
songs. This will be evident from a re- 
vision of the A. V. 

Sun. stand thou still upon Giheon, 

And thou, moon, upon the valley of Ajalon ! 

And the sun stood still, and the moon stayed 

her course, 
Until the people were avenged of their 

enemies. 
And the sun tarried in the midst of the 

heavens, 
And hasted not to go down for a whole day. 

The day was probably one of extraordi- 
nary brightness, as well as of extraor- 
dinary anxiety, hence it would appear 
to be prolonged. 

The second difficulty is only one of 
the many chapters in the mysterious 
government of Providence, which per- 
mits the ravages of war, famine, and 
pestilence. 

JOSI'AH (whom Jehovah heals). 1. 



The son and successor of Amon, king of 
Judah, began to reign when he was only 
8 years of age, and reigned 31 years, B. c. 
641-610. 2 Kgs. 22:1,2; 2 Chr. 34:1, 
2. He was remarkable for his integrity 
and piety. He gradually abolished the 
idolatrous customs of his predecessors, 
2 Chr. 34:3, and in the eighteenth year 
of his reign began a thorough repair of 
the temple. In the progress of this work 
Hilkiah the high priest found a "book 
of the law of the Lord given by Moses." 
2 Chr. 34 : 14. What book it was is un- 
certain : probably it was Deuteronomy. 
Josiah seems to have been ignorant of 
its existence ; but when it was read to 
him by one of his officers he was over- 
whelmed with grief to find how far they 
and their fathers had departed from the 
right way. He, however, humbled him- 
self before God, and sent to inquire of 
the Lord through Huldah the prophetess. 
In Jehovah's name she assured him that 
evil was determined of the Lord, but that 
he should not see it. 2 Chr. 34 : 23-28. 
He then assembled the people and pub- 
lished the Law in their hearing, and they 
all united with the king in a solemn vow 
of obedience. After this he utterly de- 
stroyed every vestige of idolatry, both 
images and temples, and then, by divine 
command, caused the feast of the Pass- 
over to be celebrated with such solemnity 
as had not been known since the days of 
Samuel. 2 Chr. 35 : 3-18. 

When Pharaoh-Necho went up from 
Egypt to Carchemish, Josiah, probably 
as the ally or vassal of the king of As- 
syria, opposed him, and, mistrusting 
Necho's message from God, gave the 
Egyptian battle at Megiddo, but was 
mortally wounded, and was brought to 
Jerusalem, where he died, and was 
buried in one of the sepulchres of his 
fathers. No king, perhaps, was ever 
more deservedly beloved, and certainly 
we know of none who was more sincere- 
ly and tenderly bewailed by his people. 
Indeed, his death was the end of pros- 
perity to the kingdom of Judah. Jere- 
miah the prophet was greatly affected 
by it, and composed an elegy on the oc- 
casion, 2 Chr. 35:25, and all those ac- 
customed to celebrate in song the worth 
and achievements of men of great emi- 
nence, both men and women, mourned 
for Josiah for ages after his death. In- 
deed, the mourning was such as to be- 
483 



JOS 



JUB 



oome proverbial. Zech. 12 : II. He was 
only 39 years of age when he died. 

2. The man in whose house the sym- 
bolical crowning of Jeshua took place. 
Zech. 6:10. 

JOSI'AS, Greek form of Josiah in 
Matt. 1 : 10, 11. 

JOSIBI'AH {whom Jehovah lets 
dwell), a Simeonite chief. 1 Chr. 4:35. 

JOSIPHI'AH {whom may Jehovah 
increase !), the father of Shelomith, who 
returned with Ezra. Ezr. 8 : 10. 

JOT, Matt. 5 : 18, or YOD (in Greek 
Iota). This is the name of the Hebrew 
letter i, which letter is the least of all the 
letters of the alphabet, being shaped not 
unlike our comma (,), and proverbially 
used by the Hebrews to signify the least 
thing imaginable ; and hence the text ex- 
presses the idea that not the least require- 
ment of the commandments of God shall 
in any wise be dispensed with ; they shall 
all stand to the very letter. 

JOT'BAH (goodness, pleasantness), 
a place where Haruz resided. 2 Kgs. 
21:19. perhaps the same as Jotbath. 

JO T BATH, or JO T'B ATH AH 
(goodness, pleasantness), a station of the 
Hebrews in the desert, Num. 33 : 33, and 
on the west side of the Arabah, "a land 
of rivers of waters." Deut. 10 : 7. 

JO'THAM (Jehovah is upright). 1. 
The youngest son of Jerubbaal, or Gid- 
eon, the only one who escaped from the 
massacre at Ophrah, Jud. 9:5; and this 
he did by concealing himself. See 
Abimelech. 

2. The son and successor of Uzziah, 
or Azariah, king of Judah. 2 Kgs. 15 : 
32. He actually reigned 23 years, being 
associated with his father for 7 years 
before his death. His sole administra- 
tion of the government was only for 16 
years, b. c. 758-741. Comp. 2 Kgs. 15 : 
30, 32, 33. His example was holy ; his 
reign was peaceful and prosperous, and 
of course beneficial to the kingdom. 2 
Chr. 27 : 2-6. 

3. One of Judah's descendants. 1 Chr. 
2:47. 

JOURNEY. The Orientals travel 
in the morning early or in the evening, 
often into the night, resting during the 
heat of the day. A day's jouimey was 
from 10 to 20 miles, Deut. 1 : 2 ; a sab- 
bath day's journey was 2000 paces, or 
three-quarters of a mile. But it is at 
least probable that the phrase in the 
484 



Bible, " a day's journey," does not mean 
any definite length, but simply as far as 
was travelled on that particular day. 
JOURNEYINGS OF ISRAEL. 

Num. 9 : 17—23. See Exodus, Sinai, and 
Wilderness of the Wanderings. 

JOY is an agreeable affection of the 
soul, 1 Sam. 18 : 6, arising from the pos- 

i session or prospect of good. Ezr. 6: 16; 

| Esth. 8 : 16. It is reckoned among " the 
fruit of the Spirit," Gal. 5 : 22, and is 
chiefly used by the sacred writers, espe- 
cially of the N. T., to signify a religious 
emotion. That which springs from a 
sense of pardoned sin and a union of 
the soul to Christ is pure, Luke 15 : 9, 10 ; 
certain, John 13 : 22 ; unspeakable, 1 Pet. 
1:8; and eternal. Isa. 61 : 7. " Believers 
are commanded to rejoice, Phil. 3:1; 
4 : 4, but there is also a worldly, foolish, 
or hypocritical joy. Job 23:5; Prov. 
15 : 21. That which has no better source 
than in vanity or sin will in the end be 
turned to bitterness." — Ayre. 

JOZ'ABAD (whom Jehovah bestoivs). 
1, 2. Two Manassite chiefs who came to 
David before the battle of Gilboa. 1 
Chr. 12 : 20. 

3. A Levite who was prominent in 
Hezekiah's reforms. 2 Chr. 31 : 13. 

4. A Levite chief during Josiah's 
reign who took part in the great Pass- 
over. 2 Chr. 35: 9. 

5. A Levite under Ezra who weighed 
the gold and silver vessels in the temple. 
Ezr. 8 : 33. 

6. A priest who had a foreign wife. 
Ezr. 10 : 22. 

7. A Levite chief who had a foreign 
wife, and one who probably helped Ezra 
explain the Law. Neh. 8 :7 ; 11 : 16. 

JOZ'ACHAR (whom Jehovah re- 
members), one of the murderers of Joash, 
king of Judah. 2 Kgs. 12 : 21. He is 
called Zabad in 2 Chr. 24:26. 

JOZ'ADAK (whom Jehovah makes 
just), a contraction of Jchozadak ; used 
in Ezr. 3 : 2, 8 ; 5:2; 10 : 18 ; Neh. 12 : 
26. 

JU'BAL (music), a son of Lamech, 
and the inventor of the harp and organ. 
Gen. 4: 21. 

JUBILEE, YEAR OF, came at 
the close of seven weeks of years, or 
every fiftieth year, so that two sabbatical 
years came together. It commenced on 
the great day of atonement, and was 
ushered in by the blast of the jubilee 



JUC 



JUD 



curved trumpets. The remarkable fea- 
ture of this festival was that it restored 
individuals, families, and communities, 
as far as possible, to the same situation 
they occupied at the beginning of the 
fifty years. All servants of Hebrew 
origin were set free, even those whose 
ears had been bored in evidence of their 
free service ; all pledges were given up, 
and the inheritances which had been alien- 
ated, no matter how often nor for what 
cause, came back to the hands of the own- 
ers. The only exception was in the cases 
of houses built in walled towns. Lev. 
25:29-31. The law in regard to this 
festival is given in Lev. 25 : 8-17, 23-55 ; 
27 : 16-25 ; Num. 36 : 4. " The jubilee 
is the crown of the sabbatical system. 
The weekly and monthly sabbaths secured 
rest for each spiritually ; the sabbatical 
year secured rest for the land ; the jubilee 
secured rest and restoration for the body 
•politic, to recover the general equality 
which Joshua's original settlement con- 
templated. Hence no religious observ- 
ances were prescribed ; simply the trum- 
pets sounded the glad note of restora- 
tion. The leisure of the jubilee year 
was perhaps devoted to school and in- 
struction of the people, the reading of 
the Law, and such services." — Fatjsset: 
The Englishman's Bible Cyclopedia. 

It has been disputed whether there 
ever was a year of jubilee observed. 
No direct mention is made of any, but 
there are evident allusions to it in Isa. 
61: 1, 2; Eze. 7 : 12, 13 ; 46 : 16-18. 

JU'CAL (potent). Jer. 38 : 1. See 
Jehucal. 

JUDA. 1. One of the brethren of 
our Lord, Mark 6:3: probably identical 
with James, 2. He is called Judas in 
Matt. 13 : 55. 

2, 3. Two of our Lord's ancestry. 
Luke 3 : 26, 30. 

4. The patriarch Judah. Luke 3 : 33. 

5. The designation of the tribe. Heb. 
7:14; Rev. 5:5; 7:5. 

JUD.EA, or JUDE'A, PROV- 
INCE OF, a name applied to that 
part of Canaan occupied by those who 
returned after the Assyrian and Baby- 
lonian captivities. The word first oc- 
curs Dan. 5 : 13 (A.'V. "Jewry"), and 
the first mention of the "province of 
Judaea" is in Ezr. 5:8; it is alluded to 
in Neh. 11:3 (A. V. "Judah"); in the 
Apocrypha the word "province" is 



dropped, and throughout it and in the 
N. T. the expressions are the " land of 
Judaea " and " Judaea." In a wider and 
more improper sense "Judaea" was 
sometimes applied to the whole country 
of the Canaanites, its ancient inhabit- 
ants, and even in the Gospels we read 
of the coasts of Judaea " beyond Jor- 
dan." Matt. 19 : 1 ; Mark 10 : 1. Judaea 
was strictly the third district, west 
of the Jordan, and south of Samaria. 
It was made a portion of the Roman 
province of Syria after Archelaus was 
deposed, A. r>. 6, and was governed by a 
procurator, who was subject to the gov- 
ernor of Syria. See Canaan, Pales- 
tine, and Judah. 

JUDE'A, THE HILL-COUN- 
TRY OF, the central ridge of moun- 
tains stretching from north to south, 
and forming as it were the backbone 
of the land of Palestine. Luke 1 : 65. 

JUDE'A, WILDERNESS OF, 
a wild and desolate region extending 
from the hill-country near Jerusalem 
south-east to the Dead Sea, and averag- 
ing about 1 5 miles in breadth. Matt. 3:1. 
It is a limestone country, rough and 
barren, with only patches of grass. It 
seems never to have had many inhabit- 
ants, and no cities. The traditional 
scene of the temptation of Christ is in 
this district, on a high mountain behind 
Jericho, frightfully desolate, and now 
infested with beasts and reptiles. See 
Matt. 4:1; Mark 1:13. 

JUDAH (praise). 1. The fourth son 
of Jacob and Leah, was born in Meso- 
potamia. Gen. 29:35. The name was 
given as an expression of the mother's 
gratitude. We know more of him than 
of the other patriarchs except Joseph, 
whose life he saved, advising the sale. 
Gen. 37 : 26-28. His marriage, an inci- 
dent in his son's life, and his liaison 
with Tamar are recorded in ch. 38. Ju- 
dah became the surety for the safety of 
Benjamin on the second journey to 
Egypt. Ch. 43 : 3-10. His conduct is 
worthy of all praise, and his plea for 
Benjamin's liberty is one of the most 
touching speeches in the Bible. Ch. 44 : 
14-34. He went down into Egypt with 
three sons. Ch. 46:12. The tribe of 
Judah was always large and prominent, 
vying with Ephraim for the supremacy. 

The prophetic blessing which his fa- 
ther pronounced on Judah, Gen. 49 : 8- 
485 



JUD 



JUD 



12, is very remarkable. It describes the 
warlike character and gradually increas- 
ing strength of the tribe, comp. Num. 2: 
3; Josh. 14:11; 15:1: Jud. 1 : 1, 2 : 1 
Chr. 14 : 17.: Ps. 18 : 40 ; Isa. 29 : 1 
(where its capital is called Ariel, " lion 
of God "), Rev. 5:5; the duration of its 
power — viz. until the coming of Christ, 
when Judasa became a province of Rome, 
comp. Luke 2:1-7; John 18 : 31 : Acts 
5 : 37 ; and the destruction of their city, 
A. D. 70, when the Christian dispensation 
had become established, comp. Matt. 24: 
14 ; Acts 2 : S ; Rom. 10 : 18, in the glory 
and triumph of the Messiah. 

His descendants took the southern 
section of Canaan, from the Jordan to 
the Mediterranean Sea, and northward- 
ly to the territory of Benjamin and Dan. 
Josh. 15 : 1-63. 

In the catalogue of the cities of this 
tribe we have the " uttermost cities," or 
those nearest Edom, on the south; cities 
"in the valley'' — that is, on the low- 
lands, near the coast; cities "in the 
mountains " — that is, up in the interior ; 
and cities "in the wilderness," or along 
the shores of the Dead Sea. Josh. 15 : 
21, 33, 48, 61. 

Of the cities of Judah, several con- 
tinued in the possession of the natives 
(as Ashdod, Gaza, Askelon, and Ekron), 
or, if conquered, were afterward recov- 
ered. 

2. Father of two Levites who were 
overseers of the temple-work. Ezr. 3 : 9. 

3. A Levite who had a foreign wife. 
Ezr. 10:23; Neh. 12 : 8, 36. 

4. A Benjamite. Neh. 11 : 9. 
JUDAH, LAND OF. See Ca- 
naan. 

JU'DAH, THE KINGDOM OF. 
Extent. — The kingdom of Judah em- 
braced not only the territory of the 
tribe of Judah (see above), but also in- 
cluded the larger part of Benjamin on 
the north-east, Dan on the north-west, 
and Simeon on the south. The area 
thus under the dominion of Judah is 
estimated at 3435 square miles. Besides 
this, Edom, subdued by David, contin- 
ued faithful to Judah for a time, and the 
Red Sea ports furnished an outlet for 
commerce. 

The kingdom had at the start the 

great advantages of having the former 

capital of the whole country, and in it 

the temple, the religious centre, the 

4S6 



whole body of the priests who conduct- 
ed the worship ; then, too, the eclat of 
the Davidic family. It was, too, much 
less exposed to attack, its population 
was hardy and united. But these ad- 
vantages did not remain of force. Sa- 
maria, the capital of the northern king- 
dom, proved equally attractive; indeed, 
very likely under the later kings it was 
a more magnificent city. The temple 
was rivalled by the shrines for the gold- 
en calves and for Baal and Astarte ; the 
priesthood of these false faiths usurped 
the position of that of the true, and the 
glare of temporary worldly prosperity 
blinded the people to the consequences 
of their sin, while Judah fell under idob 
atry at times. 

The family of David furnished all the 
19 kings of Judah, but the eldest son 
did not always succeed. Judah out- 
lasted Israel 135 years. The reasons 
for this are partly given above, but the 
Bible assigns as the cause the long-suf- 
fering of God and his unwillingness to 
remove the house of David. But al- 
though at last Judah had fallen, yet in 
the mercy of God there was a continu- 
ance : the independent national life was 
no more, but still a national life remain- 
ed. The Lord turned the captivity of 
Zion. He heard the sighing of his 
prisoners, and so from under the yoke 
they returned, and from a weak handful 
again developed into a nation, although 
they never were what they had been. 
For the history of these Jews, see Jews. 

History. — After the division of the 
kingdom, b. c. 975, Judah maintained 
its separate existence for 3S9 years, un- 
til B. c. 586. During this period there 
were 19 rulers, all of the lineage of Da- 
vid, excepting Athaliah. During the 
first three reigns Israel and Judah were 
in an attitude of hostility. Israel under 
Jeroboam was signally defeated. 2 Chr. 
13. Later, an alliance was formed by 
the marriage of Jehoshaphat's son with 
Ahab's daughter, Athaliah, 1 Kgs. 22 : 2 
Chr. 18, who usurped the crown. The 
two kingdoms combined against Syria. 
The two great foes of Judah were Egypt 
on the south and Assyria on the east. 
From Esrvpt came Shishak, who hum- 
bled Judah, 2 Chr. 12:2-12; Zerah, 
whose million of men were routed by 
King Asa, 2 Chr. 14: 9-12; and Josiah 
was slain at Megiddo. 2 Chr. 35 : 23. 



JUD 



JUD 



The children of Amnion,. Moab, and 
Mount Seir also invaded Judah during 
Jehoshaphat's reign, but they only de- 
stroyed one another. 2 Chr. 20 : 22-25. 

The armies of Assyria met with varied 
fortune. Tilgath-pilneser distressed Ju- 
dah during the reign of Ahaz, 2 Chr. 
28:20; Sennacherib's host of 185,000 
men was destroyed by the angel of the 
Lord in Hezekiah's reign, 2 Chr. 32 : 21 ; 
2 Kgs. 19 : 35 ; Manasseh was carried 
away captive into Babylon, 2 Chr. 33 : 
] 1 ; Jehoiachin was also made cap- 
tive; Zedekiah rebelled against Nebu- 
chadnezzar, and was defeated, his sons 
slain before his eyes, and he made cap- 
tive; Jerusalem was taken in b. c. 586, 
and the history of the kingdom of Ju- 
dah was ended. For later events see 
Jerusalem, Palestine. 

JUDAH, TERRITORY OF. 

Situation and Extent. — The district 
assigned to the tribe of Judah in 
the Promised Land, with its cities, is 
described in Josh. 15. It extended 
across the whole of Western Palestine, 
from the Dead Sea on the east to the 
Mediterranean on the west. The north- 
ern boundary extended from Beth-hogla 
(the present 'Ain Hajleli, a little to the 
south-east of Jericho), entered the hills 
near the present road from Jericho, ran 
westward to Enshemesh (below Bethany), 
thence over the Mount of Olives to En- 
rogel, and along the ravine of Hinnom 
(just south of Jerusalem), thence by 
the water of Xephtoah, Kirjath-jearim, 
Beth-shemesh, Tilnnah, and Ekron to 
Jabneel, on the sea-coast, some 4 miles 
below Joppa. See Josh. 15 : 5-1 1 . The 
Nahr Rubin, " River of Reuben,"' a 
winding, reedy river, the only real 
stream south of Jaffa, seems to have 
constituted the natural boundary. 

The southern boundary-line is more 
difficult to trace, since some of the places 
mentioned in Josh. 15 : 2-4 cannot be 
identified with certainty. It left the 
Dead Sea at its southern end, and ex- 
tended westward to the river of Egypt, 
Wady el Arish. The average extent of 
this district was 50 miles from east to 
west and 45 miles from north to south, 
and its area about half that of the State 
of Connecticut. A poi-tion of this ter- 
ritory was subsequently cut off for Sim- 
eon, which thus became the frontier 
tribe of the south. Josh. 19 : 1-9. A 



portion of the north-western part was 
also given to Dan. Comp. vs. 40-48. 

Physical Features. — The territory of 
Judah comprised four regions quite 
distinct in physical features: (1) The 
south country, or Negeb, where the fertile 
land shaded off into the wilderness. (2) 
The valley, plain, or Shefelah, lying be- 
tween the Mediterranean and the central 
hill-country. Josh. 15 : 33-47. This was 
an exceedingly fertile country, occupied 
hj the Philistines, who constantly dis- 
puted possession. (3) The hill-country, 
occupying the central range of moun- 
tains. Josh. 15 : 48-60. This region was 
favorable for the olive and vine. (4) 
The wilderness, sloping from the central 
hills to the Dead Sea, at which it ter- 
minates in precipitous cliffs. Josh. 15 : 

61, 62. This barren tract has evidently 
been uncultivated and uninhabited from 
the remotest times, for here alone, of all 
Palestine, are found no traces of the 
ruins of former cities. An exception 
must be made of the fringe of the Dead 
Sea, where were six cities. Josh. 15 : 21- 

62. For a more detailed account of its 
physical geography, see Palestine. 

Cities and Towns. — A list of the cities 
belonging to the territory allotted to Ju- 
dah is given in Josh. 15 : 21-62. These 
are grouped in several divisions. There 
were 29 in the southern district, v. 32. 
Mr. Wilton, in his book, The Negeb, gives 
a list of 29. The nearly 40 names in the 
received version are diminished by not- 
ing that some of the names standing for 
separate towns are really compound 
words. The towns of most note in Ju- 
dah were Hebron, Bethlehem, Kirjath- 
jearim, Lachish, and Libnah. Thirteen 
of the cities of Judah, Benjamin, and 
Simeon were allotted to the priests. 
Josh. 21 : 9-19. The Levites also had 
cities in other tribes. 

History. — Under Joshua a part of the 
plain and some of the hill-towns were 
taken, Josh. 10 : 28-35, 38-40 ; 11 : 21, 23. 
After his death Judah and Simeon cap- 
tured some of the Philistine cities and 
sacked Jerusalem. Jud. 1 : 1-20. During 
the time of the Judges little is heard of 
Judah. Only one judge, Othniel, is cer- 
tainly known to have belonged to that 
tribe. Jud. 3:9-11. That its people 
were cowed by the Philistines appears 
from their conduct concerning Samson. 
Jud. 15 : 9-13. Judah furnished a small 
487 



JUD 



JUD 



contingent for the army of King Saul the 
Benjamite. 1 Sam. 15: 4. David was made 
king at Hebron, and for seven years and a 
half ruled over Judah from that city. 2 
Sam. 2:11. After the splendid reigns of 
David and Solomon over the united tribes 
came the division and the separate king- 
dom of Judah, which is treated above. 

JUDAH, TRIBE OF, the larg- 
est of the tribes that came out of Egypt. 
Num. 1 : 27. Judah, by reason of its 
size, and conscious, too, of the prophecy 
of the dying Jacob, Gen. 49 : 8-12, as- 
sumed the position of leader. It was 
manifestly under the divine favor. 
When Moses gave his blessing upon the 
tribes, he said of Judah, " Hear, Lord, 
the voice of Judah, and bring him unto 
his people : let his hand be sufficient for 
him; and be thou a help to him from 
his enemies," Deut. 33 : 7 — a prayer that 
God would help Judah successfully to 
lead the tribes. The tribe sent as their 
spy the faithful Caleb, the son of Jephun- 
neh. Num. 13 : 6. In the conquest Ju- 
dah led, but the history only touches 
upon three points which particularly af- 
fected this tribe: (1) Achan was of Ju- 
dah, Josh. 7 : 1, 16-18 ; (2) Caleb's con- 
quest of Hebron, Josh. 14:6-15; and 
(3) Othniel's (the nephew and son-in- 
law of Caleb) conquest of Debir. Josh. 
15 : 13-19. These are the only instances 
of the special reservation of any portion 
of the country to its conquerors. Judah 
received the first allotment on the par- 
tition of the territory. Josh. 15 : 1. 
Upon the death of Joshua, Judah un- 
dertook with Simeon the conquest of 
the interior. Jud. 1 : 1-3. Judah seems 
to have been unmolested during the 
greater part of the period of the Judges. 
This state of things may have lessened 
its interest in the troubles of other tribes ; 
at all events, Judah did not take much, 
if any, part in the different wars, except 
on the first occasion, when Othniel, who 
was a Judite, delivered Israel from Chu- 
shan-rishathaim. Jud. 3 : 9. He was the 
only judge from this tribe, unless the 
Bethlehem from which Ibzan came be 
Bethlehem-Judah. It is markworthy 
that although Judah did not assist Ba- 
rak, Deborah does not rebuke them. In 
the destruction of the Benjamites, Ju- 
dah was selected by God to head the 
other tribes. Jud. 20 : 18. In fact, Ju- 
dah was independent, self-contained, 
488 



strong, and determined all through its 
history. It was a nation in itself. It 
absorbed some of the surrounding peo- 
ples, as the Kenites, Jud. 1:16; <;f. 1 
Sam. 15:6; 30:29, and the Jerahmee- 
lites. 1 Sam. 27 : 10 ; 30 : 29. From the 
Kenites came Jael, Jud. 4 : 17, and the 
Rechabites. 1 Chr. 2 : 55. When the 
choice of the king fell upon a man of 
Benjamin, Judah may have been dis- 
pleased ; at all events, they preserved 
during Saul's reign a very independent 
position, but when Saul was dead they 
with others offered the crown to David, 
who was of their own flesh and blood. 
Under Solomon they were quiet, al- 
though heavily taxed, because they held 
the greater proportion of the state ap- 
pointments. AVith the revolt of Jero- 
boam the history of Judah as a tribe 
ceases; their history as a kingdom be- 
gins, for which, see Judah, Kingdom 
and Territory of. 

JUDAH, THE CITY OF. 2 
Chr. 25:28. Several manuscripts, and 
all the versions except the Chaldee, read 
"city of David," which was a name of 
Mount Zion at Jerusalem, where were 
the tombs of the kings. 

JUDAH UPON JORDAN, a 
town in Naphtali. Josh. 19 : 34. Why 
it was so called is not known. Some 
regard it as an error in the text, but 
the manuscripts do not prove this ; 
others suppose there was a town, in one 
tribe, named after another tribe, and 
refer this to Havoth-jair, see Num. 
32 : 41, near the Jordan. Dr. Thom- 
son found a place near Banias marked 
by ruins and a tomb called by the Arabs 
Seid Yehuda, " My Lord Judah," which 
he believes is the site of ancient Judah 
upon Jordan, with its name perpetuated. 

JU'DAS (praise). 1. The patriarch 
Judah. Matt. 1 : 2, 3. 

2. The betrayer of Christ. Matt. 10 : 
4 ; Mark 3 : 19'; Luke 6 : 16. Nothing 
is known of his early history. His 
name has been variously interpreted, 
but best as from Iah Kerioth, " the man 
of Kerioth," a town of Judah. Josh. 
15 : 25. He is called the son of Simon. 
John 6 : 71. His executive ability led 
to his choice as treasurer, but the office 
stimulated and increased his avarice. 
John 12 : 6 ; 13 : 29. This trait is shown 
very strikingly in his regret over Mary's 
"waste." It has been suggested that 



JUD 



JUD 



the loss, as he regarded it, of the 300 
denarii which the ointment cost may 
have made him the more willing to ac- 
cept the 30 shekels (the price of a slave) 
which he received for the betrayal of 
Christ. Matt. 26 : 15. The best expla- 
nation of the awful crime- is that of our 
Lord : he was under the influence of Satan. 
John 6 : 70, 71. Judas returned after 
making the infamous bargain, and min- 
gled again with the disciples. He was 
present at the paschal supper, though 
probably not at the institution of the 
Lord's Supper. His familiarity with 
the habits of Jesus enabled him to 
guide the attendant mob directly to the 
garden of Gethsemane, and there, with 
the moisture of Jesus' lips still wet upon 
his own, to give the command, " Take 
him." Matt. 14:43-45. But when the 
deed was done there came on the reac- 
tion. He knew and confessed that he 
had betrayed " innocent blood." He 
could not endure the strain of a con- 
science on the rack. He flung the 
money to the priests and went and 
hanged himself, but was not suffered to 
present an unmangled corpse, for, the 
rope breaking, his body fell headlong 
and all his bowels gushed out. Comp. 
Matt. 27:5 with Acts 1:18. The 30 
shekels were not put into the treasury, 
since they were " the price of blood ;" 
accordingly, the priests bought a field 
with them. Matt. 27 : 7. This is the 
purchase attributed to Judas himself by 
Peter. Acts 1 : 18. 

Aceldama, where he committed suicide, 
is shown on the southern slope of the 
valley of Hinnom. Some have attempt- 
ed to extenuate his guilt by supposing 
that he wished to hasten the crisis and 
to force Christ to set up his kingdom. 
But our Lord, the most merciful of be- 
ings, calls him "'the son of perdition," 
for whom it would have been good "if 
he had not been born." He is branded 
in history as the most ungrateful of 
traitors, although the wisdom of God 
overruled his treason for the crucifixion 
of Jesus, whose death is our salvation. 

3. The one called Juda in Mark 6 : 3. 

4. A brother of James, and one of the 
apostles ; called also Thaddaeus and Leb- 
baeus and Jude. Matt. 10 : 3 ; Mark 3 : 
18; Luke 6: 16; John 14:22; Acts 1: 
13 ; Matt. 13 : 55. 

5. Judas of Galilee, a leader of an in- 



surrection " in the days of taxing " — ?". e. 
the census — A. D. 6, and who, according 
to Gamaliel, was very successful for a 
time, but was ultimately completely de- 
feated. Acts 5 : 37. We find in Josephus 
an allusion to a man, who is there said 
to have been born in the city of Gamala 
in Gaulanitis, and to have been the foun- 
der of a new sect, which did not differ 
from that of the Pharisees save in a fa- 
natical love of liberty and refusal to sup- 
port the Roman state. 

6. The one whose house in Straight 
Street, Damascus, sheltered Paul during 
his blindness. Acts 9 : 11, 17. This Ju- 
das may have kept an inn ,• it is unlikely 
that he was a disciple. 

7. Judas, surnamed Barsabas, a " chief 
man among the brethren," a "prophet," 
who was chosen along with Paul and 
Barnabas and Silas to carry the decis- 
ions of the council of Jerusalem, a. d. 
50, to Antioch. Acts 15 : 22-33. 

JUDE was one of the apostles, and 
the brother of James the Less, Jude 1. 
He is called "Judas," Matt. 13:55; 
John 14 : 22 ; Acts 1:13, and elsewhere 
"Lebbaeus," Matt. 10:3, and "Thad- 
daeus." Mark 3 : 18. 

Epistle of, was written about A. d. 
65. The author calls himself " a ser- 
vant of Christ and a brother of James," 
who was a brother of Christ and was 
also called the Just and the bishop of 
Jerusalem. See James. The epistle is 
intended to guard believers against 
prevalent errors, and to urge them to 
constancy in the faith once delivered 
to the saints. This is done by a vivid 
exhibition of the terrors of God's judg- 
ments upon the wicked, and by a recur- 
rence to that great principle of our relig- 
ion, dependence on Christ alone, to keep 
us from falling. In v. 9 we read : " Mi- 
chael the archangel, when contending 
with the devil, he disputed about the body 
of Moses, durst not bring against him 
a railing accusation, but said, The Lord 
rebuke thee." This incident is not 
elsewhere recorded in Scripture, and is 
probably quoted from the Apocalypse of 
Moses. In v. 14 Jude quotes a proph- 
ecy of Enoch, the seventh from Adam. 

There is a striking resemblance be- 
tween 2 Peter and Jude. Both are 
warnings against errorists. 

JUDGES. 1. This was the title 
of a class of magistrates among the Is- 
489 



JUD 



JUD 



raelites. They were appointed origi- 
nally by Moses, at the suggestion of his 
father-in-law, to relieve him of a part 
of the duties of the chief magistracy. 
Ex. 18:13-26. The judicial authority 
was primarily administered by the el- 
ders and by the heads of families. 
After the kingdom was established the 
king became the supreme source of jus- 
tice, " consulting, very probably, on oc- 
casion, the high priest as to the interpre- 
tation of the Law, the right of asking 
counsel of God through the priest being 
claimed as a royal prerogative." — Ayre. 
See Num. 27 : 21 ; 1 Sam. 14 : 18 {ephod, 
not ark); 22:10, 13, 15; 23:6. But 
under him there were local judges, many 
of whom were Levites. 1 Chr. 23 : 4. 
The great reform of Jehoshaphat in- 
cluded a sort of supreme court sitting 
in Jerusalem. 2 Chr. 19:5-11. In later 
times the Sanhedrin was this court. 
Numerous exhortations are given in the 
Bible concerning judicial fairness. Deut. 
16:10; Prov. 24:23; Ps. 82. 

2. Besides these, there were others 
cilled Judges, whose history is given in 
the book of that name, but they were a 
class of men raised up in special emer- 
gencies and invested with extraordinary 
civil and military powers, not unlike 
the archons of Athens and the dictators 
of Rome. See Hebrews. They were 
given to the Israelites about the space 
of 450 years, until Samuel the prophet. 
Acts 13:20. 

Lint of Judyes, and probable Term of 

Service. 

Years. 

Othniel, about b. c. 1400 40 

Under Eglon 18 

Ehud, etc 80 

Under the Philistines unk. 

Shamgar unk. 

Under Jabin 20 

Deborah and Barak 40 

Under Midian 7 

Gideon 40 

Abimelech 3 

Tola 23 

Jair 18 

Under the Ammonites 18 

Jephthah 6 

Ihzan 7 

Eh.Il 10 

Abdon 8 

Under the Philistines 4') 

Samson ) ("20 

Eli J" 140 

Under the Philistines 20 

Samuel, about 12 

Saul, the first king, B. c. 1091. 
490 



It is only proper to add that the chro- 
nology of the Bible is very uncertain 
until we get to David's reign, and that 
these 15 specified Judges may not all 
have been successive. The period oi 
the Judges was a semi-barbarous age, 
where might was right, and every one 
did what seemed good in his sight. But 
it was also a period of divine interposi- 
tions and deliverances. It was the heroic 
age of Jewish history. 

Judges, Book of, derives its title from 
the fact that it gives us the history of the 
Israelites under the administration of 15 
Judges, viz. from 18 or 20 years after the 
death of Joshua to the time of Saul. 
The chronology is uncertain. This 
book has been well styled a commentary 
upon the text " Righteousness exalteth 
a nation ; but sin is a reproach to any 
people." Prov. 14 : 34. It may be di- 
vided into two parts: I. Chs. 3-1G, an 
account of God's successive deliver- 
ances ; II. Chs. 17-21, an account, de- 
tached from the preceding and out of 
chronological order, of the invasion of 
Laish by the Danites, in conneetion 
with the story of Micah and his priest, 
Jonathan, chs. 17 and 18 ; and an ac- 
count of the revenge of the insult to the 
Levite, chs. 19-21, the whole prefaced 
with an introduction, chs. 1-3. The 
book is quite evidently a compilation 
from existent and trustworthy materials. 
Its date is uncertain. 

JUDGMENT, JUDGMENTS. 
These are words of frequent occurrence 
in the sacred Scriptures, and the sen?e 
of them is generally determined by the 
connection. When God's judgments are 
spoken of, the term may denote either 
the secret decisions of the divine will, 
Ps. 10 : 5 ; 36 : 6, or the declarations of 
God's will revealed in the Scriptures, 
Ex. 21 : 1 ; Deut. 7:12: Neh. 9 : 13, or 
the inflictions of punishment on the 
wicked. Prov. 19 : 29 : Eze. 25:11. 

JUDGMENT-HALL, a room or 
office in the palace of the Roman gover- 
nor where causes were tried and justice 
administered, John 18 : 28. The Jews 
declined to enter it when they were 
prosecuting their murderous purpose 
against the Redeemer, lest they should 
be defiled by an approximation to the 
person of a heathen. 

The Judgment-seat, Matt. 27 : 19. was 
an elevated place in the hall of judg- 



JUD 



JUN 



sentence was pro- 
of. See 



ment, from which 
nounced. 

Judgment, Breastplate 
Breastplate. 

Judgment of Urim. Ste Urim. 

Judgment, Day of, Matt. 10 : 15, that 
important day which is to terminate the 
present dispensation of grace, when time 
shall be no more and the eternal state of 
all men shall be unchangeably fixed. 
That such an event is necessary to 
vindicate the justice of God, Luke 16 : 
25, and that such a day is appointed, is 
abundantlv evident. Eccl. 11 : 9 ; Matt. 
12:30; Acts 17:31; 2 Thess. 1:7-10; 
Heb. 9:27; 2 Pet. 2:9; 3:7; 1 John 
4:17. That Jesus Chriyt will officiate 
as Judge is also evident. Matt. 25:31, 
32; 26:64; John 5 : 22 ; Acts 17 : 31 : 
Rom. 2:16; 2 Cor. 5 : 10. That the 
judgment will be universal appears 
from Eccl. 12 : 14; John 5 : 28. 29 ; Rom. 
14:10,11; 2 Cor. 5:10: Rev. 20:12, 
13. That its decision will be final and 
irreversible, admitting the righteous to 
the joys of Chrisfs kingdom and doom- 
ing the wicked to outer darkness and 
eternal despair, appears from the fore- 
going Scriptures, and also from Matt. 
25:14-46; 1 Cor. 15 : 52-57 ; 1 Thess. 
4:14-17; Heb. 6 : 2. 

JU'DITH {Jeivess), a wife of Esau. 
Gen. 26 : 34. 

JUDITH, THE APOCRY- 
PHAL BOOK OF, one of the ear- 
liest specimens of historical fiction, re- 
lates the brave action of Judith, a Jew- 
ish widow distinguished for her beauty, 
her virtue, and her patriotism. When 
Holofernes, a general of Nebuchadnez- 
zar, was besieging Bethulia, a city of 
Judaea, and had already reduced the 
inhabitants to great straits, she deter- 
mined to deliver her people. To this 
end she managed to get admission into 
the enemy's camp, to win the confidence i 
of Holofernes, and at last to kill him 
with her own hand while he lay drunk. 
She then escaped to the city, and show- 
ing the head aroused their courage; and 
thus the discomfited enemy were put to 
flight. 

The book of Judith is pure fiction. 
It was written in Hebrew during the 
days of the Maccabees, for the purpose of 
encouraging the people in their strug- 
gle. But its morality is sadly defective. 
The author is unknown. 



JU'LiIA (feminine of Julius), proba- 
bly the wife of Philologus, whom Paul 
salutes. Rom. 16 : 15. 

JU'JLIUS, the captain of the Roman 
guard to whom- Festus, governor of Ju- 
daja, committed Paul to be conveyed to 
Rome, Acts 27 : 1. Julius appears to 
have had great regard for Paul. He 
suffered him to land at Sidon and visit 
his friends there, and in a subsequent 
part of the voyage he opposed the vio- 
lence of the soldiers - , directed against 
the prisoners generally, in order to save 
the apostle. Acts 27:43. 

JU'NIA, a Christian at Rome saluted 
by Paul. Rom. 16:7. 

JU'NIPEK. Unquestionably, the 
original intends the re-tem (lietavm 
rsetavi), a shrub of the broom family, 
attaining a height of about 12 feet. 
This bush grows in the sandy regions 
of Arabia, northern Africa, and Spaiji, 
but is especially abundant in the desert 




Retem or Juniper Bush. (After Tristram.) 

of Sinai, and is often the only possible 
shelter. Under its shade tnnelers are 
glad to creep on a sultry day for a noon- 
time nap, and thus Elijah lay and slept 
after his long journey. 1 Kgs. 19 : 4, 5. 
The retem has no main trunk, but con- 
sists of many stems, mostly small. The 
roots are disproportionally massive and 
491 



JUN 



JUT 



dense, and from them the Bedouins 
manufacture charcoal, which is sold in 
Cairo and other towns, where it brings 
the highest price, since, of all charcoal, 
it produces the most intense heat, Ps. 
120 : 4. In Job 30 : 4 we read of hun- 
ger so extreme that the bitter roots of 
this shrub are used for food. During 
the wanderings of the Israelites one 
of their stations was named Rithinah, 
doubtless from the abundance of the 
retem at that place, Num. 33 : 18. 

JUNIPER, COALS OF. See 
above, and Armor. 

JU'PITER, the highest and might- 
iest of the Olympian gods, reputed as 
the powerful ruler of the world, the 
father of gods and men, is twice men- 
tioned in the N. T. 

1. The incident at Lystra, Acts 14 : 
12. When the Lystrians saw the im- 
potent man instantly healed, they were 
disposed to regard the apostles as gods 
in the likeness of men ; and as there 
was a tradition among them that their 
province was once visited by Jupiter 
and Mercury, they were inclined to re- 
gard this as a repetition of the favor, 
Acts 14:12. So they called Barnabas 
" Jupiter," and Paul, who was the chief 
speaker, " Mercury," the god of elo- 
quence. The priest of Jupiter, the 
tutelar deity of the city, whose image 
or temple was before the gates, brought 
the usual sacrifices decked out for the 
altar, and would have joined the people 
in the religious worship of the apostles 
had they not been persuaded to desist 
by their solemn warnings. 

2. The image of Diana at Ephesus 
was said to have fallen from Jupiter, 
Acts 19 : 35. See Diana. 

JUSHAB-HE'SED {whose love 
is returned), one of David's posterity, 
1 Chr. 3 : 20. 

JUS'TIFY, JUSTIFICA'- 
TION, Rom. 4:25. These terms in- 
492 



volvc one of the fundamental principles 
of the Christian faith. They stand op- 
posite to "condemn" and "condemna- 
tion." In their evangelical use they 
denote that act of God's sovereign 
grace by which he accepts and receives 
those who believe in Christ as just and 
righteous. Justification includes the 
pardon of sins and the imputation of 
the righteousness of Christ. The merits 
of Christ are the only ground of justi- 
fication; faith is the only means of jus- 
tification ; good works are the neces- 
sary fruit or evidence of justification. 
The Epistles of Paul to the Galatians 
and the Romans give the fullest ex- 
position of this doctrine. The Roman 
I Catholic divines identify justification 
' with sanctification, and hence teach 
! progressive justification by faith and 
good works. They appeal especially 
j to Jas. 2 : 24. But James opposes a 
\ dead faith which remains " alone," 2 : 
17, and which even demons have. v. 19. 
It is only living or working faith by 
j which we can be justified *(comp. Gal. 
5:6, "faith which worketh by love"). 
JUS'TUS (just). 1. A surname of 
Joseph called Barsabas, Acts 1 : 23. See 
Joseph, 10. 

2. The Jewish proselyte in Corinth in 
whose house Paul preached — not lodged, 
for he stopped with Aquila, Acts 18 : 7. 

3. A surname of Jesus, a fellow- 
worker of Paul, Col. 4 : 11. 

JUT'TAH, a town in the moun- 
tains of Judah, in the same group with 
Maon and Carmel, Josh. 15 : 55. It was 
allotted to the priests, 21 : 16. Eusebius 
describes it as a large village, 18 miles 
southward of Eleutheropolis. Reland 
conjectured that this was the " city of 
Juda," Luke 1 : 39, in which Zacharias, 
father of John the Baptist, resided. 
But there is no positive evidence of 
this. Juttah is identified with Yutta ; 
on a hill 5 miles south of Hebron. 



KAB 



KAR 



K. 



KAB, or CAB, 2 Kgs. 6:25. See 
Measures. 

KABZEEL ((fathered by God), 
called Jekabzeel when rebuilt after the 
Captivity, Neh. 11 : 25, a city of the 
tribe of Judah, situated farthest to the 
south, Josh. 15:21; was the birthplace 
of Banaiah, the son of Jehoiada. 2 Sam. 
23 : 20 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 22. 

KA'DESH {sacred), OR KA'- 
DESH-BAR'NEA, a place on the 
southern frontier of Caanan. It was 
"11 days," or about 165 miles, distant 
from Horeb, Deut. 1:2; on the border 
of Edom, Num. 20 : 16; not far from 
Gerar, Gen. 20 : 1 ; to the east of Bered, 
Gen. 16 : 14; in the desert of Zin. Num. 
20 : 1 ; 27 : 14 : 33 : 36 ; Deut. 32 : 51 ; 
and the point to Avhich Chedorlaomer re- 
turned, having driven the Horites over 
the Arabah into the Et Tih region, and 
then going northward, Gen. 14 : 7. In 
Scripture it is sometimes called Kadesh 
alone, and sometimes Kadesh-barnca, 
and is identical wi.th Meribah-kadesh, 
Eze. 47 : 19 : Josh. 15 : 3, 23 ; with " En- 
Mishpat" = the fountain of judgment, 
Gen. 14 : 7 ; and with " Rithmah " = the 
broom, Num. 33 : 18, thus called from 
a shrub growing in the desert. At Rith- 
mah the Israelites encamped in the sec- 
ond summer after the exodus from 
Egypt, Num. 33 : 18, and they stayed 
there for months. Spies were sent into 
the land of Canaan. The people re- 
belled, and were condemned to 40 years' 
sojourn in the wilderness, Num. 13, 14, 
during which time Kadesh seems to 
have been their chief centre. At the 
end of 40 years they encamped again at 
Kadesh for a march to Canaan, Num. 
20 : 1. Here Miriam died and was 
buried, and the rock was smitten for 
water, Num. 20 : 1-21. Robinson, 
Porter, and many others located Kadesh 
at 'Ain el- Weibeh, which was long ac- 
cepted by English scholars. Rowlands, 
1842, identified it with Ain Gadts or 
Qadis, 40 to 50 miles directly south of 
Beersheba. This was stoutly disputed 
by Robinson, but accepted by Wilton, i 
Palmer, Ritter, and others, and con- j 



firmed by H. Clay Trumbull, who re-dis- 
covered the springs of 'Ain Qadis in 
1881. It is described as an extensive 
hill-encircled region, large enough for 
the camping-ground of a host; land 
arable, and having springs of rare sweet- 
ness and abundance. 

KAD'MIEL [before God), a Levite 
who, with his descendants, returned from 
captivity with Zerubbabel, Ezr. 2:40; 
superintended the workmen. Ezr. 3:9; 
and helped in the thanksgiving, Neh. 
9:4; 12 : 8, and the reforms, Neh. 10 : 
9. It is possible that two persons are 
referred to. 

KAD'MONITE [eastern), a people 
in the land of Canaan in Abram's time, 
Gen. 15:19. As the term means also 
"ancient," it may be a name for the 
earliest inhabitants. The name is still 
found among the Nusairiyeh, north of 
Tripoli, who say they were driven from 
Palestine. 

KA'IN (dance), Kenites, q. v., Num. 
24:22, margin. 

KAI/LiAi [sic [ft runner of Jehovah), 
a driest, a chief of the fathers in the 
days of Joiakim. Neh. 12:20. 

KAN AH {place of reeds). 1. A 
town in the district of Asher, Josh. 19 : 
28; now a village, 'Ain Kana, 6 miles 
south-east of Tyre. 

2. A river forming the boundary be- 
tween Ephraim and Manasseh. Josh. 16 : 
8; 17:9. Robinson identifies it with the 
present Wady Kanah, which rises 7 miles 
south-east of Nablus and enters the sea 
just above Jaffa; while Schwartz iden- 
tifies it with the present Wady el- Kha- 
li ah, "the reedy river," which rises close 
to Nablus and flows more northerly to 
the sea. 

KARE'AH (bald), father of Jo- 
hanan and Jonathan, adherents of Ge- 
daliah. Jer. 40 : 8, 13, 15, 16 ; 41 : 11, 13, 
14, 16 ; 42 : 1, 8 ; 43 : 2, 4, 5. In 2 Kgs. 
25:23 it is Careah. 

KARKA'A (foundation), a southern 
boundary of Judah, Josh. 15 : 3, and 
therefore of the Holy Land itself. 

KAR'KOR [foundation), the scene 
of Gideon's final dispersion of the de- 
493 



KAE 



KEE 



feated hosts of Zebah and Zalmunna. 
Jud. 8:10. It was "east of the Jor- 
dan, in the open region of the nomad 
tribes." 

KARTAH {city), a town of Zebu- 
lun ; assigned to the Merarite Levites. 
Josh. 21 : 34. 

KAR'TAN {double city), a town of 
Naphtali : assigned to the Gershonite Le- 
vites, Josh. 21:32,- called in 1 Chr. 6: 
76 Kirjathaim. 

KAT'TATH {small), a town of 
Zebulun. Josh. 19:15. 

KE'DAR {dark-skinned), second son 
of Ishmael. Gen. 25 : 13. From him 
descended the leading tribes of Arabia 
and of the land east of Palestine. They 
and the country bear the name of Ke- 
dar. Isa. 21:16; Jer. 49 : 28. They 
were nomads, living in black hair-tents, 
Cant. 1:5, as the modern Bedouins do, 
or in villages, Isa. 42 : 11, and were rich 
in flocks and herds, and noted as archers 
and mighty men. Ptolemy call? them 
Darrce, and Pliny, Cedrie. The rabbins 
call the Arabs, Kedar. Tradition makes 
Mohammed a descendant of Kedar. 
They suffered much from the invasion 
of Nebuchadnezzar. 

KEDEMAH {eastward), last-men- 
tioned son of Ishmael. Gen. 25:15; 1 
Chr. 1:31. 

KED'EMOTH {easternmost), a 
town in the district east of the Dead 
Sea, belonging to the tribe of Reuben, 
Josh. 13 : 18, and assigned to the Merarite 
Levites. Josh. 21 : 37; 1 Chr. 6 : 79. In the 
surrounding wilderness Moses encamped 
before passing through the Amorite coun- 
try. Deut. 2 : 26. 

KE'DESH {sanctuary). 1. A town 
on the southern boundary of Judah, 
Josh. 15:23; perhaps identical with 
Kadesh or Kadesh-barnea. 

2. A city of Issachar ; assigned to the 
Gershonite Levites. 1 Chr. 6 : 72. In 
Ihc parallel list, Josh. 21 : 28, its name 
is Kishon. 

3. A fortified city belonging to the 
tribe of Naphtali; allotted to the Ger- 
shonite Levites, Josh. 20 : 7 ; 21 : 32 ; 1 
Chr. 6 : 76, and made a city of refuge. 
It was the residence of Barak, Jud. 4 : 
l), and here Deborah assembled the 
tribes of Zebulun and Naphtali. Jud. 4 : 
11. It was taken by Tiglath-pileser in 
the reign of Pekah, 2 Kgs. 15:29. and 
here the battle took place between Jona- 

494 



than Maccabaeus and Demetrius. 1 Mace. 
11 : 63. Now it is a small village, Kades, 
10 miles north of Safed and 4 miles 
north-west of Merom, beautifully situ- 
ated on a high ridge jutting out in the 
depressed basin through which the Jor- 
dan flows to the Sea of Merom. It is 
surrounded with ruins ; numerous sar- 
cophagi have been found here. 

KE'DRON, or KIDRON {black 
brook, from a Hebrew root signifying 
" black," not from cedars, cedar-brook), 
is a small stream dry in summer, but 
growing into a torrent in the rainy sea- 
son ; rises Ih miles north-west of Jeru- 
salem; runs in a south-eastern direc- 
tion ; strikes the north-eastern corner 
of the wall of the city; sweeps through 
the valley of Jehoshaphat in a deep 
gorge along ^he eastern side of the city, 
whose wall rises 100 feet above its bot- 
tom, while on the other side the peak 
of Mount Olivet rises about 500 feet; 
breaks through a still narrower cleft 
between the Hill of Offence and Moriah, 
and continues its course through a wild 
and dismal channel through the wilder- 
ness of Judah, passing by the curious con- 
vent of Mar Saba,, until it reaches the 
north-western shore of the Dead Sea. Its 
name perhaps refers to the gloom of the 
valley, or perhaps to the peculiar nature 
of impurity connected with it. Here 
Athaliah was executed, 2 Kgs. 11 : 16 ; 
here Maachah's idols were burnt, 1 Kgs. 
15:13; 2 Chr. 15:16; and hither the 
impurities and abominations of idol- 
worship were regularly carried and de- 
stroyed. 2 Chr. 29:16: 30:14; 2 Kgs. 
23 : 4, 6, 12. In the time of Josiah it 
became the common burial-place of the 
city, 2 Kgs. 23: 16, and so it is to-day. 
The two events, however, connected with 
it, and which give it its greatest interest, 
are David's crossing it on his flight from 
Jerusalem when Absalom rebelled, 2 Sam. 
15 : 23, 30. and Christ's crossing it on his 
way to Gethsemane. John 18 : 1 : Mark 14 : 
26 ; Luke 22 : 39. As Caesar crossed the 
Rubicon for the military conquest of the 
world, so Christ crossed the Kedron for 
the salvation of the world. 

KEEPER, used for a shepherd, a 
jailer, an armor-bearer, a captain of the 
body-guard, keeper of the wardrobe, 
chief forester, gate- or door-guard, chief 
eunuch, vineyard-guard, sweeper of the 
temple, and sentinel. Ps. 121 : 5. 



KEH 



KEY 



KEHELATHAH {assembly), one 
of the encampment-places of the Israel- 
ites during their wanderings through the 
desert. Num. 33 : 22, 23. 

KEI'LAH [fortress), a city in the 
lowland of Judah, near the Philistine 
frontier. Josh. 15:44. When captured 
and plundered by a Philistine invasion 
David came to its rescue, but the inhab- 
itants treacherously plotted with Saul for 
his betrayal. 1 Sam. 23 : 1-13. After the 
Captivity its rulers aided in restoring 
the walls of Jerusalem. Neh. 3:17, IS; 
now Kila, 7 miles east of Beit Jibrtn. 

KELA'IAH {swift messenger of 
God), one of the Levites who returned 
with Ezra; married a woman of the 
land ; helped expound the Law ; en- 
tered the covenant to follow the Law, 
and divorced his heathen wife : called 
also Kelita. Ezr. 10 : 23 ; Neh. 8 : 7 ; 10 : 
10. 

KELITA {dwarf). See Kelaiah. 

KEMU'EL {helper, or assembly of 
God). 1. The third son of Nahor arid 
Milcah, and father of Bethuel and five 
older sons. Gen. 22 :21. 

2. Son of Shiphtan, and prince of 
Ephraim; one of the twelve who divi- 
ded Canaan. Num. 34: 24. 

3. A prince of Levi. 1 Chr. 27 : 17. 
KENAN. See Cainan. 
KE'NATH {possession), a city of 

Gilead, in the tribe of Manasseh; cap- 
tured by Nobah, Num. 32 :42; a place 
of splendor and importance under Rome ; 
a Christian bishop's see; 20 miles from 
Bostra : now called Kunawat. 

KE'JVAZ {a hunt). 1. A grandson 
of Esau, and prince in Edom, Gen. 36 : 
11, 42; founder of the Kenezites. Josh. 
14 : 14. 

2. Brother of Caleb, and father of 
Othniel. Josh. 15 : 17. 

3. Son of Elah, son of Caleb. 1 Chr. 
4:15 (though see margin). 

REN'EZITE {hunter), a Canaan- 
itish tribe of which nothing further is 
known. Gen. 15 : 19. The same word 
in Hebrew as Kenizzite. 

KENITE [smith), a, tribe of Mid- 
ian, between Palestine and Sinai and 
east of the Gulf of Akabah. Their land 
was promised to Abraham. Gen. 15 : 19. 
Jethro, Moses's father-in-law, was a Ke- 
nite. Jud. 1:16. They were mentioned 
in Balaam's prophecy. Num. 24:21. 
Part of the tribe joined Israel, and lived 



south of Judah. Jud. 1 : 16. One fam- 
ily migrated to the far north. There 
Heber dwelt. Jud. 4:11. The Kenites 
were friendly with the Canaanites, Ama- 
lekites, and Israelites. Saul and David 
spared them in their raids on Amalek 
on account of their former kindness. 

1 Sam. 15: 6; 27: 10; 30: 29. A fam- 
ily of Kenites came of Hemath, father 
of the house of Rechab. 1 Chr. 2 : 55. 

KEN'IZZITE [hunter), a tribe of 
Canaan in Abraham's time. Gen. 15 : 19. 
The same word in Hebrew as Kenezite. 

KER'CHIEFS {spread out), an 
article of dress or ornament like a veil 
or scarf, worn on the head by the idol- 
atrous women of Israel. Eze. 13 : 18, 21. 

KER'EN-HAPPUCH {paint- 
horn), Job's third daughter, born after 
his restoration to prosperity. Job 42 : 14. 

KE'RIOTH {cities). 1. A town in 
the south of Judah, Josh. 15 : 25 ; per- 
haps from whence Iscan'ot, "the man 
of Kerioth," came; perhaps Kureitein, 
or Umm Kheshram, .near Beersheba. 

2. A strong city of Moab. Jer. 48 : 24, 
41; Am. 2 : 2. 

KERNELS {acrid), grape-seeds. 
Num. 6 : 4. 

KEROS {curved), one of the Neth- 
inim, whose "children" came back with 
Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 44 ; Neh. 7 : 47. 

KETTLE {boiling), a vessel for 
cooking or sacrificial purposes. 1 Sam. 

2 : 14. The same word is translated 
"basket," Jer. 24 : 2, "caldron," 2 Chr. 
35 : 13, and "pot," Job 41 : 20. 

KETIRAH [incense), the wife of 
Abraham after Sarah's death. Gen. 25 : 1 ; 
1 Chr. 1 : 32. She was the mother of six 
sons. 

KEY (Heb. the opener, Gr. the closer), 
an instrument, of wood or metal, for 
closing or opening a lock. Jud. 3:25. 
They were sometimes so large as to be 
carried on the shoulder. Isa. .22 : 22. 
When so borne a key proclaimed the 
bearer's importance and declared him 
to be an officer. 



Egyptian Iron Key. (From Wilkinson.) 

The key is an emblem of office, as of 
a treasurer, Isa. 22 : 22 ; of authority in 



495 



KEZ 



KIN 



the Church of Christ, Matt. 16 : 19 ; an 
emblem of the means of gaining know- 
ledge of divine truth, Luke 11 : 52 ; of 
Christ's authority over hell and death, 
Rev. 1:18; 9:1; 20:1; and of king- 
ship. Rev. 3 : 7. 

Assyrian monuments show strong 
gates fastened by bars, and by locks 
opened by huge keys like those of mod- 
ern Cairo. In ancient as in modern 
times the transfer of government was 
made by giving and taking a key. The 
rabbins represent God as holding the 
keys of various operations of nature. 

KEZI'A (cassia), Job's second 
daughter, born after his restoration 
to prosperity. Job 42 : 14. 

KEZIZ, a town on the eastern 
border of Benjamin. Josh. 18 : 21. 

KIBROTH-HATTAAVAH 
(graves of lust), one of the stations of 
Israel on their wandering through the 
wilderness; situated about 3 days' jour- 
ney from Sinai and 15 miles from the 
Gulf of Akabah. Here it was that a 
wind from the Lord brought immense 
swarms of quails down upon the en- 
campment while the people were clamor- 
ing for flesh-meat. They fed on them 
for a whole month, but then a great 
plague smote them and many of them 
died. Num. 11 : 31-35 ; 33 : 16, 17 ; Deut. 
9 : 22. Travellers have often in these 
regions encountered swarms of quails, 
flying with the wind and so low that two 
or three of them may be killed by one 
blow of a stick, and at Erweis el-Ebei- 
rig, near Wady el-Huclherah (Hazaroth) 
Israelite remains have been found. 

KIB'ZAIM (two heaps), a city be- 
longing to Ephraim and assigned to 
Kohathite Levites, Josh. 21 : 22. In 1 
Chr. 6 : 68 it is called Jokmeam, which 
see. It has been identified as the pres- 
ent Karab, at the confluence of two 
streams on the north-western frontier of 
Ephraim. Comp. Josh. 16 : 9 ; 17 : 9, 10. 

KID, Jud. 14 : 6, or the young of 
the goat, was among the luxuries of 
the ancients, Gen. 38 : 17 ; Jud. 6:19; 
1 Sam. 16 : 20, and is now esteemed 
a great delicacy by Eastern nations. 
Kids were among the sacrificial offer- 
ings. Num. 7 : 11-87. 

KID NEY (longing?). The leaf-fat 
around the kidneys of sacrifices was to 
be burned. Ex. 29 : 13, etc. The sup- 
posed seat of desire. Job 19 : 27 (mar- 
496 



gin) ; Ps. 7 : 9, etc. See Reins. Used 
also for kernels of wheat, from their 
shape and richness. Deut. 32 : 14. 

KID'RON. See Kedron. 

RI'NAH (lamentation, dirge), a city 
in the southern part of Judah, near the 
frontier of Edom. Josh. 15 : 22. 

KINDRED, in the 0. T. the 
translation of the terms signifying — 
(1) "clan," persons belonging to a 
common stock, Gen. 12 : 1 ; 24 : 4, 7, 
38, 40, 41; (2) "birth," and so "off- 
spring," as Gen. 31 : 3 ; 43 : 7 ; Esth. 
8:6; (3) " knowledge," one known by 
relationship, Ruth 3:2; (4) " redemp- 
tion," from the duty of a near relation 
to redeem, Eze. 11:15; comp. Ruth 4: 
6; (5) "brother," 1 Chron. 12 : 29; (6) 
the immediate family. Gen. 10 : 31. 

In the N. T. it is used of (1) relatives 
by birth, Luke 1 : 61; Acts 7 : 13 ; (2) 
family in the larger sense, Acts 4:6; 7 : 
13, 19 ; (3) tribe, Rev. 5:9; 14 : 6 ; (4) 
descendants in a direct line. Acts 3 : 25. 

In the same way are used " kinsfolk." 
"man," " woman." 

KINE, Gen. 41 : 2, is used by the sa- 
cred writers as the plural of cow. The 
word is used figuratively by the prophet, 
concerning the Israelites to describe the 
feebleness, idleness, and luxury which 
characterized them. They were like the 
fatlingsof Bashan, feeding carelessly and 
securely in rich pastures only to prepare 
them for the slaughter. Eze. 39 : IS. See 
Cow, Herd. 

KING, a general title for a supreme 
ruler. It is applied to — 

1. God, as "the Eternal, Immortal, 
Invisible, the Only Wise." 1 Tim. 1:17. 
The titles and attributes of earthly roy- 
alty are applied to God because much of 
the language of Scripture was formed un- 
der the monarchical idea, and the highest 
dignity and splendor was that of the king. 

2. Christ, as supreme over all rulers, 
1 Tim. 6 : 15 ; over the Jews. Matt. 27 : 
11; Luke 19: 38: John 1 : 49. 

3. To human rulers, without regard to 
the size or importance of their dominions ; 
e.g. sheiks or chiefs of Edom, Gen. 36 : 
31; Midian, Num. 31 : 8 ; Moab, Num. 
23 : 7, etc. Rulers in single towns, as 
Melchizedek, king of Salem. Gen. 14 : 
18. To a victor, Num. 23 : 21 ; to a per- 
son of splendid appearance, Jud. 8 : 18; 
the Roman emperor,! Pet. 2:13; the 

I kings of Egypt, Ex. 3 : 19; Judah, 2 



KIN 



KIN 



Kgs. 8 : 16; Persia, Ezr. 4 : 3, etc.; to 
the tetrarch Herod, Matt. 14 : 9 ; to the 
people of God, Rev. 1 : 6 ; 5 : 10 ; see also 
Dan. 7 : 22, 27 ; Matt. 19 : 27 ; 1 Cor. 6 : 
2 ; 1 Pet. 2:9; to death, Job 18 : 14 : to 
leviathan, Job 41: 34; to the devil. Rev. 
9:11. 

The name was given in Israel first to 
Saul, then to David 
and Solomon, and KINGS OF ISRAEL AND JUDAH. 

then to the rulers Showing their Order, Relative Length of Reigns, Contemporary 



drawing their power and receiving their 
appointment from him. 1 Sam. 10 : 1 ; 
1 Chr. 28 : 4. His office was sacred, 2 
Sam. 1:14; he could declare war, 1 
Sam. 11 : 7 ; levy taxes and demand 
personal service, 2 Kgs. 23 : 35 ; 1 
Kgs. 5; he was the court of justice 
of the last resort, 2 Sam. 15 : 2; held 



of Israel and Judah 
until the Captivity. 
The divine plan was 
that God alone should 
be King. But pro- 
vision was made for 
the natural desire of 
the people for a king 
like those of other 
nations. D eu t. 17 : 
14; 1 Sam. 8:9. He 
was to be a native 
Israelite, was not to 
multiply horses, nor 
take the people back 
to Egypt, nor gather 
a harem, nor accu- 
mulate great treas- 
ure ; he was to keep 
a copy of the Law 
by him and study it, 
to fear God, be obe- 
dient, humble, and 
righteous. 

After the transi- 
tion period of the 
Judges, Samuel, the 
last of the class, 
anointed Saul, 1 
Sam. 9, as a special 
military leader was 
needed at the siege 
of Jabesh-gilead. 1 
Sam. 11. After Saul's 
disobedience and re- 
jection, 1 Sam. 15, 
Samuel anointed 
David. For the suc- 
ceeding dates, etc., 
see the table at the 
side and articles un- 
der the names of the 
kings. 

The kings over the 
Hebrews were re- 
garded as the repre- 
sentatives of God, 



Kings of Judah and Israel after the Division, etc. 



KIXGS OF ISRAEL BEFORE THE DIVISION. 



Saul 



David 



Solomon 



Kingdom 
Judali. . 

Kehoboam 17. 

Abijam j 3. 

Asa 



Jehoshaphat 125. 



40 years. 



[40. 



40. 



Divided 975 B. C. 
Israel. 

Jeroboam. 



=1 Nadab. 
Baasba. 



, -^Elah. Zimri ( 7d 'y S ) 

4 j Tibni and Oniri. 

8 J Omri. 
22 I Ahab. 



Jehoram[6. 
AlmziaW-, 1. 

Atlialiah | I 



Ainaziah 29 



40. 



L 



i 

2 ^ Ahaziah. 
12 I Jehoram. 



Jehu. 



17 Jehoabaz. 

is] 

. 41 |jc 



16 Jeboash. 



roboam II. 



OTHER KING- 
DOMS. 



Hiram of 
Tyre. 



Rezon of 
Syria. 



Shishak of 

Egypt. 



Benbadad I. 
of Syria. 



Benbadad II. 
of Syria. 



Hazael of 
Syria. 



Carthage 
founded. 



Benhadad III. 
of Syria. 



B.C. 



1095 



900 



800] 



497 



KIN 



KIN 



KINGS OF ISRAEL AND JUDAH.— Continued. 



KINGS OP ISEAEL AND JUDAH 



IF] [Anarchy.] 



10 



Jotham 



16. 



'JO 



Zachaviah (6 mos.) 
C-, Shall urn (1 mo.). 
Menahem. 
Pekahiab. 
Pekah. 



Ahaz 



llezekiah 29. 



16. 



5 



Anarchy.] 
Hoshea. 



Samaria taken. End king 
dnm of Israel. 721 B. C. 



Manasseh 



55. 



d 



Anion 
Josiah 



Jehoahaz a3 m. 
..Jehoiakiin 111... 



OTHER KING- 
DOMS. 



P n] of Nineveh. 



Tiglath-Pile- 
ser of Assy- 



Rezin of Syri£ 



Shalmanezer 
and Sargon 
of Assyria. 

Sennacherib 
of Assyria. 

Esar-Haddon 
of Babylon. 









7 00 



Jehoiachi 



n czS 



Zedekiah 11. 



Babylonian Captivity. End of kingdom of 
Judali. 



The king could ap- 
point his own succes- 
sor, 1 Kgs. 1 : 30 ; 2 
Chr. 11 : 21, and gen- 
erally chose the first- 
born. Anointing 
with sacred oil was 
the main feature of 
the ceremony of in- 
auguration. 1 Sam. 
10 : 1 ; 2 Sam. 2 : 4. 

Some of the officers 
of the court were, (1 ) 
the recorder, 2 Sam. 
8 : 16: (2) scribe, 2 
Sam. 8:17: (3) chief 
steward or treas- 
urer, Tsa. 22:15: (4) 
"king's friend," 1 
Kgs. 4:5; (5) keep- 
er of the wardrobe, 2 
Kgs. 22: 14; (6) cap- 
tain of the body- 
guard, 2 Sam. 20: 
23; (7) commander- 
in-chief, 1 Chr. 27 : 
34; (8) royal coun- 
sellor, 1 Chr. 27 : 32 ; 
(9) officers over store- 
houses, trees, vine- 
yards, cattle, and 
laborers. 1 Chr. 27: 
25. The king's rev- 
enues were from 
crown-lands, flocks, 
tithes, tributes, cus- 
toms, presents, trad- 
ing, spoils of war, 
and enforced labor. 1 
Sam. 8: 1 Kgs. 20; 
The design of the foregoing table of the 9 fhr 27 During 

fe they were sur- 



Nebucbadnez- 
zar of Baby- 



Jtrusalem taken 605 
Jerusalem destroyed 588 



60Oi 



DlAGEAM OF THE KlNGS 

kings of Israel and Judah is 10 represent to the eye the order in whic 
the kings reigned, and the dates and relative duration of their reigns 
The period of Jewish history covered by the table is from b. c. 1095 to rounded with splen 



586, or about 509 years. 
Where the reigns were very short (as one month or six months), it was 
necessary to make the " lines " or " steps " representing their reigns some- 
what out of the exact proportion. Frequently parts of years are counted 
in round numbers as if full years. For example, Nadab's reign is given 
as "2 years," though it was not probably two full years, but only parts 
of them. This will explain several of the figures given. Jehos'haphat 
associated Jehoram with him during the last^two years of his reign, so 
Jehoshaphat's " 25 years " and Jehoram's " 6 years'" overlap each other. 



the power of life and death, 2 Sam. 
14 ; had some charge of the public 
worship. 1 Kgs. 8; 2 Kgs. 23. The 
Hebrew monarchy was in a sense lim- 
ited, 1 Sam. 10 : 25; 1 Kgs. 12 : 4 ; 2 
Kgs. 11 : 17, checks being furnished 
by the Mosaic law and the protests of 
prophets and people. 
498 



dor and signs of 
honor : after death 
they were buried in 
the royal cemetery. 
1 Kgs. 2: 10. 

KINGDOM. 
The term ''kingdom" 
is applied to the territory ruled by a king, 
Num. 32 : 33; to the right to be a king, 
2 Sam. 3 : 10, or to have power, Esth. 
4 : 14 ; to a country, without reference to 
the form of government, 1 Kgs. 10 : 20; 
to supreme power, Dan. 7 : 14; to the 
priests, Ex. 19 : f> ; to the government 
of God the Father among men, Dan. 4 i 



KIN 



KIN 



17: to the rule of the saints, Dan. 7: 18; 
to Christ's rule on earth, 1 Cor. 15 : 24, 
and God's universal dominion, 2 Chr. 
29 : 11 ; Ps. 22 : 28; to the state of 
salvation, Col. 1 : 13; to heaven. 2 Pet. 
1:11: to the rule of Satan. Matt. 12 : 2fi. 

KINGDOM OF GOD, OF 
CHRIST, OF HEAVEN. When- 
ever the last phrase, drawn, probably, 
from Daniel, is used in the N. T., the 
word *' heavens " is in the plural. These 
terms arc nearly, if not exactly, synon- 
ymous, though emphasis may be laid at 
different times on different character- 
istics or points of time. Such emphasis 
is laid on, (1) a life of righteous alle- 
giance to Christ, entered by faith, lived 
by love, and crowned with glory, Matt. 
6 : 33, etc. ; (2) the condition of things 
Christ came to explain, Luke 1:13; 
Acts 1 : 3, and to bring on earth, Matt. 
4:17; (3) Christ's rule over Israel, Matt. 
21 : 13 ; (4) the rule that God offered or 
committed to Israel, Matt, 21 : 43 ; 1 Chr. 
17 : 14; (5) the state of things in the 
history of the Church during the con- 
flict on earth of the so-called kingdom 
of grace, preparatory to the kingdom 
of glory. Matt. 13 ; (6) Christ's rule in 
spiritual and eternal righteousness over 
the redeemed earth. Rev. 12 : 10, in con- 
trast with the world-powers, Dan. 7:18; 
then the kingdom will destroy and take 
the place of the four monarchies, Dan. 
7. and have its glorious manifestation; 
(7) the visible glory of Christ, Matt. 16 : 
28; (S) the rule of 'God the Father over 
earth and heaven, Matt. 6 : 10; (9) the 
heavenly state. Matt, 8:11. 

The kingdom of Cod is perfectly es- 
tablished in the heavens. Matt. 6 : 10. 
The power and glory of the divine king- 
dom are shown in a measure in creation 
and providence. From the moral king- 
dom the earth has revolted. God re-es- 
tablished it in Israel, taking the king- 
ship himself. Ex. 19 : ; Hos. 13 : 10. 
He made the kingship visible in David, 
1 Sam. 16. and permanent in his fam- 
ily. Ps. 89 : 20, 28, 36. The kingdom 
ceased as a visible power, with the loss 
of its inner spirit, when the nation lapsed 
and persisted in idolatry. The prophets 
foretold its restoration. Dan. 2:7: Ps. 2 ; 
Isa. 2 ; Mic. 4 ; Jer. 23 : 5 ; Eze. 34 : 23 ; 
John the Baptist came to announce it, 
Matt. 3:2. Jesus Christ preached it, 
Matt. 4: 17; explained its character 



and demands, as, for instance, that its 
citizens must be holy, meek, Christlike, 
etc., that when established it will be a 
condition of peace, purity, and glorv, 
Matt. 25 : 34 ; Mark 9 : 47 ; Acts 14 : 22 ; 
Christ came as the King to Jerusalem, 
Luke 19 : 38 ; comp. 1 : 32, but Avas re- 
jected, and took the kingdom from Is- 
rael. Matt 21 : 43. He taught its mys- 
teries to the disciples, especially after 
his resurrection, Acts 1:3: and sent 
them forth to preach it. He declared 
that the time of its manifestation was 
known only to the Father. Acts 1 : 7. 
He laid the foundations of it on the day 
of Pentecost by the outpouring of the 
Holy Spirit, and rules it from his throne 
in heaven. The disciples went every- 
where preaching the word of grace, 1 
Thess. 2 : 12, and persuading men to en- 
ter the kingdom bv faith and holi- 
ness. Acts 8: 12; 20* : 25 ; 28:23. The 
kingdom is to be fully manifested 
at the coming of Christ, the Son of 
man. 2 Tim. 4 : 1 ; Dan. 7:13; Matt. 
13 : 43 ; Luke 22 : 29. 

At " the end" Christ is to deliver up 
to the Father the mediatorial kingdom 
that he received at his ascension. Eph. 
1 : 20, after having reigned and put 
down all rule, authority, and power, 
and all enemies under his feet, 1 Cor. 
15 : 24; and the kingdom of God, with- 
out distinction of persons, shall be com- 
plete and for ever. Heb. 1 : 8. 

The Church is not the kingdom, though 
in some respects like it and preparatory 
to its full manifestation as a training- 
school of saints. The members of the 
"invisible Church" are citizens of the 
kingdom of heaven. 

The kingdom of God is the greatest 
of all institutions. Its King is God as 
(1) the universal Ruler: or as (2) the 
covenant God of a, single nation called 
to keep alive the thought and fact of a 
divine kingdom ; or as (3) the Mediator, 
Christ, redeeming and recognizing the 
revolted world, making manifest the 
kingdom of grace and power — the first 
mainly to his friends, the latter to his 
enemies; or as (4) the victorious Son 
of man, Emperor of the ransomed 
earth; or as (5) God in the consum- 
mated kingdom of the heavens. The 
Holy Spirit explains and enforces the 
constitution of the kingdom, and en- 
lightens, persuades, and enables men 
499 



KIN 



KIN 



to enter it. The Bible is the history 
and prophecy of the kingdom. Citi- 
zenship begins with faith, its loyalty is 
love, its life is devotion to Christ and 
those who are Christ's. It is opposed 
by the chaotic kingdom of sin, dark- 
ness, and Satan. In a world as yet un- 
redeemed the power of the kingdom is 
but dimly seen, but when all men are 
citizens, and Christ is manifest, and 
righteousness shall cover the earth, the 
kingdom shall be seen in its glory. 
The law of Cod is the common law of 
the kingdom: the Sermon on the Mount 
is its magna charta; the Gospels are its 
books of the King. The Acts of the 
Apostles shows the manner and method 
of those who used the Church and its 
powers to gather from a godless world 
those who were to be manifest in the 
revealed kingdom; the Epistles are 
the constitutional expositions, and the 
Apocalypse the prophetic history, of 
the triumphs, glory,, and everlasting 
peace of the kingdom. 
KINGDOM OF IS'RAEL. See 

KINGDOM OF JU'DAH. See 

KING'S POOL, Neh. 2 : 14, per- 
haps the same as the Solomon's pool of 
Josephus. See Siloam. 

KINGS, THE BOOKS OF. In 

the Hebrew canon they formed one book. 
They follow the books of Samuel, which 
are also called books of the Kings. In- 
deed, the whole story, from the begin- 
ning of Judges to the end of Kings, runs 
on as one unbroken narrative. First 
Kings takes up the Hebrew history at 
the time when David was old and 
stricken in years, b. c. 1015; Second 
Kings ends with the beginning of 
the captivity of Judah in Babylon, 
B. c. 586, and the burning of the tem- 
ple, though notice is made of the liber- 
ation and death of Jehoiachin more than 
26 years later. The two books deal espe- 
cially with the theocratic promise of 2 
Sam. 7:12; see 1 Kgs. 14 : 7-11 ; 15 : 
29 ; 16 : 1-7— the promise that God so 
faithfully kept, and that points for- 
ward to Christ, King and Conqueror 
like David, Prince of peace, Builder 
of the temple of God, and enduring 
King — and treat the history from the 
kingly side, and show the evil of 
schism and the worship of idols set 
500 



up for political reasons, as by Solo- 
mon, 1 Kgs. 11, and Jeroboam, 1 
Kgs. 12 : 26. Great stress is laid on 
the sin of idolatry as the breaking of 
the covenant with Jehovah that made 
Israel a peculiar people. The reign 
of Solomon is described, with a minute 
account of the glorious temple and the 
royal houses. The story of the revolt 
of the larger and more populous part 
of the land to form the kingdom of 
Israel comes next, and we are given 
exact knowledge, though in few words, 
of the idolatry of the northern king- 
dom, of the work of the great prophets 
among them — one of the most important 
parts of the history — of the frequent 
changes of dynasty, no less than 7, which 
furnished 19 kings, every one evil, dur- 
ing the 253 years of its existence. Cap- 
tivity of the best of the land closed the 
history of this kingdom. 

The same books also show that David's 
royal house continued unbroken through 
a series of 19 kings, reigning in Jerusa- 
lem about 130 years longer, till Judah 
was punished for its idolatry. The 
wars of the rival kingdoms are de- 
scribed, and the disastrous results to 
each of calling in foreign help — results 
seen first in yielding to idolatry, and 
then in the uprooting of both peoples. 
The prosperity of a number of the pious 
kings of Judah is contrasted with the 
calamities visited on the wicked rulers 
of Israel. The history shows the way 
by which God had led his people from 
the time of their highest prosperity to 
the deepest fall, and that the only way 
up to the light of divine covenant favor 
is by the path of repentance. The books 
touch, of course, the histoi-y of neighbor- 
ing nations, and the latest discoveries in 
ancient history are strikingly in agree- 
ment with the inspired record. 

The author cannot be identified. An- 
cient tradition in the Talmud names Jere- 
miah: some have supposed them com- 
piled by Ezra or Baruch. The books, 
which were originally one, have a very 
marked unity of design, plan, and style, 
and were first divided in the Septuagint. 
They are in large measure a compilation 
from existing documents. They have 
always had a place in the Jewish 
canon. The concise narrative is illus- 
trated, enlarged, and confirmed by the 
books of Isaiah and Jeremiah. This 



KIN 



KIS 



history is referred to in the N. T., 
Luke 4 : 25 ; Acts 7 : 47 ; Rom. 11 : 2 ; 
Jas. 5 : 17, and modern research is 
continually bringing new evidence to 
the truth of the history. 

The style is quiet and simple in the 
main, though showing great vigor in 
the record of stirring events, and 
breaking forth occasionally into true 
poetic fervor. 

KINSFOLK-MAN, WOMAN. 
See Kindred. 

KIR {wall, or place surrounded with 
roads), the city from which the Syrians 
emigrated when they came to settle in 
the region north of Palestine, and to 
which Tiglath-pileser sent the captive 
Syrians after the conquest of Damas- 
cus. 2 Kgs. 16 : 9; Am. 1:5; 9:7. 
About the location of this city scholars 
disagree, some placing it in Armenia, 
on the river Kar, others identifying it 
with C arena, or Cam a, in Media. 

KIR-HAR'ASETH (brick-fort- 
ress), 2 Kgs. 3 : 25, or KIR-HAR'E- 
SETH, Isa. 16:7, or KIR-HA'- 
RESH, Isa. 16 : 11, or KIR- 
HERES, Jer. 48 : 31, 36, or simply 
KIR OF MOAB, Isa. 15 : 1, a 
strong fortress in Moab, situated near 
the south-eastern shore of the Dead 
Sea. It is now called Kerak, and was 
in the time of the crusaders a place 
of great strength, almost impregnable. 

KIRIATHAIM (double city), 
Jer. 48 : 1. 23; Eze. 25 : 9, or KIR- 
JATHAIM, Num. 32:37; Josh. 

13 : 19, a fortified town east of the 
Jordan belonging to the ■ tribe of 
Reuben, but afterward occupied by the 
Moabites. 

KIR'IOTH, Am. 2 : 2. See Ke- 

R10TH. 

KIRJATH (city), a city belonging 
to the tribe of Benjamin, Josh. 18 : 28, 
and probably identical with Kirjath- 
leariin ; perhaps Kiiryet el Enab, 7 miles 
north-west of Jerusalem. 

KIRJATHAIM. See Kirtath- 

AIM. 

KIRJATH-ARRA (the city of 
Arba, Arba being its founder, or the 
city of four, Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, 
and Adam having been buried there) 
is mentioned Gen. 23 : 2 ; 35 : 27 ; Josh. 

14 : 15 : 15 : 13, 54 ; 20 : 7 ; 21 : 11 ; Jud. 
1 : 10; Neh. 11 : 25. See Hebron and 
Mamre. 



KIR JATH-A RIM, Ezr. 2 : 25. 

I See KlRJATH-JEARIM. 

KIRJATH-BAAL (the city of 
Baal). Josh. 15:60; 18:14. Identical 
with Kirjath-iearim. 

KIR JATH-HUZOTH (the city 
of streets), a city in Moab. Num. 22 : 
I 39. 

KIR JATH-JEARIM (the city 
I of woods), one of the four cities of the 
I Gibeonites, Josh. 9:17. situated on the 
; border of Judah and Benjamin, Josh. 
!15:9; 18:14, 15. but belonging to 
j Judah, Josh. 15 : 60 ; Jud. 18 : 12 ; was 
; also called Baalah, Josh. 15:9, 10, or 
Baale of Judah, 2 Sam. 6 : 2, or Kirjath- 
baal. Hither the ark was brought from 
Beth-shemesh, 1 Sam. 6:21; 7:1, 2, 
! and here it remained until it was re- 
i moved by David. 1 Chr. 13 : 5 ; 2 Chr. 
11:4. The prophet Urijah, who was 
put to death by Jehoiakim, Jer. 26 : 
20, was born here, and after the Cap- 
tivity the people of the city returned in 
numbers to it. Neh. 7 : 29. Perhaps 
Kiiryet el Enab, but the Pal. Memoirs 
suggest Erma, 4 miles east of ' Ain Shems, 
as its site. 

KIRJATH- S ANN AH (palm- 
city), mentioned in Josh. 15 : 49, and 
identical with Debir (which see) and 
Kirjath-sepher ; novf Dhahcrii/eh. 

KIR'JATH-SE'PHER (city of 
books), mentioned in Josh. 15 : 15 and 
Jud. 1 : 11, same as Debir and Kirjath- 
sannah ; now Dhdheriyeh. 

KIR OF MOAR. See Kir-ha- 
raseth. 

KISH (a bow). 1. A Levite, 
grandson of Merari. 1 Chr. 23:21; 
24 : 29. 

2. A Benjamite. 1 Chr. 8 : 30 : 9 : 36. 

3. Father of King Saul, of the fam- 
ily of Matri, son of Ner. 1 Sam. 9:1, 
3 : 10 : 11, 21 : 14 : 51 : 2 Sam. 21 : 14 ; 
1 Chr. 8 : 33 ; 9 : 39 : 12 : 1 ; 26 : 28. In 
Acts 13 : 21 he is called Cis. 

4. A Levite. 2 Chr. 29 : 12. 

5. A Benjamite and ancestor of Mor- 
decai. Esth. 2 : 5. 

KISHT (bow of Jehovah), a Levite 
of the family of Merari, 1 Chr. 6 : 44; 
called Kushaiah, margin, 15 : 17. 

KISHTON (hardness), Josh. 19 : 
20, or KI'SHON. Josh. 21 : 28, a city 
belonging to the tribe of Issachar, and 
assigned to the Gershonite Le-yites. 

KI'SHON (bending, curved), or in 
501 



kis 



KIT 



one place, Ps. 83 : 9, KISON, the 

present JVahr Mukutta, a river which 
drains the plain of Esdraelon, passes 
through the plain of Acre, and falls 
into the Mediterranean. Only the 
lower part of it is perennial, fed by 
some springs at the foot of Mount 
Carmel. The upper part, rising on 
Tabor and Little Hermon, is dry in 
the summer, but becomes a torrent in 
the winter, rushing along with great 
impetuosity and transforming parts of 
the plains it traverses into swamps. 
The total defeat of Sisera, Jud. 4:7; 
5:21, and the executions of the idol- 
priests by Elijah, 1 Kgs. 18 : 40, took 
place on the shores of this river. 

KISS, a salutation of respect and 
affection used in most nations and from 
the earliest times. It was an established 
custom in Jacob's day. It is especially 
common in the East. It is spoken of 
between parents and children, Gen. 27 : 
26 : 31 : 28, 55 ; 48 : 10 ; 50 : 1 ; Ex. 18 : 
7; Ruth 1:9, 14; 2 Sam. 14: 
33 ; 1 Kgs. 19 : 20 ; Luke 15 : 
20 ; between male relatives or 
friends, Gen. 29: 13; 33:4; 
45 : 15; Ex. 4 : 27; 1 Sam. 
20 : 41 ; between persons of 
equal rank, given sometimes 
honestly, sometimes deceit- 
fully. 2 Sam. 20 : 9 ; Ps. 85 : 
10; Prov. 27:6; Luke 7 : 45 ; 
22 : 48 ; Acts 20 : 37. It was 
used as a mark of conde- 
scension, 2 Sam. 15 : 5; 19 : 
39; of respect, Luke 7 : 38, 
45; 1 Sam. 10:1; of recon- 
ciliation, Gen. 33:4; 2 Sam. 
14 : 33 : of leavetaking, Gen. 
31 : 55; Ruth 1 : 14; Acts 
20 : 37; of -homage, Ps. 2 : 
12; as an act symbolical of 3 
Christian love and brother- 1| 
hood. Rom. 18:16; 1 Cor. 
16 : 20; 2 Cor. 13 : 12 : 1 
Thess. 5 : 26; 1 Pet. 5 : 14. t 
Kissing the lips was a token 
of love ; on the cheek or fore- 
head or beard, a kiss was a 
sign of respect or a salute ; 
on the hands or feet, of sub- 
mission or inferiority, Luke 
7: 45. Sometimes the writing 
i)f the king was received with a kiss, 
and even the ground was kissed where 
the superior had stepped. Ps. 72 : 9 ; 
502 



Isa. 49 : 23. Respect or adoration of 
idols was shown by kissing the image 
or the hand toward the image. 1 Kgs. 
19 : 18; Hos. 13:2. 

In the Christian Church the kiss of 
peace or holy kiss accompanied social 
worship during and long after apostolic 
days. The Greek and Russian Catho- 
lics kiss sacred images. 

The Hebrew word is translated 
"ruled," Gen. 41:40; " armed," 1 Chi-. 
12: 2; 2 Chr. 17:17 and Ps. 78: ', ; 
"touched." Eze. 3 : 13. The Greek 
word translated " kiss " in Matt. 26 : 
48, and the parallel passages, Mark 14: 
44 and Luke 22 : 48, is translated "' love " 
in all other places. 

This extreme sign of affection an 1 
most familiar act has been used con- 
stantly in worship. The character of 
the act and its association gave a pecu- 
liar aggravation to the kiss with which 
the traitor saluted our Lord. 

KITE, Lev. 11 : 14, a rapacious 




Kite. (Milvus regalxs. After Tristram. ; 

bird (Milvus re;/alis) of the hawk fam- 
ily, mentioned as unclean by the cere- 
monial law. The common kite breeds 



KIT 



KOH 



in Northern Palestine, and in winter is 
common in other districts. There is 
reference to this bird in Job 28 : 7, 
under the rendering Vulture, -which 
see. The kite is said to have a vision 
remarkably keen, even for a bird of 
prev. 

KITH'LISH, a town in the low- 
land of Judah. Josh. 15 : 40. 

KITRON {knotty), a town belong- 
ing to the tribe of Zebulun, but from 
which the Canaanites were not expelled. 
Jud. 1:30. 

KIT TIM. Gen. 10 : 4 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 7. 
See Chittim. 

KNEADING-TROUGHS. See 
Bread. 

KNEE. Besides the literal use of 
the word, it is used figuratively. Tak- 
ing children on the knees is adopting 
them. Gen. 30 : 3 ; 50 : 23. The knees 
were the seat of strength. Deut. 28 : 35; 
Job 4: 4 ; Isa. 35 : 3 ; Nab. 2:10; Heb. 
12 : 12. The head was put between 
the knees in abject supplication. 1 Kgs. 
18 : 42. 

Bending the knee is the simplest and 
most striking way of making or declar- 
ing one's self inferior to another, and 
thus it came to be used in prayer, wor- 
ship, or humiliation. 2 Kgs. 1:13; Isa. 
45 : 23 ; Dan. 6 : 10, 11 : Luke 22 : 41 ; 
Bom. 11:4: Eph. 3:14; Phil. 2:10; 
Acts 9 : 40 ; 20 : 36. 

The common Hebrew word for bless- 
ing is a form of the word translated 
" knee," and it is used for invoking 
God to bless, Gen. 28 : 6 ; Josh. 24 : 10; 
for invoking God for his blessing, Gen. 
12 : 3 ; 18 : 18 ; for celebrating, praising, 
and adoring God, 2 Chr. 6 : 13; Dan. 6 : 
11 ; for invoking blessings on others in 
the name of God, Ps. 129 : 8 : Gen. 48 : 
9; for God blessing his creatures, Gen. 
1:22; for emphatic greetings among 
men, 1 Sam. 15: 13: for invoking evil. 
1 Kgs. 21:10: Job 31:30. 

KNIFE (Heb. the waster), instru- 
ment for eating, separator (once, Prov. 
23 : 2), that whi^h glides through (once, 
Ezr. 1:9), an instrument of stone, Ex. 
4 : 25, margin; bone, copper, or bronze, 
afterward of iron : seldom used at meals, 
but necessary in killing and preparing 
animals for food or sacrifice. Lev. 7 : 33, 
34 : 8:15, 20, 25 ; Ezr. 1 : 9. They were 
used for sharpening pens. Jer. 36 : 23. 
The razor was used for Nazarite pur- 



poses. Num. 6:5, 9, 19; Eze. 5:1. 
Curved knives were used for pruning- 
hooks. Isa. 18 : 5. The lancets of the 
priests of Baal were probably pointed 
knives. 1 Kgs. 18 : 28. 

The word for "knife" ("waster") is 
usually translated " sword," sometimes 
"tool," Ex. 20 : 25, "dagger," Jud. 3 : 

16, "mattock," 2 Chr. 34 : (margin 
" mauls "), and " axes." Eze. 26 : 9. Of 
the cruel avarice of the wicked, Prov. 
30 : 14 says, " Their jaw-teeth are as 
knives to devour the poor." 

KNOCK, a summons to open the 
door, Jud. 19 : 22 ; Cant. 5:2; Acts 12 : 
13 ; used as a sign of importunity, Matt. 
7 : 7, 8 ; Luke 13 : 25, and of the signs of 
the coming of Christ. Luke 12 : 36 ; Bev. 
3 : 20. Oriental customs require knock- 
ing or calling at the outer door or gate, 
but not at the doors of rooms. Cred- 
itors were required by Moses to stand 
without and call. Deut. 24 : 10, 11. 
KNOP. Two Hebrew words are 
j thus rendered. One, Ex. 25:31; 37: 

17, from the connection, probably de- 
j notes an imitation of the fruit of the 
\ almond used in the ornamental work of 

j the sacred candlestick ; translated " lin- 
! tel," margin "chapiter" or "knop." 

Am. 9:1; Zeph. 2:14. The other 
j describes carvings upon the cedar wain- 
I scot within the temple, arid castings 
| upon the brim of the brazen sea. 1 Kgs. 
| 6:18: 7 : 24. There is reason to think 

that these knops were representations 
I of the beautiful fruit of the colocynth. 

See GouRn. Wild. 
KNOWLEDGE OF GOOD 
! AND EVIL, TREE OF, a tree 
j placed in Eden, the fruit of which man 
j was not to eat or touch under penalty 
i of death. It became the instrument of 
| his temptation. Gen. 2 : 9, .17 ; 3 : 3. 
KO'A {he-camel), probably a prince 

or leader, possibly a city of Babylonia ; 

one of the enemies of Jerusalem. Ezr. 

23 : 23. 

KO'HATH {assembly), second son 

of Levi ; ancestor of the great Kohath- 

ite family of the priests. He lived 133 

years. Gen. 46:11; Ex. 6:16, 18; 

Num. 3 : 17, 27 ; 26 : 57, 58 ; Josh. 21 : 

5, 20, 26 : 1 Chr. 6:1. 

KOHATHITE, one of the three 

great families of Levi, afterward divided 

into four branches. 1 Chr. 23 : 12. They 

were Levites of the highest rank. In the 
503 



KOL 



KUS 



wilderness they encamped on the south 
side of the tabernacle, and had charge 
of the ark, table, the most holy parts of 
the tabernacle, etc., Num. 3 : 29-31 ; 4 : 2, 
34, carrying them on their shoulders after 
they had been covered by the priests. 
In Canaan the Kohathite priests had 13 
cities in Judah, Benjamin, and Simeon, 
the rest of the family 10 cities in Eph- 
raim, Dan, and western Manasseh. Josh. 
21 ; 4, 5, 20. They were included in the 
courses arranged by David. 1 Chr. 25, 
26. They helped bring the ark to Jeru- 
salem. 1 Chr. 15 : 5. They attained 
wealth and importance, kept the sacred 
treasures, and were judges, officers, and 
rulers. 1 Chr. 23 : 12; 26 : 20-26. 
They also appear as singers. 2 Chr. 
20 : 19. 

KOLAIAH (voice of Jehovah). 1. 
A Benjamite. Neh. 11 : 7. 

2. Father of the false prophet Ahab. 
Jer. 29:21. 

KORAH (baldness). 1. Third son 
of Esau and Aholibamah, Gen. 36 : 5, 
14, 18; 1 Chr. 1 : 35 ; named as son of 
Eliphaz. Gen. 36:16. 

2. Son of Izhar, the son of Kohath, 
the son of Levi, Ex. 6 : 18, 21, 24, the 
proud and ambitious ringleader in the 
rebellion with Dathan, Abiram, and On, 
of the tribe of Reuben, against his cou- 
sins, Moses and Aaron. It was a wide- 
spread political rebellion against Moses, 
who held the leadership, to which the 
tribe of Reuben, the first-born, aspired, 
and from which they had been excluded, 
and an ecclesiastical rebellion against 
Aaron by Korah, a Levite, who, with 
his immediate relations, had been shut 
out of the higher priestly service to the 
inferior service of the tabernacle. With 
250 men prominent in the congregation, 
they went to Moses and Aaron and im- 
pudently and impiously charged them 
with usurpation. Moses, astonished at 
the revolt — the most serious that had 
taken place — appealed to Jehovah by a 
test to be made the next day with cen- 
sers. Then, after God had expressed 
his intention to destroy the people, and 
504 



Moses and Aaron had interceded suc- 
cessfully for them, Moses warned them 
as to that which should follow; the 
earth opened and swallowed Dathan 
and Abiram and their followers and 
families, and fire from the Lord de- 
voured Korah and the Levites who 
offered incense. Num. 16 ; 26 : 9 ; 27 : 3. 
The children of Korah survived, and 
became prominent in the temple service. 
1 Chr. 6 : 22, 37 ; 9 : 19. Jude couples 
Korah (Core) with Cain and Balaam in 
his warning against false and self-seek- 
ing teachers, v. 11. 

3. A son of Hebron, and descendant 
of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 43. 

KORAHITES, descendants of 
Korah. Some were noted as singers 
among the Kohathites. 2 Chr. 20 : 19. 
Eleven of the Psalms bear their name: 
42, 44-49, 84, 85, 87, 88. Others were 
doorkeepers. 1 Chr. 9 : 17-19. One, 
Mattithiah, was over " things that were 
made in the pans," 1 Chr. 9 : 31; prob- 
ably the meat-offering. 

KORATHITES. Num. 26 : 58. 
See Korahites. 

KORE (partridge). 1. A Korahite, 
father of Shallum and Meshelemiah, 
temple-porters. 1 Chr. 9:19: 26 : 1. 

2. A Levite porter, son of Imnah, who 
had charge of the offerings and of the 
east gate. 2 Chr. 31 : 14. 

3. To be translated " Korahite." 1 
Chr. 26:19. 

KORHITES. Ex. 6:24; Num. 
26 : 58; 1 Chr. 12 : 6 ; 2 Chr. 20 : 19. 
See Korahites. 

KOZ (thorn). 1. A descendant of 
Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 8. See Coz. 

2. A priest, head of one of the 
courses. 1 Chr. 24 : 10. See Hakkoz. 
It was probably the descendants of this 
priest who could not find the record of 
their genealogy on the return from cap- 
tivity, and were put from the priesthood. 
Ezr. 2 : 61 ; Neh. 7 : 63. Meremoth, of 
the family of Koz, repaired part of the 
wall. Neh. 3:4. 21. 

KUSHA'IAH. 1 Chr. 15:17. See 

KlSHI. 



LAA 



LAC 



LA'ADAH (order), grandson of Ju- 
dah 1 Chr. 4 : 21. 

LA'ADAN (jmt in order). 1. An 
Ephraimite, ancestor of Joshua. 1 Chr. 
7:26. 

2. Son of Gershon. 1 Chr. 23 : 7, 8, 9 ; 
26: 21. Elsewhere and in the margin 
called Libni. 

LA'BAN (white), son of Bethuel, 
grandson of Nahor, grand-nephew of 
Abraham, brother of Rebekah, and father 
of Leah and Rachel, lie lived in Haran, 
the old family home. There he hos- 
pitably received Abraham's servant, ac- 
cording to the custom of the country, 
as head of the house, and took the 
chief part in betrothing Rebekah to 
Isaac. Gen. 24 : 29 ; 25 : 20. To 
him Rebekah sent Jacob after their 
trick had angered Esau, Gen. 27 : 43, 
Isaac adding the charge that his son 
was to take a wife of the daughters of 
Laban. Gen. 28 : 2, 5. Laban cordially 
received him, Gen. 29 : 5, 10, and to 
gain his valuable services engaged him 
and allowed him to name his own wages. 
He asked for Rachel, and through love 
for her served seven years. At the end 
of that time Laban cheated him by 
giving him Leah, v. 23, and afterward 
he gave him Rachel, for whom Jacob 
served seven years more. v. 28. In the 
six additional years during which Jacob 
remained in Mesopotamia, he managed 
by artifice and shepherd's skill to trans- 
fer the best part of his uncle's flocks to 
himself. Gen. 30. Then, through the jeal- 
ousy of Laban, now in his old age, and 
the influence of his sons, and the es- 
trangement of his daughters, and the 
anger of Jacob at being deceived, and 
at having his wages changed so often, 
there came an open rupture. While 
Laban was absent shearing sheep, Jacob, 
expecting to be plundered, stealthily fled 
toward Canaan with his family, and ret- 
inue, and flocks, and household goods. 
Gen. 31. Laban followed in wrath and 
overtook the slow caravan among the 
mountains of Gilead, v. 25, but God 
checked him from violence, v. 24. He 
was again outwitted by Rachel in his 



search for the teraphiin, v. 34 ; but, after 
some sharp wrangling, and a falsehood 
as to the grounds of his displeasure, he 
and Jacob set up a stone and a cairn as 
a witness of the covenant proposed by 
Laban, and a boundary beyond which 
neither was to pass to harm the other, 
v. 44 ; and Laban then took a loving 
farewell and went back to Mesopotamia, 
and appeared no more, being only re- 
ferred to as the past history is brought 
up. 32:4; 46: 18, 25. 

Laban appears first as showing a 
hearty hospitality, but later as having 
hardened into a tricky, grasping, un- 
principled, harsh, selfish old man. 

LA'BAN (tohite), perhaps Libnah, 
near the Elanitic gulf or the Arabah 
desert. Deut. 1:1; Comp. Num. 33 : 20. 

LACE (Heb. twisted), the blue string 
that bound the breastplate to the ephod, 
Ex. 28 : 28 ; the frontlet to the mitre, v. 
37 ; 39 : 31. The same word is used for 
the cord that held the signet-ring, Gen. 
38 : 18, 25 (trans, "bracelets"): for wires, 
Ex. 39 : 3 ; for ribband, Num. 15 : 38 ; 
for a chain (bound) to hold a cover, 
Num. 19 : 15 ; for a thread of tow, Jud. 
16 : 9, and for a measuring-line. Eze. 
40 : 3. 

LA'CHISHO'H^W&^aeityofthe 
Amorites, lying south of Jerusalem, and 
toward the border of Simeon. Josh. 10 : 
3. It was one of the Canaanitish cities 
which was subdued by Joshua and in- 
cluded in Judah ; fortified by Jeroboam. 
2 Chr. 11: 9. King Amaziah was killed 
there. 2 Kgs. 14 : 19. Lachish was be- 
sieged by Sennacherib and perhaps 
taken. 2 Kgs. 18:13, 14; Isa. 36 : 1, 2. 
The siege is considered by some to be de- 
picted on the slabs found in one of the 
chambers of the palace at Kouyunjik. 
Layard reads the cuneiform inscription 
thus : " Sennacherib, the mighty king, 
king of the country of Assyria, sitting 
on the throne of judgment before the city 
of Lachish, — I give permission for its 
slaughter." Compare 2 Chr. 32 : 1 ; 2 Kgs. 
19 : 8 ; Jer. 34 : 7. It was a place of 
great strength, favorably situated upon 
the side of a hill. From Lachish had 
505 



LAD 



LAM 



been introduced into Jerusalem the idol- 
atry of the ten tribes. Mic. 1 : 13. La- 
chish was reoccupied after the Captiv- 
ity. Neh. 11 : 30. It has been identified 




rian of Lachish. {From the monuments. After Layard.) 



with Um Lakis, but better with Tel el- 
»Hesy. 

JLAD. The Hebrew word is used for 
a new-born infant, Ex. 2:6; Jud. 13 : 5, 
7 : of a boy not full-grown, Gen. 21 : 1 6 ; 
of a youth nearly twenty, Gen. 41 : 12, 
and perhaps older, Jud. 17 : 1 : emphati- 
cally to express tender age, Jer. 1:6; 
for a servant, Gen. 37 : 2 ; Jud. 7:10; 
of soldiers, 1 Kgs. 20 : 15; of a young 
nation. Hos. 11 : 1. 



LA'EL (of God), a Gershonite prince. 
Num. 3 : 24. 

LA'HAD (ojypression), a descendant 
of Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 2. 

LAHAI'ROI, 
See Beer-lahairoi. 

LAHMAM (pro- 
visions), a town of 
Judah, Josh. 15:40; 
identified with el Lahm, 
2$ miles south of Beit, 
Jibrin. 

LAH'MI (warrior), 
brother of Goliath. 1 
Chr. 20 : 5. 

LAISH {lion), 
father of Phaltiel, to 
whom Saul gave Mi- 
chal, David's wife. 1 
Sam. 25:44; 2 Sam. 
3 :15. 

LA'ISH, or 

LESH'EM. ]. See 

Dan. 2. The Laisli 

Isa. 10 : 30 can hardly 

as Dan. The intro- 



mentioned in 
have been the sam( 
duction in this connection of a place so 
distant, and, moreover, under its old 
half-forgotten name, would be very 
strange. Probably some small village, 
situated between Galliin and Anathoth ; 
Wilton suggests el 'Aisaiwiyeh, 2 miles 
north of Jerusalem. 

LAKE. Luke 5 : 1. The principal 
lakes mentioned in the Bible are Ti- 



LAD'DER (Heb. a staircase, from berias or Gennesaret, the Salt or Dead 
the verb "to raise up"), the object seen Sea, and Merom. See those articles. 



by Jacob in his vision. Gen. 28 : 12. 
The use of the word in other writers 
suggests that the patriarch saw moun- 
tains or rocks piled up as a staircase. 
It was a symbol of communion with 
heaven through Christ. See John 
1: 51. 

LA'DY, the translation of two He- 
brew words, one the feminine of " mighty 
man," and usually rendered "mistress," 
as distinguished from " servant." Gen. 
16 :4, 8, 9: 2 Kgs. 5:3; Ps. 123 : 2 ; 
Prov. 30 : 23; Isa. 24 : 2. It is applied 
to Babylon as mistress of nations. Isa. 
47 : 5, 7. The other word is rendered 
•• ladies," Jud. 5 : 29 ; Esth. 1 : 18 ; " prin- 
cess," 1 Kgs. 11 : 3 ; Lam. 1:1: Isa. 49 : 
23; "queens" (margin, "princesses"). 
In the N. T. it occurs in 2 John 5; as 
a title or perhaps a proper name, 
kuri'a. 



LA'KUM (way-stopper, fortress), a 
place situated on the boundary of Naph- 
tali, between Jabneel and the Jordan. 
Josh. 19 : 33. 

LAMB. See Sheep. 

LA'MECH (s(ro^). 1. Son of Me- 
thuselah, and father of Noah. Gen. 5 : 
25, 31 ; 1 Chr. 1:3; Luke 3 : 36. 

2. The fifth descendant from Cain, the 
first polj'gamist, father of Jabal, Jubal, 
the inventor of musical instruments, and 
Tubal-cain, the worker of metals. He 
was the author of the earliest verses ex- 
tant, in which he addresses his wives on 
account of having slain a man, Gen. 4 : 
18-24: 

"Adah and Zillah, hear rnv voice; 
Ye wives of Lamech, hearken unto my 

speech ; 
For 1 have slain a man for my wound, 
And a young man lor my bruise; 



LAM 



LAM 



Truly, Cain shall be avenged sevenfold, 
And Lamech seventy and sevenfold." 

LAMENTATIONS ofjere- 

MI'AH. Contents. — The Lamentations 
are an elegias poem on the destruction 
of Jerusalem and Judah by Nebuchad- 
nezzar and the Chaldees — a sort of 
funeral dirge of the theocratic state, yet 
not without hope of its future resurrec- 
tion in a purer and better form. The 
book consists of five separate poems, 
each complete in itself. The first verse 
strikes the keynote, where Jerusalem, 
once a princess among cities, is personi- 
fied as a lonely widow, weeping sorely 
in the night wilh none to comfort her, 
her very friends having become her 
enemies. Chs. 1 and 2 describe the 
calamities of the siege, its causes and 
destructive results. The long siege 
brought on the horrors of famine ; the 
city was taken by storm, the temple was 
polluted, the priests who defended it were 
massacred, and it was then destroyed. 
The fortresses of Judah were thrown 
down; the chief of the people were carried 
into exile ; under the rule of the foreigner 
the Sabbaths and solemn feasts were for- 
gotten. Ch. 3 deplores the persecutions 
which Jeremiah suffered, and represents 
the lowest depth of sorrow, almost in the 
midnight darkness of despair, yet fol- 
lowed by the dawn of a better day. The 
fourth chapter laments the ruin and 
desolation of the city and temple and the 
misfortune of Zedekiah. The fifth chapter 
is a prayer for the Jews in their cap- 
tivity. 

The poetical form of this composition 
is a very elaborate alphabetical structure. 
The first four chapters are acrostics, like 
Ps. 25, 34, 37, 119, etc.— that is. every 
verse begins with a letter of the Hebrew 
alphabet in regular order. Chs. 1, 2, 
and 4 contain twenty-two verses each, ac- 
cording to the number of Hebrew letters. 
The third chapter has three successive 
verses beginning with the same letter, 
making sixty-six verses in all. The verses 
are nearly of the same length, and each 
has three nearly-balanced clauses. The 
fifth chapter is not acrostic, but con- 
tains the same number of verses as 1, 2, 
and 4. At first glance this artificial form 
may seem inconsistent with the subject 
and the spirit. It must be remembered, 
however, that the purpose of the author 



I of the Lamentations was not simply to 
j give an artistic representation of the 
i grief of the Exile, but much more to give 
| to the exiles a means of assuaging their 
i grief; and for this purpose the peculiarly 
1 complicated form was of great advantage, 
I its complications being so many aids to 
the memory. And, indeed, few sections 
J of the 0. T. have done their work more 
I effectually than this. It has soothed the 
I weary years of the Babylonian exile, and 
| afterward kept up a lively remembrance 
| of the days of the deepest humiliation. 
| On the ninth day of the month of Ah 
(July) it was read, year by year, with 
fasting and weeping, to commemorate 
the national misery and the final deliver- 
ance. 

Authorship. — The author is not nanfed 
anywhere in the Bible, and the book is 
not quoted in the N. T. ; but general 
tradition assigns the composition to 
Jeremiah, and this is the prevailing 
opinion to this day. A cavern is still 
pointed out in the neighborhood of Jeru- 
salem, outside of the Damascus gate, to 
which he retired to write the book : it is 
now called the Grotto of Jeremiah, and 
is by some regarded as the true site of 
Calvary. But besides the old traditions, 
the general fitness of things also speaks 
for Jeremiah's authorship, and the objec- 
tions which have been raised against it 
are not conclusive. See Jeremiah. 
LAMP. The lights of the East are 
j of various kinds : not only oil, but pitch, 
| naphtha, and wax are used to maintain 
! the flame. The wicks were generally 
made of cotton or of flax. According to 
rabbinical tradition, the wicks of the 
sacred lamps were made of the old linen 
garments of the priests. The form of 
Oriental lamps was fanciful, and often 
elegant. We have no descriptions of the 
forms specially used by the Hebrews, but 
they were probabl} 7 not different from 
those used in Egypt and Western Asia. 
The materials of which lamps were made 
were baked clay, terra cotta, bronze, etc. 
The lamps of the Hebrews, it is prob- 
able, were suffered to burn all night, and 
[ this occasioned no great expense in a 
j country so rich in oil. We are told that 
i this was considered indispensable to the 
' comfort of a family, and that the poorest 
people would rather deny themselves food 
than neglect it. The putting out of the 
light denoted the ruin and extinction of 
507 



LAN 



LAO 



the family and the desertion of the house. 
This gives force to the words in Job 18 : 
5, 6 j 21 : 17 ; 29 : 3 : " The light of the 
wicked shall be put out ; * * * light shall 
be dark in his tabernacle, and his candle 
shall be put out with him." " How oft is 




Assyrian Terra-Cotta and Glass Lamps. (From 
British Museum.) 




Chaldaean Lamps. 




Lamp with Christian Inscription. 

the candle of the wicked put out." Jer. 
25 : 10, 11 ; Prov. 20 : 20. Also in Prov. 
13 : 9 : " The light of the righteous re- 
joiceth, but the lamp of the wicked shall 
be put out ;" and of the prudent wife, 
"Her candle goeth not out by night." 
Prov. 31 : 18. 

LANCE. Jer. 50 : 42. See Armor. 

LAN'CET, a javelin or light spear. 
1 Kgs. 18 : 28. But see Knife. 

LANDMARK. According to the 
ordinances given by Moses, the land, 
when conquered, was divided by lot and 
measurement among the tribes, families, 
and individuals of the nation. The lines 
508 



separating one man's field from that of 
another were sometimes marked by rows 
of trees, but most often simply by a heap 
of stones at the corners. To remove 
these landmarks was easy enough, and 
hence the severe penalty incurred for 
doing it. Deut. 19 : 14; 27 : 17; Prov. 
23:10. 

LANES were narrow streets where 
the poorer people lived. Luke 14 : 21. 

LANGUAGE. Gen. 2 : 20 : 11 : 1. 
It is generally supposed that Adam was 
endued with the power of speech and fur- 
nished with a language at his creation, 
and that it was sufficiently perfect and 
comprehensive for all the purposes of 
his being. This was the language of 
the whole earth for nearly 2000 years, or 
until about a century after the Flood. 
It was then that the Tower of Babel was 
erected, and God caused a confusion of 
languages — an event which forms the 
antitype of the speaking in tongues by 
the apostles at the first Pentecost. Some 
of the older divines supposed, without 
any good reason, that the Hebrew was 
the original language given by God to 
Adam, and that all the other languages 
resulting from the division and disper- 
sion of mankind over the face of the earth 
are derived from that as the root. The 
modern science of comparative philol- 
ogy distinguishes three distinct families 
of languages — the Shemitic (to which the 
Hebrew belongs), the Indo-Germanic or 
Aryan (which includes the Greek), and 
the Turanian. For a brief account of 
the languages in which the Bible was 
written, see Bible. 

LANTERNS, probably some kind 
of covered torch. Johji 18 : 3. 

LAODICE'A, the old city of Dios- 
polis, the present village of Eski-hisaar, 
stood on the banks of the Lycus, an afflu- 
ent of the Meander, a few miles distant 
from Colosse and Hierapolis, in the Ro- 
man province of Asia, the present Asia 
Minor. By the Syrian king Seleucus II., 
Diospolis was enlarged and beautified, 
and from his wife, Laodice, it received 
its new name. Under the Roman rule 
it became a great commercial centre, 
situated as it was on the great route 
through Asia, and acquired great wealth. 
When, in the middle of the first century 
of our era, an earthquake destroyed 
Colosse, Hierapolis, and Laodicea, the 
latter was rebuilt by its own inhabitants 



LAO 



LAP 



without any aid from the Roman senate. 
A Christian church was early established 
here, probably from Ephesus, and to this 
church Paul sent a salutation when writ- 
ing to the Colossians, Col. 4:15; it is also 



mentioned in Rev. 1:11: 3 : 14. From 
Col. 4:15 it appears that Paul wrote a 
letter to the Laodiceans, but of this letter 
no certain account can be made: some 
think to recognize it in the Epistle to 




the Ephesians, which was a circular letter. 
The "Epistle to the Laodicecses/' so 
called, which exists only in Latin, is a 
literary forgery of late date, and com- 
piled from the Galatians and Ephesians. 
The church of Laodicea flourished for 
several centuries. In the fourth century 
an important council gathered here. The 
Mohammedans destroyed the city, and it 
is now only a heap of ruins around a small 
and miserable village. 

LAODICE'ANS, the inhabitants 
of Laodicea. Col. 4 : 16 ; Rev. 3 : 14. 

LAP, LAPTETH. The Eastern 
people are accustomed to take up water 
in the hollow of the hand, and they do it 
with surprising agility, sitting on their 
heels with the face close over the water, 
and putting out the tongue to meet the 
water. The alertness of the men of 
Gideon was tested in this manner. Jud. 
7:5. 

LAPIDOTH (torches), the hus- 
band of the prophetess Deborah. Jud. 
4:4. 

L.AP'WING, doubtless the hoopoe, 
a bird so named from its call-note, of 



of Laodicea. 

about the size of the thrush, and of 
gular appearance and ways. Lev. 11 : 



sin- 

19. 




wing or Hoopoe. 

It is abundant in Palestine and 
warmer parts of the Old World, an 
sometimes seen in England. 

509 



the 
d is 



LAS 



LAW 



LASiE'A, a town of Crete, near 
Fair Haven, now in ruins, but identified 
without doubt. Acts 27 : 8. 

LA'SHA {fissure), a place on the 
south-eastern boundary of Canaan, Gen. 
10 : 19 ; identified by earlier Christian 
writers as Callirhoe, situated near the 
eastern shore of the Dead Sea, and fa- 
mous for its hot springs. 

LASHA'RON {the plain), a district 
whose king was killed by Joshua. Josh. 
12: 18: now Sarona, near Tabor. 

LATCH'ET. Mark 1 : 7. See 
Clothes. 

LAT'IN, Luke 23 : 38, LAT'IN 
VER SIOIVS. See Bible. 

LAT'TICE. 2 Kgs. 1 : 2. See 
Dwellings. 

LAUGH, LAUGHTER. When 
these forms arc used concerning God, as 
in Prov. 1: 26; Ps. 2: 4; 37: 13, they 
signify that he despises or pays no re- 
gard to the persons or subject. 

-LA'VER, a brazen vessel belonging 
to the tabernacle, and standing in the 
court, between the altar and the sacred 
tent. Ex. 30: 18, 21. It contained 




A Brazen Laver on Wheels. 

water for the priests to wash their hands 
and feet before offering sacrifice, and 
probably also for washing the things 
offered. Its form is not described, but 
it was made from the brazen mirrors of 
the women who assembled at the door of 
the tabernacle court. Ex.38: 8. In the 
temple of Solomon there were ten brazen 
lavers on feet, 1 Kgs. 7 : 27-39, five 
510 



on each side of the court of priests which, 
wereusedfor washing the animals to be sac- 
rificed. 2 Chr. 4 : 6. See Sea, The Molten. 

LAW, THE. This term is applied 
in the N. T. to the old dispensation, in 
distinction from the new ; the dispensa- 
tion under the law in distinction from 
the dispensation under the gospel ; the 
dispensation by Moses in distinction 
from the dispensation by Christ. John 
1:17; Acts 25 : 8 ; Heb. 10 : 1-18. But 
besides this its general sense, which is 
never entirely lost sight of by the writers 
of the N. T., the term refers more spe- 
cially to the Mosaic legislation, including 
the moral, Matt. 5 : 17, the ceremonial, 
Eph. 2: 15, and the political, but more 
especially the first. Sometimes St. Paul 
uses the word " law" (without the article) 
in a wider sense — of principle, rule of 
moral conduct — and speaks of the hea- 
then as having such a law written on 
their conscience or being a law to them- 
selves. Bom. 2: 14, 15. 

The moral law of the old dispensation, 
embodied in the ten commandments (the 
Decalogue), was promulgated with ex- 
traordinai-y solemnity on Mount Sinai 
by God himself, under the manifestation 
of his holy majesty, and recorded by his 
own finger on two tables of stone. Ex. 
19. Afterward it was preserved by the 
Jews in the ark of the covenant, in the 
holy of holies of the tabernacle and the 
temple, and, spreading from the Jews 
among other nations, it forms the indis- 
pensable and immovable foundation of 
all social order and well-being. For, 
though the Decalogue has the form of a 
law, it is what its history proves it to be 
— something more than mere rules of 
conduct. It is a revelation of the nature 
of God: "Ye shall be holy; for I the 
Lord your God am holy," Lev. 19 : 2 ; 
and therefore Christ says, " Think not 
that I am come to destroy the law or the 
prophets; I am not come to destroy, but 
to fulfil." See Ten Comj\!Andments. 

The ceremonial law, prescribing the 
forms of Hebrew worship, public and 
private, the modes and times of sacrifice, 
fast, purification, prayer, festivals, etc., 
rested on this moral law and formed a 
transition to the political or civil law. 
Many of its ordinances — for instance, 
those relating to diet and purification — • 
had a social, a sanitary purpose besides 
their religious meaning. By this cere- 



LAW 



LAZ 



monial law the Hebrews were formed 
into a nation distinct from all other na- 
tions, and every single feature of the 
ritual served to remind them that they 
were the chosen people of God. Though 
God was certainly the God over all na- 
tions, he was by a special covenant the 
God of Israel. The ceremonial law was 
to the Jews an awful duty, and at the 
same time a magnificent promise. Its 
whole character was typical, prophetical. 
Its whole bearing pointed toward Christ, 
and when Christ came it was thereby 
fulfilled and abolished, fur "we are not 
under the law but under grace." Rom. 6 : 
14,15; 7: 4,6; Gal. 3: 13, 25; 5: 18. 
The political or civil law of the Mosaic 
constitution, which made the Hebrews a 
people and founded a state, was, as all 
political or civil laws must be, simply 
the expression of a certain stage of his- 
torical development, and as such subject 
to the historical laws of growth, decay, 
and destruction. But this civil law was 
in perfect harmony Avith the moral and 
ceremonial law, and was formed through- 
out in accordance with the same princi- 
ples — the principles of theocracy. Civil 
law is confined to certain relations be- 
tween man and man. Nevertheless, at 
every point of the political order of the 
Hebrew state, a direct reference is made 
to God as the King. The basis of the 
whole system is the absolute sovereignty 
of God, and the principle according to 
which all the details are worked out is, 
first, the relation between each individual 
and God, and then the relation between in- 
dividual and individual. This is evident, 
for instance, from the ordinances relat- 
ing to property. In the Roman repub- 
lic all land was held by the state ; in the 
feudal monarchies of mediaeval Europe 
all land was held by the king; in the 
theocracy of the Hebrews all land be- 
longed to Jehovah, : " The land is mine, 
and ye are strangers and sojourners with 
me." Lev. 25 : 23. Hence the payment 
of tithes, 27 : 23-26 ; the offering of the 
first-fruits, Deut. 26 : 1-10; the impos- 
sibility of alienating landed property, 
the ground reverting at the jubilee year 
to its original possessor, etc. But not 
only the land was the absolute property 
of Jehovah ; also the persons of the 
Israelites belonged to him. Hence the 
dedication and ransom of the first-born, 
Ex. 13: 2-13; the payment of the half- 



shekel at the numbering of the people 
" as a ransom for their souls to the Lord," 
Ex.30: 11-16; the very limited power 
which a master held over Hebrew slaves. 
Lev. 25 : 39-46, etc. 

Though the law, in the widest sense 
of the word, denoting the whole Mosaic 
constitution, stands before us a wonder- 
ful system both with respect to complete- 
ness and with respect to consistency, it 
is nevertheless essential to its full under- 
standing to remember that, just as it 
came itself to prepare the way for the 
gospel, it too has had its precursors 
and had the way prepared for it by the 
Abrahamic covenant and its promises. 
That, on the whole, much of the mate- 
rials of the Mosaic legislation existed 
before the time of Moses may be inferred 
from the penalties against murder and 
adultery, Gen. 9: 6; 38: 24; from the 
Levirate law, Gen. 38: 8; from the dis- 
tinction of clean and unclean animals, 
Gen. 8: 20; and from the probable ob- 
servance of the Sabbath. Ex. 16: 23, 
27, 29 ; cornp. Gen. 2 : 3. 

LAWYERS, among the Hebrews, 
were not pleaders before a court, but ex- 
pounders of the law in the schools and 
synagogues; and it is even doubtful 
whether there was any difference at all 
between a lawver and a scribe. Matt. 
22 : 35 ; Luke 1.0 : 25 ; comp. Mark 12 : 
28. 

LAYING ON OF HANDS. See 
Hand. 

IiAZ'ARUS, an abbreviation of 
ELEAZAR (whom God helps). 1. A 
citizen of Bethany residing with his two 
sisters; of their household Christ was a 
frequent guest. He was raised from the 
grave by Christ in sight of the city of 
Jerusalem, in the presence of the family 
and a number of Jews, after he had been 
dead four days ; and so incensed were 
the Jews at this that they sought to kill 
not only Christ, but even Lazarus. John 
11: 12: 1-11. 

2. In the parable by which our Saviour 
illustrates the retributions of eternity one 
of the parties is named Lazarus, Luke 
16 : 19-31 ; and it is from this character 
the Knights of St. Lazarus, an order half 
military and half monastic, founded in 
1119, and specially destined to administer 
to the lepers, received their name. Also, 
lazaretto, or ''hOopitaV'and lazzarone, or 
" beggar," are derived from the name, 
51i 



LEA 



LEB 



which shows that the parable must have 
made an extraordinarily deep impression 
on the mediaeval Church. 

LEAD, a metal known to the ancients 
from a very early period, and alluded to 
in Ex. 15 : 10 on account of its weight. 
It is mentioned several times in Scripture 
as entering into the process of purifying 
more precious metals, Jer. 6 : 29 ; Eze. 
22 : 1 8, 20 ; for which purpose quicksilver 
is now used. The words of Job 19 : 24, 
" That they were graven with an iron pen 
and lead in the rock for ever !" refer to 
the custom of pouring molten lead into 
letters carved in the rock in order to make 
them more striking to the eye. 

LEAF. Isa. 64 : 6. The bright 
fresh color of the leaf of a tree or plant 
shows that it is richly nourished by a 
good soil. Hence the fresh leaf is often 
used in Scripture as a symbol of pros- 
perity, Ps. 1:3; Jer. 17 : 8 ; Eze. 47 : 12 ; 
the faded leaf as a symbol of decay. Job 
13 : 25 ; Isa. 1:30; 64 : 6 ; Jer. 8:13; 
Eze. 17 : 9. Also other illustrations are 
derived from leaves. Lev. 26 : 36 ; Isa. 
34:4; Dan. 4: 12, 14, 21; Mark 13:28 , • 
Kev. 22:2. 

LE' AH (wearied), the eldest daughter 
of Laban, and married to Jacob by her 
father's deceit. Gen. 29. She bore him 
six sons and one daughter, and died 
after he went down to Egypt, and was 
buried in the cave of Machpelah. Gen. 
49 : 31. She was aware of the greater 
affection which Jacob felt for her sister, 
and suffered thereby, Gen. 29 : 21-25, 
31-35; 30 : 1-25, but she was neverthe- 
less heartily devoted to her husband. 

LEASING, lies, falsehood. Ps. 4: 
2 ; 5:6. 

LEATH'ER was used by the Jews 
for clothing, Job 31 : 20 ; Heb. 11 : 37 ; 
for covering, Ex. 26 : 14; for girdles, 2 
Kgs. 1:8; Matt. 3 : 4, etc. ; but the trade 
of the tanner, probably learnt in Egypt, 
where it was highly developed, was not 
held in high esteem. 

LEAVEN", a ferment mixed with 
dough to make it. light, or a piece of 
dough or bread thus mixed and used to 
lighten a larger mass. Ex. 12:15. It 
makes a thorough change in the whole, 
and hence the force of the parable, Matt. 
13 : 33, by which the silent influence of 
the gospel on the heart of man is beauti- 
fully illustrated. And so also it figu- 
ratively denotes the influence of false and 
512 



corrupt doctrines, Matt. 16 : 6, as well as 
the evil passions of the depraved and 
unregenerate heart. 1 Cor. 5:7, 8. The 
Jews were forbidden to offer leaven and 
honey in the temple, Lev. 2:11, and dur- 
ing the seven days of the Passover leaven 
was not even allowed to be found in their 
houses ; whence the festival was often 
called the " feast of unleavened bread." 
Comp. 1 Cor. 5 : 6. 

LEB' AN A (white), one whose 
descendants returned with Zerubbabel. 
Neh. 7 : 48. 

LEB'ANON (exceeding white, viz., 
with snow, as Mont Blanc), a double 
mountain-range to the north of Pal- 
estine, consisting of a western chain, 
Lebanon proper, and an eastern, "Leb- 
anon toward the sun-rising," Josh. 13 : 
5; or by classic wri'ers, Anti-Libanus, 
and enclosing a A T alley from 5 to 8 miles 
broad — "the valley of Lebanon," Josh. 
11: 17; or by classic writers, Coelo- 
Syria, the present El-Bukda, which 
connects to the north with the valley 
of the Orontes, and to the south with 
the valley of the Jordan. The western 
range, the Lebanon proper, begins on 
the north near the banks of the Eleu- 
therus, which passes through the plain 
of Emesa, the " entrance of Hamath," 
Num. 34 : 8, to the Mediterranean, and 
runs for a distance of 90 geographical 
miles, in the direction from north-east 
to south-west, parallel with the Med- 
iterranean, to the banks of the Litany, 
the ancient Leontes, which, draining 
Ccelo- Syria and breaking through the 
Lebanon by a wild gorge, enters the 
Mediterranean a few miles north of 
Tyre. The average height of this range 
is" from 6000 to 8000 feet. Its highest 
peaks are Jebel Mukhmel, 10,200 feet, 
and Sannin, 9000 feet. The line of cul- 
tivation runs at an elevation of about 
6000 feet. The peaks which pass be- 
yond this line are generally barren and 
covered with small fragments of lime- 
stone, through which the naked rocks 
jut up in jagged points. The highest 
of them, however, are covered with per- 
petual snow and ice, towering aloft in 
their glittering magnificence, visible far 
off by sea and by land, and sending 
forth streams of cooled air over the 
scorched plains of Sj'ria and Palestine. 
The eastern descent toward Coelo-Syria 
is steep, wild, often forbidding; but to 



LEB 



LEB 




View of Lebanon from the Sea. 



the west the Lebanon descends gradually- 
through broad terraces to the Mediter- 
ranean, generally facing the sea with 
ranges of bold limestone cliffs. Every- 
where broken by the sudden rise of 
high peaks of rook or rent by deep 
precipices and ravines, these terraces 
present a most romantic prospect, and 
the beauty of the country is still more 
enhanced by the salubrity of the air 
and the fertility of the soil ; by the lux- 
uriant vegetation which covers all forms ; 
pine, oak, and Cedar (which see) on the 
peaks ; mulberry and orange trees, figs, 
vines, corn, and melons on the slopes ; 
olive and cotton trees in the valleys, 
besides a multitude of fragrant herbs 
and gorgeous flowers. " The smell of 
thy garments is like the smell of Leb- 
anon." Cant. 4 : 11. The eastern chain, 
the Anti-Lebanon, runs nearly parallel 
with the western from the plain of 
Emesa until, in the south, it connects 
with the hills of Galilee. Its highest 
point is Mount Hermon (which see). 
Its western descent toward Ccelo-Syria 
is abrupt and steep ; to the east it grad- 
ually sinks into the plains of the desert. 
Its general aspect is bleak and barren, 
the abode of wild beasts and birds 
of prey. From both ranges numerous 
rivers descend — the Eleutherus, Leontes, 
33 



Jordan, Abana, and Pharpar (which 
see) ; and the cold-flowing waters of the 
springs and streams of Lebanon were 
and are still proverbial. 

Lebanon, the land of which Moses 
said, " I pray thee let me go over and 
see the good land that is beyond Jor- 
dan, that goodly mountain, and Leb- 
anon," Deut. 3': 25, was in the oldest 
times inhabited by the Hivites and 
Giblites, Jud. 3:3: Josh. 13 : 5, 6, of 
whom the latter built the city of Gebal, 
the Greek Byblus, the present Jebail. 
The land was assigned to the Israelites, 
but never conquered by them. Josh. 13: 
2-6; Jud. 3 : 1-3. It stood under Phoe- 
nician rule. 1 Kgs. 5 : 2-6 ; Ezr. 3 : 7. 
In the times of David and Solomon, 
however, the Jews became quite inti- 
mately acquainted with the country, 
and the deep impression it made on 
them is apparent throughout the books 
of the 0. T. Its cedars, Cant. 5 : 15, 
its wines, Hos. 14 : 7, its cold waters, 
Jer. 18 : 14, etc., are repeatedly men- 
tioned, and from it the sacred writers 
very frequently take the materials for 
their most striking similes. Ps. 72 : 16; 
29 : 5, 6 ; 104 : 16-18 ; Isa. 35 : 2 ; 60 : 13 ; 
Zech. 11 : 1, 2, etc. Anti-Lebanon stood 
under the rule of Damascus, though in 
the southern part several fierce tribes 
513 



LEB 



LEN 



remained independent up to a very- 
late date. 1 Chr. 5 : 19-23. When the 
whole region came under the sway of 
the Seleucidse, b. c. 312-65, several 
large and important cities were built 
here, such as Laodicaea, Chalcis, Abila, 
etc. (which see), and as a Roman prov- 
ince the prosperity of the country still 
increased, as the ruins of Chalcis and 
Baalbek show. Also, during the wars 
with the Saracens and Turks, it re- 
mained comparatively undisturbed, and 
it is now inhabited by some 200,000 
or 300,000 Christians, Maronites, and 
Druses. In Anti-Lebanon, however, 
most of the inhabitants are Mohammed- 
ans, and the governor is a Turkish 
official of the common stamp ; while the 
governor of Lebanon is a Christian, 
and his position is guaranteed by the 
powers of Europe. 

LEB'AOTH (lionesses), a town be- 
longing to the tribes of Judah; prob- 
ably identical with Beth-Lebaoth or 
Beth-Birei. Josh. 15 : 32 j now Bireh. 

LEBB^E'US (hearty, courageous), 
one of the names of the apostle Jude, 
Matt. 10 : 3. 

LEBONAH (frankincense), the 
present El-Lubban, south of Nablus, is 
mentioned, Jud. 21 : 19, as a place in 
the vicinity of Shiloh. 

LE'CA.H (walking, course) occurs 
only in the genealogies of Judah, 1 Chr. 
4 : 21, and possibly is the name of a 
town. 

LEECH. See Horse-leech. 

LEEK, a bulbous vegetable like the 
onion, a particular species of which has 
been cultivated in Egypt from a very 
early period. Num. 11 : 5. It is eaten 
raw with bread. In the passage cited 
it is supposed that lettuce, salads, or 
savory herbs generally may be intend- 
ed, as the original word in the O. T. is 
twelve times rendered " grass" and once 
" herb." 

LEES. " Wines on thelees," Isa. 25 : 
6, means well-preserved, full-bodied wine. 
" He hath settled on his lees," however, 
is used figuratively, Jer. 48 : 11 ; Zeph. 
1 : 12, as an expression of sloth and 
indifference. To drink the lees or 
" dregs," Ps. 75 : 8, denotes extreme 
suffering. 

LE'GION, a band of Roman sol- 
diers having originally about 3000 ; later 
6000 to 7000, men : the ordinary number 
514 




Common Leek. {Allium porrum.) 

was 6200 foot and 730 horse. In Matt. 
26 : 53, and also in Mark 5 : 9, 15, it 
means a large but indefinite number, 
and corresponds to the "hosts" of the 
O. T. Gen. 32 : 2 ; Ps. 148 : 2. 

LE HABIM (fiery, flaming), Gen. 
10 : 13; 1 Chr. 1: 11, LUBIM or 
LIBYANO, Dan. 11 : 43 j 2 Chr. 12 : 
3 ; 16 : 8 : Nah. 3:9; is the name of a 
people which in the Egyptian inscrip- 
tions is called " Lebu," and in classic and 
modern literature " Libyans." They were 
of Hamitic descent, and inhabited the 
northern part of Africa, west of Egypt. 
At Carthage they were thrown back to- 
ward the interior by a Phoenician colony, 
at Cyrene by a Greek colony ; and the 
country Libya became finally a part of 
the Roman empire. In the oldest times, 
however, the Libyans seem to have been 
allies rather than the subjects of the 
Egyptians. 

LE'HI (jaiobone), a place in Judah, 
between the Philistine frontier and the 
cliff of Etam, where Samson slew the 
Philistines. Jud. 15 : 9 ff. ; possibly Beit 
Likia, or ' Ayun Kara. 

LEMUEL (dedicated to God), the 
name of the king to whom the counsels, 
contained in Prov. 31 : 2-9 are addressed 
by his mother. The Rabbins identify 
Lemuel with Solomon : others consider 
the name a mere personification : nothing 
is known with certaintv. 

LEND, LENDER. See Loan. 

LEN TILES (Ervum lens), a culti- 



LEO 



LW 



vated plant, smaller than the garden 
pea, but of the same family. In the 
markets of Palestine red lentiles are still 
sold as the best variety, and from them 
a pottage is made which Dr. Robinson 




Lentiles. {Ervum lens.) 

and others who have eaten it affirm 
would be a savory meal for a weary 
hunter. Gen. 25:29, 30. The "piece 
of ground full of lentiles," 2 Sam. 23 : 
11, is still common in the Holy Land, 
and the poor not infrequently make len- 
tiles into bread. Eze. 4 : 9. This pulse 
is much used in Roman Catholic coun- 
tries during Lent, and from it the name 




Leopard. (Felis leopardus.) 

of the season is said to be derived. As 

a crop it is cut and threshed like wheat. 

LEOPARD (Heb. spotted). In 



the Bible there is frequent reference to 
this fierce animal, which still lurks 
among the forests of Gilead, the jungles 
of the Jordan, and more rarely among 
the thickets of Tabor and Carmel. Jer. 
13 : 23. The local names Nimrim, " leop- 
ard," and Beth-Nimrah, " house of the 
leopard" (perhaps) are to be remem- 
bered. Near the latter place Tristram 
saw the fresh footprints of these crea- 
tures, "clear and unmistakable, on the 
moist ooze." It is the habit of the leop- 
ard to wait patiently hour after hour 
that it may pounce upon cattle. Jer. 5 : 
6 ; Hos. 13 : 7. Isa. 11 : 6 alludes to its 
cruelty, and Dan. 7 : 6 to its power. But 
it is thought there is reference under 
the same name in Hab. 1 : 8 to the chee- 
tah, a similar but smaller animal still 
found in Palestine, the rush of which 
upon its prey exceeds in swiftness the 
motion of any other carnivorous animal. 
IiEP'ER. Leprosy is a loathsome 
disease still prevalent in Egypt and 
Syria, and occurring also in India, 
China, the Crimea, and Norway. The 
bones and the marrow are pervaded with 
the disease, so that the joints of the 
hands and feet lose their power, the 
limbs of the body fall together, and the 
whole system assumes a most deformed 
and loathsome appearance. The pro- 
gress and effect of the disease are de- 
scribed in Job 2 : 7, 8, 12 ; 6 : 2 ; 7 : 3-5 ; 
19 : 14-21. 

There are two forms of the disease — 
the tuberculated, incrusting the whole 
person with ulcerous tubercles, and the 
anaesthetic, making the skin mummy- 
like — but under both forms 
" Death lives," and the dis- 
eased is a "walking tomb," 
"a parable of death." There 
was also a milder form of the 
disease, the so-called "white 
leprosy," often attacking only 
one limb, and generally cur- 
able, as when " Moses' hand 
was leprous as snow." Ex. 
4 : 6. Notice also the cases 
of Miriam, Num. 12 : 10 ; Ge- 
hazi, 2 Kgs. 5 : 27 ; and Uz- 
ziah. 2 Chr. 26:16-23. 

Although the laws respect- 
ing this disease which we find 
in the Mosaic code are exceedingly rigid, 
it is by no means clear that the leprosy was 
considered contagious. The horror and 
515 



LEP 



LET 



disgust which was felt toward a disease so 
foul and loathsome might be a sufficient 
reason for such severe enactments, and 



strict seclusion was at all events an effect- 
ive means of arresting the progress of 
the disease by preventing intermarriage 




Leprous Beggars. 



between lepers and the sound. The 
leper was excluded from the tabernacle 
and the camp, and when he was healed 
his restoration to social intercourse with 
his fellow-men was twofold, performed 
both in the camp and in the tabernacle. 
Lev. 14 : 3-32. A house for lepers was 
built outside Jerusalem on the hill of 
Gareb — i. e., " the hill of scraping," Jer. 




Head of a Leper. 

31 : 40 ; Job 2 : 8 — and the leper was 
compelled to wear mourning. Lev. 13 : 45. 
With respect to the leprosy of houses 
and of clothes, Lev. 14 : 55, the expres- 
sion is only analogical, referring to the 
spots and disfigurations which appeared 
516 



upon the walls and articles of clothing, 
resembling the leprous spots, and orig- 
inating from a species of mould or mil- 
dew, indicating a great degree of damp- 
ness, corrupting the air, injurious to 
health, and often the occasion and pre- 
cursor of fatal diseases. The rites or- 
dained for cleansing and purifying this 
kind of "leprosy" are in their sym- 
bolical bearing strictly analogous to the 
laws concerning leprosy proper. Lev. 
13 : 47-59 ; 14 : 33-53. 

LEPROSY. See Leper. 

LESBOS. Acts 20 : 14. See 

MlTVLENE. 

LE'SHEM, an ancient form for 
LAISH, the original name of Dan 
(which see). Josh. 19 : 47. 

JLET is used in the old sense "to 
hinder " in Ex. 5:4; Isa. 43 : 13 ; Rom. 
1:13; 2 Thess. 2:7. 

LETHECH, occurring in the mar- 
gin of Hos. 3 : 2, is derived from a root sig- 
nifying ''to empty," "to pour out," and 
denotes a measure of grain — half a homer. 

LETTER. The letters mentioned, 
2 Sam. 11 : 14, 2 Kgs. 10 : 1 ; Ezr. 4 : 
11, were in the form of rolls, not unlike 
those used in the East at the present 
day. Thus the Arabs roll up their 
letters, and then flatten them to the 
breadth of an inch and paste up the end 
instead of sealing them, and the Per- 
sians make up their letters in the form 
of rolls, about 6 inches long, and paste 



LET 



LEV 



a bit of paper around them with gum and 
seal them with an impression of ink. 
When sent to inferiors they were often 




Part of a Turkish Firman. 

sent open, Neh. 6:5; but when sent to 
equals or superiors they were enclosed 
in a purse or bag. See Writing. 

LETUSHIM {sharpened, ham- 
mered), an Arabian tribe descended 
from Dedan, the son of Jokshan. Gen. 
25 : 3. 

LEUM'MIM (peoples, nations), an 
Arabian tribe descended from Dedan, 
the son of Jokshan. Gen. 25 : 3. 

LE'VI (joining). 1. The third son of 
Jacob and Leah, thus named by the 
mother because "now will my husband 
be joined unto me, because I have born 
him three sons." Gen. 29 : 34. To- 
gether with Simeon he avenged the 



wrongs of their sister Dinah by slaying 
the Shechemites, Gen. 34:25-31, but 
thereby he incurred the curse of Jacob. 
Gen. 49 : 5-7. By the zeal, how- 
ever, of his descendants on occa- 
sion of the golden calf, Ex. 32 : 
26-29, the curse was transformed 
into a blessing. He had three 
sons, Gershon, Kohath, and Me- 
rari, and died in Egypt 137 
years old. Ex. 6 : 16. 

2. Two of the ancestors of our 
Lord. Luke 3 : 24, 29. 

3. The oi'iginal name of Mat- 
thew, the publican and after- 
ward the apostle, son of Al- 
phagus. Mark 2:14; Luke 5: 

27, 29 : Matt. 9 : 9. 

LEVIATHAN, the Hebrew name 
of an animal minutely described in Job 
41, the monster of the water, as behe- 
moth was of the land. Probably the 
crocodile is here intended — a reptile 
which resembles the alligator, but is 
larger and more formidable, with nar- 
rower snout, and feet webbed to the end 
of the toes. "The whole head, back, 
and tail are covered with quadrangular 
horny plates or scales, which not only 
protect the body — a rifle-ball glancing 
off from them as from a rock — but also 
serve as ballast, enabling the creature to 
sink rapidly, on being disturbed, by 




Leviathan. (Crocodilus Vulgaris. After Tristram.) 



merely expelling the air from its lungs." 
— Tristram. 

It is believed that the crocodile was 
once abundant in the lower Nile to its 



mouth, but it is now rarely seen within 
the confines of Egypt. This reptile 
once abounded also in the Zerka or 
Crocodile River, which flows through 
517 



LEV 



LEV 



the Plain of Sharon, and doubtless in 
the Tigris. 

The crocodile seems to be meant by 
the word "leviathan" in Ps. 74:14; 
Isa. 27 : 1. But in Ps. 104 : 26 the word 
is evidently used for some sea-monster, 
perhaps the whale. Several large ceta- 
ceous animals are found in the Mediter- 
ranean. 

LE'VITES. In analogy with the 
names of the other tribes of Israel, the 
term should mean all the descendants of 
Levi, the whole tribe of Levi, and in this 
sense it is used in Num. 35 : 2 ; Josh. 
21 : 3, 41 ; Ex. 6 : 25 ; Lev. 25 : 32, etc. 
As, however, the "sons of Aaron " were 
sepai-ated from the rest of the descend- 
ants of Levi and consecrated priests, the 
term came to denote a distinction within 
the tribe itself; and the Levites com- 
prised only those descendants of Levi 
who were not " sons of Aaron" — that is, 
priests. 1 Kgs. 8:4; Ezr. 2 : 70 ; John 
1 : 19, etc. Sometimes, also, the term was 
used as an epithet — "the priests the 
Levites," Josh. 3:3; Deut. 17 : 18— but 
its general acceptance was, and is, that 
of the second sense here given. 

No allusion is made in Genesis to the 
consecrated character of the Levites. It 
was given on the occasion of the making 
of the golden calf by the Israelites while 
encamped about Mount Sinai. Ex. 32 : 
25-29. When Moses came down from 
the mountain and discovered the idol, he 
cried out : " Who is on the Lord's side ? 
let him come unto me." The Levites 
immediately gathered around him, and 
in reward of their faithfulness on this 
occasion they were selected as the special 
servants of the Lo.-d and the ministers of 
his sanctuary. Deut. 10 : 8, 9 ; 18 : 1, 2 ; 
33 : 8-11. Their number was at this time 
22,000, and corresponded nearly to that 
of the first-born males of the whole 
people. Since the day when the first-born 
of Egypt were slain, while those of Israel 
were spared, all first-born males of Israel 
belonged to the Lord. They numbered 
22,273, and in their place, as the special 
inheritance of Jehovah, the Levites were 
now substituted, the 273 surplus being 
redeemed at five shekels each, Num. 3 : 
45-51, which was the fixed ransom for a 
victim vowed in sacrifice. Num. 18: 16; 
Lev. 27 : 6. Thus the Levites came to 
occupy in the Hebrew theocracy a posi- 
tion midway between the priests and the 
518 



people. They were not allowed to offer 
sacrifice, to burn incense, to see the 
" holy things" until covered, Nunr. 4 : 5, 
etc., but they marched nearer the ark 
than the people, they carried the sacred 
tent in parts, they pitched it again at 
halting-stations, etc. For service they 
were purified by bathing, shaving, etc., 
and consecrated by the imposition of 
hands. The duties of their office during 
the wanderings in the wilderness were 
minutely described. They consisted of 
three great families, the Kohathites. the 
Gershonites, and the Merarites, of which 
the first carried the sacred vessels, the 
second the hangings and curtains of the 
tabernacle, and the third the boards and 
pillars. They also kept the book of the 
Law, Deut. 17 : 8-12, and served as 
judges, etc. 

Forty-eight cities, with one thousand 
cubits of the country surrounding, were 
appropriated for the residence and main- 
tenance of the Levites. These cities, of 
which thirteen were allotted to the priests 
and six were cities of refuge, were selected 
by lot, and lay scattered all over the 
country in the following way : in Judah 
and Simeon : Hebron or Kirjath-arba, 
Libnah, Jattir, Eshtemoa, Holon or 
Hilen, Debir, Ain or Ashan, Juttah, 
Beth-shemesh ; in Benjamin: Gibeon, 
Geba, Anathoth, Almon or Alemeth ; in 
Ephraim: Shechem, Gezer, Kibzaim or 
Jokmeam, Beth-horon; in Dan : Eltekeh, 
Gibbethon, Aijalon, Gath-rimmon ; in 
Manasseh : Taanach or Aner, Gath-rim- 
mon or Bileam, Golan, Beeshterah or 
Ashtaroth ; in Issachar : Kishon or Ke- 
desh, Dabareh or Daberath, Jarmuth or 
Ramoth, En-gannim or Anem ; in Asher : 
Mishal or Mashal, Abdon, Helkath or 
Hukok, Behob ; in Naphtali: Kedesh, 
Hammoth-dor or Hammon, Kartan or 
Kirjathaim ; in Zebulun: Jokneam, Kar- 
tah, Dimnah, Nahalal or Rimmon, and 
Tabor ; in Reuben : Bezer, Jahazah or 
Jahzah, Kedemoth, Mephaath ; in Gad : 
Ramoth, Mahanaim, Heshbon, and Jazer. 
Besides these cities, with adjacent dis- 
tricts, the Levites received a tithe of all 
produce, animal and vegetable, but of 
this they paid a tithe to the priests. 
Num. 18 : 20-32. Another tithe they re- 
ceived every third year, and special pro- 
vision was made for them during the 
term they administered in the sanctuary. 

In the time of David their number had 



LEV 



LIC 



increased to 38,000, of which 24,000 were 
set apart for the ordinary services, 6000 
for the teaching of the Law and the ad- 
ministration of justice, 4000 as porters, 
and 4000 as musicians. They were 
divided into courses, and came up from 
their cities to the sanctuary in regular 
rotation. 1 Chr. 23 ; 24:20-31; 25; 
26. When the separation took place 
between the kingdom of Israel and the 
kingdom of Judah, all the Levites gath- 
ered to Judah, 2 Chr. 11 : 13-15, and 
they continued to play a conspicuous 
part in the destinies of this kingdom, 
under Jehoshaphat, 2 Chr. 19 : 8-11; 20 : 
14-28 ; Joash, 2 Chr. 23 : 1-8 : Hezekiah, 
2 Chr. 29 : 3-36 : 30 : 21, 22 ; 31 : 2-4 ; 
under Josiah. 2 Chr. 34 : 12 : 35 : 3-18, 
etc. After the Captivity, however, only 
a small number of them returned, Ezr. 
2 : 36-42 ; 3 : 10 ; 6:18, but in the new 
organization they assumed their old 
positions. They settled in the villages 
near Jerusalem, received their old tithes, 
etc. Neh. 10 : 37-39 ; 12 : 29. In the 
N. T. they occur as representatives of a 
formal worship destitute of love. Luke 
10 : 32. The distinction of Levite is still 
maintained among the Jews. 

LEVIT'ICUS is the name of the 
third book of the Pentateuch, derived 
from its contents. Only the chapters 
8-10 are history ; the rest treats of the 
Levitical services — namely, chs. 1-7, the 
laws of offerings; 8-10, the consecration 
of Aaron and his family ; 11-15, the laws 
concerning that which is clean and that 
which is unclean ; 16, the atonement as 
the sum-total of all means of grace ; 
17-20, the sepai'ation of Israel from 
heathendom in food, marriage, etc. ; 
21, 22, the holiness of priests and offer- 
ings ; 23, 24. the holiness of convoca- 
tions, Sabbaths ; 25, on redemption ; 26, 
on repentance ; 27, on vows. 

The authenticity and integrity of this 
book are generally admitted, and the 
doubts which have been raised concern- 
ing its Mosaic authorship by some 
modern critics regard only minor points 
or passages. See Law and Penta- 
teuch. 

LEWDNESS. This word, which 
occurs Acts 18 : 14, is not used there in 
its present common acceptation, but in 
the wider sense of " wicked " or " vil- 
lany." See Rev. Version. 

LIB'ERTINES, mentioned only in 



Acts 6: 9, were Jews who, having been 
taken prisoners in the Syrian wars, were 
carried to Rome and reduced to slavery, 
but afterward emancipated. That their 
number was considerable is apparent 
from the fact that 4000 of them were 
banished from Rome in a. d. 19. In Je- 
rusalem they had a synagogue, and there 
they came in collision with Stephen. 

LIB'NAH (whiteness). 1. The fifth 
station at which Israel encamped on 
their journey from Sinai; situated be- 
tween Rimmon-parez and Rissah, Num. 
33 : 20, 21, but not yet identified. 

2. A city of Canaan, in the lowland of 
Judah, was taken by Joshua, Josh. 10 : 
29-32, 39; 12:15, and assigned to the 
priests, Josh. 15 : 42 ; 21 : 13 ; 1 Chr. 6 : 
57 ; revolted against Joram, 2 Kgs. 8 : 
22 ; 2 Chr. 21 : 10 ; was besieged by 
Sennacherib, 2 Kgs. 19 : 8 ; Isa. 37 : 8 ; 
and has been identified by some with 
Arak-el-MensJiiyeh, and by others with 
Tell-es-Safieh. 

LIB'NI (white). 1. A Levite, eldest 
son of Gershoh. Ex. 6 : 17 ; Num. 3:18; 
1 Chr. 6: 17. 

2. A Levite, grandson of Merari. 1 
Chr. 6 : 29. 

LIB'NITES, the descendants of 
Libni, the eldest son of Gershon. Num. 
3: 21: 26: 58. 

LIB'YA, occurring only in Eze. 30 : 
5 and Acts 2 : 10, is the classic name of 
Northern Africa, west of Egypt. It was 
inhabited by a Hamitic race, spoken of 
in the 0. T. under the name of Lehabim 
or Lubim, which see. 

LICE. Ex. 8:16. These parasitic 
insects are still a pest in the Nile valley. 
Herodotus tells us that the ancient 
Egyptians peculiarly abhorred such ver- 
min, and were taught by their priests 
that contact with lice rendered them 
ceremonially unclean. 

Some authorities have held that gnats 
were here intended, but there is less 
ground for this opinion than for that of 
Sir S. W. Baker (Nile Tributaries, p. 
122), which the writer's own observation 
inclines him to favor : " The louse that 
infects the human body and hair has no 
connection whatever with ' dust,' and if 
subject to a few hours' exposure to the 
dry heat of the burning sand it would 
shrivel and die ; but the tick is an in- 
habitant of the dust — a dry, horny in- 
sect without anv apparent moisture in 
519 



LIE 



LIL 



its composition. It lives in hot sand 
and dust, where it cannot possibly ob- 
tain nourishment until some wretched 
animal should lie down upon the spot 
and become covered with these horrible 
vermin. I have frequently seen dry 
places so infested with these ticks that 
the ground was perfectly alive with them, 
and it would have been impossible to 
have rested on the earth ; in such spots 
the passage in Exodus has frequently 
occurred to me as bearing reference to 
these vermin, which are the greatest 
enemies to man and beast." These ticks 
are much larger than lice. The body is 
ordinarily about the size of a small pea; 
the legs are long, and the creature runs 
rapidly. 

LIEUTENANTS, the general 
name of the satraps or viceroys of the 
provinces of the Persian empire, Ezr. 
8 : 36; called princes in Dan. 3:2; 6 : 
1, etc. 

LIFE is used in Scripture both in a 
natural and in a spiritual sense. In the 
former it means physical life as opposed 
to death, Gen. 2:7; 25 : 7 ; Luke 16 : 
25 ; Acts 17 : 25 ; and hence the expres- 
sions " tree of life," Gen. 2:9; 3 : 22 ; 
Rev. 2:7; 22 : 2 ; « bread of life," John 
6 : 35, 51 ; " water of life," Rev. 22 : 1, 17, 
etc. In the latter it means moral conduct 
as opposed to mere animalism, and hence 
the identification of life with that which 
is good, Deut. 30 : 15 ; John 3:16; 5 : 
24; Rom. 5:12, etc., and of death with 
that which is evil. Jer. 21 : 8 : John 6 : 
50; Rom. 1:32. 

LIGHT. By an easy transition from 
the physical to the moral sphere, light is 
used in Scripture in numerous figurative 
expressions imaging forth the mysteries 
of the spiritual woi-ld. Not only are 
cheerfulness, joy, intellectual clearness, 
moral truth, and divine blessedness re- 
peatedly described as light, but the ex- 
pression is also applied to the sources of 
these states ; to men, John 5 : 35 ; Matt. 
4:16: to angels, 2 Cor. 11 : 14 : to Christ 
Luke 2 : 32 ; Johnl : 7-9 ; 8 : 12 ; 12 : 35 ; 
and to God himself. Jas. 1:17; 1 John 
1:5; 1 Tim. 6:16. 

LIGHT'NING. The terrors of the 
divine wrath are often represented by 
thunder and lightning ; and thunder, on 
account of its awful impression on the 
minds of mortals, is often spoken of in 
Scripture as the voice of the Lord. Ex. 
520 



9 : 28 ; Job 28 : 26 ; 37 : 3, 5 ; 38 : 25 ; 
40:9. 

LIGN-ALOES. See Aloes. 

LIG'URE. There is more difficulty 
in identifying this stone than any other 
in the breastplate of the high priest, 
Ex. 28 : 19. No mineral is at the pres- 
ent day known by this name. Some high 
authorities suppose that the ligure is 
amber because Pliny and Theophrastus 
mention that amber is found in Liguria, 
whence this name might naturally be de- 
rived. But it is objected that amber was 
too soft for permanent engraving. The 
opinion that the ligure was red tourma- 
line or rubellite — sometimes called red 
sapphire — finds much favor. This hard 
and often transparent stone is certainly 
used as a gem. See Amber. 

LIK'HI (learned), a grandson of 
Manasseh. 1 Chr. 7:19. 

LIK'ING, as a noun, means " condi- 
tion," and as a participle " conditioned." 
Job 39 : 4 : Dan. 1 : 10. 

LIL'Y (Heb. shusan ; Arabic su- 
scih). The Arabs use this word for any 
beautiful flower resembling a lily, and in 
this general sense it is probably em- 




Scarlet Lily. (Lilium Chalcedonicum.) 

ployed in the Bible, the connection often 
suggesting to an Oriental mind the par- 
ticular species meant. 

The only true lily now found in Pal- 



LIM 



LIO 



estine is the scarlet martagon (Lilium 
chalcedonicum). It is likely that a white 
and fragrant kind (L. eandidum) was 
once found on the coast, and this may 
have been the species referred to in such 




Lily. {Anemone coronarla.) 

passages as Cant. 2:1. But neither kind 
was probably ever generally abundant. 
Many related flowers of great beauty are 
common, such as irises, tulips, hyacinths, 
and a gladiolus. 

If any particular plant is meant, the 
scarlet anemone (Anemone coronaria) 
best answers the conditions of color, 
Cant. 5:13, universal abundance, and 
gorgeousness. Matt. 6:28, 29. This 
flower is called a lily by the Arabs. 

In the scarcity of wood the common 
flowering weeds of the fields are ordi- 
narily gathered for fuel, and under the 
hot sun and dry wind Matt. 6 : 30 is often 
literally fulfilled. 

LIME, a well-known substance ob- 
tained byburning limestone, bones, shells, 
etc., and used for plaster or the cement 
of brick-work. Deut. 27 : 2 ; Isa. 33 : 12. 
It is inferred from the above passage, 
and from Am. 2:1, that the modern 
mode of manufacturing this article was 
known to the ancients, Untempered 



mortar is that which is so imperfectly or 
unskilfully mixed that it cannot be 
worked. Eze. 13 : 10, 11. 

LINEAGE, family or race. Luke 
2:4. 

LIN'EN, a cloth made of flax. It 
was much valued and used in ancient as 
it is in modern times. Fine white linen 
is in Scripture the emblem of innocence 
or moral purity, Rev. 15 : 6, though it is 
also mentioned as a mark of luxury. 
Luke 16 : 19. 

The best linen was anciently made in 
Egypt, as that country afforded the finest 
flax. The dress of the Egyptian priests 
was made of linen, and so was the dress 
of state in which Pharaoh arrayed 
Joseph. Gen. 41: 42. Also the sheets in 
which mummies were wrapped, and which 
formerly were held to be some kind of 
cotton fabric, have been proved by micro- 
scopic examination to consist of linen. 

In the Hebrew text several different 
words are employed to denote linen. The 
exact distinction between these words 
has not been made out, but it is probable 
that they denote native fabrics in dis- 
tinction from those imported from Egypt 
and Syria, or perhaps only different kinds 
of the same native product. For linen 
in general was highly valued and much 
used among the Jews. The temple veil, 
2 Chr. 3 : 14; 2 : 14, the holy garments 
of the priests, 1 Chr. 15 : 27, and of the 
Levite choir, 2 Chr. 5 : 12, the over-gar- 
ment of the king, 1 Chr. 15 : 27, etc., were 
made of it. 

LINES. This expression refers to 
the mode of measuring land with a cord 
or line, Am. 7 : 17 ; Zech. 1:16; 2 : 1, 2, 
and came thus to denote a definite allot- 
ment of real estate, an inheritance. Ps. 
16:6. 

LIN'TEL, the head-piece of a door- 
frame, by which the superimposed mass 
is supported. The Hebrews were com- 
manded to strike blood upon it on the 
Passover night, Ex. 12 : 22. 

LI'NUS, a Christian of Rome, a 
friend of St. Paul and Timothy, 2 Tim. 
4 : 21, and, according to tradition, the 
first bishop of Rome after Peter. 

LI'ON. This animal was found in 
Palestine as late as the twelfth century, 
but has disappeared with the forests. 
Doubtless it was of the Asiatic species, 
with a short curly mane, smaller, more 
compact, and less formidable than the 
521 



LIP 



LOA 



African lion. The king of beasts is men- 
tioned about one hundred and thirty 
times in the Bible. Besides the general 
name, six Hebrew words are used for this 
animal, marking different conditions of 




Lion. 

age and prowess. His roar is described 
by four words, and his movements by 
six. Lebaoth, Arieh, Laish, and other 
places were named from this animal. 

Lions were captured in pitfalls, to 
which there is allusion in Eze. 19 : 4, S ; 
2 Sam. 23 : 20. Shepherds occasionally 
attacked them single-handed. 1 Sam. 
17 : 3.6. The Scriptures record how the 
lion, when famished, often attacked the 
flock, devoured men, and even ravaged 
villages. This animal was partial to the 
jungles of the Jordan, and when driven 
thence by the annual freshet was much 
enraged.' Jer. 49 : 19 : 50 : 44. As the 
symbol of royal power and strength, the 
most princely of all the tribes bore this 
animal on its banner, Gen. 49 : 9. and in 
the Revelation Christ is calied "the Lion 
of the tribe of Judah." 

The representations of this animal in 
the sculptures of Solomon's temple and 
palace will be remembered, as will also 
frequent rhetorical references to it as the 
symbol of various well-known character- 
istics, such as courage and ferocity. 

LIPS. This word has various peculiar 
significations in the Scriptures. Unclean 
lips, Isa. 6 : 5. are lips polluted by sinful 
words ; calves of our lips, Hos. 14 : 2, 
sacrifices of praise; burning lips, Prov. 
522 



26 : 23, lips through which the expres- 
sions of malice, envy, and other malig- 
nant passions are continually passing, 
Acts 9 : 1, or, as it is oftener interpreted, 
burning with false professions of piety 
and friendship. 
Covering the lips, 
Eze. 24 : 22, or 
chin with the 
outer garment 
was a token of 
mourning. The 
word occurs, be- 
sides, in a great 
number of meta- 
phorical expres- 
sions easy to un- 
derstand. 

LIQUOR, 
or LIQUORS, 
the translation of 
three different He- 
brew words. One 
denotes a "tear" 
— i. e., the juice 
of the olive and 
grapes, Ex. 22 : 
I 29 ; the second denotes " maceration " — 
i. e., drink prepared by steeping grapes, 
1 Num. 6:3; the last, "mixture" — i. e., 
\ highly-flavored wine. Cant. 7 : 2. See 
| Wine. 

LIT'TER, a covered chair shelter- 
ing the occupant against rain and the 
sun, and carried either by men or animals. 
Isa. 66 : 20. 

LIVE'LY, in 1 Pet. 2 : 5, means 
"living;" in Ex. 1:19 it means "full 
of life.'' "vigorous." 

LIVER. The expression "the 
caul above the liver," so frequenily oc- 
curring in the Pentateuch, Ex. 29 : 13, 
22: Lev. 3 : 4, 10, 15; 4:9: 7:4: 8 : 
16; 9 : 10, etc., means one of the lobes 
of the liver, which was to be burned 
on the altar, and not eaten as sacri- 
ficial food. 

LIZ'ARD (that which clings to 
the ground). Lev. 11 : 30. Many species 
of these reptiles abound in Palestine, 
some of which are very slow in their 
movements, while others run very rapid- 
ly. Some kinds are eaten bv the verv 



poor 



inhabitant; 



See Chameleon". 



Ferret, Mole, Snail, and cut on next 
page. 

LOAF. 1 Chr. 16 : 3. See Bread. 

LO-A3UMI (not my people), the 



LOA 



LOC 



name applied symbolically to the son 
of the prophet Hosea, representing 
Israel. Hos. 1 : 9. See Lo-rtjhamah. 

LOAN. The Mosaic law repeatedly 
enjoined it on the rich to come to the re- 
lief of the poor, not only with alms, but 




Lizard. 

also with loans. Ex. 22 : 25 ; Lev. 25 : 
35-37; Deut. 15:3; 7-10; 23:19,20. 
No interest was to be taken, Ex. 22 : 25 ; 
Lev. 25 : 36 ; Deut. 23 : 19, and a pledge 
or security only under certain restric- 
tions ; the creditor was not allowed to 
enter the house of the debtor in claim of 
the pledge, Deut. 24 : 10, 11 ; a widow's 
raiment could not be taken as a pledge, 
Deut. 24 : 17, or a millstone, Deut. 
24 : 6, nor could a poor man's raiment 
be kept over-night. It was allowed to 
hold a debtor in bondage, but only to 
the jubilee — that is, for six years at the 
utmost, Lev. 25 : 39-41, and in the sab- 
batical year all debts were cancelled 
and all pledges returned. Deut. 15 : 1-3, 
7-10. These laws, however, had no 
reference to foreigners, from whom the 
Jews took interest and retained forfeited 
pledges; they also kept them as slaves. 
Nor were these laws kept strictly for a 
very long time. Sons were later on 
seized for their fathers' debts, 2 Kgs. 4 : 
1, and interests were exacted, Neh. 5 : 
1, 13 ; and in the time of our Lord the 
economic principles of the Jews seem to 
have approached very nearly to those of 
the rest of the commercial world. Matt. 
5 : 42 : 25 : 27 ; Luke 6 : 35 ; 19 : 13. 

LOCK. The doors of the ancient 
Hebrews were secured by bars of wood ' 
or iron, though the latter were almost 
entirely appropriated to the entrance of 
fortresses, prisons, and towns. Thus we 
find it mentioned in 1 Kgs. 4 : 13, as 



something remarkable concerning Bash- 
an that there were threescore great cities 
having walls and brazen bars. These 
were almost the only locks known in 
early times, and they were furnished 
with a large and clumsy key, which was 
applied to the bar by pushing the whole 
arm through an orifice from the outside. 
Cant. 5 : 4. There were also smaller 
contrivances for inner doors, Jud. 3 : 24, 
and probably projecting pieces by which 
to push the bolt with the hand. See 
Key. 

LO'CUST, an insect of the grass- 
hopper family, i-emarkable for numbers 
and voracity, and hence one of the most 
dreadful scourges of Eastern countries. 
Locusts, when mature, can fly to a con- 
siderable height, and, occasionally alight- 
ing for food and rest, they are often borne 
by the wind hundreds of miles. There 
are many species of these insects found 
in the United States, but none precisely 
such as live in the Orient. The locusts 
most destructive and doubtless ordinarily 
referred to by the Bible are of two kinds, 
Acrydium peregriimm and CEdipoda mi- 
gratoria. In our English Bible seven 
tei-ins probably describe this insect or 
allied species — viz., locust, bald locust, 
beetle, canker-worm, caterpillar, grass- 
hopper, palmer-worm. These seven 
terms are made to translate nine He- 
brew names. The confusion of the en- 
tire subject may be seen by the fact that 
"locust" represents four original words, 
"grasshopper" two, and "caterpillar" 
two, while two original words have each 
a twofold translation. Doubtless the Jews 
themselves applied some of these terms 
as loosely and widely as we do such a 
word as "worm." 

It is probable that several of the seven 
names mentioned describe locusts in their 
immature state. After leaving the egg 
this insect passes through changes an- 
swering to those of the butterfly, but is 
never dormant as a chrysalis. From first 
to last it is voracious, but when it is ma- 
ture and can fly, it lays its eggs and drifts 
away in vast clouds, perhaps to perish in 
the ocean. The locusts which the writer 
saw devastating portions of Syria were 
fully thiee inches long when their wings 
were closed. Lev. 11 : 22 describes four 
distinct insects of the locust order. 
"Beetle" is plainly a mistranslation for 
some one of these leapers, since what- 
523 



LOC 



LOC 




Locusts. 
1. Truxalis. 2. Acridum pzregrinum. 3. (Edipoda migratoria. {After Tristram.) 



ever only crept and flew might not be 
eaten, vs. 21, 23. Joel, 1 : 4, probably 
names, as has been suggested, four dif- 
ferent kinds of locust or stages of its 
growth. 

These insects were often the instru- 
ments of divine judgment. Ex. 10 : 
4-15; Deut. 28 : 38-42; 1 Kgs. 8 : 37 ; 
Joel 2 : 1—11. The last-named passage 
gives a most vivid and accurate descrip- 
tion of this fearful visitation. As locusts 
enter Palestine from the south or east, 
the "northern army," Joel 2 : 20, prob- 
ably describes, under the figure of lo- 
custs, the Assyrians, who entered the 
land in similar swarms, but from a dif- 
ferent quarter. 

The account in Joel 2 is illustrated by 
the following extract from the journal of 
an Eastern traveller : " The locusts, prop- 
524 



erly so called, which are so frequently 
mentioned by sacred as well as profane 
authors, are sometimes gregarious be- 
yond expression. Those which I saw 
were much bigger than our common 
grasshoppers, and had brown spotted 
wings, with legs and bodies of a bright 
yellow. Their first appearance was to- 
ward the latter end of March, the wind 
having been some time from the south. 
In the middle of April their numbers 
were so vastly increased that in the 
heat of the day they formed themselves 
into large and numerous swarms, flew 
in the air like a succession of clouds, 
and, as the prophet Joel expresses it, 
' the sun . . . shall be dark.' When the 
wind blew briskly, so that these swarms 
were crowded by others or thrown one 
upon another, we had a lively idea of 



LOC 



LOG 



that comparison of the Psalmist, Ps. 
109 : 23, of being ' tossed up and down 
as the locust.' In the month of May, 
when the ovaries of these insects were 
ripe and turgid, each of these swarms 
began gradually to disappear, and re- 
tired into the Metijiah and other ad- 
jacent plains, where they deposited 




Locust Flying. 

their eggs. These were no sooner 
hatched, in June, than each of the 
broods collected itself into a compact 
body of an eighth of a mile square, and, 
marching afterward directly forward to- 
ward the sea, they let nothing escape 
them, eating up everything that was 
green and juicy, not only the lesser kinds 
of vegetables, but 'the vine' likewise, 
' the fig tree, . . . the pomegranate tree, the 
palm tree also, and the apple tree, even all 
the trees of the field,' Joel 1 : 11, 12 ; in do- 
ing which, they kept their ranks like men 
of war, climbing over, as they advanced, 
every tree or wall that was in their way ; 
nay, they entered into our very houses 
and bedchambers like thieves. The in- 
habitants, to stop their progress, made 
a variety of pits and trenches all over 
their fields and gardens, which they 
filled with water, or else they heaped 
up therein heath, stubble, and such-like 
combustible matter, which were sever- 
ally set on fire upon the approach of the 
locusts. But this was all to no purpose, 
for the trenches were quickly filled up 
and the fires extinguished by infinite 
swarms succeeding one another, whilst 
the front was regardless of danger and 
the rear pressed on so close that a retreat 
was altogether impossible. A day or two 



after one of these broods was in motion 
others were already hatched to march 
and glean after them, gnawing off the 
very bark and the young branches of 
such trees as had before escaped with the 
loss only of their fruit and foliage. So 
justly have they been compared by the 
prophet to a great army, who further 
observes that ' the land is as the garden 
of Eden before them, and behind them 
a desolate wilderness.'" 

Van Lennep says: " The ground over 
which their devastating hordes have 
passed at once assumes an appearance 
of sterility and dearth. Well did the 
Romans call them ' the burners of the 
land,' which is the literal meaning of 
our word ' locust.' On they move, cov- 
ering the ground so completely as to 
hide it from sight, and in such numbers 
that it often takes three or four days for 
the mighty host to pass by. When seen 
at a distance this swarm of advancing 
locusts resembles a cloud of dust or sand, 
reaching a few feet above the ground as 
the myriads of insects leap forward. The 
only thing that momentarily arrests their 
progress is a sudden change of weather, 
for cold benumbs them while it lasts. 
They also keep quiet at night, swarm- 
ing like bees on the bushes and hedges 
until the morning sun warms and revives 
them and enables them to proceed on 
their devastating march. Nah. 3 : 17. 
They 'have no king' nor leader, yet 
they falter not, but press on in serried 
ranks, urged in the same direction by an 
irresistible impulse, and turn neither to 
the right hand nor to the left for any sort 
of obstacle. Prov. 30 : 27. When a wall 
or a house lies in their way they climb 
straight up, going over the roof to the 
other side, and blindly rush in at the 
| open doors and windows. Ex. 10 : 6 ; 
I Joel 2 : 9. When they come to water, 
J be it a mere puddle or a river, a lake 
or the open sea, they never attempt to 
go round it, but unhesitatingly leap in 
and are drowned; and their dead bodies, 
floating on the surface, form a bridge 
for their companions to pass over. The 
scourge thus often comes to an end, but 
it as often happens that the decomposi- 
tion of millions of insects produces pes- 
tilence and death. Joel 2 : 20. History 
records a remarkable instance which oc- 
curred in the year 125 before the Chris- 
tian era. The insects were driven by the 
525 



toe 



LCI 



wind into the sea in such vast numbers 
that their bodies, being driven back by 
the tide upon the land, caused a stench, 
which produced a fearful plague, where- 
by 80,000 persons perished in Libya, Cy- 
rene, and Egypt. 

" The locust, however, soon acquires 
its wings, and proceeds on its way by 
flight whenever a strong breeze favors 
its progress. Our attention has often 
been attracted by the sudden darken- 
ing of the sun in a summer sky, accom- 
panied by the peculiar noise which a 
swarm of locusts always makes moving 
through the air, and, glancing upward, 
we have seen them passing like a cloud 
at a height of 200 or 300 feet. Joel 2:10. 
Some of them are constantly dropping to 
the earth, and, after resting a while, are 
driven by a common impulse to rise again 
and proceed with the wind; so that, be- 
sides the principal cloud, single locusts 
or a. few together may be seen in almost 
every part of the sky. During a great 
flight they sometimes drop so thickly 
upon the ground that it is impossible 
to step without treading upon some of 
them, and the poor villagers, in con- 
sternation, busy themselves kindling 
fires, whose smoke serves to prevent 
the locusts from alighting upon their 
fields, orchards, or vineyards. The 
people of Syria believe noise to be as 
effectual in driving away locusts as in 
attracting a swarm of bees ; hence, upon 
the appearance of a flight of these dread- 
ed insects the inhabitants of the villages, 
men, women, and children, rush out, 
armed with any tin or copper pans or 
kettles or rattles they can lay hold of, 
and strive, by their deafening shouts and 
din, Jer. 51 : 14, to scare the unwelcome 
visitors away." 

Some species of the locust are eaten 
at this day in Eastern countries, and are 
even esteemed a delicacy when properly 
cooked. Lev. 11 : 22; Matt. 3 : 4. After 
tearing off the legs and wings and taking 
out the entrails, they stick them in long 
rows upon wooden spits, roast them 
at the fire, and then proceed to devour 
them with great zest. There are also other 
ways of preparing them. For example, 
they cook them and dress them in oil, or, 
having dried them, they pulverize them, 
and when other food is scarce make bread 
of the meal. The Bedouins pack them 
with salt in close masses, which they carry 
526 



in their leathern sacks. From these they 
cut slices as they may need them. When 
the Arabs have them in quantities, they 
roast or dry them in an oven or boil them 
and eat them with salt. The Arabs in the 
kingdom of Moi*occo boil the locusts, and 
the Bedouins eat locusts, which are col- 
lected in great quantities in the begin- 
ning of April, when they are easily 
caught. After having been roasted a 
little upon the iron plate on which bread 
is baked they are dried in the sun, and 
then put into large sacks with the mix- 
ture of a little salt. They are never 
served up as a dish, but every one takes 
a handful of them when hungry. The 
food of John the Baptist consisted of 
such dried locusts, and not of the fruit 
of the carob tree. See Husks. 

In the book of Revelation, 9 : 7, we have 
a literal description of the symbolical lo- 
cust, which gives us a terrific impression 
of their power, and which is curiously 
illustrated by a passage from an Eastern 
traveller. An Arab from Bagdad, he says, 
compared the head of the locust to that of 
the horse ; its breast to that of the lion : 
its feet to those of the camel; its body to 
that of the serpent ; its tail to that of the 
scorpion ; and so of other parts. In like 
manner the Italians still call locusts little 
horses, and the Germans call them hay- 
horses. 

LOD. 1 Chr. 8 : 12. See Lydda. 

LO-DE'BAR, a place in the tribe 
of Gad, not far from Mahanaim, north 
of the Jabbok, east of the Jordan. 2 Sam. 
9:4; 17:27. Here dwelt Machir the 
Ammonite, who assisted David when he 
retired from Absalom's usurpation, and 
in whose house lived Mephibosheth, 
Jonathan's lame son, who sat at David'c 
table and received from him all that per- 
tained to Saul and his house. Some sup- 
pose it to be the same as Debir, Josh. 
13 : 26, but by modern travellers it has 
not yet been identified. 

LODGE. Isa, 1:8. See Garden. 

LODGE, TO, means, except in 
Josh. 2 : 1, " to stay over-night." Isa. 1:21. 

LOG. Lev. 14: 10. See Measures. 

LOINS. The dress of the Oriental 
nations being loose, it was necessary, 
when they were travelling or working, 
to gird up their garments and fasten 
them about their loins. See Clothes. 
Hence the expression is figuratively 
used, 1 Pet. 1 : 13, to denote a state of 



LOt 



LOft 



mind in which the soul is prepared to 
work and exert itself under the influence 
of divine grace. 

LOIS, the grandmother of Timothy. 
2 Tim. 1 : 5. 

LOOKED means, in Acts 28 : 6, 
" expected." 

LOOK'ING-GLASS. What is 
thus translated was in fact a plate of 
metal polished so highly as to produce a 
very good reflection of objects. Gener- 
ally, these mirrors were of a round shape 
and provided with a handle. Ex. 38 : 8 ; 
Job 37: 18; Isa. 3:23. 

LORD. This word is in our trans- 
lation of the 0. T. the rendering of the 
two Hebrew words "Jehovah" and 
" Adonai." When it represents the for- 
mer, which may be considered a proper 
name, it is printed with capitals. Gen. 
15 : 4. When it represents the latter, of 
which it is the translation, it is printed 
with a capital initial. Ps. 97 : 5, etc. 

LORD'S DAY, Rev. 1: 10. From 
the times of the apostles the first day of 
the week was kept sacred by the Chris- 
tians in commemoration of the resurrec- 
tion of Christ, and it is invariably desig- 
nated as the Lord's day by the Fathers 
of the primitive Church up to the time 
of the edict of Constantine (321), when 
the name Sunday became common. See 
Sabbath. 

LORD'S PRAYER, the name 
given to the prayer which our Lord him- 
self taught his disciples, and which is re- 
corded Matt. 6 : 9-1 3; Luke 11 : 2-4. " The 
Lord's Prayer is the Prayer of prayers, 
as the Bible is the Book of books and 
the Apostles' Creed the Creed of creeds. 
It is the best and most beautiful, the 
simplest and yet the deepest, the shortest 
and yet the most comprehensive, of all 
forms of devotion. Only from the lips 
of the Son of God could such a perfect 
pattern proceed. An ancient Father 
calls it a summary of Christianity or the 
gospel in a nutshell. It embraces all 
kinds of prayer, petition, intercession, 
and thanksgiving, all essential objects 
of prayer, spiritual and temporal, divine 
and human, in the most suitable and 
beautiful order, commencing with the 
glory of God, gradually descending to 
man's needs, then rising to the final de- 
liverance from all evil, and ending in 
thanksgiving and praise, as all prayer 
must end at last, in heaven, where all our 



wants shall be supplied. It accompanies 
the Christian from the cradle to the 
grave. It can never be superseded. If 
we have exhausted the whole extent of 
our religious wants and the whole vo- 
cabulary of devotion, we gladly return 
to this model prayer as infinitely supe- 
rior to all our own effusions. It may 
indeed, be abused, like every gift of 
God, and become a dead form — Luther 
called it in this respect 'the. greatest 
martyr on earth' — but this is no argu- 
ment against its proper and frequent 
use. It is not intended, of course, to 
supersede other forms or extemporane- 
ous prayers, but it should serve as a 
general pattern and. directory to all our 
devotions, and breathe into them the 
proper spirit." — Schaff. 

The Lord's Prayer is divided into 
three parts — the address (" Our Father 
who art in heaven"), the petitions (six 
or seven), and the doxology. The ad- 
dress or preface puts us into the proper 
filial relation to God as our Father, to 
our fellow-men as our brethren ("our"), 
and into the proper attitude of prayer 
as an ascension of the soul to heaven 
(" who art in heaven ") as our final home. 
The petitions are divided into two 
classes. The first three refer to the 
name, the kingdom, and the will of God ; 
the other three or four to the temporal 
and spiritual wants of man till his final 
deliverance from'all evil (or, better, from 
"the evil one " — that is, from Satan, sin, 
and its consequences). The doxology is 
wanting in Luke and in the oldest manu- 
scripts of Matthew; it probably found 
its way into the margin and then into 
the text from the habit of the Christians, 
inherited from the Jews, to wind up their 
prayers with a doxology. It is certainly 
very ancient and appropriate, and will 
never drop out of vise, whatever critics 
may do with the text. 

The Lord's Prayer is intended for his 
disciples. He himself addressed God, 
not as "our Father," but as "my Fa- 
ther," or simply "Father," owing to his 
unique relation to him as the eternal and 
only begotten Son; and, being free from 
sin and guilt, he had no need to pray, 
" Forgive us our debts." 

LORD'S SUPPER, or THE 
HOLY COMMUNION, is the ordi- 
nance which commemorates the dying 
love and sacrifice of Christ for the sins 
527 



LOR 



LOT 



of the world. Christians are commanded 
to observe it till he shall return in 
glory. It was instituted in the night 
preceding the crucifixion. The Lord 
Jesus, after eating the paschal supper 
with his disciples, took bread and 
blessed it, and brake it, and gave it to 
the disciples, and said, Take, eat, this 
is my body, which is broken for you : 
this do in remembrance of me. After 
the same manner also he took the cup, 
and gave thanks and gave it to them, 
saying, Drink ye all of it; for this is 
the new covenant in my blood, which is 
shed for many for the remission of sins; 
this do ye as oft as ye drink it in re- 
membrance of me. Matt. 26 : 19-30 ; 
Mark 14: 16-26; Luke 22 : 13-20; 1 
Cor. 11 : 23-26. Nothing can surpass 
the touching simplicity and appropriate- 
ness of this memorial service, which has 
always been regarded in the Christian 
Church as the holy of holies of worship 
and communion with the crucified and 
ever-living Saviour. 

In course of time, as the development 
of the doctrine of the ordinance became 
the subject of theological controversy, 
three different explanations of the words 
of institution led to three different the- 
ories — the Roman Catholic dogma of 
transubstantiation, or the miraculous 
transformation of the sacramental ele- 
ments into the body and blood of Christ ; 
the Lutheran doctrine of the co-exist- 
ence of the real body and blood of Christ 
in, with, and under the elements during 
the time of sacramental transaction, and 
their participation by all communicants; 
and the figurative explanation of the 
words of institution with the idea of a 
spiritual fruition of Christ by faith only, 
as held in the Reformed Churches. 

It is a sad reflection that the ordinance 
of the Lord's Supper — this feast which 
should bind all pious hearts to Christ 
and to each other and fill them with the 
holiest and tenderest affections — has 
been the innocent occasion of the bitter- 
est and most violent passions and the 
most uncharitable abuse. The eucharis- 
tic controversies, before and after the 
Reformation, are among the most un- 
refreshing and apparently fruitless in 
Church history. 

Happily, the blessing of the holy 
communion does not depend upon the 
scientific interpretation and understand- 
528 



ing of the words of institution, however 
desirable this may be, but upon the 
promise of the Lord and upon child- 
like faith. And therefore even now 
Christians of different denominations 
and holding different opinions can unite 
around the table of their common Lord 
and Saviour, and feel one with him and 
in him. 

With respect to the views held by the 
various evangelical Protestant churches, 
at least, the chief elements of recon- 
ciliation, when subordinate differences 
and scholastic subtleties are yielded, 
may be found in the following proposi- 
tions. The Lord's Supper is, 1. A com- 
memorative ordinance, a memorial of 
Christ's atoning death; 2. A feast of 
living union of believers with the Sa- 
viour, whereby we truly, though spiritu- 
ally, receive Christ, with all his benefits, 
and are nourished with his life unto life 
eternal ; 3. A communion of believers 
with one another as members of the 
same mystical body of Christ. 

LO-RUHAMAH (the uncompas- 
sionated), the name of the daughter of 
Hosea the prophet, and referring to the 
hopeless condition of the kingdom of 
Israel, from whom Jehovah seemed to 
have withdrawn his mercy. Hos. 1 : 6, 8. 

LOT (a covering, veil), the son of 
Haran and nephew of Abraham, was 
born in Ur, a city of Chaldea, where his 
father died, and followed, with Abraham 
and Terah, to Mesopotamia, where the 
latter died at Haran. Gen. 11 : 31, 32, 
thence to Canaan, Gen. 12 : 4, 5, and 
probably also to Egypt. After the re- 
turn from Egypt the herds of Abraham 
and Lot had greatly increased. The 
tract of land they occupied was incon- 
veniently small; strife arose between 
their herdmen, and Abraham proposed 
they should separate, leaving the choice 
to Lot whether he would go eastward or 
westward. Lot chose that region of the 
valley of the Jordan in which Sodom 
and Gomorrah were situated, but there- 
by he became involved in the warfare 
waged by Chedorlaomer against the two 
cities, was carried away as a prisoner 
of war, and was only rescued by the 
valor of Abraham, who attacked and 
defeated Chedorlaomer. Lot returned 
to Sodom, and, though he loathed the life 
of perdition which was led in that city, 
he remained there and chose his sons-in- 



LOT 



LUD 



law among the Sodomites. When, at last, 
the measure of iniquity was full and 
doom was passed over the city, Lot and 
his family were saved only by the aid of 
special messengers from the Lord, who 
accompanied them from Sodom to Zoar; 
but Lot's " wife looked back from be- 
hind him, and she became a pillar of 
salt." Gen. 19 : 26. Lot removed from 
Zoar and dwelt in the mountains, after 
which he disappears from history. The 
nations of the Ammonites and Moabites 
descended from him. 

LO'TAN (covering), the eldest son 
of Seir the Horite, and chief of his tribe 
in the land of Edom. Gen. 36 : 20, 22, 
29 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 38, 39. 

LOTS, a method used to determine 
chances or preferences or to decide a de- 
bate. The decision by lot was often re- 
sorted to in former times, but always 
with the strictest reference to the inter- 
position of God; as in the choice of the 
apostle Matthias, Acts 1 : 26, and in the 
cases of Saul and Jonathan, and Jonah 
and his companions to determine who 
had offended God. 1 Sam. 14:41,42; 
Jon. 1:7. In the division of the Prom- 
ised Land among the tribes of Israel the 
use of the lot was expressly commanded 
by God himself, it being understood that 
the extent of territory should be pro- 
portioned to the population of each 
tribe. Num. 26 : 55. So the selection of 
the scapegoat on the day of atonement 
was to be determined by lot. Lev. 16 : 
8. Property was divided in the same 
way. Ps. 22 : 18 ; Matt. 27 : 35. The 
orders of the priests and their daily ser- 
vice were also assigned by lot. 1 Chr. 
24, 25. 

As to the manner of casting lots we 
have no certain information. It is sup- 
posed by some that the stones or marks 
which were used in determining the lot 
were thrown together into the lap or fold 
of a garment, or into an urn or vase, and 
that the person holding them shook them 
violently, so that there should be a per- 
fect mingling of the whole contents, to 
prevent all preference by the hand of him 
who should draw : so that the passage 
Prov. 16 : 33 is paraphrased thus : " In 
a lot-vase the lots are shaken in all direc- 
tions ; nevertheless, from the Lord is the 
whole decision or judgment." 

LOTS, FEAST OF. See Purim. 

LOVE. This term signifies one of 
34 



the constituent principles of our nature, 
and in the perfect exercise of it is com- 
prehended the whole of our duty to God 
and to our fellow-creatures. Matt. 22 : 
37-40; Rom. 13: 8, 10; Gal. 5:14; 
Jas. 2 : 8. Hence it evidently com- 
prehends all holiness of heart and life. 
The highest and most glorious display 
of the divine character which has ever 
been made to man is the love of God in 
Jesus Christ, Rom. 5 : 8, and the great 
principle and fruit of both faith and 
obedience consists in the possession and 
exercise of love. John 13 : 34, 35. 

LOVE-FEASTS were held in con- 
nection with the Lord's Supper, and 
paid for out of the common fund. Jude 
12 ; 2 Pet. 2 : 13. When the community 
of goods had ceased, Chrysostom says, 
the rich provided them. Originally 
these feasts were held in the churches, 
but this was forbidden by the Council 
of Laodicaea A. d. 320, and in the follow- 
ing century the custom was dropped or 
assumed other forms. 

LU'BIM (thirsty; thence, dwellers in 
a scorched land). 2 Chr. 12 : 3 ; 16 : 8 j 
Dan. 11 : 43; Nah. 3 : 9. See Lehabim 
and Libya. 

LUCAS. Phile. 24. See Luke. 

LU'CIFER. This word, signifying 
"light-giver," occurs but once in our 
Bible, Isa. 14:12, and is then applied 
to the king of Babylon to indicate his 
glory as that of a morning star, or, 
figuratively, "a son of the morning." 
Tertullian and some others suppose the 
passage to relate to the fall of Satan, and 
hence the term is now usually applied 
in that way, though, as it seems, without 
sufficient warrant. 

LUCIUS. 1. A kinsman of St. 
Paul, Rom. 15 : 21, and, according to 
tradition, bishop of Cenchraea, from which 
place the Epistle to the Romans was 
written. He is perhaps identical with — 

2. Lucius of Cyrene, a Christian 
teacher in Antioch. Acts 13 : 1. 

LUD, son of Shem, from whom the 
Lydians of Asia Minor are supposed to 
have descended. Gen. 10 : 22. 

LU'DIM, son of Mizraim, whosepos- 
terity, also called Lydians, Jer. 46 : 9, 
settled on the continent of Africa, as we 
infer from the connection in which they 
and their country are mentioned, Isa. 
66 : 19 ; Eze. 27 : 10 ; 30 : 5 ; Gen. 10 : 
13. Their precise location is unknown. 
529 



LTJH 



LUN 



LU'HITH {made of boards), a place 
in Moab. Isa. 15 : 5 ; Jer. 48 : 5. 

LUKE (Greek Lucas), Col. 4:14; 
2 Tim. 4 : 11 ; Phile. 24, is probably an 
abbreviation of Lucanus, possibly of 
Lucilius, but not of Lucius. Acts 13 : 1 ; 
Eom. 16: 21. The evangelist was not a 
Jew, as is evident from Col. 4 : 14, where 
the " beloved physician " is distinguished 
from "those of the circumcision." The 
opinion that he was a native of Antioch 
may have arisen from confounding him 
with Lucius. That he was one of the 
Seventy or of the two who were walking 
to Emmaus is unlikely, as he was not 
himself an "eye-witness," 1:2, of the 
gospel facts. According to the N. T., he 
was a physician, and his style in gene- 
ral, as well as his mode of describing 
diseases, proves him to have been an 
educated physician. Tradition adds that 
he was also a painter. He comes into 
historical prominence as the companion 
of Paul in his later journeys, though his 
presence is modestly indicated in his own 
narrative only by the change to the first 
person plural. Joining the apostle at 
Troas, Acts 16 : 10, he accompanied him 
to Philippi on his second journey,- re- 
joining him some years later at the same 
place, Acts 20 : 5, he remained with Paul 
until the close of his first Roman cap- 
tivity. Acts 28 : 30. Of his subsequent 
life nothing certain is known. Accord- 
ing to common consent and internal 
evidence, he is the author of the Gospel 
named after him, and of the Acts. 

Luke, The Gospel op, was written 
primarily for the use of one Theophilus. 
Luke 1:3. As this name means "lover 
of God," some have supposed that it 
ought to be applied to any Christian 
reader in general, but it is better to re- 
fer it to a person of high rank (" most 
excellent," equivalent to our word "hon- 
orable"), who was either a convert or a 
catechumen. To the same person the Acts 
are dedicated. Acts 1 : 1. The minute de- 
scription of places in Palestine indicates 
that this person was not an inhabitant of 
that country, while the mention of small 
places in Italy as familiarly known, Acts 
27 : 8-16, makes it probable that his 
home was at Rome — a view confirmed 
by the abrupt conclusion of Acts. In 
any case, he was a Gentile, and the Gos- 
pel was designed mainly for Gentile 
Christians, representing the universal 
530 



import of the coming of Christ for all 
nations and for all classes of men. This 
agreement with Paul is a natural result 
from the close personal intimacy between 
the apostle and the author, but there is 
no evidence that Paul dictated the Gos- 
pel or referred to it as his Gospel. 2 Tim. 
2 : 8. The verbal resemblances, espe- 
cially in the account of the words of in- 
stitution of the Lord's Supper, Luke 22 : 
19, 20; 1 Cor. 11:23-25, are such as 
would naturally result from companion- 
ship with Paul. In other respects the 
peculiarities of the third Gospel are 
marked. The style closely resembles 
that of the Acts, but has a larger num- 
ber of Hebraisms, especially in the first 
two chapters, which indicate the use of 
Hebrew documents by the evangelist. 
Where he describes scenes he had wit- 
nessed himself, the style is far more pure. 
A large number of words are peculiar to 
Luke, and to him we are indebted for 
nearly all the chronological notices which 
link the Gospel facts with ancient his- 
tory in general. The narrative is more 
complete than the others, and contains 
several portions peculiar to it ; as, for 
instance, the account of the Nativity, the 
presentation in the temple, the mirac- 
ulous draught of fishes, the sending out 
of the Seventy, the parables of the Good 
Samaritan, the Barren Fig Tree, the Lost 
Sheep, the Prodigal Son, the Unjust 
Steward, Dives and Lazarus, etc. The 
Gospel was written before the destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem, and also before the 
Acts. Acts 1:1. It is probable that it 
was written at Cassarea in Palestine dur- 
ing Paul's imprisonment there, 58-60. 
Some, however, date it still earlier. 

LUKE 'WARM denotes the indiffer- 
ent, who receive the call from the Lord, 
but, without either accepting or formally 
refusing it, remain entirely unimpressed 
by it. Rev. 3 : 16. 

LU'NATIC. It was formerly sup- 
posed that the changes of the moon 
(Luna) had an influence upon certain 
diseases of a paroxysmal character, and 
persons affected with those diseases were 
therefore called lunatics ; hence, dis- 
tracted persons who are sane at intervals 
are still called lunatics, though the idea 
of their being at all under the influence 
of the moon is generally regarded as 
irrational. 

In the two places in which the word 



LUS 



LYS 



occurs in our translation of the Bible, 
Matt. 4 : 24; 17 : 15, it seems to be nearly- 
identical with " epileptic." 

LUST was not used formerly in its 
present restricted sense, but of any strong 
desire. In the A. V. it is the translation 
of three Hebrew and four Greek words. 
" To lust" appears six times in the A. V. 
Ps. 81:12; Rom. 1:24-27. 

LUS TY," vigorous." Jud. 3: 29. 

LUZ (almond tree). 1. The Canaan- 
ite name for the place in which Jacob 
rested and had a prophetic vision, and 
afterward the city of Bethel ; now Bei- 
tl,t. Gen. 28:19; 35:6: 48:3; Josh. 
16:2; 18:13: Jud. 1:23. 

2. A city in the land of the Hittites, 
built by an inhabitant of the original 
Luz, who was spared when the city was 
sacked. Jud. 1 : 23 ; now Luweiziyeh, 4 
miles north-west of Banias. 

LYCAO'NIA, a province of Asia 
Minor which the apostle Paul twice 
visited. Acts 14 : 1-23 ; 16 : 1-6 ; 18 : 
23 ; 19 : 1. It was separated from Phry- 
gia, and bounded north by Galatia, east 
by Cappadocia, south by Cilicia, and 
west by Pisidia and Phrygia. It con- 
sisted of a plateau with a hilly surface, 
not very fertile, but affording excellent 
sheep-walks. Its principal industry was 
wool-growing. Its chief towns were 
Iconium, Derbe, and Lystra. 

The speech of this province, Acts 14 : 
11, is supposed to have been either a 
Syrian or a corrupted Greek dialect, and 
the standard of civilization seems not to 
have been so very high. 

LY'CIA (lish'ia), a region of Asia 
Minor, extending along the Mediterra- 
nean, just opposite to the island of Rhodes, 
between Caria and Pamphylia, and 
covered by the spurs of the Taurus. 
Having belonged to the empire of Alex- 
ander and the Seleucidae, it was for some 
time in the possession of Rhodes, but 
made itself independent and became very 
prosperous, as the ruins of its two largest 
cities, Patara and Myra, testify. It also 
acquired some political importance, as 
shown by 1 Mace. 15 : 23. In the reign 
of Claudius it became a Roman province. 
Paul visited it, and preached the gospel 



both at Patara, Acts 21 : 1, and at Myra. 
Acts 27 : 5. 

LYD'DA, the Greek name for the 
Hebrew Lod, the present Lydd, now a 
village, but in ancient time a flourishing 
town situated in the plain of Sharon, a 
few miles east of Joppa, on the road to 
Jerusalem. It was burnt several times 
by the Romans, but again rebuilt. Ves- 
pasian gave it the name of Diospolis, 
" city of Jupiter," but the old name pre- 
vailed. It was the birthplace of St. 
George, the patron saint of England, 
and Justinian built a church in his 
commemoration. By the Saracens it was 
again burnt, but rebuilt by the Crusa- 
ders. Now the church is in ruins, but 
the village is prospering. Here St. 
Peter healed the paralytic iEneas. Acts 
9:32. 

LYD'IA, a Jewish proselyte from 
the city of Thyatira, in Lydia, engaged 
in the purple trade, possessed of wealth, 
and temporarily residing at Philippi, 
where she heard Paul preach. Acts 16 : 
14. She accepted the Gospel, was bap- 
tized together with her household, and 
tendered hospitality to the apostle. 

LYD'IA, a coast-region of Asia Mi- 
nor, extending along the Mediterranean 
from the promontory of Mycale to the 
mouth of the Hermas. It formed in 
olden times the centre of a great empire 
under Croesus ; afterward it belonged 
successively to Syria, Pergamus, and 
the Romans. Its principal cities were 
Sardis, Thyatira, and Philadelphia. It 
is mentioned in 1 Mace. 8 : 8 among the 
provinces which the Romans transferred 
from Syria to Pergamus. 

LYRE. See Harp. 

LYSA MAS. See Abilene. 

LY'SIAS. See Claudius. 

LYS'TRA, a city of Lycaonia, sit- 
uated in the eastern part of the great 
plain, probably at the present Bin bir- 
Kilisneh. Paul visited this place twice, 
the first time in company with Barnabas, 
Acts 14, when he was saluted as the 
god Mercury, but afterward stoned, the 
second time in company with Silas. 
Acts 16. Timothy was probably born 
here. 2 Tim. 3 : 11. 

531 



MAA 



MAA 



M. 



MA'ACAH (oppression), 2 Sam. 3 : 3, 
orMAACHAH, 1 Chr. 3 : 2, a daugh- 
ter of Talmai, king of Geshur, was taken 
in battle by David, according to Hebrew 
tradition, and made one of his wives and 
bore him Absalom. 

MA'ACAH, 2 Sam. 10 : 6, or 
MA AC HAH, 1 Chr. 19 : 6, 7, a small 
district or kingdom on the north-east- 
ern frontier of Palestine, in Syria, near 
Amnion and toward Mesopotamia; per- 
haps between Argob to the west and 
the desert to the east. Its king 
brought into the field only 1000 men 
to the assistance of the Bene-Ammon 
against Joab. It can hardly have 
been in the region of Abel-beth-ma- 
achah. 

MAACHAH. 1. The daughter of 
Nahor, Abraham's brother, by his concu- 
bine Reumah. Gen. 22 : 21. 

2. The father of Achish, who was king 
of Gath at the beginning of Solomon's 
reign, 1 Kgs. 2 : 39 ; is also called Moach. 

I Sam. 27 : 2. 

3. The daughter, or more probably the 
granddaughtei-, of Absalom, and the third 
wife of Rehoboam, mother to Abijah and 
grandmother to Asa. 1 Kgs. 15 : 2 ; 2 Chr. 

II : 20-22. In 2 Chr. 13 : 2 she is called 
" Michaiah, the daughter of Uriel of 
Gibeah," " Michaiah," being a variation 
of " Maachah," and Uriel being the 
husband of Absalom's daughter Tamar. 
In the beginning of Asa's reign she held 
the dignity of queen-mother, 1 Kgs. 15 : 
2, 10, 13 ; 2 Chr. 11 : 20-22 : but when 
Asa came of age she lost the dignity as a 
punishment because she had introduced 
idolatry. 2 Chr. 15 : 16. 

4. A concubine of Caleb, the son of 
Hezron. 1 Chr. 2 : 48. 

5. A descendant of Benjamin, and the 
wife of Machir the Manassite. 1 Chr. 7 : 
12, 15, 16. 

6. The wife of Jehiel, the founder of 
Gibeon, and the ancestor of the family 
of Saul. 1 Chr. 8:29; 9 : 35. 

7. The father of Hanan, one of David's 
warriors. 1 Chr. 11 : 43. 

8. The father of Shephatiah, chief of 
the Simeonites. 1 Chr. 27 : 16. 

532 



MAACH'ATHI, Deut. 3 : 14, or 
MAACHATHITES, the inhabit- 
ants of Maachah. Josh. 12 : 5 ; 13 : 11, 13; 
2 Sam. 23 : 34 ; 2 Kgs. 25 : 23 ; 1 Chr. 4 : 
19 ; Jer. 40 : 8. 

MAAD'AI (the ornament of Jehovah), 
one of the sons of Bani, who had taken a 
foreign wife. Ezr. 10 : 34. 

MAADI'AH, a priest who returned 
with Zerubbabel, Neh. 12:5; is called 
Moadiah in v. 17. 

MAA/I (compassionate), a Levite, one 
I of the Bene- Asaph, who partook in the 
l dedication of the walls of Jerusalem. 
Neh. 12 : 36. 

MAALEH-ACRAB'BIM (the 
ascent of scorpions). Josh. 15 : 3. The 
form is given elsewhere as Akrabbim. 

MA'ARATH (open place), a town 
in the mountains of Judah. Josh. 15 : 59. 
The Pal. Memoirs suggest Beit Ummar, 
7 miles north of Hebron, as its site. 

MAASE'IAH (icork of Jehovah). 
1. Three priests — one a descendant of 
Jeshua, Ezr. 10 : 18, another of the sons 
of Harim, Ezr. 10 : 21, and a third of the 
sons of Pashur, Ezr. 10 : 22 — who had 
married foreign wives. 

2. A layman who divorced his foreign 
wife. Ezr. 10 : 30. 

3. The father of Azariah. Neh. 3 : 23. 

4. One who assisted Ezra when he read 
the Law to the people. Neh. 8 : 4. 

5. A Levite who expounded the Law 
to the people. Neh. 8 : 7. 

6. One whose descendants signed the 
covenant with Nehemiah. Neh. 10 : 25. 

7. Two whose descendants dwelt in 
Jerusalem after the return from Babylon. 
Neh. 11 : 5, 7. 

8. Two priests who took part in the 
musical service at the dedication of the 
walls of Jerusalem. Neh. 12 : 41, 42. 

9. The father of Zephaniah. Jer. 21 : 
1; 29:25. 

10. The father of the false prophet 
Zedekiah. Jer. 29:21. 

11. A Levite appointed a porter for the 
ark by David. 1 Chr. 15 : 18, 20. 

12. The son of Adaiah ; partook in the 
revolution by which Joash was placed on 
the throne. 2 Chr. 23 : 1. 



MAA 



MAC 



13. An officer in the reign of Uzziah. 
2 Chr. 26:11. 

14. A son of King Ahaz. 2 Chr. 28 : 7. 

15. The governor of Jerusalem under 
King Josiah. 2 Chr. 34 : 8. 

16. A doorkeeper at the temple. Jer. 
35:4. 

MAASE'IAH {refuge of Jehovah), a 
priest, the father of Keriah, and the 
grandfather of Baruch and Seraiah. Jer. 
32:12; 51:59. 

MAAS'IAI {work of Jehovah), a 
priest. 1 Chr. 9 : 12 ; comp. Neh. 11 : 13. 

MA'ATH {small), an ancestor of 
Jesus. Luke 3 : 26. 

MA'AZ {anger), a son of Ram, a de- 
scendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 27. 

MAAZI'AH {Jehovah's consolation). 
1. Head of the twenty-fourth course of 
priests in the reign of David. 1 Chr. 
24 : 18. 

2. One of the priests who signed the 
covenant with Nehemiah. Neh. 10 : 8. 

MACCABEES, THE BOOKS 
OF THE , five in number, and con- 
taining the history of the Jewish rising 
under the leadership of the family of the 
Maccabees, belong to the Apocryphal 
books of the 0. T. The first two books, 
however, which are found in the Vulgate, 
the earliest English versions, and also in 
the Cambridge Bible, were received into 
the canon of the Roman Catholic Church 
by the Council of Trent j the fifth exists 
only in Arabic. 

1. The first book begins with the acces- 
sion of Antiochus Epiphanes to the 
Syrian throne in B.C. 175, and narrates the 
revolt of the Jews under Mattathias, their 
brilliant successes under Judas Macca- 
baeus, and the continuation of the contest 
under Jonathan and Simeon till the death 
of the latter, in b. c. 135. It was originally 
written in Hebrew, in the first decades 
of the first century before Christ, and 
afterward translated into Greek ; but we 
know only the translation. Its character 
is very different from that of the histor- 
ical books of the 0. T. ; it is a simple 
exposition of merely human exploits. 
But the author is veracious, and his 
apparent ignorance of Roman or other 
foreign affairs does not impugn his 
trustworthiness when he speaks of Jew- 
ish affairs. 

2. The second book begins in the last 
time of the reign of Seleucus IV. Philo- 
pator, and ends with the victory of Judas 



Maccabaeus over Seleucus Nikanor in 160. 
It thus comprises a much shorter period 
than the first book ; and where it relates 
the same events, it deviates very much 
from it. There can be no doubt, how- 
ever, which of the two accounts is the 
more trustworthy. The second book is 
an extract from a larger work on the 
subject by one Jason of Cyrene, but we 
know neither this Jason nor his work, 
nor the epitomizer. The extract must 
have been made before the destruction 
of Jerusalem, and is written in an exag- 
gerated and rhetorical style and with a 
definite religious tendency. 

3. The third book narrates the visit 
of Ptolomeus IV. Philopator to the 
temple of Jerusalem in 217 ; his demand 
to enter the holy of holies, and the pun- 
ishment of his audacity by the hand of 
God; his attempt to take vengeance on 
the Jews of Alexandria, and the im- 
mediate interference of God on their be- 
half; and finally, his conversion into a 
friend and benefactor of the Jewish 
people. The style in which this book is 
written is as bombastic and affected as 
its contents are fabulous. The historical 
kernel is very small, and even this little 
is not correctly rendered. 

4. The fourth book begins with a philo- 
sophical dissertation on the supremacy of 
reason over the passions, and illustrates 
this subject with an account of the mar- 
tyrdom of Eleazar, and the mother with 
her seven sons, following 2 Mace. 6, 7. 

5. The fifth book gives the history of 
the Jews from Heliodorus to Herodes — 
that is, from b. c. 184 to b. c. 86. 

MACCABEES, THE FAMILY 
OF THE. The proper name of this 
family was "Asmonaeans" or "Hasmonae- 
ans," from Chasmon, the great-grand- 
father of Mattathias " of the sons of 
Jehoiarib." 1 Chr. 24 : 7. " Maccabasus" 
was a surname originally given to Judas, 
one of the sons of Mattathias, and then 
extended first to the whole family and 
then to the whole party which arose 
against the despotism of the Seleucides. 
The meaning of this surname has been 
variously given as " the hammer," " the 
extinguisher," " destruction," and some 
regard it as a combination of the initial 
letters of the Hebrew sentence, " Who 
among the gods is like unto thee, Jeho- 
vah ?" on Judas' banner. 

When the emissaries of Antiochus 
533 



MAC 



MAC 



Epiphanes came to Modin and required 
the people to offer idolatrous sacrifices, 
Mattathias, a priest of the course of 
Joarib, slew the first Jew who approached 
the altar to renounce his faith, then the 
emissaries themselves, and then he fled 
to the mountains with his sons, in B. c. 
168. Numbers of his countrymen who 
held dear their religion joined him here, 
and thus the revolt began. In 166 Mat- 
tathias died, and his son, Judas, succeeded 
him as leader of the movement. After 
the brilliant victories at Beth-horon and 
Emmaus, Judas occupied Jerusalem, and 
the temple was purified exactly three 
years after its profanation. By the still 
more brilliant victory at Adassa, 161, 
over Seleucus Nikanor, the independence 
of the Jews was practically established, 
but Judas fell shortly after in the battle 
of Eleasa. The contest was continued 
with success by his two brothers, Jona- 
than, died 143, and Simon, died 135. 
Under the latter the office of high priest 



was made hereditary in the family of 
the Asmonaeans. Simon's son, Johannes 
Hyrcanus, 135-105, changed the tradi- 
tional policy of the family and sought 
support with the Sadducees, and his two 
sons, Aristobulus I., 105-104, who as- 
sumed the title of king, and Alexander 
Jannaeus, 104-78, pursued the same line 
of conduct. After the death of Alex- 
andra, 78-69, a civil war broke out be- 
tween her two sons, Aristobulus II. and 
Hyrcanus II. The Romans interfered, 
and Aristobulus II., 69-63, having been 
defeated by Pompey, was dethroned. His 
brother Hyrcanus II. succeeded, 63-40, 
as high priest and prince under Roman 
supremacy, but without the title of king. 
With Antigonus, 40-37, a son of Aristobu- 
lus II., the Asmonaean dynasty ceased to 
reign, and with Aristobulus' two grand- 
children, Aristobulus and Mariamne, it 
became extinct. Herodes became its heir. 
MACEDO'NIA {extended land), a 
noted country and kingdom lying north 




Map of Macedonia. 



of Greece. The kingdom was founded 
about b. c. 814, and became famous in 
the world's history in the time of its 
great rulers, Philip and Alexander. It 
was the first part of Europe which re- 
ceived the gospel, and hence its import- 
ance in biblical history. 

Situation and Extent. — The boundaries 
of Macedonia varied at different periods. 
534 



but in N. T. times Macedonia may be 
described as bounded on the north by 
the range of Hagmus or the Balkan 
Mountains, separating it from Moesia: 
on the east by Thrace and the iEgean 
Sea ; on the south by the province of 
Achaia (Greece) ; on the west by Epirus 
and Illyricum, from which it was sepa- 
rated by the Pindus range. 



MAC 



MAC 



Physical Features. — Macedonia is situ- 
ated in a great basin nearly surrounded 
by the mountains and the sea. There are 
two great plains, one watered by the river 
Axius, whose mouth is near Thessalonica, 
and the other by the Strymon, which 
flows into the JEgean Sea below Amphi- 
polis. Between the mouths of these two 
rivers projects a peninsula divided into 
three points, on one of which is Mount 
Athos, whose peak rises nearly into the 
region of perpetual snow. Across the 
neck of this peninsula ran the great road 
(Via Ignatia) along which Paul and his 
companions passed. 

History. — Macedonia is a name familiar 
to school-children in connection with 
King Philip of Macedon and his son 
Alexander the Great. The third great 
world-kingdom, the Macedonian empire, 
received its name from this compara- 
tively little spot. Comp. Dan 8 : 5-8, 21. 
The Romans conquered the territory from 
Perseus. It was at first divided into four 
districts, afterward consolidated into one 
with its capital at Thessalonica,where the 
proconsul resided. There are numerous 
allusions to the Macedonians in the books 
of the Maccabees. In N. T. history 
Macedonia holds an important place be- 
cause of the labors of the apostles. Paul 
was called there by the vision of the 
"man of Macedonia," and made a most 
successful missionary-tour. Acts 16 : 10 ; 
17 : 1-12. He visited it again, Acts 20 : 
1-6, and probably for a third time. Comp. 
1 Tim. 1:8; Phil. 2 : 24. His Epistles to 
the Thessalonians and Philippians show 
that the Macedonian Christians exhibited 
many excellent traits. The details of his 
work can be studied in connection with 
the cities of Macedonia visited by him. 
See Neapolis, Philippi, Apollonia, 
Thessalonica, Ber^a. Macedonia has 
been for many years under the control 
of the Turks, and is called Makadonia. 

MACH^E'RUS is not mentioned 
in the Bible, but is supposed to be the 
castle in which John the Baptist was 
imprisoned and beheaded. It is nine 
miles east of the Dead Sea. Mark 6 : 
2L-29. 

MACH'BANAI (one fat, thick, or 
who like my sons?) a Gadite chief who 
joined David at Ziklag. 1 Chr. 12: 13. 

MACHBENAH {hillock, or cloak), 
a name occurring in the genealogical 
list of Judah, 1 Chr, 2 : 49, and probably 



signifying a town founded or colonized 
by Sheva and his family. 

MA 7 CHI (decrease), the father of 
Geuel the Gadite, who went with Caleb 
and Joshua as a spy into Canaan. Num. 
13:15. 

MACHIR (sold). 1. The eldest son 
of Manasseh by an Aramite or Syrian 
concubine, 1 Chr. 7 : 14 ; the father of 
Gilead, Num. 26 : 29 ; 27 : 1 ; 36 : 1 ; 
and a daughter, Abiah. 1 Chr. 2 : 21, 24. 
At the time of the Conquest the family 
of Machir had become very large and 
powerful, and subdued the land to the 
east of the Jordan. Num. 32:39; Deut. 
3:15. 

2. The son of Ammiel, in whose house 
Mephibosheth was received and lived un- 
til David called him to Jerusalem. 2 Sam. 
9:4 5 • 17 : 27. 

MA'CHIRITES, the descendants 
of Machir. Num. 26 : 29. 

MACHNADE'BAI (what like the 
liberal?), one who divorced his foreign 
wife on command of Ezra. Ezr. 10 : 40. 

MACHPE'LAH (double cave), a 
field in Hebron containing the cave which 
Abraham bought of Ephron the Hittite 
as a burial-place for his family. A full 
account of Ihe negotiations, carried on 
after the Oriental forms still prevalent, 
is given in Gen. 23. That cave became 
the burial-place of Abraham and Sarah, 
Isaac and Rehekah, Jacob and Leah. 
Gen. 23 : 19 ; 25 : 9 ; 49 : 29-32 ; 50 : 12, 
13. The name does not occur except in 
the book of Genesis. The cave Mach- 
pelah is one of the Bible sites which are 
positively known. It was situated on 
the western slope of a hill in Hebron, 
the town lying for the most part to the 
south and west. 

Present Appearance. — A large struc- 
ture called El Haram, " The Sacred 
Enclosure," surrounds the ancient cave. 
It stands high up the slope on the east- 
ern side of the valley, conspicuous at a 
distance for its size. The outer wall, 
which contains not a single window, is 
194 feet long, 109 feet wide, and from 48 
to 58 feet high. The stones are of im- 
mense size (one of them 38 feet long and 
4 wide), dressed and fitted with great 
care, and resemble those of the sub- 
structure of the temple at Jerusalem. 
Opinions differ as to the age of this 
building. Some ascribe it to David or 
Solomon, others to the period after the 
535 



MAC 



MAD 



Captivity, still others to the time of 
Herod, who rebuilt the temple ; but there 
seems to be no good reason for disputing 
the view of Robinson, who regarded the 
external structure of the Haram as the 
work of Jewish hands, erected long be- 
fore the destruction of the nation. Tris- 
tram and Stanley also accept the identi- 
fication of Machpelah as certain, and 
hold it beyond doubt that the main 
stone enclosure was built by the kings 
of Judah, and most probably by Solomon 
or David. Within the enclosure is a 
mosque, which was probably erected in 
the time of Justinian as a Christian 



church. Visitors are rigidly excluded ; 
but by a special firman of the sultan 
the Prince of Wales was admitted in 1862. 
He was accompanied by Dean Stanley, 
and a full account of the visit is found 
in Stanley's Jewish Church (first series, 
appendix ii.). In separate apartments 
they were shown tombs or cenotaphs 
purporting to be those of Abraham, 
Isaac, Jacob, Sarah, Rebekah, and Leah. 
These tombs were of stone and overhung 
with cloth embroidered with gold and 
silver. Joseph's tomb is shown in a 
structure joining the Haram on the west 
side. Between the tombs of Isaac and 




Mosque at Hebron, covering the Cave of Machpelah. 



Rebekah was a circular opening into a 
cavern below, which is supposed to be 
the real cave of Machpelah. Of the cave 
itself there is no detailed and trust- 
worthy account. Captain Warren was 
told that it had not been entered for 600 
years. The Moslems have a superstition 
that whoever attempts to enter it will be 
struck dead, and their fanaticism causes 
them to prohibit any one from making 
the attempt. It is thought to be possi- 
ble that the embalmed body of Jacob 
may still be preserved in the cave, as 
Egyptian mummies have been found of 
as early a date. Since the visit of the 
$36 



Prince of Wales, the marquis of Bute 
(1866) and the Crown-Prince of Prussia 
(1869), and latterly others, have been 
admitted to the mosque. See Hebron. 

It is to be hoped that the political 
changes going on in the East may open 
the way for explorers to solve the ancient 
mystery respecting the cave of Machpe- 
lah, and perhaps bring to light the em- 
balmed body of Jacob. 

MAD is the translation of various 
Hebrew and Greek words, sometimes de- 
noting actual insanity, 1 Sam. 21 : 13- 
15 ; 1 Cor. 14: 23, but generally signify- 
ing an uncontrollable excitement only, 



MAD 



MAG 



caused either by fierce wrath, Deut. 28 : 
28, 34 ; 2 Kgs. 9:11; Luke 6 : 11 ; Acts 
26: 11, or the frenzy of idolatrous wor- 
ship, 1 Kgs. 18 : 26, 28, or real inspira- 
tion, 1 Sam. 19 : 21-24; comp. 2 Kgs. 9 : 
11 ; Jer. 29 : 26 ; Acts 2 : 13. Only once 
in Scripture is madness connected with 
demoniacal possession. John 10 : 20. 
Among the Orientals, as among all semi- 
civilized people, madness was generally 
looked upon partly with pity, because 
God's hand was laid heavily on the mad- 
man, partly with reverence, because the 
mad mind, being shut up against all or- 
dinary impressions, was considered open 
to supernatural or spiritualistic influ- 
ences. Thus it became possible for David 
to effect his escape from the court of 
Achish by feigning madness. 1 Sam. 21: 
13-15. 

MAD'AI {middle land), the third 
son of Japheth, from whom the Medes 
descended. Gen. 10 : 2 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 5. 

MADIA1V. Acts 7 : 29. See Midian. 

MADMANMH (dunghill), a town 
in the South of Judah, Josh. 15 : 31, 
known in the time of Eusebius and Je- 
rome as Menois, and not far from Gaza. 
Wilton would identify it with el-Minyay, 
15 miles from Gaza; the Pal. Memoirs 
suggest Umm Deimneh, 12 miles north- 
east of Beersheba, as its more probable 
site. Madmannah corresponds with 
Beth-marcaboth, ''house of chariots," 
in Josh. 19 : 5; 1 Chr. 4 : 31. 

MADMEN (dunghill), probably the 
name of a place in Moab threatened with 
destruction in the denunciations of Jere- 
miah. 48 : 2. 

MADME'NAH (dunghill), a Benja- 
mite village north of Jerusalem, the in- 
habitants of which were frightened away 
by the approach of Sennacherib along 
the northern road. Isa. 10 : 31. If the 
places in Sennacherib's march are men- 
tioned in order, Madmenah should be 
between Gibeah of Saul and Nob. 

MA'DON (contention), a royal city of 
the Canaanites, Josh. 11:1: 12:19, 
whose king was slain by Joshua; prob- 
ably Madin, near Hattin. 

MAGBISH (gathering), probably 
the name of a place, Ezr. 2 : 30, as all 
the names from Ezr. 2 : 20 to 34, except 
Elam and Harim, are names of places. 
It is not in the corresponding list in 
Neh. 7. The place was doubtless in the 
territory of Benjamin. 



MAG'DALA (tower). In the chief 
manuscripts and versions the name is 
given as " Magadan." Magdala is found 
only in Matt. 15 : 39. Christ came 
thither by boat over the Lake of Galilee 
after his miracle of feeding the four 
thousand on the mountain on the eastern 
side, Matt. 15 : 39 ; and from thence he 
returned in the boat to the opposite 
shore. The parallel passage, Mark 8 : 
10, has the "parts of Dalmanutha," on 
the western edge of the lake. The two 
regions or districts were probably near 
each other. The Magdala irom which 
Mary Magdalene was named is perhaps 
identical with Migdal-el, Josh. 19 : 38, 
and may be the modern el-Mejdel, a 
miserable little Moslem village of fifteen 
or twenty hovels, on the water's edge, at 
the south-east corner of the plain of 
Gennesaret. 

MAGDALA, COASTS OF. 
Matt. 15 : 39. See Dalmanutha. 

MAG'DIEL (the praise of God), one 
of the chiefs of Edom. Gen. 36:43; 1 
Chr. 1 : 54. 

MA'GI, a word of Median or Chal- 
dean origin, was the name of the sacer- 
dotal caste which among the Medians, 
Persians, Chaldgeans, and other Eastern 
nations occupied an intermediate posi- 
tion of great influence between the despot, 
to whose council they often were called, 
and the people, whose leaders in revolt 
they often were. As the administrators 
of the religion of Zoroaster they were the 
priests among the population belonging 
to the Medo-Persian empire. They alone 
had the right to perform the religious 
ceremonies. Distinguished by a pecu- 
liar dress, living apart by themselves, 
and forming a complete hierarchy, they 
were engaged in keeping alive the sa- 
cred fire on the altar of Ormuzd and 
combating the evil plans of Ahriman. 
But they were not only the priests of the 
Persian nation ; they were also its schol- 
ars. Deeply versed, according to the 
measure of the time, in philosophy and 
the sciences, especially astronomy, they 
accompanied the king even in war as his 
advisers, Jer. 39 : 3 ; but as, at that' 
time, a practical application of science 
did not mean the subjugation of natural 
powers and their employment for useful 
purposes, but the divination of future 
events and their possible modification 
through spiritual and mysterious agen- 
537 



MAG 



MAH 



cies, the Magi became on this field mere 
soothsayers, fortune-tellers, dream-in- 
terpreters, not to say sorcerers and en- 
chanters. When the Greeks became 
acquainted with Persian religion and 
civilization, and here discovered a sys- 
tem of divination and oracles quite dif- 
ferent from their own, it was natural 
enough for them to throw a special 
odium on the representatives of this 
system ; and in the Greek-Roman litera- 
ture the Magi always appear as impos- 
tors. Not so in the 0. T. During the 
Captivity the Jews became well acquaint- 
ed with them, and Daniel describes 
them as men of wisdom, 1 : 20 ; he in- 
tercedes for them with Nebuchadnezzar, 
2: 24; and accepts a position as their 
chief or master. 5:11. 

The same impression of dignity, truth- 
fulness, and aspiration after the true re- 
ligion is conveyed by the narrative in 
Matt. 2 : 1-14. Whence these Magi 
came we have no means of ascertaining, 
but it is a very probable inference that 
by the intercourse between the Magi and 
the exiled Jews some seeds of Messianic 
expectations were sown and took root 
among the former, and by special Provi- 
dence these wise men were led to the 
cradle of the Messiah as a sign of the 
coming of the Gentiles. They were the 
forerunners of the heathen converts. The 
Christian legend represents them as three 
kings. Their memory is celebrated on 
Epiphany, the 6th of January, or the fes- 
tival of Christ's manifestation to the Gen- 
tiles. See Star of the Wise Men. 

MAG / IC was the art of influencing 
future events and changing their course 
by dark and secret means. The magician 
was believed to stand in connection with 
demons, and even with the gods them- 
selves, and to be able to compel them to 
act according to his will. Of the religion 
of the Egyptians, Chaldseans, Persians, 
etc., magic formed an essential element, 
and of the Egyptian magicians, in their 
conflict with Moses and Aaron, Exodus 
gives a vivid account. 7 : 11, 12, 22; 8 : 
7. Of the religion of the Jews magic 
did not only not form a part, but the law 
forbade the consulting of magicians, un- 
der penalty of death. Lev. 19 : 31 ; 20 : 
6. Nevertheless, from their neighbors 
magic crept in among the Israelites too, 
and there were those among the people 
who believed in it and resorted to it. 
538 



The most remarkable instance is that 
of Saul and the sorceress of Endor. 1 
Sam. 28 : 3-20. Also in the N. T. we 
find it mentioned. Acts 8 : 9. 

MAGI'CIAN. See Magic. 

MAGISTRATE is used in our 
translation both in its general sense, 
signifying civil officers with legal au- 
thority, Ezr. 7 : 25 ; Luke 12 : 11 ; Tit. 
3:1; and in a special sense, signifying 
the Roman colonial officers — the duum- 
viri, corresponding nearly to prsetores* 
Acts 16 : 20, 22, 25, etc. 

MAGOG {region of Gog), the second 
son of Japheth, Gen. 10 : 2 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 5, 
and the name of a people descending 
from him, or the country inhabited by 
that people, and of which Gog was the 
king. Ezr. 38 : 2 ; 39 : 1, 6, etc. In the 
Middle Ages the Syrians applied the 
name of Magog to Asiatic Tartary, and 
the Arabians to the region between the 
Caspian and the Black Seas. Generally 
the people of Magog are identified with 
the Scythians, who, in the times when 
Ezekiel wrote, were wellJknown in West- 
ern Asia. Descending from the Cauca- 
sian mountain-regions in the beginning 
of the seventh century b. c, they con- 
quered Sardis, the capital of Lydia, in 
629, and defeated Cyaxares, king of 
Media, in 624. They penetrated even 
into Egypt, but were bribed off by Psam- 
metichus. They were not expelled, how- 
ever, from Western Asia until the begin- 
ning of the next century. By Ezekiel 
they are descx'ibed as excellent horsemen, 
skilled in the use of the bow, 38 : 15 ; 39 : 
3, and exactly the same traits are promi- 
nent in the descriptions of the Scythians 
by the classical historians. In Rev. 20 : 
7-9 the terms Gog and Magog are evi- 
dently used as types of the enemies of 
Christianity. See Gog. 

MAGOR-MISSAB1B {terror on 
every side), a symbolical name given 
by Jeremiah, Jer. 20 : 3, to the priest 
Pashur, which article see. 

MAG'PIASH {moth-killer), one of 
the chiefs who sealed the covenant with 
Nehemiah. Neh. 10 : 20. 

MAHA'LAH {sickness), a descend- 
ant of Manasseh by a sister of Gilead. 1 
Chr. 7 : 18. 

MAHA'lALEEL {praise of God). 
1. The son of Cainan, the fourth in de- 
scent from Adam. Gen. 5 : 12, 13, 15-17; 
1 Chr. 1:2; called Maleleel in Luke 3 : 37. 



MAH 



MAK 



2. A descendant of Perez or Pharez, 
whose family lived in Jerusalem after 
the return from the Captivity. Neh. 11 : 4. 

MA'HALATH {stringed instrument, 
harp, lyre). 1. The daughter of Ishmael, 
and one of the wives of Esau, Gen. 28 : 
9; called Bashemath Gen. 36:3,4, 10, 
etc. 

2. The granddaughter of David, and 
one of the wives of Rehoboam. 2 Chr. 
11 : 18. 

MA'HALATH, Ps. 53, and MA- 
HALATH-LEAN'NOTH, Ps. 88, 
occurring only in the titles of these two 
Psalms, are by most commentators held 
to be the names of some musical instru- 
ment used in the performance of the 
Psalm, or to contain some musical instruc- 
tions with respect to the melody. Others, 
however, deriving the word from a root 
meaning " sickness," consider it a con- 
densed or enigmatical indication of the 
idea of the Psalm. 

MA'HALI (sick), a son of Merari. 
Ex. 6 : 19. The same as Mahli. 

MAHANA'IM (two camps), a town 
east of the Jordan ; named by Jacob. 
Gen. 32 : 1, 2. It was assigned to the 
Levites, Josh. 13 : 26, 30 ; 21 : 38; 1 
Chr. 6 : 80, and lay within the territory 
of Gad, north of the torrent Jabbok. 
Mahanaim became in the time of the 
monarchy a place of mark. 2 Sam. 2 : 
9, 12 ; 4 : 6. Abner fixed Ishbosheth's 
residence there, and David took ref- 
uge in it when driven out of the west- 
ern part of his kingdom by Absalom. 
2 Sam. 17 : 24; 1 Kgs. 2 : 8. Mahanaim 
was the seat of one of Solomon's com- 
missariat officers, 1 Kgs. 4 : 14, and it 
is alluded to in his Song, 6 : 13. Dr. 
Merrill locates Mahanaim in the Jordan 
valley, 6 miles north of the Jabbok, at a 
ruin called Suleihhat. Here water is 
abundant; the ruins are extensive and 
about 300 feet above the plain and near 
the dividing line between Gad and Ma- 
nasseh. It answers the biblical require- 
ment better than other suggested sites, 
like Mahneh and Gerasa. 

MA'HANEH-DAtf (the camp of 
Ban), a place " behind Kirjath-jearim," 
Jud. 18:12, and "between Zorah and 
Eshtaol." 13 : 25. 

MAHAR'AI {swift, impetuous), a 
descendant of Zerah, and one of David's 
captains. 2 Sam. 23 : 28 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 30 ; 
27 : 13, 



MAHATH (grasping). 1. A Ko- 
hathite Levite. 1 Chr. 6 : 35. 

2. Another Kohathite Levite in the 
time of Hezekiah. 2 Chr. 29 : 12 ; 31 : 13. 

MA'HAVITE, the designation of 
Eliel, one of David's warriors, 1 Chr. 11 : 
46 ; of uncertain signification. 

MAHA ZIOTH (visions), a Ko- 
hathite Levite, one of the sons of Heman, 
and chief of the twenty-third course of 
musicians. 1 Chr. 25 : 4, 30. 

MA'HER- SHAL'AL- HASH'- 
BAZ (hasting to the spoil, he speeds to 
the prey), the symbolical name given to 
the son of Isaiah to indicate the capture 
and plunder of Damascus and Samaria 
by the king of Assyria. Isa. 8:1,3. 

MAH'LAH (disease), one of the 
daughters of Zelophehad, in favor of 
whom the laws of inheritance were al- 
tered. Num. 27 : 1-11. 

MAHLI (sickly). 1. A Levite, son 
of Merari, Num. 3 : 20 ; 1 Chr. 6 : 19, 29 ; 
23 : 21 ; 24 : 26 ; Ezr. 8:18; called Ma- 
hali, Ex. 6 : 19. 

2. Another Levite, a grandson of Me- 
rari. 1 Chr. 6 : 47 ; 23 : 23. 

MAH'LITES, a family of Levites 
descending from Mahli. Num. 3:33; 
26 : 58. 

MAHLON (sickly), one of the sons 
of Elimelech and Naomi, and the first 
husband of Ruth ; died in the land of 
Moab. Ruth 1:2, 5; 4:9, 10. 

MA'HOL (dance), father of four sons 
who next to Solomon had the greatest 
fame for wisdom. 1 Kgs. 4 : 31. 

MAIL. 1 Sam. 17 : 5. See Arms. 

MAINSAIL. Acts 27 : 40. See 
Ship. 

MA'KAZ (end), a place where one of 
Solomon's officers resided. 1 Kgs. 4 : 9. 
Conder suggests that it is the modern 
Mokkus. 

MAKHE'LOTH (place of assem- 
blies), a station of the Hebrews in the 
desert. Num. 33: 25. 

MAK'KEDAH (place of shep- 
herds), a royal city of the Canaanites in 
the plains of Judah, where Joshua exe- 
cuted the five confederate kings. Josh. 
10 : 10 ; 12 : 16 ; 15 : 41. Warren would 
identify it with el-Mughdr, 25 miles 
north-west from Jerusalem, and Conder 
describes it as on the north side of the 
valley Sorek, 25 miles from Gibeon, 
close to the main road from Gaza to 
Lydda. There is a promontory divided 
539 



MAK 



MAL 



into three tops, the last of which falls 
abruptly and supports a large mud vil- 
lage upon the steep eastern side and 
huddled around the caves. There are 
still two caves wherein five men might 
crowd, and the entrance could be easily 
blocked with the great stones which lie 
scattered near. One cave has, curiously 
enough, five loculi rudely scooped in its 
side, and an enthusiast might contend 
that this was the very place of sepulchre 
of the five kings who were hidden at 
Makkedah. 

MAKTESH {mortar), a place in j 
Jerusalem denounced by Zephaniah. 1 : 
11. Ewald conjectures that it was the 
" Phoenician quarter " of the city, and 
the Targum identifies it with the Kedron. 
Jerome places it in the lower city, where 
were bazaars of merchants at the time of 
the siege by Titus. 

MAI/ACHI {messenger of Jehovah), 
the last of the prophets, and called "the 
seal " because his prophecies form the 
closing book of the canon of the 0. T. 
Of his personal life nothing is known 
but what can be gleaned from his book. 
He flourished after the Captivity, later | 
than Haggai and Zechariah, at a time i 
when the temple was completed, and was 
probably a contemporary of Nehemiah, 
B. c. 433. His prophecies are at once ! 
denunciatory of prevailing vices, and 
consolatory by the Messianic promise. | 
Showing how vain were the murmurings 
of the people against the Lord, he re- 
proves them for their neglect of his ser- 
vice, censures intermarriage with foreign 
wives, etc., and warns them that judg- 
ment will be established over them. He 
closes with a prophecy of the coming of 
Messiah, and foretells that Elijah will re- 
turn as a forerunner of Messiah — a pre- 
diction which found its striking fulfil- 
ment by the mission of John the Baptist. 
Mai. 4:6; Luke 1 : 17; Matt. 11 : 14; 
17 : 12. 

MAL,' CHAM {their king). 1. A Ben- 
jamite chief. 1 Chr. 8 : 9. 

2. As occurring in Zeph. 1 : 5, it is un- 
derstood by some as an idol in general, 
by others as signifying Moloch. 

MALCHI'AH {Jehovah's king). 1. 
A Gershonite Levite, the ancestor of 
Asaph. 1 Chr. 6 : 40. 

2. Two who had married foreign wives. 
Ezr. 10 : 25, 31, the latter probably the 
same as Malchijah. Neh. 3 : 11, 
540 



3. Two who helped to repair the wall 
of Jerusalem. Neh. 3 : 14. 

4. A priest who stood beside Ezra 
when he read the Law to the people in 
the street before the Water-gate. Neh. 
8:4. ^ 

5. A priest, the father of Pashur, Neh. 
11 : 12; probably the same as Melchiah, 
Jer. 21 : 1 ; Neh. 11 : 12 ; 38 : 1, and Mal- 
chijah. 

6. An officer in whose cistern Jeremiah 
was thrown, Jer. 38 : 6, the dry cistern 
being used in Palestine as a dungeon. 

MAL'CHIEL {God's king), a grand- 
son of Asher, and the ancestor of the 
Malchielites. Gen. 46 : 17 ; Num. 26 : 45; 
1 Chr. 7:31. 

3IALCHIJAH {Jehovah's king). 1. 
The same as Malchiah, 5. 

2. A priest, chief of the fifth course in 
the reign of David. 1 Chr. 24 : 9. 

3. One who had taken a foreign wife. 
Ezr. 10 : 25. 

4. One who assisted in repairing the 
walls of Jerusalem, Neh. 3 : 11 ; the same 
as Malchiah in Ezr. 10 : 31. 

5. One who took part in the dedication 
of the walls of Jerusalem. Neh. 12 : 42. 

MALCHI'RAM {king of altitude), 
a son of Jehoiachin, king of Judah. 1 
Chr. 3 : 18. 

MAI/CHISHU'A (king of help). 1. 
Chr. 8 : 33; 9 : 39 ; 10 : 2, OR MEL- 
CHISUA, 1 Sam. 14:49; 31:2, one 
of the sons of King Saul. 

MAL'CHUS {reigning), the high 
priest's servant whose ear Peter cut off 
when Jesus was apprehended in the gar- 
den. Matt. 26 : 51 : Mark 14 : 47 ; Luke 
22:50; John 18 : 10. 

MALELEEL. Luke 3 : 37. See 
Mahalaleel. 1. 

MALLOTHI (my fulness), a Ko- 
hathite Levite, son of Heman, and chief 
of the nineteenth course of singers. 1 Chr. 
25 : 4, 26. 

MALLOWS. Job 30:4. Several 
species of mallows grow in Bible lands 
and are eaten as potherbs by the poor. 
But it is believed that the Hebrew here 
denotes a plant of saline taste, or one 
that grows in salt places. The shrubby 
sea-oracle (Atriplex halimus), closely 
connected with the saltwort of our coasts, 
has both these qualifications, and is most 
generally agreed upon as the mallows of 
Job, although other plants have their 
advocates, 



MAL 



MAtt 



MAL'LUCH (reigning). 1. A Merar- 
ite Levite, ancestor of Ethan. 1 Chr. 6 : 
44. 

2. Two who had married foreign wives. 
Ezr. 10 : 29, 32. 

3. A priest who returned with Zerub- 
babel, Neh. 12 : 2, and signed the cove- 
nant with Nehemiah, Neh. 10 : 4; prob- 
ably the same as Melicu. 

MAMMON, a Chaldee or Syrian 
word denoting "wealth :" used twice by 
our Lord. Matt. 6 : 24; Luke 16 : 9-11. 

MAM'RE (fatness, strength), an 
Amorite chief with whom Abraham 
made an alliance, Gen. 14 : 13, and who 
gave his name to certain localities in 
his possessions. 

MAM'RE, a place near Hebron, 
so called after the Amorite chief, Gen. 
14 : 13, 24; 23 : 19 ; 35 : 27, and it is 
also the name of a plain and a grove 
at Hebron by which Abraham dwelt 
and entertained three angels. Gen. 13 : 
18 ; 18 : 1. It was near Machpelah. 
Gen. 23 : 17, 19 ; 25 : 9 ; 49 : 30 ; 50 : 
13. The grove of terebinths is supposed 
to have been the place called by the Arabs 
er-Bameh or Ramet-et-KhuliJ , one hour 
from Hebron. The site of Mamre is 
shown, on the sheet-maps of the Pales- 
tine Exploration Fund, at Ballatet Selta, 
or " oak of rest," a fine old tree near the 
modern Russian hospice. The tree is 
called Abraham's Oak. Near the site 
is a spring. See Hebron. 

MAN is, in ourEnglish Bible, the ren- 
dering of four different Hebrew words. 

1. Adam, Gen. 1 : 26, from a root which 
signifies " to be red " or " ruddy," which 
among the Shemites means as much as 
"fair." This word is generally used as 
the generic name for the human race. 
Gen. 5:2; 8 : 21 ; Deut. 8 : 3. 

2. Ish, man as distinguished from 
woman, 1 Sam. 17 : 33; then husband, 
Gen. 3:16; Hos. 2:16; superior, Prov. 
8:4; Ps. 141 : 4; the male of animals. 
Gen. 7 : 2, etc. 

3. Gebcr, from a root signifying "to 
be strong," denotes man in contradis- 
tinction from woman, Deut. 22 : 5, or 
from children, Ex. 12 : 37, though it is 
also used collectively. Job 4:17; 14 : 
10. 

4. Methim, "mortal." Isa. 12 : 14. See 
Adam and Son of Man. 

MAN'AEN (consoler), one of the 
teachers of the church of Antioch, and 



foster-brother of Herod Antipas the 
tetrarch. Acts 13 : 1. 

MANAHATH (rest). 1. A de- 
scendant of Seir the Horite. Gen. 36 : 
23 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 40. 

2. A place in Benjamin. 1 Chr. 8 : 6. 
Probably Mdlhah, 3 m. from Jerusalem. 

MANA'HTHITES, THE, the 
descendants of Manahath or the inhab- 
itants of the place of that name. 1 Chr. 
2 • 52 

MANASSEH. 1. The first-born 
of Joseph. When he and his brother 
Ephraim were boys, and Jacob, their 
grandfather, was about to die, Joseph 
took them into the patriarch's presence 
to receive his blessing. On this occasion 
he adopted them into his own family 
as his own children, and predicted the 
superiority of Ephraim over Manasseh. 
Gen. 48 : 5-20. Nothing further is 
known of the personal history of Man- 
asseh. His oldest, and as it would 
seem his only, son was Machir, whose 
children were embraced by Joseph. On 
their way to Canaan the Israelites con- 
quered a large territory east of the Jor- 
dan, and some of them whose posses- 
sions were chiefly in cattle desired to 
have their portion assigned them among 
the rich pastures and fruitful hills of 
Bashan and the surrounding country. 
This request was granted, and half the 
tribe of Manasseh received the territory 
stretching from near to Cassarea-Philippi 
along the Jordan down nearly to Maha- 
naim. The other half had its portion on 
the west of the Jordan, between Ephraim 
and Issachar, across the country from the 
Jordan to the Mediterranean. 

Several great men, such as Gideon, 
and probably also Jephthah, issued from 
Manasseh. The eastern part of the tribe 
prospered much and spread to Mount 
Hermon, but they finally mixed with the 
Canaanites, adopted their idolatry, be- 
came scattered as Bedouins in the desert, 
and were the first to be carried away 
into captivity by the kings of Assyria. 
1 Chr. 5 : 25. The western Manasseh, 
of which only a few glimpses are visible 
in the later history of Israel, always 
showed itself on the right side ; as, for 
instance, in the cases of Asa, 2 Chr. 15 : 
9, Hezekiah, 2 Chr. 30 : 1, 11, 18, and 
Josiah. 2 Chr. 34:6,9. 

2. Son and successor of Hezekiah, 
king of Judah, ascended the throne at 
541 



MAN 



MAN 



the age of twelve years, b. c. 696. The 
former part of his reign was distin- 
guished for acts of impiety and cruelty, 
2 Kgs. 21, and he succeeded in drawing 
his subjects away from the Lord to such 
an extent that the only kind of worship 
which was not allowed in Judah was that 
of Jehovah. 2 Kgs. 21 : 2-9. Having 
supported the Babylonian viceroy in his 
revolt against Assyria, he was at last 
taken captive by the Assyrian king and 
ignominiously transported to 
Babylon. Upon his repent- 
ance, however, he was liber- 
ated, and returned to his cap- 
ital, where he died B. c. 641, 
after having done much to re- 
pair the evils of his former 
life. 2 Chr. 33 : 1-20. 

MANAS'SEH {forget- 
ting), the territory occupied by 
a tribe descended from Joseph, 
and divided into two portions, 
one east of the Jordan, and the 
other west of it. 

1. East of the Jordan. — The 
country of Manasseh east of the 
Jordan included half of Gilead 
the Hauran, Bashan, and Ar- 
gob. It extended from the 
middle of Gilead, on the south, 
to Mount Hermon and Damas- 
cus, on the north, 1 Chr. 5 : 18- 
23, and from the Jordan and 
the Sea of Galilee, on the west, to 
the Arabian desert, on the east. 
It is even now the granary of 
Syria. The extensive pastures 
of Gilead and Bashan gave the 
best scope for the half-nomad 
and herdsman's life led by this 
portion of the tribe. Jud. 5 : 
15. The people were powerful 
and brave, taking a leading 
part in the wars of Gideon, of Jephthah, 
and of David. See also Gilead and 
Bashan. 

2. West of the Jordan. — The portion 
of the half tribe of Manasseh on the 
west of the Jordan extended from the 
Mediterranean to the Jordan, and lay 
between Asher and Issachar on the north 
and Ephraim on the south. Josh. 17 : 7- 
10. They also gained some towns in 
Carmel within the bounds of Issachar, 
probably by capturing them from the 
ancient Canaanites. Josh. 17 : 11-18. 
The dominant position of Ephraim seems 

542 



to have obscured the power of Manasseh, 
and this portion of their country is fre- 
quently joined with Ephraim in the 
biblical allusions. For further notice 
see Palestine and Samaria. 

MANAS'SITES, THE, descend- 
ants of Manasseh the patriarch. Deut. 
4 : 43 : Jud. 12 : 4 : 2 Kgs. 10 : 33. 

MANDRAKES (Heb. love-plants). 
Modern Bible scholars apply this name 
to a member of the potato family [Man- 




Mandrake. (Atropa Mandragora. After Tristram.) 



dragora officinalis). This is a stem- 
less plant with a disk of leaves almost 
as long, but not nearly as broad, as those 
of the garden rhubarb, which it some- 
what resembles, except in its blossoms. 
These are of a rich purple, and, appear- 
ing among the leaves very early, are 
followed about wheat-harvest by a round 
yellow pulpy fruit of the size of a large 
plum and of a sweet and agi-eeable 
flavor. The odor of the plant seems to 
be enjoyed by Orientals, Cant. 7 : 13, 
and by some Occidentals. Many strange 
superstitions are connected with this 



MAN 



MAN 



plant, and the idea of Rachel's time still 
prevails that conception is ensured by 
eating the fruit of this plant. Gen. 30 : 
14-16. 

MA'NEH. See Measures. 

MAN'NA (Heb. what is this ?), a sub- 
stance miraculously furnished to the 
children of Israel on their journey 
through the wilderness, and designed as 
a substitute for bread, the material for 
which they could not raise during their 
wanderings. It was called the bread 
from heaven, and its character and his- 
tory are most fully described in Ex. 16. 

The most remarkable things about the 
manna of the Israelites were, 1. That 
double the quantity was supplied on the 
day preceding the Sabbath or seventh 
day ; 2. That on the Sabbath or seventh 
day none was furnished ; 3. That what 
they kept from the sixth day to the 
seventh was sweet and good, while what 
they kept from any other day to the 
next day bred worms and became offen- 
sive. These miracles- were wrought in 
attestation of the sanctity of the -Sab- 
bath. 

The manna of the Jews is described 
as "a small round thing," as small as 
" the hoarfrost on the ground," ''like co- 
riander seed" (in shape doubtless, per- 
haps in size and density), "of the color 
of bdellium," "and the taste of it like 
wafers made with honey." Wafers were 
small thin cakes of fine flour mingled 
with oil and used in various offerings. 
Lev. 2 : 4 ; 7 : 12. If to this mixture 
was added a portion of honey, there 
would be the nourishment of the flour, 
the flavor of fresh oil, and the sweetness 
of honey. 

For forty years this miraculous supply 
of food was furnished daily to between 
3,000,000 and 4,000,000 of people. Deut. 
29 : 5, 6. It ceased while they were en- 
camped at Gilgal, immediately after 
they had celebrated the Passover for the 
first time in the Land of Promise. To 
commemorate this long-continued and 
wonderful miracle, Moses was instructed 
that a golden pot should be provided, 
Ex. 16 : 33 ; Heb. 9 : 4, and that an 
omer (or one man's portion) of the 
manna should be put up for preserva- 
tion and placed in or near the ark, that 
succeeding generations might see with 
their own eyes the very substance on 
which their fathers were miraculously 



fed in their long and perilous journey- 
ings from Egypt to Canaan. 

The manna which is now used in 
medicine as a mild laxative is the dried 
juice of the ash (Ornns), and is obtained 
from Southern Europe. It evidently has 
no connection with the food of the Israel- 
ites. Various natural exudations from 
Eastern shrubs and trees are called by this 
name, their sweet taste and the globular 
form under which they are ordinarily 
found occasioning a fancied resemblance 
to the manna of the Israelites. Espe- 
cially notable is that which drops from 
the twigs of the tamarisk, or tar/a, in 
the deserts of Mount Sinai, and is gath- 
ered by the Arabs for food and sold to 




Tamarisk or Manna Tree of the Sinaitic 
Peninsula. 

travellers as a curiosity. Although the 
natives call this substance manna, the 
manna which the Israelites found in the 
same locality was entirely different in 
several particulars. The Arab manna 
falls only where the tamarisks grow and 
during early summer; it may be kept 
years without breeding worms; it cannot 
be ground or beaten into meal, jS"um. 11 : 
8, more than could thick honey ; it comes 
on Sabbath and week-day in equal quan- 
tities. It is plain that the Israelites 
never saw their manna before or after the 
Exodus. Deut. 8 : 3, 16 ; Ex. 16 : 15, 32, 33. 
543 



MAN 



MAN 



An Eastern traveller gives the following j 
account (in part verified by the writer) 
of the modern manna of Arabia : " This ; 
substance is called by the Bedouins mann, 
and accurately resembles the description , 
of manna given in the Scriptures. In { 
the month of June it drops from the 
thorns " (the fresh stems ; the tamarisk 
has no thorns) "of the tamarisk upon 
the fallen twigs, leaves, and thorns 
which always cover the ground be- 
neath that tree in the natural state; 
the manna is collected before sunrise, 
when it is coagulated ; but it dissolves 
as soon as the sun shines upon it. The 
Arabs clean away the leaves, dirt, etc., 
which adhere to it, boil it, strain it 
through a coarse piece of cloth, and> put 
it in leathern skins. In this way they 
preserve it till the following year, and 
use it as they do honey — to pour over 
unleavened bread or to dip their bread 
into. I could not learn that they ever 
made it into cakes or loaves. The manna 
is found only in years when copious 
rains have fallen ; sometimes it is not 
produced at all. I saw none of it among 
the Arabs, but I obtained a small piece of 
the last year's produce in the convent (of 
Mount Sinai), where, having been kept 
in the cool shade and moderate temper- 
ature of that place, it had become quite 
solid and formed a small cake. It be- 
came soft when kept some time in the 
hand ; if placed in the sun for five min- 
utes, it dissolved ; but when restored to 
a cool place, it became solid again in a 
quarter of an hour. In the season at 
which the Arabs gather it, it never ac- 
quires that state of hardness which will 
allow of its being pounded, as the Is- 
raelites are said to have done in Num. 
11 : 8. Its color is a dirty yellow, and 
the piece which I saw was still mixed 
with bits of tamarisk leaves ; its taste is 
agreeable, somewhat aromatic, and as 
sweet as honey. If eaten in any con- 
siderable quantity, it is said to be slightly 
medicinal. The quantity of manna col- 
lected at present, even in seasons when 
the most copious rains fall, is trifling, 
perhaps not amounting to more than 500 
or 600 pounds. It is entirely consumed 
among the Bedouins, who consider it 
the greatest dainty which their country 
affords. The harvest is usually in June, 
and lasts for about six weeks." 

Some authors have also suggested a 
544 



lichen (Lecanora esculenta) as the manna 
of the Israelites. This small plant 
grows on the deserts and mountains of 
the East, in the neighborhood of the 
Caucasus especially. It forms small 
grayish lumps, sometimes as large as a 
hazel-nut, yielding the same nourish- 
ment to the tribes of the Asiatic steppes 
as does the lai-ger lichen called tripe de 
roche to our Arctic explorers in their ex- 
tremity. The natives consider that this 
food comes from heaven, and call it 
manna. In considerable quantity it is 
sometimes taken up by the wind and let 
fall at a distance. Parrot says that 
these "rains of manna" have been 
known to cover the ground in some parts 
of Persia to the depth of five or six 
inches. 

The sugary exudation from the leaves 
and branches of the camel's thorn (Al- 
hagi maurorum) of the Sinai deserts has 
been called Persian manna, and been 
believed by a few to have supplied the 
Israelites. 

" Wherever the manna is referred to 
in Scripture, it is invariably regarded as 
a miraculous food sent directly from 
God. The Lord Jesus, when he accepted 
the manna as a type of himself — the 
living Bread which came down from 
heaven — corrects the error of those who, 
in seeking a sign from him, insinuated 
that the bread from heaven given by 
Moses, by which he secured the confi- 
dence of their fathers, was a greater 
miracle than the feeding of the five 
thousand, and says that it was the gift 
of God, and not of Moses. We are led 
to the same conclusion by comparing its 
properties and amount and the manner 
of its occurrence with what is known of 
the natural mannas, and we must regret 
all attempts to identify the 'corn of 
heaven ' with any of them. Yet we 
have no doubt that this wilderness-food 
so closely resembled in general appear- 
ance the Egyptian manna as to justify 
the name given to it by those who first 
saw it. In the same way, emigrants 
apply names of familiar home-plants to 
the strange trees and plants they meet 
with because of some observed resem- 
blance, though they are widely removed 
from each other in scientific character. 
The adopting a manna-like appearance 
for the miraculous food is in accordance 
with the general plan of God's miracles 



MAX 



MAK 



as recorded in his word. For example, 
the Lord Jesus did not bring bread from 
heaven to feed the hungering multitudes 
on the green slopes of the Sea of Gali- 
lee, but employed the loaves and fishes 
which were the common food of the coun- 
try, and by miraculously increasing the 
small supply found in the possession of 
one in the company made it sufficient for 
all. So, when his people hungered for 
flesh in the desert, God sent them quails 
— migrating birds which occasionally 
passed in flocks over the wilderness; and 
when they wanted bread, in full keeping 
with the locality, God gave them ' manna,' 
as if he were only multiplying the nat- 
ural product of the wilderness." — W. 
Carruthers. 

Manna is called the " corn of heaven " 
and ''angels' food," Ps. 78 : 24, 25, per- 
haps in allusion to the mode by which 
it was supplied. 

The phrase " hidden manna," Rev. 2 : 
17, figuratively describes the support 
which Christ furnishes to the true be- 
liever, of which the world does not and 
cannot partake. Comp. John 6 : 49, 51. 

MANGAH {rest), a native of the 
town of Zorah, in the tribe of Dan, and 
the father of Samson, whose birth is re- 
corded in Jud. 13 : 1-23. Manoah is 
again mentioned, Jud. 14 : 2-4 at the 
occasion of Samson's marriage, but 
seems to have died before the son, whose 
body was brought up from Gaza by his 
brethren, not, as Milton has it, by his 
father. Jud. 16 : 31. 

MAN' SLAYER. When man- 
slaughter occurred by a blow in a sud- 
den quarrel, by a stone or other mis- 
sile thrown at random, Num. 35 : 22, 23, 
by the blade of an axe flying from its 
handle, etc., the manslayer was allowed 
to escape by retiring into one of the cit- 
ies of refuge, on the principle that in 
these and other such cases the person 
slain had been delivered into the hands 
of the manslayer by the Almightv him- 
self. 

MANTLE is the rendering of four 
different Hebrew words denoting — 

1. A coarse fabric in the form of a 
plaid used by the Arabs for making beds 
in their tents. Jud. 4:18. 

2. The garment which Samuel's moth- 
er made in imitation of the official 
priestly robe for her young son in the 
holy tent at Shiloh. 1 Sam. 15 :27. 

35 



3. A wrapper with sleeves used by la- 
dies. Isa. 3 : 22. 

4. The chief garment of the prophet 
Elijah. 1 Kgs. 19:13, 19; 2 Kgs. 2:8, 
13, 14. 

MA'OCH {breast-band f), the father 
of Achish, king of Gath, 1 Sam. 27 : 2; 
called Maachah in 1 Kgs. 2 : 39. 

MA'ON (habitation), the founder of 
Beth-zur. 1 Chr. 2 : 45. 

MA'ON, one of the cities of Judah, 
in the mountains, Josh. 15 : 55, and a dis- 
trict where David hid from Saul, and near 
which Nabal had possessions. 1 Sam. 23 : 
24, 25. The name of Maon still exists in 
Main, a lofty conical hill 100 feet high, 
about 8 miles south from Hebron. 

MAONITES, THE, mentioned in 
Jud. 10 : 12 among the enemies of Israel; 
probablv the same as the Mehunim. 

MA'RA (bitter). Ruth 1:20. See 
Naomi. 

MA'RAH (bitterness), a place in the 
wilderness of Shur or Etham, three days' 
journey, Num. 33 : 8, 9, from the place 
at which the Israelites crossed the Red 
Sea. There was at Marah a spring of 
bitter water, sweetened subsequently by 
the casting in of a tree which "the Lord 
showed " to Moses. Ex. 15 : 23, 24 ; Num. 
33 : 8, 9. At 'Ain Haioarah, distant 47 
miles from Ayun Mousa, is a spring whose 
fountain l'ises from a large mound in the 
Wady el-Amarah, and is considered by 
the Arabs as the' worst water in the dis- 
trict. The soil is impregnated with na- 
tron, which accounts for the bitterness. 
This spring has been identified with 
Marah. It is of course impossible to 
determine whether this is the precise 
spring of which the Israelites drank, 
but it is certain that it must have been 
in this neighborhood. 

MAR'-ALAH [trembling), a bound- 
ary of Zebulun, Josh. 19:11; Porter 
identifies it with M'alul, 4 miles south- 
west of Nazareth, where are the ruins of 
a temple. 

MARANATH'A, an Aramaic ex- 
pression signifying . "our Lord has 
come." 1 Cor. 16 : 22. 

MAR'BLE, limestone of a compact 
texture and capab'e of receiving a high 
polish. Rev. 18:12. The Bible word 
seems to be used, however, for almost 
any shining stone, and much of the ma- 
terial of Solomon's architectural work 
may have been common limestone. Some 
545 



MAR 



MAR 



of it was doubtless true marble, as was 
certainly much of the stone used in 
Herod's temple. This substance was 
probably used in very early times for 
building material, 1 Kgs. 6 : 7, 06 ; 7 : 
9-12; 1 Chr. 2i* : 2, and for many kinds 
of vessels. The colors of marble are 
various and beautiful, and pieces of all 
sizes may be so wrought together as to 
resemble a beautiful painting. Such 
was probably the pavement and columns 
of the Persian palace described in Esth. 
1:6. 

MARCUS. Col. 4 : 10. See Mark. 

MARE' SHAH (possession), one of 
the settlers in Hebron, belonging to the 
family of Caleb. 1 Chr. 2 : 42. 

MARESHAH (top of a hill), a 
city of Judah in the low country. Josh. 
15:44. It was fortified and garrisoned 
by Rehoboam after the rupture with the 
northern kingdom. 2 Chr. 11 : 8. Near it 
the great battle between Zerah and Asa 
was fought. 2 Chr. 14:9-12. It is men- 
tioned once or twice in the history of 
the Maccabsean struggles. 1 Mace. 5 ; 2 
Mace. 12:35. About B. c. 110 it was 
taken from the Idumseans by John Hyr- 
canus. It was in ruins in the fourth cen- 
tury, when Eusebius and Jerome describe 
it as in the second mile from Eleuther- 
opolis. The ruin el-Merash, about a 
mile and a half south-south-west of Beit 
Jebrin, marks the site of ancient Mar- 
eshah. In the rocky banks of the val- 
ley south of the ruin there are numerous 
excavated caverns resembling subterra- 
nean towns. Conder suggested el-Marah, 
south of the valley of Elah, as Mareshah, 
but latel v has accepted M'erash as the site. 

MARK, or JOHN MARK, as he 
is also called, Acts 12 : 12, 25 ; 15 : 37, 
was a Jew, probably a native of Jerusa- 
lem, where his mother, Mary, resided. 
Acts 12 : 12. She was a person of some 
repute among the early Christians, as 
Peter, when released from prison, natu- 
rally went to her house. Mark was proba- 
bly converted through that apostle, who 
calls him " his son." 1 Pet. 5 : 13, and the | 
minute account of the young man who 
followed Jesus on the night of the betray- 
al, Mark 14:51, 52, together with the 
omission of the name, points to the 
evangelist as the person concerned. Go- 
ing with Paul and Barnabas, who was 
his cousin, Col. 4 : 10, as their minister, 
Acts 12 : 25, on their first missionary 
546 



journey, he left them at Perga, Acts 13 : 
13, and in consequence became the oc- 
casion of " sharp contention " between 
them. Acts 15 : 36-40. Afterward he 
appears as a companion of Paul in Rome. 
Col. 4:10; Phile. 24. He was with Pe- 
ter when that apostle wrote his first 
Epistle, 1 Pet. 5 : 13, but was at Ephesus 
with Timothy at a date probably later. 
2 Tim. 4:11. Respecting his after-life 
trustworthy details are wanting, but 
ancient writers agree in speaking of him 
as the "interpreter" of Peter, which 
may mean that he translated for the 
apostle, but more probably means that 
he wrote his Gospel in close conformity 
to Peter's preaching. 

According to the unanimous testimony 
of antiquity, the second Gospel in our 
canon was written by Mark, and numer- 
ous details of the work indicate the close 
relation between its author and Peter. 
Many events are recorded as if from 
the lips of an eye-witness, and some 
have suggested that the Gospel is based 
upon a diary of Peter, sketching his 
fresh impressions of events as they oc- 
curred. The style shows the influence 
of that apostle. Peter's address to Cor- 
nelius, Acts 10, has been called the 
Gospel of Mark in a nutshell. A compari- 
son of the accounts in Matt. 16 : 13-23 
and Mark 8 : 27-33 indicates that Peter 
himself (or an enemy of his, which is 
impossible) occasioned the omission of 
the praise, and yet the insertion of the 
rebuke. Mark alone mentions the two 
cock-crowings, 14 : 72, thus increasing 
the guilt of Peter's denial. 

Although written in Greek, the Gospel 
was designed for Roman readers, and is 
especially adapted to their minds, so eas- 
ily impressed by exhibitions of energy 
and power. It exhibits Christ as the 
spiritual Conqueror and Wonder-worker, 
the Lion of the tribe of Judah, filling the 
people with amazement and fear. Mark 
introduces several Latin terms ; he even 
substitutes Roman money for Greek. 12 : 
42, which Luke does not, and notices 
that Simon of Cyrene was the father 
of Alexander and Rufus, 15:21. who 
probably were Christians in Rome. 
Rom. 16 : 13. It is therefore most likely 
that the Gospel was written in that city. 
The great similarity between the Gospel 
of Mark and that of Matthew has led 
some to consider the former a mere 



MAR 



MAR 



abridgment of the latter, but without 
sufficient reason. It occupies an inde- 
pendent position as the connecting-link 
between Matthew and Luke, Peter and 
Paul, the Jewish and the Gentile Chris- 
tianity. The last part of the closing 
chapter, 16 : 9-20, is not found in the 
two oldest and best manuscripts of the 
Bible, of which circumstance some have 
taken occasion to declare it a later ad- 
dition. But it has been recognized as 
part of the Gospel and quoted by the 
Fathers of the second century — for in- 
stance, Irenaeus, whose testimony is 
older than the oldest manuscript. Pos- 
sibly it was a later postscript of Mark, 
added to a second copy ; hence its omis- 
sion in some manuscripts. 

MARKET, or MARKET- 
PLACE. The market of an ancient 
Greek or Roman town occupied generally 
one side of an area, the other sides being 
occupied by public buildings, temples, 
courts, aud offices of various kinds. Laws 
were promulgated here; judicial inves- 
tigations were instituted ; questions of 
philosophy and public interest were 
discussed; and all kinds of trade and 
business were carried on. It was fre- 
quented by business-men and by crowds 
of idlers and loungers. In a strictly 
Oriental city, such as Jerusalem, the 
market had not, like the forum, this 
character of being the centre of all public 
life. Still, it was always a lively place, 
generally situated just within ths gate, 
and the principal sceue of trade and 
traffic. 

In the 0. T. this word occurs only 
once, Eze. 27:3; in the N. T. oftener, 
Matt. 23 : 7 : Mark 12 : 38 ; Luke 11 : 43 ; 
20 : 46 : Acts 16 : 19, etc., and we learn 
from Matt. 20 : 3 that not only were all 
kinds of produce offered for sale here, but 
hither resorted also the laborers to find 
employment. 

MA'ROTH (bitterness), a place in 
the western plains of Judah. Mic. 1 : 12. 

MARRIAGE. Its origin is re- 
corded in Gen. 2 : 18-25, and its consti- 
tution is confirmed by our Lord. Matt. 
19 : 5, 6 ; Mark 10 : 5-10. Marriage, in 
its primitive and normal state, is an in- 
separable union between one man and 
one woman for mutual comfort and hap- 
piness, and for the propagation of the 
race. It dates from Paradise before the 
fall. It is indissoluble except on account 



of fornication. Polygamy first appeared 
among the Cainites, Gen. 4: 19, and in 
spite both of the example of Noah and 
his sons, who were monogamists, Gen. 
7 : 13, and of the general discourage- 
ment and special restrictions which the 
Mosaic law placed in its way, it still 
prevailed up to the time of the Captivity. 
It must be noticed, however, that among 
the Hebrews polygamy never assumed 
those degraded and degrading forms 
under which we meet it among pagan 
nations, or even among the Mohammed- 
ans. A distinction was always made 
between the chief wife and the secondary 
wives, between the legitimate wife and 
the concubines ; and thus the principle of 
monogamy was always retained, though 
not always carried out. The Mosaic law 
enjoined the kings not to multiply their 
wives, Deut. 17 : 17 ; prohibited any one 
from marrying two sisters at the same 
time, Lev. 18 : 18 ; asserted the matri- 
monial rights of each wife within certain 
limits, Ex. 21 : 10, 11 ; and entailed con- 
siderable ritual observances on the man. 
Lev. 15 : 18. Nevertheless, instances of 
polygamy are of frequent occurrence, 
such as Gideon, Jud. 8 : 30: Elkanah, 1 
Sam. 1:2; Saul, 2 Sam. 12 : 8 ; David, 2 
Sam. 5:13; Solomon, 1 Kgs. 11 : 3 ; the 
sons of Issachar, 1 Chr. 7:4; Shaharaim, 
1 Chr. 8 : 8, 9 ; Rehoboam, 2 Chr. 11 : 21 ; 
Abijah, 2 Chr. 13 : 21; Joash, 2 Chr. 
24:3. 

After the Captivity the O. T. has no 
instance of polygamy on record, but the 
books of Ezra and Nehemiah and the 
post-Exilian prophets warned the Jews 
against mixed marriages with heathen 
women. The monogamic spirit of the 
Mosaic law, in consonance with the gene- 
ral spirit of the O. T., had now so far 
worked itself out into the details of prac- 
tical life that monogamy had become 
the rule. Yea, in the period before the 
advent of Christ, a view had arisen 
among the Jews according to which even 
the propriety of marriage was doubted. 
It was the sect of the Essenes which rep- 
resented this view, some of them reject- 
ing marriage altogether, while others 
accepted it only with many restrictions. 
Nevertheless, instances of polygamy still 
occurred, as niay be seen from the earliest 
commentators on 1 Tim. 5 : 9. Herod 
the Great had at one time nine wives. 
Thus Christianity had to contend at once 
547 



MAR 



MAE 



against both extremes — the polygamists 
and the ascetics. With the former the 
contest was very short ; polygamy soon 
disappeared from the Christian marriage. 
But in spite of Col. 2 : 16-23, 1 Tim. 4 : 
3, and other passages of the N. T. in 
which the propriety of marriage is 
strongly inculcated, the unmarried state 
was still held to be more honorable and 
of greater holiness up to the very time 
of the Reformation. 

In the pre-Mosaic period marriages 
between near relatives were not uncom- 
mon among the Hebrews. The great 
anxiety to keep the blood of the family 
pure, the strong feeling of exclusiveness 
toward foreigners, and the smallness of 
the tribe led naturally to such measures. 
By the Mosaic law, Lev. 18 : 6-18, the 
degrees of relationship which made 
marriage illegal were sharply defined — 
mother, stepmother, sister, half-sister, 
granddaughter, aunt, daughter-in-law, 
brother's wife, stepdaughter, wife's moth- 
er, step-granddaughter, or wife's sister 
during the lifetime of the wife. With 
respect to a brother's wife, an exception 
was made in the case of the brother 
having died childless. Deut. 25 : 5. In 
this case the brother married the widow, 
according to the so-called Levirate — from 
the Latin levir, "brother-in-law" — law, 
but the progeny which issued from this 
connection was in all legal respects to be 
reckoned as the progeny of the dead 
man. Marriages between Israelites and 
foreigners were comparatively rare ; the 
marriages of Joseph with an Egyptian, 
Gen. 41 : 45, of Manasseh with a Syrian, 
1 Chr. 7 : 14, of Moses with a Midianitish, 
Ex. 2 : 21, and afterward with a Cushite, 
woman, Num. 12 : 1, were exceptional 
cases. Absolute prohibition, however, 
did not exist except with respect to the 
Canaanites, Ex. 34 : 16 ; Deut. 7 : 3, 4, 
though the legal disabilities of the Am- 
monites and Moabites, Deut. 23 : 3, had 
nearly the same effect. On the whole, 
marriages between Israelite women and 
foreigners were much rarer than mar- 
riages between Israelites and foreign 
women. After the Captivity this latter 
form of intermarriage became so common 
as to endanger the national character of 
the people, and the prohibition against 
the Canaanites was then extended also 
to the Ammonites. Moabites, and Philis- 
tines. Neh. 13 : 23-25. 
548 



Among the more special regulations 
of the Mosaic marriage-law may be men- 
tioned : the high priest was forbidden to 
marry any but a virgin out of his own 
people. Lev. 21 : 13, 14. Thus the Levi- 
rate law could never be applied to him. 
The priests were forbidden to marry 
prostitutes and divorced women. Lev. 
21 : 7. An heiress was forbidden to 
many out of her own tribe. Num. 36 : 
5-9, etc. Among the Jews divorce was 
not an act of the civil judicature, based 
on proper evidence on the part of the 
injured party. The husband could from 
a mere caprice, from having " found in 
her the nakedness of a thing," put away 
his wife by simply writing for her a bill 
of divorce, and a woman thus divorced 
could afterward marry whom she liked. 
Deut. 24 : 1-4. In this Christianity made 
a great change, our Lord admitting only 
one sufficient reason for a divorce — 
adultery — and adding : "Whosoever mar- 
rieth her that is put away doth commit 
adultery." Matt. 19 : 9. As the Mosaic 
law did not absolutely discountenance 
polygamy, its conception of adultery was 
limited to the unlawful intercourse with 
a married or betrothed woman, but the 
penalty was death to both the guilty 
parties, Lev. 20:10: Deut. 22:22-24, 
and the manner of execution seems to 
have been stoning. Eze. 16 : 38-40 : 
John 8:5. It depended, however, on 
the husband to transform the death- 
penalty into a simple bill of divorce, 
and this seems to have been the pre- 
vailing custom in the time of the N. 
T. See Matt. 1 : 19. 

Generally, the marriage was negoti- 
ated exclusively by the parents, no regard 
being paid to the wishes of the young 
folks. This is still the case in Eastern 
countries, especially among the Moham- 
medans. Often, however, we find that 
the bridegroom exercised some influence 
on the choice of his wife, but there is no 
instance on record in which the consent 
and pleasure of the bride were asked for : 
from this humiliating subjection Christi- 

; anity alone has succeeded in elevating 
woman. After the selection of the bride 
followed the espousal or betrothal — a 
contract made under oath and accom- 
panied by presents ; a written contract 
was not in use. however, until after the 
Captivity. A marriage-rlowry was given 

| — not by the father to his daughter, but 



MAR 



MAR 



by the bridegroom to the parents of the 
bride. The primitive idea of the Hebrew 
marriage was evidently that the bride 
was bought, and in many cases the bride- 
groom paid the dowry in actual service; 
as, for instance, Jacob, Gen. 29 ; Joseph, 
Gen. 41 : 4a : Moses, Ex. 2 : 21 ; 3:1; 
Othniel. Jud..l : 12, etc. After the be- 
trothal the bride was considered as a 
wife, and any unfaithfulness by her 
was punished as adultery. She re- 
mained, however, for some time in the 
parental house, and during this period 
all communications between her and the 
bridegroom were carried by the " friend 
of the bridegroom." When the marriage- 
feast was to be consummated, the bride- 
groom came to the house of the bride 
anointed, arrayed in festive garment, 
with the nuptial turban on his head, 
Ps. 45 : 8 ; Cant. 4 : 10, 11 : Isa. 61 : 10 ; 
Cant. 3:11, and accompanied by a num- 
ber of his friends — "the children of the 
bride-chamber." Matt. 9 : 15. The bride 
he found veiled, adorned with jewels and 
the bridal chaplet, and surrounded by 
her maidens. Ps. 45 : 13, 14 ; Isa. 49 : 18; 
61 : 10 ; Rev. 19 : 8 ; 21 : 2. In a great 
procession, with torchlights and lamps, 
Matt. 22 : 1-1 ; 25 : 1-1 ; Luke 14 : 8 ; 
John 2 : 1-10 ; Rev. 19 : 9, he then carried 
her to his house, where the feast was 
prepared ; and often this feast lasted for 
seven days. 

Both in the 0. T. and in the N. T. the 
betrothal, marriage-feast, and marriage 
have given rise to numerous allegorical 
and typical allusions, the relation be- 
tween Jehovah and his chosen people 
being the point of comparison in the O. 
T., Isa. 54 : 5 ; Jer. 3 : 14 ; Hos. 2:19, etc., 
that of Christ and his Church in the N. 
T. Matt. 9 : 15 ; John 3 : 29 ; 2 Cor. 
11 : 2 ; Rev. 19 : 7. 

MARS' HILL, better known by the 
name of AREOPAGUS. This was a 
rocky height in Athens opposite the 
western end of the Acropolis. It rises 
gradually from the northern end and 
terminates abruptly on the south, over 
against the Acropolis, at which point it 
is about 50 or 60 feet above the valley. 
The court held here existed as a criminal 
tribunal before the time of Solon, and 
was the most ancient and venerable of 
all the Athenian courts. It consisted 
of all persons who had held the office of 
archon, and who were members of it for 



life unless expelled for misconduct. Be- 
fore the time of Solon the court tried 
only cases of wilful murder, wounding, 
poison, and arson, but he gave it exten- 
sive powers. The council continued to 
exist even under the Roman emperors. 
Its meetings were held on the south- 
eastern summit of the rock. On the 
eastern and western side is a raised block. 
From this spot Paul delivered his address 
to the men of Athens. Acts 17 : 22-31. He 
also "disputed" in the "market," or agora, 
"daily," 17:1 7, which was south of the Are- 
opagus, in the valley lying between this 
hill and those of the Acropolis, the Pnyx, 
and the Museum. See Areopagus. 

MAR'SEJVA (worthy), one of the 
seven princes of Persia in the time of 
Ahasuerus, and, with Meres and others 
of the "wise men, . . . sat first in the 
kingdom." Esth. 1 : 13, 14 (R. V.). 

MARTHA, the feminine form of 
an Aramaic word signifying "lord," 
"master," was the sister of Lazarus and 
Mary, and seems to have been the eldest 
of the family, as she is always mentioned 
before Mary and generally represented 
as the mistress of the house. She was 
more active in practical life than the 
younger sister, but lacked her concentra- 
tion on the one thing needful ; but she 
was, nevertheless, sincere, devoted, and 
beloved by Christ, John 11 : 5, and her 
energy, somewhat encumbered by the 
distractions of actual life, became at last 
concentrated in her faith in the Saviour. 
MARTYR occurs thrice in the N. T. 
Acts 22 : 20 ; Rev. 2:13; 17 : 6. In 
other places the Greek word of the text 
is rendered with " witness," Matt. 18 : 16 ; 
Luke 24 : 48, which is its original mean- 
ing. It was not until after the apostolic 
age that the word came to denote a wit- 
ness who seals his testimony with his 
blood, but in the above passages we may 
observe it in a state of transition. 

MARY, corresponding to the " Mir- 
iam "of the O. T. 

1. The virgin mother of our Lord (and 
hence " blessed among women "), was of 
the tribe of Judah, of the lineage of David, 
and by marriage connected with Elisa- 
beth, the mother of John the Baptist, who 
was of the tribe of Levi, of the lineage of 
Aaron. After the incidents belonging to 
the infancy of Jesus — the visit of the 
shepherds, the circumcision, the adora- 
tion of the wise men, the presentation 
549 



MAR 



MAS 



in the temple, and the flight into Egypt 
— Mary is mentioned only four times in 
the records of sacred history : at the 
marriage of Cana of Galilee, Juhn 2:3; 
the attempt to speak to Jesus while he 
was teaching, Matt. 12 : 46 : Mark 3 : 21, 
31; Luke 8 : 19: the crucifixion, John 
19 : 26 ; and during the days succeeding 
the ascension. Acts 1 : 1-1. She was pres- 
ent at the marriage in Cana. which took 
place in the three months between the 
baptism of Christ and the Passover of 
the year 27, and at which Jesus wrought 
his first miracle, after she had called 
attention to the lack of wine at the 
feast. She also sought an interview 
with him, in company with others of 
the family, when he was preaching to a 
crowd in a country place. She was pres- 
ent at his crucifixion, and was there com- 
mended by the expiring Redeemer to the 
filial kindness and attention of the be- 
loved John; and she is mentioned as one 
among the praying company in the upper 
room at Jerusalem after the ascension of 
our Saviour. A great multitude of le- 
gends have clustered around her name, 
referring to her life before the birth of 
Christ and after his death, but most of 
them are extremely fabulous, and none 
of them seems to contain any historical 
kernel. 

2. The wife of Cleophas, was present 
at the crucifixion and burial of our Lord, 
Matt. 27 : 56. 61, was among those who 
went to embalm him, Mark 16 : 1—10, 
was among the earliest to whom the news 
of his resurrection was announced, Luke 
24 : 6, 10, and on her way to the disciples 
with the intelligence she met her risen 
Lord and worshipped him. Matt. 28 : 1, 9. 

3. The mother of John Mark. Acts 
12 : 12, and aunt to Barnabas, Col. 4 : 
10, a godly woman residing at Jerusalem 
at whose house the disciples were con- 
vened the night Peter was miraculously 
delivered from prison. 

4. The sister of Lazarus and Martha. 
and a devoted friend and disciple of our 
Saviour, from whom she received the 
testimony that she had chosen the good 
part which should not be taken from her. 
Luke 10 : 41, 42. Compared with her 
sister, she appears of a more contem- 
plative turn of mind and more occupied 
with the " one thing " needful. John 
11 : 1 ; 12 : 2. 

5. Mary Magdalene, or Mary of Mag- 

550 



dala. Luke 8 : 2. The general impres- 
sion that she was an unchaste woman is 
entirely without foundation. There is 
nothing to warrant the opinion that she 
was identical with the woman who was 
a sinner. On the contrary, she was a 
woman in good circumstances and of 
unblemished character. Having been 
relieved of a demoniacal possession by 
the divine power of our Saviour, she 
became his follower, Luke 8 : 2, 3, and 
evinced her attachment to him and his 
cause to the very last. She was at his 
crucifixion, John 19 : 25, and burial, 
Mark 15 : 47, and was among those who 
had prepared the materials to embalm 
* him, Mark 16 : 1, and who first went to 
the sepulchre after the resurrection; and 
what is particularly interesting in her 
history, she was the first to whom the 
; risen Redeemer appeared, Mark 16 : 9, 
i and his conversation with her is ex- 
J ceeded in interest and pathos by no 
passage of history, sacred or profane. 
| John 20 : 11-18. " 

6. A Christian woman in Rome to 
whom Paul sends his salutation. Rom. 
16 : 6. 

JIAS'CHIL is found in the title or 
inscription of thirteen Psalms — namelv, 
| 32, 42, 44, 45, 52-55, 74, 78, 88, 89, 
142 — and is by some explained as an 
assthetical term meaning " didactic," by 
others as a musical term referring to the 
melody. 

MASH, Gen. 10 : 23, or )IE- 
SHECH, 1 Chr. 1 : 17, a son of Aram, 
and the ancestor of one branch of the 
Aramaic race, settled probably at the 
Mons Masius of classical writers, the 
present Karja Baghlar, situated on the 
northern frontier of Mesopotamia. 

MA'SHAL (entreaty), a Levitical 
citv in Asher, 1 Chr. 6 : 74 : also called 
Misheal. Josh. 19 : 26. and Mishal. Josh. 
21 : 30. It was near Mount Carmel. 

MA'SOX. The Hebrews no doubt 
learnt the art of masonry during theii 
residence in Egypt, Ex.1 : 11, 14, though 
at a later period we find Phoenician 
workmen employed bv David and Sol- 
omon. 1 Kgs. 5: 17, 18; 1 Chr. 14 : 1. 
By the erection of the temple great skill 
in the art of masonry was evinced, both 
in the great wall which supported the 
temple-platform, nnd which consisted of 
huge blocks held together by lead, and 
in the temple-wall itself, in which the 



MAS 



MAT 



stones were so accurately cut that they | 
could be laid without the application of 
tools. In common buildings plaster- j 
ing with mortar was used both with- ! 
out and within. Lev. 14 : 40-42; Matt. 
23 : 27. There seems also to have been 
a kind of plastering with mere mud. 
called untempered. Eze. 13 : 10-15. 

MAS'ORA. See Bible. 

MAS'REKA {vineyard of noble 
vines), a place apparently in Idumasa, 
and seat of an early king of Edom. 
Gen. 36 : 36; 1 Chr. 1 : 47. 

MAS'SA (gift, tribute), a son of Ish- 
mael, Gen. 25 : 14 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 30, and 
probably the ancestor of the Masani, 
settled in the north-eastern part of 
Arabia, near the Babylonian frontier. 

MAS'SAH (temptation), a name 
given to the place, also called Meribah, 
where the Israelites tempted Jehovah. 
Ex. 17 : 7 ; Ps. 95 : 8, 9 ; Heb. 3 : 8. 

MAS'TER is in our translation 
often the rendering of a Greek word 
meaning "teacher," Luke 6 : 40; John 
3:10; hence its frequent application to 
our Lord. Matt. 22 : 16, 24, 36, etc. 

MATHU'SALA, the Greek form 
of Methuselah. Luke 3 : 37. 

MA'TRED (propelling), a daughter 
of Mezahab, and mother of Mehetabel, 
who was the wife of Hadai-, king of 
Edom. Gen. 36 : 39 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 50. 

MA'TRI (rain of Jehovah), a Ben- 
jamite familv to which Saul the king 
belonged. 1 Sam. 10 : 21. 

MAT'TAN (a gift). 1. One of 
Baal's priests, who was slain before his 
idolatrous altar at the deposition of 
Athaliah. 2 Kgs. 11:18; 2 Chr. 23: 
17. 

2. The father of Shephatiah, who 
wished to put Jeremiah to death. Jer. 
38: 1. 

MATTANAH (gift, present), a 
station of the Hebrews between the 
desert and the borders of Moab. Num. 
21 : 18, 19. Mascfiana, on the Arnon, 
12 miles from Dibon, has been sug- 
gested as marking Mattanah. 

MATTAIVI'AH (gift, of Jehovah). 
1. The original name of the son of 
Josiah who was made king by Nebu- 
chadnezzar, 2 Kgs. 24 : 17, and whose 
name was changed to Zedekiah, which 
see. 

2. A Levite singer of the sons of 
Asaph, 1 Chr. 9 : 15, who, after the 



restoration of the temple, was the 
leader of the choir in the time of 
Nehemiah. Neh. 11 : 17 ; 12 : 8, 25, 
35. 

3. A Levite, son of Heman, and chief 
of the ninth division of singers. 1 Chr. 
25 : 4, 16. 

4. A Levite, a descendant of Asaph, 
and ancestor of Jahaziel. 2 Chr. 20 : 
14. 

5. A Levite who assisted in the puri- 
fication of the temple in the reign of 
Hezekiah. 2 Chr. 29 : 13. 

6. A Levite, father of Zaccur, and an- 
cestor of Hanan. Neh. 13 : 13. 

7. Four persons who had married for- 
eign wives in the time of Ezra. Ezr. 10 : 
26, 27, 30, 37. 

MAT'TATHA (gift of Jehovah), a 
son of Nathan, and grandson of David 
in the genealogv of Jesus. Luke 3 : 31. 

MAT'TATHAH, one who had 
married a foreign woman in the time 
of Ezra. Ezr. 10 : 33. 

MATTATHI'AS. 1. Two per- 
sons in the genealogy of Jesus. Luke 
3 : 25, 26. 

2. The head of the Maccabaean family. 
See Maccabees. 

MATTENAI (gift of Jehovah). 1. 
Two persons who had married foreign 
women in the time of Ezra. Ezr. 10 : 
33, 37. 

2. A priest in the time of Joiakim. 
Neh. 12 : 19.' 

MAT'THAN, a person in the gene- 
alogv of Christ. Matt. 1 : 15. 

MAT'THAT (gift of God), two 
persons in the genealogy of Jesus. 
Luke 3 : 24, 29. 

MATTHEW, derived from the 
same word as MATTHIAS, Acts 
1 : 23, 26 (gift of God), apostle, and 
author of the first canonical Gospel. 
His original name was Levi, Mark 2 : 
14; Luke 5 : 27, 29, which, like that of 
Simon and of Saul, was changed on his 
being called to the apostleship. He was 
a publican or tax-gatherer near the Sea of 
Galilee, on the route between Damascus 
and the Phoenician seaports, and was 
called by our Lord immediately from 
the toll-booth. This avocation was re- 
garded by the Jews with contempt, but 
it doubtless gave him an extensive 
knowledge of human nature, and accu- 
rate business habits, which tended to 
fit him for his great work as an evan- 
551 



MAT 



MAT 



gelist. The N. T. is silent in regard to 
his special labors, but he was among 
those who met in the upper room at 
Jerusalem after the ascension of our 
Lord. Acts 1 : 13. The tradition of 
his martyrdom in Ethiopia is le- 
gendary. 

The Gospel according to Matthew 
was probably written in Palestine, and 
certainly for Jewish Christians. It pre- 
sents Ctu-ist as the last and greatest 
Lawgiver and Prophet, as the Fulfiller 
of the 0. T., as the Messiah and King 
of the true people of Israel. Its ar- 
rangement is not strictly chronological, 
but topical, grouping together the works 
and sayings of Christ according to their 
similarity. Though a simple narrative 
in its form, and not proposing any i 
definite design on the part of the i 
author, it is in fact an historical proof 
that Jesus of Xazareth is the Messiah. 
The frequent references to the fulfilment j 
of 0. T. prophecy suggest this purpose, i 
While it is not certain that it was the 
first in time, it deserves the first place 
in the N. T., forming, as it does, the best 
link between the 0. and the X. T., be- 
tween the Law and the Gospel. It occu- 
pies the same position in the canon of 
the N. T. as the Pentateuch in that of the 
0. T., giving us, in the Sermon on the 
Mount, a counterpart of the legislation 
from Mount Sinai, the fundamental law 
of the Christian Church. The genealogy, 
the revelation to Joseph, the visit of the 
Magi, peculiar to this Gospel, all com- 
bine to make the impression, as one be- 
gins to read, that here is the fulfilment, 
not the abolition, of the old dispensation : 
and this impression is deepened by the 
Sermon on the Mount, the parables of 
the kingdom of heaven, the discourse 
against the Pharisees, and the repeated 
citations from the 0. T. prophecies 
which are declared to be fulfilled in 
Christ. 

With respect to the language in which 
this Gospel first was written, two differ- 
ent views have been set forth : 1. That 
it was originally composed in Hebrew — 
i.e., Syro-Chaldaic, or Western Aramaic, 
the dialect spoken in Palestine by the 
Jewish Christians; 2. That it was writ- 
ten in Greek, as we now possess it. The 
testimony of the early Church unan- 
imously favors the first view. Those 
Fathers who assert that Matthew wrote 
552 



in Hebrew also assert that his work was 
translated into Greek, and unhesitatingly 
employ the present Greek Gospel as a 
faithful representative of the apostolic 
production. If we accept a Hebrew 
original, then we must also conclude 
that when the necessity for a Greek 
version became obvious, Matthew him- 
self made, or caused to be made, the 
present Greek Gospel. Of this there 
is no positive and direct proof, but it 
accords with the testimony of the Fa- 
thers and accounts for the double as- 
signment of dates which we find, and 
also for the universal acceptance of our 
Gospel. On the other side, it has been 
urged in favor of a Greek original or 

| of the original character of our Gospel, 
not only that the testimony of the Fathers 
is insufficient, unsatisfactory . and at times 
confused, but that the evidence from the 
Gospel itself is abundantly conclusive 

[ on this point. The theor}- of a version 
by Matthew himself will account for the 
early citation of the present Greek text, 
but not so readily for certain facts in the 
Gospel itself. It agrees most exactly 
with the other two synoptists, Mark and 
Luke, in the discourses, especially those 
of our Lord, and differs from them most 
in the narrative portions. And further, 
where citations from the 0. T. occur in 
the discourses, they are usually from the 
Septuagint, while those in the narrative 
appear to be independent translations 
from the Hebrew. It is argued that a 

! mere translator could not have done 
this, but an independent writer, using 
the Greek tongue and wishing to con- 
form his narrative to the oral teaching 
of the apostles, might have used for the 
quotations the well-known Greek 0. T. 
used by his colleagues. The whole ques- 
tion is an open one, and it is to be hoped 
that some future archaeological discover- 

; ies will settle it. The drift of scholarly 
opinion, however, is toward the accept- 
ance of a Greek original. In any ease, 
there is no reason for doubting the gen- 

| uineness of the canonical Gospel. 

With regard to the time when it was 
written there is great uncertainty. Evi- 
dently, Jerusalem had not been destroy- 
ed, but its destruction is foretold, ch. 24, 
in a manner that is only explicable on 
the assumption of its being still a future 
event to the writer. On the other hand, 

I it is evident that some time had elapsed 



MAT 



MEA 



since the events it records had occurred. 
27 : 7. S ; 28 : L5. Some of the ancients 
give the eighth year after the Ascension 
as the date, others the fifteenth. If there 
was an original Hebrew GrOSpel, the ear- 
lier date belongs to it : but we would 
place our present Gospel between 60 and 
66 — a period during which both Mark 
and Luke probably wrote their Gospels. 

MATTHIAS {gift of Jehovah), a 
disciple of Christ, and a constant attend- 
ant on his travels and ministry from 
their commencement until Ins ascen- 
sion, was appointed by lot to supply the 
vacancy in the company of the twelve 
apostles occasioned by the apostasy of 
Judas. Acts 1:21 et seq. Of his after- 
life and ministry nothing is known with 
certainty. According to one tradition, 
he preached in Ethiopia, and suffered 
martyrdom there; according to another, 
he labored in Judaea and was stoned by 
the Jews. 

MATTITHI'AH {gift of Jehovah.). 
1. A Eorahite Levite presiding over the 
offerings made in the pans. 1 Chr. 9:31. 

2. A Levite appointed by David to 
play the harp. 1 Chr. 15 : 18, 21 : 16 :5; 
comp. 25:3, 21. 

3. One who had married a foreign wife 
in the time of Ezra, Ezr. 10 : 43. 

4. A priest who stood at the right 
hand of Ezra when he read the Law to 
the people. Neh. 8 : 4. 

MATTOCK, an 
plement for loosen- 
ing the ground ; a 
pick-axe: a hoe. 
Isa. 7:25. Sec 
Agriculture. 

MAUL, a mace. 
club, or hammer, 
much used in Ori- 
ental warfare, and 
used with frightful 
effect. Prov. 25: 18. 

MAUZZIM 

{fortresses), in the 
margin of Dan. 11 : 
38, where the text has "god of forces." 
Its signification is uncertain, but it prob- 
ably refers to the dedication by Antiochus 
Epiphanes of a temple in Antioch to Ju- 
piter Capitolinus. 

MAZ'ZAROTH, Job 38 : 32, or 
MAZZALOTH, 2 Kgs. 23 : 5 {plan- 
efs), the name of the twelve signs of the 
zodiac. 



•icultural im- 




Mattock or E«vptian 
Hoe. (After Wilkinson.) 



MEADOW is in Gen. 41 : 2 the 
rendering of an Egyptian word denoting 
rushes or water-plants in general, in 
Jud. 20 : 33 the Hebrew words rendered 
with " meadow" would, by a slight change 
in the punctuation, read " cave/' which 
seems more appropriate. 

ME'AH (« hundred), a tower in Je- 
rusalem, standing between the Sheep- 
gate and the tower of Hananeel. Neh. 
3 : 1. See JERUSALEM. 

MEALS. See Eating and Fkast. 

MEA'RAH (« cave, cavern). In 
Josh. 13 : I this word occurs as the name 
of a cave not far from Sidon ; the mar- 
gin reads, " the cave." Robinson, in his 
journey from Tyre to Sidon, observed 
many sepulchral grottoes hewn out of 
the bard limestone rock. This may be 
the spot spoken of by William of Tyre 
as the Tyrian cave in the territory of 
Sidon : Keil makes Mearah " the cave 
of Jezzin," east of Sidon, in Lebanon, a 
hiding place of the Druses now ; Hitter 
refers it to a district of deep caves like 
; the ravines near Sidon and Dan. 

MEASURES and WEIGHTS. 
The Jewish law contains two precepts 
respecting weights and measures. The 
first, Lev. 19 : 35, 36, refers to the stand- 
ards kept in the sanctuary, and the sec- 
ond. Dent. 25 : 13-15, to copies of them 
kept by every family for its own use. 
The models or standards of the weights 
and measures preserved in the temple 
were destroyed with the sacred edifice, 
and afterward the measures and weights 
of the people among whom the Jews 
dwelt were adopted; which, of course, 
adds to the perplexities of the subject. 

I. Measures ok Length. — The He- 
brews, like all other ancient nations, 
took the standard of their measures of 
length from the human body. They 
made use, however, only of the finger, 
the hand, and the arm, not of the foot or 
the pace. The handbreadth or palm, 1 
Kgs. 7 : 26, was four digits, or the breadth 
of the four fingers — from three to three 
and a half inches. 

A span, Lam. 2 : 20, which expresses 
the distance across the hand from the 
extremity of the thumb to the extremity 
of the little finger, when they are 
stretched as far apart as possible, say 
nine to ten inches. 

A cubit, the distance from the elbow 
to the extremity of the middle finger, or 
553 



MEA 



MEA 



about eighteen inches. The different 
expressions used in the 0. T. about this 
measure — such as " after the cubit of a 
man," Deut. 3 : 11 ; " after the first meas- 
ure/' 2 Chr. 3:3; "a great cubit," Eze. 
41 : 8 — show that it varied. 

A fathom, Acts 27 : 28, was from six 
to six and a half feet. 

The measuring-reed, Eze. 42 : 16, com- 
prised six cubits, or from ten to eleven 
feet, and the measuring-line, Zech. 2: 1, 
a hundred and forty-six feet. 

The furlong, Luke 24 : 13, was a Greek 
measure, and nearly the same as at pres- 
ent — viz., one- eighth of a mile, or forty 
rods. 

The mile, mentioned only once, Matt. 
5 : 41, belonged to the Roman system of 
measurement, as stadium to the Greek. 
The Roman mile was one thousand six 
hundred and twelve yards. The Jewish 
mile was longer or shorter, in accordance 
with the longer or shorter pace in use in 
the various parts of the country. 

The Sabbath day's journey, Acts 1 : 12, 
was about seven-eighths of a mile, and 
the term denoted the distance which 
Jewish tradition said one might travel 
without a violation of the law. Ex. 16 : 
29. It is supposed that this distance 
extended first from the tabernacle to the 
remotest section of the camp, and after- 
ward from the temple to the remotest 
parts of the holy city. 

The term a day's journey, Num. 11 : 
31 ; Luke 2 : 44, probably indicated no 
certain distance, but was taken to be the 
ordinary distance which a person in the 
East travels on foot, or on horseback or 
camel, in the prosecution of a journey — 
about twenty miles. 

II. Measures of Capacity. — (1.) 
Dry. A cab, or kab (hollow), 2 Kgs, 6 : 
25, one-third of an omer, or two pints. 

An omer (heap, sheaf), Ex. 16:36, 
one-tenth of an ephah, or six pints. 

The seah (measure), Gen. 18 : 6 : Matt. 
13 : 33; Luke 13 : 21, one-third of an 
ephah, or twenty pints, was the ordinary 
measure for household purposes. 

The ephah — a word of Egyptian origin, 
but often occurring in the 0. T., Ex. 16 : 
36; Lev. 5:11; Num. 5:15; Jud. 6: 
19, etc. — ten omers, or three seahs, or 
sixty pints. 

The homer (heap), Isa. 5 : 10, when 
used for dry measure, one hundred 
omers. or six hundred pints. 
554 



The Greek word translated "bushel," 
Matt. 5 : 15, is supposed by some to an- 
swer to the Hebrew word seah. The Ro- 
man bushel was very nearly the same 
with the English peck. 

(2.) Liquid. — The log (basi)i), Lev. 




Measures of Capacity. 

14 : 10, six egg-shells full, one-tenth of a 
hin, or nearly one pint. 

The hin — a word of Egyptian origin, 
but often used in the 0. T., Ex. 29 : 40 ; 
30 : 24; Num. 15 : 4, etc.— one-sixth of 
a bath or ten pints. 

The bath (measured), the largest of the 

i liquid measures, contained one-tenth of 

a homer, seven and a half gallons, or 

sixty pints. 1 Kgs. 7 : 26 ; 2 Chr. 2:10; 

Isa. 5 : 10. 

The firlcin, John 2 : 6, was a Greek 
measure, containing seven and a half 
gallons. 

III. Weights. — In the time of Moses 
the common weight was a shekel, which 
signifies a " weight." There were also 
the parts of a shekel, as the fourth, 
third, and half. The shekel, the maneh. 
and the talent were all originally names 
of weights. When the phrase "shekel 
of the sanctuary " is used, Ex. 30 : 13, 
it means, not that this was different from 
the common shekel, but that it was a 
true standard weight, according to the 
authorized standard preserved in the 
sanctuary, or, as we should say, a sealed 
weight or measure, to denote that its 
accuracy is certified by authority. To 
weigh substances the Jews had — 

The shekel, Am. 8 : 5, half an ounce 
avoirdupois. 

The mineh or mina, Eze. 45 : 12, one 
hundred shekels, or fift} r ounces, equal 
to three pounds two ounces avoirdupois. 

The talent, 2 Sam. 12 : 30, three thou- 
sand shekels, thirty maneh, fifteen hun- 
dred ounces, equal to ninety-three 
pounds twelve ounces avoirdupois. 



MEA 



MED 



MEAT, MEATS. The import of 
this word seems to have undergone a 
considerable change since our version 
was made, for in this it means food in 
general, or, when confined to one species 
of food, always meal, flour or grain, but 
never flesh, which is now its usual accep- 
tation. A " meat-offering'' in the Scrip- 
tures is always a vegetable and never an 
animal offering, a cake made of flour 
and oil. Lev. 2 ; 6 : 14-23. 

Meat-Offering. At the first settling 
of the church there were many disputes 
concerning the use of meats offered to 
idols. Some newly-converted Christians, 
convinced that an idol was nothing, and 
that the distinction of clean and unclean 
creatures was abolished by our Saviour, 
ate indifferently of whatever was served 
up to them, even among pagans, with- 
out inquiring whether the meat had been 
offered to idols. They took the same 
liberty in buying meat sold in the mar- 
ket, not regarding whether it were pure 
or impure according to the Jews, or 
whether it had been offered to idols or 
not. But other Christians, weaker or 
less instructed, were offended at this lib- 
erty, and thought that eating of meat 
which had been offered to idols was a 
kind of partaking in that wicked and 
sacrilegious act. 

This diversity of opinion produced 
some scandal until Paul stepped forward 
and gave his decision that all things 
were clean to such as were clean, Tit. 1 : 
15, and that an idol was nothing at all ; 
that a man might safely eat of whatever 
was sold in the market, and need not 
scrupulously inquire from whence it 
came: and that if an unbeliever should 
invite a believer to eat with him, the 
believer might eat of whatever was set 
before him, etc. 1 Cor. 10 : 25, etc. But 
at the same time he enjoins that the 
laws of charity and prudence should be 
observed, that believers should be cau- 
tious of scandalizing or offending weak 
minds ; for though all things might be 
lawful, yet all things were not always 
expedient. 

MEBUNNAI {building of Jehovah), 
one of David's warriors, 2 Sam. 23 : 27; 
called Sibbechai in 2 Sam. 21:18; 1 
Chr. 20 : 4, and Sibbecai in 1 Chr. 11 : 
29; 27:11. 

MECHERATHITE, THE, the 
designation of one of David's warriors, 



1 Chr. 11 : 36 ; elsewhere called the 
Maachathite, probably with reference 
to some locality. 

ME'DAD (love), one who, together 
with Eldad, prophesied in the Israelite 
camp in the wilderness. Num. 11 : 26, 27. 

ME'DAN {contention), one of the 
sons of Abraham by Keturah. Gen. 25: 
2; 1 Chr. 1:32. 

MED'EBA {waters of quiet), one 
of the most ancient cities of Moab, 
first mentioned with Heshbon and 
Dibon in the antique poem quoted in 
Num. 21 : 30. It was afterward taken 
by the Israelites and allotted to the tribe 
of Reuben. Josh. 13 : 16. The Ammon- 
ites were in possession of it during the 
reign of David, and there Joab gained 
his great victory over the combined 
hordes with their 32,000 chariots from 
Mesopotamia, Syria, Maacah, Zobah, 
and the whole region between the Jor- 
dan and the Euphrates. 1 Chr. 19 : 7-15. 
In the time of Isaiah it had again re- 
verted to Moab. Isa. 15 : 2. After the 
return from the Captivity it was alter- 
nately in the possession of the Jews and 
of the Gentiles. John Maccabseus was 
slain there, and his death was bloodily 
avenged by his brothers. The city after- 
ward surrendered to Hyrcanus after a six 
months' seige. During the Christian 
period it was the seat of a bishopric. 




Euined Columns at Medeba. (After Tristram.) 



Situation and Present Appearance. — 
The site of Medeba is 8 miles south-south- 
west of Heshbon, and 14 miles east of 
the Dead Sea, on the top of a hill, around 
555 



MED 



MED 



which the old city extended a consider- 
able distance into the plain. On the 
southern side of the town lies a large 
pool 36ft feet square. On the eastern 
and northern sides are other smaller 
pools. All three are now dry. These 
tanks may explain the name Medeba, 
" waters of quiet." The ruins of a large 
temple exist, of which two columns are 
standing. The access to the city on the 
east was by a paved road leading through 
a massive gateway. Within is a large 
square 280 paces long and 240 paces 
wide. The eastern extent of the city 
is over 1000 yards. Around the city, 
ruined villages lie thick in all direc- 
tions, but most of them are very small. 

ME'DIA. Name. — The name is the 
same as Madai, "middle land," one of 
Japheth's sons. Gen. 10 : 2. The Hebrew 
word thus translated " Madai" is also 
rendered " Medes," 2 Kgs. 17 : 6, etc., and 
" Media," Esth. 1 : 3, etc., and also 
" Mede." Dan. 11:1. In the period of 
which Herodotus writes the people of 
Media were called Aryans. 

Situation and Extent. — The general 
boundaries seem to have been the river 
Araxes and the Caspian Sea on the 
north and north-east; Parthia and Hyr- 
cania and the great salt desert of Iram 
on the east; Persia and Susiana on the 
south; Assyria and Armenia on the 
west. Its greatest length from north to 
south was 550 miles, its average breadth 
250 to 300 miles, and its area 150,000 
square miles, or about one-fifth more 
than the area of Great Britain. See 
map, "Lands of the Jewish Captivities." 

Physical Features and Political Divis- 
ions. — Media was divided originally into 
six provinces, which in Greek and Ro- 
man times were reduced to two, Media 
Atropatene and Media Magna. 

1. Media Atropatene, the northern di- 
vision, embraced the tract between the 
Caspian and the mountains, north of 
the Zagros. This is a tract lying on an 
average 3000 feet above the sea-level and 
diversified by mountains and valleys. 
The soil is tolerably fertile, and produces 
a great variety of vegetables and fruits. 

2. Media Magna, lying to the south 
and east of Atropatene. This tract is 
mountainous toward the west, but well 
wooded and fertile; while toward the 
east and south-east it is bare, rocky, and 
sandy, shading away into the great salt 

556 



desert of Iram. Each of these provinces 
seems to have had Ecbatana for its cap- 
ital. 

Media was also divided into smaller 
divisions, concerning which there is lit- 
tle information. George Smith discov- 
ered on an octagonal cylinder of Sargon 
a list of twenty-four Median chiefs. This 
list belongs to B. c. 713, and is crrious 
as showing the divided state of Media 
at that time ( Assyr. Discoveries, p. 2S8). 
Media is now included in the dominions 
of the Shah of Persia. 

History. — The early history of the 
Medes is very obscure. Their origin is 
given in Gen. 10:2. Assyrian records 
show that about b. c. 880 an Assyrian 
monarch invaded their territory. Their 
first appearance in Scripture history is 
in connection with the captivity of Is- 
rael. 2 Kgs. 17: 6; 18 : 11. Isaiah, in his 
prophecy against Babylon, reveals the 
agency and character of the Medes. Isa. 
13 :17, 18; 21:2. But Media was not 
incorporated with Assyria, although Sar- 
gon, and afterward Sennacherib, subdued 
its people and exacted tribute. In b. c. 
633 an independent kingdom was set up 
by Cyaxares, who in b. c. 625 took a lead- 
ing part in the destruction of Nineveh. 
Media then became a great and powerful 
monarchy, comprising, besides Media 
proper, Persia, Assyria, Armenia, and 
other adjoining countries. It extended 
from the river Hatys on the north-west 
j to the Caspian Gates, and included the 
! territory between the Black and Caspian 
Seas on the one side, and the Euphrates 
and Persian Gulf on the other. • The 
empire was 1500 miles long, 450 miles 
wide, and had an area of 600,000 square 
miles. Under Cyrus the two kingdoms 
were united, b. c. 55S. There ai-e refer- 
ences in Scripture to this kingdom under 
the title of the "Medes and Persians." 
Dan. 5:28; 6:8, 12, 15; comp. Esth. 1: 
19. The only city in Media alluded to in 
the canonical Scriptures is Achmetha, 
or Ecbatana. Ezr. 6 : 2. The Medes re- 
volted unsuccessfully in the reign of 
Darius, son of Hystaspes, b. c. 500, and 
in that of Darius Nothus, b. c. 420. 
This region was absorbed in the Mace- 
donian empire of Alexander the Great. 
Later an independent Median kingdom 
held sway until the Christian era, after 
which it became a part of the Parthian 
empire. Medes are mentioned in con- 



MED 



MEG 



nection with Parthians, etc., in the N. 
T. Acts 2 : 9. 

MEDIATOR, one who interposes 
between two parties at variance with the 
view of effecting a reconciliation between 
tbern. Gal. 3 : 19. The title belongs 
pre-eminently to the divine Redeemer, 
in and by whom God is reconciling the 
world unto himself. 1 Tim. 2:5; Heb. 
8:6; 12 : 24. He is the only mediator \ 
between God and men. 

MED'ICINE. The scrupulous at- j 
tention paid in Egypt to the dead was 
favorable to the development of the 
science of medicine : thus the more ' 
elaborate methods of embalming in- 
volved processes of anatomy and led to 
the study of this branch of medical 
science. Herodotus says that in Egypt 
every part of the human body was 
studied by distinct practitioners, and . 
the teeth of the mummies often exhibit 
a dentistry which is not inferior in exe- 
cution to the best workmanship of our 
days ; also, the reputation of Egyptian 
physicians and surgeons was so great j 
that members of their profession were j 
invited to Persia by both Cyrus and j 
Darius. That Moses, who was initiated 
in all the wisdom of Egypt, was possessed ; 
also of its medical knowledge may be j 
inferred from the direct bearing which 
the Mosaic legislation has on sanitary | 
relations. Its numerous hygienic and J 
dietetic prescriptions had not only a J 
ceremonial purpose, but were no doubt [ 
intended for the preservation and de- i 
velopment of the race. They stood in 
the most perfect harmony with the cli- 
mate and soil which the Hebrews in- 
habited, and it is a remarkable fact that 
during the whole -course of their history 
the Hebrews were singularly exempted 
from those plagues and epidemics which 
devastated their neighbors. On the 
other side, however, this same law, which 
proved so beneficial in preventing dis- 
eases, did not encourage or favor the 
study of medicine. The science of med- 
icine depends to a great extent on anat- 
omy, but the great horror of uncleanli- 
ness, more especially uncleanliness from 
contact with a corpse, prevented the 
Hebrews from making a thorough study 
of anatomy and embarrassed the devel- 
opment of medical science among them. 
Solomon enjoyed a great fame as a phy- 
sician. His works show that he was 



possessed of considerable knowledge of 
remedial treatment, Prov. 3:8; 6:15; 
12:18; 17:22; 20:30; 29:1; Eccl. 3: 
3, and the Talmudists ascribe to him 
a "' volume of cures." But Josephus 
speaks of his repute in magic and of 
the spells which he used, and Jewish 
tradition ascribes similar proceedings to 
various of the prophets. In the times 
of the N. T. the whole view taken of 
diseases and their cure was Greek, al- 
most without a trace of any specifically 
Hebrew element, and the language of 
St. Luke, the " beloved physician," who 
practised in Antioch before he was called 
to labor in the Church, shows that he 
was a pupil of Hippocrates. 

Among the diseases mentioned in the 
0. T. are ophthalmia, Gen. 29 : 17, which 
seems to be more common in Syria and 
Egypt than anywhere else in the world, 
and which sometimes resulted in partial, 
or even total, blindness, 2 Kgs. 6:18; 
barrenness of women, which the man- 
drake was believed to cure, Gen. 20 : 
18; burning boils, Lev. 13 : 23, whose 
effect resembled that of fire, identical 
with our carbuncle ; scab and scurvy, 
Lev. 21 : 20 ; 22 : 22 ; Deut. 28 : 27— a 
skin-disease not necessarily incurable, 
and therefore not considered a curse, 
but only a blemish ; a disease attacking 
the knees and legs and consisting in a 
"sore blotch that cannot be healed," 
Deut. 28:35; -the disease of King An- 
tiochus, consisting in boils breeding 
worms ; the disease of Herod the Great, 
consisting in ulcers breeding lice, etc. 
Other diseases, such as fever, leprosy, 
epilepsy, palsy, etc., are spoken of in 
separate articles. Medicaments were 
given in the form of liniments, plasters, 
decoctions, syrups, etc., and, besides 
water, wine, vinegar, honey, milk, and 
oil, also mustard, pepper, salt, wax, gall 
of fish, poppy, laurel, saliva, and other 
stuffs were used. But one of the most 
common remedies was the bath. In many 
cases it was ceremonially enjoined, but 
its great value, both as a luxury and as 
a cure, was fully appreciated. It was 
enjoyed both in running water and in 
closed bath-rooms. Lev. 15: 13: 2 Kgs. 
5:10; 2 Sam. 11 : 2. Public baths, how- 
ever, as well as vapor-baths, were not 
introduced until after the Jews' contact 
with the Greeks and Romans. See Bath. 

MEGIDDO {place of troops?), a 
557 



MEH 



MEL 



city of Manasseh, situated within the 
borders of Issachar, and formerly a 
royal city of the Canaanites, whose 
king and its neighboring towns were 
conquered by Joshua. Josh. 12 : 21 ; 17 : 
11; Jud. 1:27; 1 Kgs. 4:12; 9:15; 1 
Chr. 7 : 29. It has generally been iden- 
tified with the place afterward called by 
the Romans Legio, now Lejjun, where are 
ancient foundations and prostrate col- 
umns. The neighboring stream, prob- 
ably the " waters of Megiddo," is the 
largest perennial tributary of the Kishon, 
and feeds three or four mills. Jud. 5:19. 
The valley or plain of Megiddo, also 
called " Megiddon," was part of the 
plain of Esdraelon. 2 Kgs. 9 : 27 ; 23 : 29, 
30 ; 2 Chr. 35 : 22 ; Zech. 12 : 11. Here 
Barak and Deborah gained a great vic- 
tory over the Canaanites under Sisera, 
Jud. 4 : 6-17, and it has been the great 
battle-field of Palestine. Ahaziah, mor- 
tally wounded, died there : Josiah was 
defeated by Pharaoh-necho, and mor- 
tally wounded, 2 Kgs. 33 : 29 ; 2 Chr. 
35 : 20-24; and the place, in Hebrew, is 
called Armageddon, "city of Megiddo." 
Rev. 16 : 16. The modern Lejjun, which 
has generally been regarded as repre- 
senting Megiddo, is on the south-western 
edge of the great plain of Esdraelon, 6 
miles from Mount Carmel, 11 from Naz- 
areth, and 14 from Tabor. It commands 
the important pass to the plain of Phil- 
istia. A stream flows near it, and there 
is a large spring which some regard 
as the " waters of Megiddo." A few 
ruins remain, and from them a wide 
view is gained of the famous battle- 
ground. Conder declines to accept the 
above identification, and suggests Mu- 
jedd'n, a large ruin near Beisan, and 10 
miles from Jenin, as Megiddo. There 
are four springs of clear water, and a 
considerable stream flowing to the north- 
west into the Nahr Jalud. This would 
place the valley of Megiddo in the broad 
valley leading from Jezreel to Beth- 
shean. 

MEHET'ABEEL {whom God does 
good to), the ancestor of Shemaiah. Neh. 
6: 10. 

MEHET'ABEL, daughter of Mat- 
red, and wife of lladad, king of Edom. 
Gen. 38:39; 1 Chr. 1:50. 

MEHI'DA (famous, noble), whose 
descendants returned from Babylon with 
Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 52; Neh. 7 : 54. 
558 



ME'HIR (price), a descendant of 
Judah. 1 Chr. 4:11.' 

MEHOL'ATHITE, THE, a 

designation of Adriel, son of Barzillai, 

1 Sam. 18 : 19, signifying that he came 
from a place called Mehola. 

MEHU'JAEL (smitten of God), a 
son of Irad, and descendant of Cain. 
Gen. 4: 18. 

MEHU'MAN (true, faithful), one 
of the seven eunuchs of Ahasuerus. 
Esth. 1 : 10. 

MEHU'NIM (habitations), a family 
among the non-Israelites who returned 
from Babylon with Zerubbabel, Ezr. 2 : 
50 ; probably the same as the Mehunims, 

2 Chr. 26 : 7, against whom King Uzziah 
waged a successful war, and who are also 
mentioned in 1 Chr. 4 : 41 as a Hamitic 
tribe settled from of old in Palestine, 
and oppressing the Israelites. See Ma- 
onites. 

MEJAR'KON (waters of yellowness), 
a town of Dan : named after a spring, 
Josh. 19 : 46 ; probably the el 'Aujek. 

MEK'ONAH (base, or standing- 
place), a place in the South of Palestine 
near Ziklag. Neh. 11 : 28. Reland locates 
it 8 miles from Eleutheropolis, on the 
way to Jerusalem, and Conder suggests 
Mekenna, north of Beit Jibrin, as its site. 

MELATIAH (delivered by Jeho- 
vah), a Gibeonite who assisted in repair- 
ing the walls of Jerusalem. Neh. 3 : 7. 

MEI/CHI (Jehovah's king), two 
persons in the genealogy of Jesus. Luke 
3:21.28. 

MELCHI'AH. See Malchiah. 

MELCHISHU'A. See Malchi- 

SHUA. 

MELCHIZ'EDEK, or MEL- 
CHISEDEC, the Greek form under 
which the name occurs in the N. T. 
(king of righteousness), is mentioned in 
Gen'. 14 : 18-20 as king of Salem and 
priest of the Most High God, meeting 
Abrain in the valley of Shaven, bringing 
out bread and wine to him, blessing him, 
and receiving tithes from him ; in Ps. 
110 : 4, where Messiah is described as a 
priest " after the order of Melchizedek ;" 
and finally, in Heb. 5 : 6, 7, where the 
typical relations between Melchizedek 
and Christ are elaborately defined, both 
being priests without belonging to the 
Levitical tribe, superior to Abram, of 
unknown beginning and end, and kings 
of righteousness and peace. The short 



MEL 



MEL 



but impressive apparition of Melcbizedek 
in Genesis, and the striking though 
mystical applications made of this ap- 
parition in the Psalms and the Epistle 
to the Hebrews, have given rise to vari- 
ous interpretations. One Jewish tradi- 
tion considers him to be a survivor of 
the Deluge, the patriarch Shem, and thus 
entitled by his very age to bless the 
father of the faithful, and by his position 
as ruler of Canaan to confer his rights to 
Abram. Another tradition, equally old, 
but not so widely accepted, considers 
him to be an angel, the Son of God in 
human form, the Messiah. Modern 
scholars, arguing back from the exposi- 
tions given in the Epistle to the Hebrews, 
consider him to be a descendant of Ham, 
living among and ruling his own kin ; 
but, as Balaam was a prophet, so Mel- 
chizedek was a priest, among the hea- 
thens, constituted by God himself, and 
given a title above that of the ordinary 
patriarchal priesthood, even above that 
of Abram. 

ME'LEA (full, fulness?), an ances- 
tor of Joseph in the genealogy of Jesus. 
Luke 3:31. 

MELECH {king), son of Micah, 
grandson of Mephibosheth, and therefore 
a descendant of Saul. 1 Chr. 9 : 41. 

MEI/ICU. Neh. 12 : 14. See Mal- 

LUCH. 

MEL'ITA (honey, or sweetness), an 
island in the Mediterranean upon which 
Paul was shipwrecked during his voyage 
to Rome. Acts 28 : 1-14. Two islands 
formerly bore the name Melita : (1) Mel- 
ita, in the Adriatic Sea, and (2) Malta, 
in the Mediterranean. The location of 
the first would not answer the require- 
ments of the scriptural narrative. Malta, 
the ancient Melita, is about 60 miles in 
circumference, and was successively sub- 
ject to the Phoenicians, Greeks, Cartha- 
ginians, Romans, Vandals, Goths, Sar- 
acens, Normans, and French, until 
Charles V. surrendered it to the Knights 
of St. John, at Jerusalem, who in 1798 
were dispossessed by Napoleon Bona- 
parte. In 1800 the French garrison sur- 
rendered to an English force, and the 
island has been ever since a dependency 
of the British crown. The island is 62 
mile? south-westof Sicily, is 17 miles lonsj 
and 8 or 9 miles wide, and is now reck- 
oned 960 miles from Gibraltar, 840 miles 
from Alexandria, and 1200 miles from 



! Jerusalem. It is of an irregular oval 

j shape, the coast indented with numerous 

bays. The soil, naturally barren, has 

been made productive; frost and snow 

are unknown. 

According to Acts 27 : 1-44, it was 
about the time of the autumnal equinox, 
when sailing was dangerous, that Paul 
and his companions embarked at Caesarea 
for Italy. Mr. Smith of Jordan Hill, a 
nautical man, in his work On the Voyage 
and Shipwreck of St. Paul, has shown, 
from a personal examination of the lo- 
calities of the shipwreck, compared with 
the incidents in the narrative of Luke, 
that the ship could not have been wrecked 
anywhere but at Malta. The following 
is a summary of his statements. Paul's 
company on the second day touched at 
Sidon, 78 miles from Caesarea. Loosing 
thence, they were forced by strong wes- 
terly winds to leave C3 T prus on the left 
1 hand. Thence, favored by the land- 
] breeze and currents, they arrived at 
I Myra, in Lycia. At this port they were 
then transferred to a ship from Alexan- 
dria bound for Italy. Their progress, 
on account of unfavorable winds, was 
extremely slow, for it was "many days" 
before they came over against Cnidus, 
not more than 150 miles from Myra. 
Sailing in the direction of Salmone, the 
eastern promontory of Crete, they coasted 
along, with north-west winds, as far as 
Cape Matala, the south side of the island. 
Here, however, the land bends suddenly 
to the north, and they made for the Fair 
Havens, a roadstead near the port of 
Lasea, as being the nearest to Cape Ma- 
tala. As the season of safe navigation 
had passed, Paul urged the officers to 
winter at Fair Havens, but his advice 
was overruled ; and, improving a gentle 
north wind that blew, they set sail for 
Phenice, a harbor on the coast about 40 
miles farther west. The harbor seems 
to have been the one now called Lutro, 
which opens in the same direction in 
which the wind Libs blows — i. e., to- 
ward the north-east — and is situated 
exactly opposite to the island of Clauda. 
But soon the weather changed ; the ship 
was caught in a typhoon, and the wind 
euroclydon (east north-east), which blew 
with such violence, forced them to run 
under the south shore of Clauda, now 
Clozzo, about 20 miles south-west by west 
from Fair Havens. Here they availed 
559 



MEL 



MEL 



themselves of the smooth water to secure 
the boat and undergird the ship by trap- 
ping it round the middle with a cable, to 
prepare it to resist the fury of the storm. 
But, fearing they should be driven to- 






IKOURA POINT 




tJE.SH|p 



HALLIS R. 



Map of Place of Shipwreck, St. Paul's Bay. The figures denote fathoms 

ward the Syrtis — ;'. e., the quicksands of 
the coast of Africa — they lowered the 
gear ; and the ship thus borne along was 
not only made snug, but had storm-sails 
set and was on the starboard tack — ?*. e., 
with her right side to the wind — which 
was the only course by which she could 
avoid falling into the Syrtis. On the 
next day they threw overboard the main- 
yard, an immense spar probably as long 
as the ship. The storm continued with 
unabated fury for eleven days more, and 
all hope was taken away. At length, on 
the fourteenth night, the seamen sus- 
pected the approach of land, probably 
from the noise of the breakers, sounded, 
and found the depth 20 fathoms, and then 
15 fathoms. Fearing lest they should 
fall upon rocks, they cast four anchors 
out of the stern, and lightened the ship 
by throwing the wheat into the sea. 
When the day broke they succeeded in 
running the ship aground in a creek, 
where she went to pieces, but the whole 
ship's company escaped safe to land. 
The place proved to be a bay on the 
north-east side of Malta, now known as 
St. Paul'* Bay, an inlet, with a creek, 
about 2 miles deep and a mile broad. 
Mr. Smith has shown by calculation that 
a ship starting late in the evening from 
Clauda, would, by midnight on the four- 
teenth day, be less than 3 miles from 
the entrance of St. Paul's Bay — i. e., a 



distance of 476 miles. In 1810 the Brit- 
ish frigate Lively went to pieces on those 
very breakers, at the point of Koura, at 
the entrance of the bay. The crew, like 
Paul's shipmen, at the distance of a quar- 
ter of a mile, could not 
see the land, but they 
saw the surf on the 
shore. So, also, Mr. 
Smith has shown that 
every ship approach- 
ing the land must here 
pass over 20 fathoms, 
and not only must this 
depth be close to the 
spot where they had 
the indications .of 
land, but it must bear 
east by south from the 
15 fathom depth. The 
15 fathom depth is, as 
nearly as possible, a 
quarter of a mile from 
the shore, which is here 
girt with mural precipices, and on which 
the sea must have been breaking violently. 
At the bottom of the Bay of St. Paul 'sthere 
is a communication with the sea outside 
by a channel not more than a hundred 
yards in breadth, formed by the separa- 
tion of Salmone Island, a long rocky 
ridge, from the main land. Near this 
channel, where "two seas meet," are two 
creeks, into one of which they ran the 
ship ashore; the forepart stuck fast in 
the mud and clay, while the stern was 
dashed to pieces by the force of the 
waves. 

It has been asserted that no vipers 
exist in Malta, but Lewin saw a serpent 
there which he regarded as a viper ; but 
even if not found on the thickly-pojju- 
lated island now, this would not prove 
that they did not exist in Paul's day and 
have since been exterminated. 

MELONS. Num. 11 : 5. Melons of 
all kinds have ever been largely cultivated 
in Egypt, and during the heat of sum- 
mer often form the chief food and drink 
of the lower classes. The muskmelon 
was grown there at the time of the Ex- 
odus, and perhaps the watermelon, which 
came from Persia. " A traveller in the 
East who recollects the intense gratitude 
which a gift of a slice of melon inspired 
while journeying over the hot and dry 
plains will readily comprehend the re- 
gret with which the Hebrews in the 



MEL 



MEN 



Arabian desert looked back upon the 
melons of Egypt." — Kitto. 

MEL'ZAR (probably of Persian 
origin, and signifying head cup-bearer), 
not a proper name, but the title of an 
officer, corresponding at once to our 
" steward " and " tutor." Dan. 1 : 11, 16. 

MEMPHIS (in Hebrew Noph), a 
city of ancient Egypt, Hos. 9 : 6, situated 
on the western bank of the Nile. It is 
mentioned by Isaiah, 19 : 13, Jeremiah, 
2:16; 46:14, 19, and Ezekiel, 30 : 13- 
16, as Noph. The monuments of Mem- 
phis are believed to be of higher antiquity 
than those of Thebes. Memphis has 
three distinct names on the monuments : 

(1) Sebt-h'et, "the city of white walls ;" 

(2) Men-nept, " the good abode;" (3) Te- 
pmieh, ''the world of life." The sacred 
name was Ba-ptah, or Pa-ptah, ''the 
house of Ptah." Its site is about 10 miles 
south of Cairo and 5 miles from the 
Great Pyramids and the Sphinx. From 
the ancient maps of Ptolemy, it appears 
that the sea extended about 40 miles far- 
ther south than at present. The depos- 
its of mud carried down annually by the 
Nile, forming the Delta, have caused the 
sea to be filled in, so that in the times of 
the ancient Pharaohs the sea may have 
extended nearly to Memphis, making 
that city a seaport, instead of, as now, 
an inland site. Some infer that its 
name, Men-Nofer, implies that it was 
a coast-town, 3000 or 4000 years before 
Christ. 

Hintory. — Herodotus dates its founda- 
tion from Menes, the first king of Egypt. 
The city is said to have had a circumfer- 
ence of about 19 miles. The temple of 
Apis was one of its most noted structures. 
This temple stood opposite the southern 
portico of the temple of Ptah, and Psam- 
metichus, who built that gateway, also 
erected in front of the sanctuary of Apis 
a magnificent colonnade supported by 
colossal statues or Osiride pillars such 
as may still be seen at the temple of 
Medeenet Haboo at Thebes. Through 
this colonnade the Apis was led with 
great pomp upon state occasions. At 
Memphis were the reputed burial-place 
of Isis and a temple. Memphis had also 
its Serapeum, which probably stood in 
the western quarter of the city. The 
Necropolis, near Memphis, was on a 
scale of grandeur corresponding with the 
city itself. At this place as capital for 
36 



several centuries a Memphite dynasty 
ruled over all Egypt, and Lepsius, Bun- 
sen, and Brugsch agree in regarding the 
third, fourth, sixth, seventh, and eighth 
dynasties of the old empire as Memphite, 
reaching through a period of about 1000 




Sarcophagus in the Serapeum at Memphis, con- 
taining a Mummy of the Sacred Bull. 

years. The city's overthrow was pre- 
dicted Isa. 19 : 13; Jer. 46 : 19. The 
latest of these predictions was uttered 
nearly 600 years before Christ, and half 
a century before the invasion of Egypt 
by Cambyses, b. c. 525. The city never 
recovered from the blow inflicted by 
Cambyses. The rise of Alexandria has- 
tened its decline. The caliph conquerors 
founded Old Cairo upon the opposite 
bank of the Nile, a few miles north of 
Memphis, and' brought materials from 
the old city to build their new capital, 
A. r>. 638. At length so complete was 
the ruin of Memphis that for along time 
its very site was lost. Recent explora- 
tions have brought to light many of its 
antiquities, and specimens of its relics 
are now in museums in Europe and 
America. A little village stands upon a 
portion of the site of ancient Memphis. 

MEMUCAN, a Persian prince at 
the court of Ahasuerus. Esth. 1 : 14. 

MENAHEM (consoler) was the son 
of Gadi, and, having slain Shallum, king 
of Samaria, reigned in his stead. His 
reign, which lasted ten years, b. c. 771- 
760, was distinguished for cruelty and 
oppression. 2 Kgs. 15 : 14-20. 

ME 'NAN, an ancestor of Joseph in 
the genealogy of Jesus. Luke 3 : 31. 

ME'NE, ME'NE, TEKEL, 

UPHAR'SIN. This sentence, which 

appeared on the wall of Belshazzar's 

banqueting-hall to warn him of the im- 

561 



MEN 



MEE 



pending destruction of Babylon, is in the 
pure Chaldee language, and reads, when 
translated literally, Mene, " he is num- 
bered;" Mene, "he is numbered;" Tekel, 
"he is weighed;" Upharsin, "they are 
divided." " Peres," in the original lan- 
guage, is the same word with " Uphar- 
sin," but in a different case or number. 
It means, "he was divided." Dan. 5 : 25. 

ME'JVI {fate, fortune), the marginal 
reading to Isa. 65 : 11, a proper name 
designating some idol worshipped by 
the Jews in Babylon, but not yet identi- 
fied with any known heathen god. 

MEN'UCHA. See Seraiah. 

MEXU'CHAH {rest, ease), the mar- 
ginal reading to Jud. 20 : 43, rendered 
in the text by "with ease," but con- 
sidered by some to be the name of a 
place : identical with Manahath. 

ME1YUCHITES, one of the mar- 
ginal readings to 1 Chr. 2 : 52 ; the same 
as Manahathites. 

MEONEIVIM, THE PLAIN 
OF {oak of soothsayers), an oak or tere- 
binth, Jud. 9 : 37; comp. Deut. 18 : 10, 
14; Mic. 5:12, "soothsayers." The 
meaning of the name seems to connect it 
with some old diviners, probably of the 
pagan inhabitants. Conder suggests its 
identity with the plain of Mukhnah. 

MEONOTHA.I {my dwelling), a 
descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 14. 

MEPH'AATH {splendor, or lofty 
place), a Levitical city in Reuben, after- 
ward belonging to Moab. Josh. 13:18; 
21:37; 1 Chr. 6:79; Jer. 48:21. Je- 
rome speaks of it as a military post, and 
it must have been one of the most east- 
erly localities. 

MEPHIB'OSHETH {extermina- 
tion of idols). 1. A son of Saul, who, 
with his brother and five others of the 
family, suffered a violent death at the 
hands of the Gibeonites. 2 Sam. 21 : 8. 

2. Or Meribbaal, 1 Chr. 8 : 34, was a 
son of Jonathan, and grandson of Saul, 
who at the age of five years fell from his 
nurse's arms and was ever after a cripple. 
When David was in quiet possession of 
his kingdom he sought out this branch 
of the family of Jonathan his friend, 
and not only gave him an honorable 
place in his palace, but restored to him 
the estates of his father. During Absa- 
lom's rebellion, however, Mephibosheth 
showed some signs of disaffection, and 
on David's return he lost one-half of his 
562 



estates. 2 Sam. 4:4; 9 : 6 ; 16 : 1-4 ; 19 : 
24-30 ; 21 : 7. He is called Merib-baal 
in 1 Chr. 8:34; 9:40. 

MERAB, the eldest daughter of 
Saul, who promised her to David in mar- 
riage ; but she married Adriel of Meho- 
lath, by whom she had five sons, and 
David took her sister Michal. 1 Sam. 14 : 
49. The five sons of Merab suffered a 
violent death at the hands of the Gibeon- 
ites. 2 Sam. 21 : 8. 

MERAI'AH {rebellion) a priest in 
the davs of Joiakim. Neh. 12 : 12. 

MF,RAI'QTtL {rebellious). 1. Two 
priests in the line of Eleazar, respect- 
ively mentioned in 1 Chr. 6:6, 7, 52 ; 
Ezr. 7 : 3, and 1 Chr. 9 : 11 ; Neh. 1L : 11. 

2. A priest who went to Jerusalem 
with Zerubbabel, Neh. 12:15; called 
Meremoth in Neh. 12 : 3. 

MER'ARI {bitter). 1. The third 
son of Levi, and head of the family of 
the Merarites. Gen. 48 : 11; Ex. 6 : 16, 
19; 1 Chr. 6:1, 16. 

2. The father of Judith. Jud. 8:1; 
16:7. 

MERARITES, THE, one of the 
three great families of the tribe of Levi, 
numbering, when the census was taken 
in the wilderness, 6200 males above one 
month old, of whom 3200 were between 
thirty and fifty years of age, Num. 3 : 
34 ; 4 : 44, and divided into two branches, 
the Mahlites and the Mushites. Num. 3 : 
33. They marched between Judah and 
Reuben, pitched to the north of the tab- 
ernacle, and had charge of all the pillars, 
bars, boards, etc., belonging to the tab- 
ernacle and the surrounding court. Num. 
3 : 33-37 ; 4 : 29-33 ; 7 : 8. When Ca- 
naan was conquered, twelve cities in the 
tribes of Reuben, Gad, and Zebulun were 
allotted to them. Josh. 21 : 7, 34-39 ; 1 
Chr. 6:63. 77-81. 

MERATHAIM {double rebellion), 
a symbolical name for Babylon. Jer. 50 : 
21. 

MERCHANTS. The earliest mode 
of commerce was by caravans. The 
commerce with India was carried on in 
this way by the merchants of Arabia 
and Egypt, and it was to the merchants 
of an Egyptian caravan that Joseph was 
sold. There was, however, considerable 
intercourse between many countries by 
water. The Phoenicians held the first 
rank in this respect, and their fleet 
passed through the Strait of Gibraltar 



MEK 



MEE 



into the Atlantic. It must be noticed, 
however, that in those times a merchant 
always travelled himself from place to 
place, buying and selling his goods, and 
the Hebrew word for " merchant " means 
" traveller," "voyager." Gen. 23:16; 
37 : 28 ; Eze. 27 : 21, 3(5 ; 1 Kgs. 10 : 28 ; 
2 Chr. 1 : 16 ; Prov. 31 : 14 ; Isa. 23 : 2. 

MERCU'RIUS, a character of the 
Latin mythology, identical with the 
Greek Hermes, the god of eloquence and 
lying, of commerce and cheating. An. 
old myth told a story of Jupiter and Mer- 
curius once wandering about unrecog- 
nized in Phrygia, and this myth, which 
probably belonged to the folk-lore of 
Asia Minor, led the simple people of 
Lystra to mistake Barnabas and Paul 
for the two pagan deities. Acts 14 : 11- 
13. 

MERCY-SEAT was the name of 
the lid or cover of the ark of the cove- 
nant. It was made of gold, two and a 
half cubits long and one and a half 
cubits broad, and two cherubs, also of 
gold, were placed one at each end, 
stretching their wings toward each other, 
and forming a kind of throne, upon 
which God was believed to be present in 
a peculiar manner to hear and answer 
praver, and to make known his hoty 
will. Ex. 25 : 17-22 ; 30 : 6 ; 31 : 7 ; 37 : 
6-9 ; 1 Chr. 28 : 11 ; 2 Chr. 5 : 7, 8 : Ps. 
80 : 1 ; 99 : 1. Before and upon the 
mercy-seat the high priest sprinkled the 
blood of the sin-offerings on the day of 
atonement as a propitiation, Lev. 16 : 
11-16, which, under the new dispensa- 
tion, received its typical signification. 
Heb. 9:5: Rom. 3 : 25. See Ark. 

ME'RED {rebellion), mentioned in 
the genealogy, 1 Chr. 4 : 17, as a son of 
Ezra, a descendant of Judah, and hus- 
band of Bithiah. a daughter of Pharaoh. 

MEREMOTH {heights). 1. A 
priest who was appointed to weigh and 
register the gold and silver vessels be- 
longing to the temple in the time of 
Ezra, Ezr. 8 : 24-33, and who took active 
part in the rebuilding of the walls of 
Jerusalem. Neh. 3 : 4. 

2. One who married a foreign wife and 
put her away. Ezr. 10 : 36. 

.">. A priest who sealed the covenant. 
Neh. 10 : 5. 

MERIBAH {quarrel, strife). 1. The 
fountain near Rephidim which issued 
from the rock in Horeb which Moses 



smote by the divine command ; also called 
"Massah" ("temptation, trial"). Ex. 
17 : 1-7 ; Deut. 6:16; 9 : 22. Wilson and 
Warren would place this fountain in 
Wady Feirau, near Mount Serbal ; Hol- 
land puts it in the pass al- Watiyeh, at 
the eastern end of Wady es-Sheikh. 

2. Another fountain, produced in the 
same manner and under similar circum- 
stances as the preceding, near Kade^sh, 
in the desert of Zin ; also called waters 
of Meribah and Meribah Kadesh. Deut. 
33 : 8 ; Ps. 95 : 8 ; 106 : 32. This miracle 
occurred near the close of the wanderings 
of the Hebrews in the desert. Num. 20 : 
1-24,: 27:14; Deut. 32 : 51 ; Ps. 81 : 7 ; 
Eze. 47 : 19. Some erroneously regard 
the two as identical, but this view is in- 
consistent with the scriptural narrative. 
See Kadesh. 

MERIB - BAAL. 1 Chr. 8 : 34. 
See Mrphibosheth. 

MERODACH {death, slaughter), 
the name of an idol-god of the Babylo- 
nians ; Belus, and represented by the 
planet Jupiter, and often applied as a 
surname to the Babylonish monarchs. 
Isa. 39 : 1 : Jer. 50 : 2. 

MERO'DACH-BAL'ADAN 
{Merodach, ivorshipper of Baal), a king 
of Babylon, b. c. 721, who sent ambas- 
sadors to Hezekiah. 2 Chr. 32 : 31 ; Isa. 
39 : 1. In 2 Kgs. 20 : 12 he is called 
Berodach-baladan. 

MEROM, WATERS OF {waters 
of the high place), the name of a lake in 
the northern part of Palestine, where 
Joshua crushed the confederacy of the 
northern tribes under Jabin. Josh. 11 : 
5, 7. It is usually identified with " Lake 
Samachonitis " of Josephus and the 
modern el-Huleh of the Arabs, though 
Grove, Keil, and some others question 
this identification. Lake Huleh is 11 
miles north of the Sea of Galilee. It is 
triangular in shape, about 6 miles long, 
3£ miles wide, 11 feet deep, and 270 feet 
below the Mediterranean, and is covered 
in parts by several acres of papyrus. The 
marsh around it is about 10 miles long, 
and is covered with reeds and rushes, 
but on the west there is a beautiful 
and fertile plain. The lake abounds in 
wild duck, pelican, and other fowl. On 
the north is an impenetrable jungle, 
the wallowing-place of buffaloes. The 
miasma from the marshes renders the 
district very unhealthv. (See cut, p. 564.) 
563 




Lake Huleh, or Waters of Merom, from the South-w 



MERONOTHITE, a designation L 
applied to Jehdeiah, 1 Car. 27 : 30, and | 
Jadon, Neh. 3 : 7, and probably referring 
to some place not known. 

MEROZ (refuge), a place in the 
northern part of Palestine, the inhabit- 
ants of which were accursed for not 
having taken the field with Barak against 
Sisera. Jud. 5 : 23. Wylie supposes the 
ruins el-Mazraah, near the river Kishon, 
to mark the site of Meroz ; Wilson pre- 
fers Kefr Mum, south of Tabor; and 
Thomson Meiron, 6 miles west of Safed, 
as the representative of Meroz. 

MESECH, Ps. 120 : 5. or ME'- 
SHECH, Eze. 32 : 26, a son of Japheth, 
whose descendants are supposed to have 
settled in Armenia. They had consider- 
able commerce with Tyre. Eze. 27 : 13. 
Some suppose the Muscovites were of this 
race. 

ME'SHA {deliverance). 1. A king 
of Moab who refused to pay to Jehoram, 
king of Israel, the annual tribute which 
he had been accustomed to pay to his 
father Ahab. For this offence Jehoram 
determined to punish him: and calling 
to his aid Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, 
and the king of the Edomites, he invaded 
564 



the territory of Moab, signally defeated 
him, desolated the country, and at last 
the king and his army were closely be- 
sieged in a walled town. In this ex- 
tremity Mesha attempted to cut his way 
through the enemy's ranks ; but, failing 
in this, he made the horrible sacrifice of 
his eldest son to some idol-god, and it 
was done openly upon the wall, in sight 
of the camp of Israel, who, fearing to 
have incurred the anger of God by hav- 
ing given occasion to a human sacrifice, 
retreated to their own country. 2 Kgs. 
3 : 4-27. A most wonderful corrobora- 
tion of the Scripture history is found 
in the famous Moabite Stone. See 

DlBON. 

2. A son of Caleb, and brother of 
Mareshah. 1 Chr. 2 : 42. 

3. A Benjamite, son of Shaharaim. 1 
Chr. 8 : 9. 

ME'SHA (retreat), a place on the 
eastern border of the possessions of the 
Joktanites. Gen. 10 : 30. Some regard it 
as Meseiie or Meimn, at the mouth of 
the Pasitigris, where it empties into the 
Persian Gulf: others locate it in the Zo- 
mes range or Nej'd mountains of Arabia: 
and some place it in north-western Yunca, 



MES 



MES 



at Moosa, a port on the Red Sea. The 
first is the more probable location of 
Mesha. 

ME'SHACH, Dan. 1:7. See 
Abednego. 

ME'SHECH. Eze.27:13. See 
Mesech. 

MESHELEMIAH (whom Jehovah 
repays), a Levite, gatekeeper at the tem- 
ple in the time of David, I Chr. 9 : 21 : 
26 : 1, 2, 9; he is called Shelemiah in 1 
Chr. 26 : 14. 

MESHEZ'ABEEL (delivered by 
God). 1. The grandfather of Meshul- 
lam, who assisted in rebuilding the 
wall. Neb.. 3 : 4. 

2. One who sealed the covenant. Neh. 
10 : 21. 

3. A descendant of Zerah, the son of 
Judah. Neh. 11 : 24. 

MESHIL'LEMITH (retribution, 
requital), a priest of the course of Im- 
mer, 1 Chr. 9:12; called Meshillemoth 
in Neh. 11 : 13. 

MESHILLEMOTH. 1. An 
Ephraimite in the reign of Pekah. 2 
Chr. 28 : 12. 

2. Neh. 11 : 13. See Meshillemith. 

MESHUL LAM (friend). 1. The 
grandfather of Shaphan the scribe in the 
reign of Josiah. 2 Kgs. 22 : 3. " 

2. A son of Zerubbabel. 1 Chr. 3 : 19. 

3. A descendant of Gad in the reign 
of King Jotham of Judah. 1 Chr. 5:13. 

4. Three Benjamites mentioned re- 
spectively in 1 Chr. 8:17: 9 : 7, 8. 

5. High priest in the reign of Ammon, 
1 Chr. 9 : 11 ; Neh. 11 : 11 ; called Shal- 
lum in 1 Chr. 6 : 12; Ezr. 7 : 2. 

6. A priest of the course of Immer. 1 
Chr. 9:12. 

7. A Kohathite Levite in the reign of 
Josiah. 2 Chr. 34 : 12. 

8. One who was sent by Ezra to induce 
the Levites to rejoin the caravan return- 
ing to Palestine. Ezr. 8 : 16. 

9. One who assisted Ezra in abolishing 
marriages with foreign wives. Ezr. 10 : 
15. 

10. One who had married a foreign 
wife. Ezr. 10 : 29. 

11. Two who assisted in repairing the 
wall. Neb. 3 : 4, 6, 30 ; 6 : 18. 

12. A priest and a chief of the people 
who sealed the covenant. Neh. 10 : 7. 
20. 

1 3. Two priests in the days of Joiakim. 
Neh. 12 : 13, 16. 



14. A Levite porter, Neh. 12 : 25 ; also 
called Meshemiah, 1 Chr. 26 : 1, Shele- 
miah, 1 Chr. 26 : 14, or Shullam. Neh. 
7 :45. 

15. One who partook in the dedica- 
tion of the walls of Jerusalem. Neh. 
12 : 33. 

MESHULLEMETH (friend), 
wife of Manasseh and mother of Am- 
mon, kings of Judah. 2 Kgs. 21 : 19. 

MESOBAITE, a designation ap- 
plied to Jasiel, one of David's warriors, 
1 Chr. 11 : 47; it is not known what it 
refers to. 

MESOPOTAMIA (the region be- 
tween the rivers), the name given by the 
Greeks and Romans to that tract offer- 
tile country lying between the rivers 
Euphrates and Tigris. Acts 2:9; 7:2. 
It was called by the Hebrews Aram- 
naharaim, or "Aram or Syria of the 
two rivers:" Gen. 24:10: Deut. 23: 
4; Jud. 3:8, 10; 1 Chr. 19 : 6 : and 
Padan-aram or "Plain of Syria," Gen. 
25 : 20 ; 28 : 2-7 ; 46 : 15 ; also Aram 
or "Syria." Num. 23 : 7 ; Gen. 31 : 20, 
24. On the Egyptian monuments, the 
upper part is called Naharina, and on 
the Assyrian, Nahiri. This region is 
now called by the Arabs el-Jezirah, or 
''the Peninsula" or "Island." Strabo 
and Pliny describe Mesopotamia as 
bounded on the east by the Tigris; on 
the south by the Euphrates and the 
Persian Gulf; on the west by the Eu- 
phrates ; and on the north by Mount 
Taurus, the length being 800 miles, and 
the breadth, which is very irregular, 
360 miles. The great plains of Meso- 
potamia possess a nearly uniform, level, 
good soil, but barren from want of irri- 
gation. The exceptions are where the 
plains are intersected by hills or ranges 
of hills. The climate of these plains 
is characterized by great dryness, com- 
bined with very great variations in the 
temperature of the air. According to 
Mr. Layard, in March the pastures 
abound in rich and luxuriant herbage 
and the meadows are enamelled with 
flowers of every hue. See map, "Lands 
of Jewish Captivities." 

We first hear of Mesopotamia in Scrip- 
ture as the country of Nahor. Gen. 24 : 
10. Here lived Bethuel and Laban, and 
hither Abraham sent his servant to fetch 
Isaac a wife. v. 38. A century later Jacob 
came on the same errand, and hence he 
565 



MES 



MET 



returned with his two wives after an ab- 
sence of twenty-one years. No mention 
of Mesopotamia again occurs till the 
close of the wanderings in the wilder- 
ness. Deut. 23 : 4. Though Drs. Beke 
and Merrill object to the view that Ba- 
laam came from the Mesopotamia beyond 
the Euphrates, and Dr. Beke proposed to 
place " Syria between the two rivers," 
near Damascus, his view has not been 
accepted. About half a century later, 
Mesopotamia appears as the seat of a 
powerful monarchy. Jud. 3. The chil- 
dren of Amnion, having provoked a war 
with David, "sent a thousand talents of 
silver to hire them chariots and horse- 
men out of Mesopotamia, and out of 
Syria-maachah, and out of Zobah." 1 
Chr. 19 : 6. Assyrian inscriptions and 
the Scripture record show that Meso- 
potamia was inhabited in the early 
times of the empire, b. c. 1200-1100, 
by a vast number of petty tribes, each 
under its own prince, and all quite in- 
dependent of each other. Jud. 3 : 8-10; 
2 Kgs. 19 : 12, 13 ; Isa. 37 : 12, until 
subjugated by the kings of Assyria. 
Even after Mesopotamia became an 
Assyrian province it formed part of 
the great monarchies which succes- i 
sively arose in Upper Asia, the Baby- 
lonian, Persian, and Macedonian. The 
conquests of Cyrus brought it wholly I 
under the Persian yoke, and thus it I 
continued to the time of Alexander, i 
The whole region is studded with j 
mounds and ruins of Assyrian and 
Babylonian greatness. See Assyria. 

MESSENGER. The laws and 
ediets of the Jewish kings were pro- j 
claimed near the royal residence by i 
public criers; but they were made j 
known to more distant towns and prov- ! 
inces by messengers sent for that pur- j 
pose. 1 Sam. 11 : 7 ; 2 Chr. 36 : 22 ; Am. j 
4 : 5. The messengers stood in the gate, 
where the largest mass of people might ! 
be found, and proclaimed the law or mes- I 
sage, as in Jer. 11 : 6 ; 17 : 19, 20. At 
Jerusalem these messages were pro- 
claimed in the temple, where a con- 
course of people was always found. 

MESSIAH is a Hebrew word sig- 
nifying " anointed," and corresponding 
exactly to the Greek Ohristos. As in 
ancient times not only the king, but 
also the priest and the prophet, was 
consecrated to his calling by being 
566 



| anointed, the word " Messiah " often 
| occurs in the O. T. in its literal sense, 
i signifying one who has been anointed, 
1 Sam. 24 : 6 : Lam. 4 : 20 : Eze. 28 : 14 ; 
j Ps. 105 : 1 5 ; but generally it has a more 
specific application, signifying the One 
who was anointed, the supreme Deliv- 
erer who was promised from the begin- 
ning, Gen. 3 : 15, and about whom a 
long series of prophecies runs through the 
whole history of Israel from Abram, Gen. 
12 : 3 ; 22 : 18 ; Jacob, Gen. 49 : 10 : Ba- 
! laain, Num. 24 : 17 ; Moses, Deut. 18 : 15, 
j 18, and Nathan, 2 Sam. 7 : 16; through 
the Psalmists and prophets, Ps. 2; 16: 
22; 40; 45; 110; Isa. 7: 10-16; 9 : 
I 1-7; 11; 13; 53; 61; Jer. 23: 5, 6; 
Mic. 5:2; Mai. 3 : 1-4, to his im- 
I mediate precursor, John the Baptist. 
The character of these prophecies is 
very definite. The lineage from which 
Messiah should descend was foretold, 
Gen. 49 : 10 : Isa. 11 : 1, the place in 
which he should be born, Mic. 5 : 2, 
the time of his appearance, Dan. 9 : 20, 
25 ; Hag. 2:7; Mai. 3 : 1, etc. Never- 
theless, in the vanity of their hearts, the 
Jews mistook the true meaning of these 
prophecies. They expected a mere phys- 
ical deliverer who would take revenge on 
their en'emies and oppressors, and give 
into their hands the empire, the glory, 
and the wealth of the world. Thus many 
of them were unable to recognize the 
Messiah in Jesus of Nazareth; and when 
he and his disciples demonstrated the 
spiritual meaning of the prophecies and 
their glorious fulfilment, Matt. 26 : 54; 
Mark 9 : 12 : Luke 18 : 31 : 22 : 37 : John 
5:39; Acts 2: 16-31; 26:22,23; Eph. 
4 : 8 ; 1 Pet. 1 : 11, the Jews felt scandal- 
ized. They expected a triumphant being, 
according to Ps. 2; Jer. 23 : 5. 6: Zech. 
9 : 9, and that his triumph was to be 
accomplished by sufferings and death 
they did not understand. 

ME SSI' AS, the Greek form of Mes- 
siah. John 1 : 41 ; 4 : 25. 

METALS. The Hebrews were from 
ancient times acquainted with all the 
principal metals — gold, silver, copper, 
iron, tin, and lead. They produced them 
from their own soil or procured them by 
commerce with foreign nations. Pales- 
tine and Syria are rich in copper and iron, 
and mining operations, as well as the 
various processes in the manufacture of 
metals, such as smelting, calcining, re- 



MET 



MIA 



fining, etc., are often alluded to. Job 
28 : 1-1 1 : Ex. 20 : 5 : 32 : 2-4. 20 ; Isa. 

1 : 25 ; 40 : 19, 20 ; 44 : 12 ; Mai. 3 : 3. 
Whether they knew steel is uncertain. 
The Hebrew word thus translated in 2 
Sam. 22:35; Job 20:24; Ps. 18:34; 
Jer. 15 : 12 is translated " brass" in all 
other places, and means probably bronze. 
The "northern iron" of Jer. 15:12 
seems to correspond more closely to 
what we call steel. As zinc is not men- 
tioned in the 0. T., it is probable that 
composition of zinc and copper called 
brass was not known at all to the He- 
brews. Where our translation has 
''brass/' probably bronze, a composi- 
tion of copper and tin, is meant. 

Gold was not found in Palestine, but 
was brought thither from Ophir, 1 Kgs. 

9 : 27, 28, Parvaim, 2 Chr. 3 : 6, Raamah, 
Eze. 27:22, Sheba, 1 Kgs. 10 : 2, 10; 
Ps. 72: 15; Isa. 60 : 6, and Uphaz. Jer. 

10 : 9. It was plentiful. Abraham was 
very rich in cattle, in silver, and in gold. 
Gen. 13 : 2. The army of Gideon took 
1 700 shekels of gold in nose-jewelry from 
the slaughtered Midianites. Jud. 8 : 26. 
David gathered 100,000 talents of gold 
and the shields of gold from Hadad- 
ezer. 1 Chr. 22 : 14; 2 Sam. 8 : 7. The 
throne of Solomon was overlaid with 
gold, and his drinking-cups were of 
pure and solid gold. 1 Kgs. 10:18, 21. 
The Hebrews used gold, not as money, 
but only for ornaments — bracelets, Gen. 
24:22; chains, Gen. 41:42; signets, 
Ex. 35 : 22 ; necklaces, Ex. 35 : 22— for 
embroidery, Ex. 39:3; 2 Sam. 1:24, 
and for decoration, especially in the 
temple. 1 Kgs. 6:21,22. 

Silver was obtained from Lydia, 
Thrace, and Tarshish, 1 Kgs. 10:22; 

2 Chr. 9:21; Jer. 10:9; Eze. 27:12, 
and in the days of Solomon it was as 
common in Jerusalem "as stones." 1 
Kgs. 10 : 21, 27. It was lavishly used in 
the temple for the sockets of the boards, 
Ex. 26:19; 36:24, the hooks, fillets, 
and capitals of the pillars, Ex. 38 : 10, 
17, the bowls and chargers, Num. 7: 13, 
the trumpets, Num. 10:2, the candle- 
sticks and tables. 1 Chr. 28 : 15, 16, etc. 
Its principal use, however, was as money ; 
though it was not coined until the mid- 
dle of the eighth century b. c. In all the 
commercial transactions spoken of in 
the 0. T. up to the taking of Samaria, 
in b. c. 721, silver, not gold, is used as 



payment — by Abram at the purchase 
of Ephron's field, Gen. 23 : 16 ; by Abim- 
elech in compensation to Abram, Gen. 
20: 16; by the Ishmaelite merchants when 
they bought Joseph. Gen. 37 : 28, etc. 

Copper and iron were found in Pales- 
tine — " a land whose stones are iron and 
out of whose hills thou mayest dig 
brass." Deut. 8:9; Job 28 : 2. The for- 
mer, however, was much more used than 
the latter ; arms, 2 Sam. 21 : 16 : Job 20 : 
24; Ps. 18:34, and armor, 1 Sam. 17: 
5, 6, 38, were made of it. Tin is first 
mentioned among the spoils of the Midi- 
anites, Num. 31:22: like lead, it came 
from Tarshish, Eze. 27 : 12, and it was 
principally used in the production of 
bronze. Lead found manifold applica- 
tions in practical life — for inscriptions, 
being poured into the hollow letters 
carved in the stone, Job 19 : 24, for 
weights, etc. 

ME THEG-AM MAH {curh of 
the metropolis). This word, in 2 Sam. 
8:1, is translated in the margin "the 
bridle of Amman," and it may be ren- 
dered "the bridle or bit of the metropo- 
lis," meaning that David subdued the 
metropolis of the Philistines, probably 
Gath. Thus expressed, the passage corre- 
sponds closely with the parallel passage, 
1 Chr. 18 : 1 : " Gath and her towns." 

METHU'SAEL()M)! ofGod),{ather 
of Lamech, and the fourth in descent 
from Cain. Gen. 4:18. 

METHUSELAH (man of dart, or 
he dies and it is sent — namely, the Flood), 
the son of Enoch, and, according to He- 
brew chronology, 969 years old when he 
died, in the first year of the Flood. The 
longest-lived man was the son of the 
saintliest of his time. Gen. 5 : 27; 1 
Chr. 1 : 3. 

MEU'NIM. Neh. 7:52. The same 
as Mehunim. Ex. 2 : 50. 

MEU'ZAL, in the margin of Eze. 
27 : 19, means perhaps " from Uzal," the 
later Sanaa, the metropolis of Yemen. 

MEZ'AHAB (ivaters of gold), the 
grandfather of Mehetabel, wife of Ha- 
dar, the last king of Edom. Gen. 36: 
39: 1 Chr. 1:50. 

MFAMIN (from the right hand). 1. 
One who had married a foreign wife. Ezr. 
10:25. 

2. A priest who had returned with 
Zerubbabel, Neh. 12:5; called Mija- 
min, 10 : 70, and Miniamin, 12 : 17. 
567 



MIB 



MIC 



MIB'HAR (choice), one of David's 
warriors. 1 Chr. 11 : 38. 

MIB'SAM (sweet odor). 1. A son of 
Ishmael. Gen. 25 : 13 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 29. 

2. A son of Simeon. 1 Chr. 4 : 25. 

MIB'ZAR (a fortress), one of the 
chiefs or dukes of Edom. Gen. 36 : 42 ; 
1 Chr. 1 : 53. 

MFCAH (who is like Jehovah?). 1. 
An idolater in Mount Ephraim who per- 
suaded a Levite to officiate as his priest, 
but had his idols stolen from him by a 
troop of Danites. Jud. 17; 18. 

2. The sixth of the minor prophets, is 
called the Morashite, from his birthplace 
Moresheh, a village in the neighborhood 
of Eleutheropolis, in the territory of 
Gath, westward from Jerusalem. He 
prophesied during the reigns of Jotham, 
Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah, 
B. c. 750-698, and was a contemporary 
of Isaiah, whom he often resembles in 
style and expressions. Compare, for in- 
stance, Isa. 2 : 2 with Mic. 4:1, or Isa. 
41 : 15 with Mic. 4 : 13. 

The Book of Micah contains prophe- 
cies concerning Samaria and Jerusalem. 
Samaria is threatened with complete de- 
vastation, and Jerusalem with destruc- 
tion and the captivity of its inhabitants. 
He admonishes them to repent, but he 
predicts also the return of the divine 
mercy and blessing, with a pardon of 
their sins. Then shall the mount of the 
temple be glorious and foreign nations 
will acknowledge Jehovah as their 
Lord, and henceforth there shall be no 
more war. In his prophecies concerning 
Messiah he is very precise. The pre- 
diction that Christ should be born in 
Bethlehem belongs to him. 5:2. His 
style is poetic throughout, pure, rich in 
images and plays upon words, bold and 
lofty, but sometimes abrupt and obscure. 

3. A Reubenite, the ancestor of Beerah. 
1 Chr. 5 : 5. 

4. The son of Mephibosheth, and 
grandson of Jonathan, 1 Chr. 8 ; 34, 35 : 
9 : 40, 41 ; called Micha in 2 Sam. 9:12. 

5. A Levite of the family of Asaph, 
1 Chr. 9 : 15 ; called Micha in Neh. 11 : 
17, 22, and Michaiah in Neh. 12 : 35. 

6. A Kohathite Levite, the son of 
Uzziel, 1 Chr. 23 : 20; called Michah in 
1 Chr. 24 : 24, 25. 

7. The father of Abdon, a high offi- 
cial in the reign of Josiah, 2 Chr. 34 : 
20 ; called Michaiah in 2 Kgs. 22 : 12. 

568 



MICA'IAH, the son of Imlah the 
prophet, who predicted the defeat and 
death of Ahab if he went to war against 
Ramoth-gilead. 1 Kgs. 22 : 8-28 ; 2 Chr. 
18:7,27. 

MI'CHA, a Levite who sealed the 
covenant. Neh, 10:11. See Micah, 3 
and 5. 

MICHAEL (who like GW?),aname 
of frequent occurrence in the sacred 
writings. 

1. Father of Sethur, the spy selected 
from the tribe of Asher. Num. 13 : 13. 

2. A Gadite who settled in the land of 
Bashan, 1 Chr. 5 : 13, and one of his an- 
cestors. 1 Chr. 5 : 14. 

3. A Gershonite Levite. 1 Chr. 6 : 40. 

4. A chief of the tribe of Issachar in 
the time of David. 1 Chr. 7 : 3. 

5. A Benjamite. 1 Chr. 8:16. 

6. A Manassite chief who joined Da- 
vid at Ziklag. 1 Chr. 12 : 20. 

7. The father of Oniri. 1 Chr. 27 : 18. 

8. A son of Jehoshaphat, murdered by 
his brother Jehoram. 2 Chr. 21 : 2, 4. 

9. The ancestor of Zebadiah, who re- 
turned with Ezra. Ezr. 8 : 8. 

10. The prince among the angels, the 
archangel, Jude 9, described in Dan. 10 : 
13, 21; 12 : 1, as standing in a special 
relation to the Jewish nation, and in 
Rev. 12: 7-9 as leading the hosts of the 
angels. 

ittrCHAH. See Micah, 6. 
MICHAIAH. 1. See Micah, 7. 

2. See Maachah, 3. 

3. An officer of Jehoshaphat. 2 Chr. 
17:7. 

4. See Micah, 4. 

5. A priest who assisted at the dedi- 
cation of the walls of Jerusalem. Neh. 
12:41. 

6. An officer of Jehoiakim. Jer. 36 : 
11, 13. 

MICHAL, the second daughter of 
Saul, 1 Sam. 14:49. and the wife of 
David, who paid in dowry two hundred 
slaughtered Philistines. She was pas- 
sionately devoted to her young husband, 
and once saved him from the fury of her 
father. During David's exile she was 
married to another man, Phalti, 1 Sam. 
25:44: 2 Sam. 3:15. with whom she 
lived for ten years. After the accession 
of David to the throne she was restored 
to him, 2 Sam. 3 : 13, 14, but an estrange- 
ment soon took place between them, and 
on the occasion of the greatest triumph 



MIC 



MIG 



of David's life — the bringing up of the j 
ark to Jerusalem — it came to an open I 
rupture between them, after which her 
name does not again occur. 2 Sam. 6 : 23. ! 

MICH'MAS, or MICH MASH 
(something hidden), a town of Benjamin j 
noted in the Philistine war of Saul and 
Jonathan. 1 Sam. 13: 11. Isaiah refers 
to it in connection with the invasion of | 
Sennacherib in the reign of Hezekiah. 
10 : 28. After the Captivity it was re- 
peopled. Ezr. 2:27; Neh. 7 : 31. Later 
it became the residence of Jonathan 
Maccabseus and the seat of his govern- i 
ment. 1 Mace. 9 : 73. In the time of 
Eusebius and Jerome it was " a very 
large village, retaining its ancient name, 
and lying near Ramah, in the district of 
iElia (Jerusalem), 9 miles therefrom." 
Michmash is identified with the modern 
village of Mukmas, about 5 miles north 
of Jerusalem, where are considerable 
ruins of columns, cisterns, etc. Imme- 
diately below the village the great wady 
spreads out to a considerable width — 
perhaps half a mile — and its bed is bro- 
ken up into an intricate mass of hum- 
mocks and mounds, two of which, before 
the torrents of 3000 winters had reduced 
and rounded their forms, may have 
been the "teeth of cliff" — the Bozez 
and Seneh of Jonathan's adventure. 
1 Sam. 14 : 4. In plain view about a 
mile away is the ancient Geba or 
Gibeah, where Saul was encamped. 1 
Sam. 13 : 16. 

MICHMETHAH (rocky ?),atown 
facing Shechem, on the borders of Eph- 
raim and Manasseh. Josh. 16 : 6 ; 17 : 7. 
The Pal. Memoirs suggest Mukhvah, in 
the plain of Mukhnah, east of Shechem, 
as its site. 

MICHRI (prize of Jehovah), aBen- 
jarnite, the ancestor of Elah. 1 Chr. 
9:8. 

MICH'TAM occurs in the inscrip- 
tions of six Psalms — namely, 16 and 56- 
60 — but its true meaning is doubtful. 
Some derive it from a root denoting gold, 
and our translation gives it in the mar- 
gin as " the golden Psalm." More prob- 
ably, however, it is a musical expression 
whose signification has been lost. 

MID'DIN (measures), one of the six 
cities mentioned with En-gedi, Josh. 15 : 
61, and in the desert west of the Dead 
Sea. 

MID IAN (strife). The territory of 



Midian extended, according to some 
scholars, from the Elanitic Gulf to Moab 
and Mount Sinai, or, according to others, 
from the Sinaitic peninsula to the desert 
and the banks of the Euphrates. The 
people traded with Palestine, Lebanon, 
and Egypt. Gen. 37 : 28. Joseph was 
probably bought by them, perhaps in 
company with Ishmaelites. See Gen. 37 : 
25, 27, 28, 36, and Gen. 25:2, 4, 12, 16. 
Moses dwelt in Midian. Ex. 2 : 15-21 ; 
Num. 10 : 29. Midian joined Moab 
against Israel and enticed that nation 
into sin, for which it was destroyed. 
Num. 22, 24, 25. Later, Midian recov- 
ered, became a powerful nation, and op- 
pressed the Hebrews, but were miracu- 
louslv defeated by Gideon. Jud. 6 : 1-40 ; 
7 : 1-25 ; 8 : 1-28 : Ps. 83 : 9, 1 1 ; Isa. 9 : 
4; Hab. 3 : 7. The Midianites hence- 
forward became gradually incorporated 
with the neighboring Moabites and Ara- 
bians. 

In the region east of Edom and Moab 
are many ancient ruins, and portions of 
the territory are of great fertility, pro- 
ducing bountiful crops for the modern 
Arabs — the tribe of Bent Sakk'r, which 
bears considerable resemblance in race, 
character, and habits to what is known 
of the ancient Midianites. 

" Curtains of Midian," Hab. 3 : 7, is a 
figurative expression denoting the bor- 
ders or inhabitants of Midian. 

MIDWIFE. The two midwives 
mentioned in Ex. 1 : 15 are probably 
representatives or superintendents of a 
whole class, as such a number seems to 
stand in a decided disproportion to the 
needs of the Jewish nation at that time. 
The expression "upon the stools," in 
the following verse, refers to a kind of 
chair in which the patient sat during the 
birth, and which is still in use in modern 
Egvpt. 

MIG'DAL-EL (tower of God), a 
fortified city of Naphtali. Josh. 19 : 38. 
Robinson thinks it may be the modern 
Mejdel, or Mujeidil, ancient ruins being 
found on the seashore, 3 miles north of 
Tiberias. 

MIG'DAL-GAD (tower of God), 
a town of Judah, near Lachish, Josh. 
15 : 37-39 ; now Mejdel, a prosperous 
village of 1500 inhabitants, 2 miles east 
of Ascalon. It is surrounded by olive 
trees and cultivated fields. Its houses 
are well built, its streets dirty. Broken 
569 



MIG 



MIL 



columns, hewn stones, and other ancient 
ruins are found there. 

MIG'DOL {tower), the name of two 
places in Egypt. 

1. A place near the head of the Red 
Sea, Ex. 14:2: Num. 33:7, 8; probably J 
identical with Bir Makhdal, 10 miles j 
west of Suez. 

2. A city and fortified place situated j 
in the northern limits of Egypt toward 
Palestine. Jer. 44 : 1 ; 46 : 14. This 
name is rendered " tower " in the phrase 
" from the tower of Syene," Eze. 29 : 1 ; 
30:6; but the margin correctly has 



from Migdol to Syene 



Svene 



the most southern border of Egypt, and 
Migdol the most northern. The phrase 
is used to signify the whole of Egypt. 
In Egyptian the name is written Meshtol, 
" many hills," and in the Septuagint 
Magdolum. 

MICRON" (precipice), a town or 
place in the neighborhood of Gibeah. 
1 Sam. 14: 2. Migron is also mentioned 
in Sennacherib's approach to Jerusalem. 
Isa. 10 : 28. It was near Michraash, 
and Baedeker places its site on the west- 
ern slope of the Wacly Smoeinjt, at ruins 
called Makrnn. 

MIJ'AMIIY (on the right hand). 1. 
The head of the sixth course of priests 
in the time of David. 1 Chr. 24 : 9. 

2. See Miamin, 2. 

MIKLOTH (staves). 1. ABenja- 
mite, the son of J'ehiel. 1 Chr. 8 : 32 ; 9 : 
37, 38. 

2. One of the leaders of David's army. 
1 Chr. 27 : 4. 

MIKNE'IAH (possession of Jeho- 
vah), a Levite porter in the time of Da- 
vid. 1 Chr. 15 : 18, 21. 

MILALA'I (eloquent), a priest who 
assisted at the dedication of the walls 
of Jerusalem. Neh. 12 : 36. 

MIL/CAH (queen, or counsel). 1. A 
daughter of Haran, and wife of Nahor, 
Abraham's brother. Gen. 11 : 29 ; 22 : 20. 
23; 24:15, 24,47. 

2. The fourth daughter of Zelophehad. 
Num. 26 : 33 ; 27 : 1 j 36 : 11 ; Josh. 17 : 
3. 

MII/COM. See Moloch. 

MILE. See Measures. 

MILE'TUM. 2 Tim. 4 : 20. The 
same as Miletus. 



MILE'TUS (cr 



ity and 



seaport of Ionia, in Asia Minor. 

Situation. — Miletus was 36 miles south 
570 



of Ephesus, and stood on the south- 
western side of the Latmian Gulf, di- 
rectly opposite the mouth of the river 
Meander. The sediment from the river 
had gradually filled up the gulf, and the 
city was a considerable distance from 
the sea. But in Paul's time it had four 
docks and a large commerce. The site 
is now some 10 miles inland. 

History. — Miletus was originally a 
Carian city; then the capital of Ionia; 
the mother of no less than 80 cities on 
various coasts, more particularly in the 
Euxine and the strait leading to it. Its 
period of greatest prosperity was 500 
years before Christ. The Persians cap- 
tured it B. c. 494, and Alexander the 
Great B. c. 334, after which the city 
never regained its former celebrity. It 
was the native place of many men re- 
nowned in history, among the most dis- 
tinguished of whom were Thales and 
Democritus. Luxury and wickedness 
were characteristic of the inhabitants. 

Scripture References. — Paul stopped 
here on his voyage from Greece to Jeru- 
salem returning from his third mission- 
ary-tour, and met the elders from Ephe- 
sus. Acts 20:15-38. From 2 Tim. 4 : 
20 it appears that Paul left Trophimus 
there sick, but it would appear that this 
must have been on another occasion, 
since, at the conclusion of this voyage, 
Trophimus was with the apostle at Jeru- 
salem. Acts 21 : 29. JThis is supposed 
by many to indicate a later visit, after 
Paul's first imprisonment at Rome. One 
of the Epistles was sent to the Ephesians. 

Present Appearance. — Near the site 
of the ancient city is a small Turkish 
village called Melas. The most note- 
worthy ruins of former grandeur are the 
theatre, with its many tiers of seats in 
good preservation, and the temple of 
Apollo, of which a few columns are yet 
standing. The wandering channels of 
the Meander are near by, although the 
mouth of the river is 10 miles away. 

MILK, not only of cows, but also of 
camels, sheep, and goats, was used in 
Palestine, and is often spoken of in 
the O. T. Gen. 32:15; Deut, 32:14; 
Prov. 27:27; Isa. 7:21, 22. The sim- 
plest spiritual food or the plain and easy 
truths of the gospel, wherewith the new- 
born soul is nourished and sustained, is 
compared to milk. Heb. 5:12; 1 Pet. 2 : 
2. " A land flowing with milk and 



MIL 



MIL 



honey," Josh. 5 : 6, means a country of 
extraordinary fertilit}'. The phrase 
" wine and milk," Isa. 55 : 1, denotes all 
spiritual blessings and privileges. 

MILL. The simplest mill for bruis- 
ing grains was nothing more than two 
stones, between which they were broken. 
If one of the stones be hollowed out, so 
as to contain the corn to be pounded by 
another stone or by a piece of wood or 
metal, it is not a mill, but a mortar. 
When manna was given in the desert, 
"the people went about, and gathered 
it, and ground it in mills, or beat it in a 




Women grinding at the Mill in the East. 

mortar." Xum. 11 : 8. From these mills 
and mortars there must have been ob- 
tained at first only a kind of peeled 
grain which may be compared to our 
hominy. Yet we read that Sarah set 
before the three angels who visited 
Mamre cakes of fine meal, Gen. 18 : 6, 
which presupposes a more elaborate im- 
plement. This consisted of two round 
stones, each about 2 feet in diameter 
and 6 inches high. The under one, or 
"nether mil/stone." Job 41:24, was im- 
movable and somewhat lower around the 
edge than in the centre — that is, it was 
slightly convex on the top. The upper 
one was just the reverse, being concave 
on the bottom, or thicker at the circum- 
ference, so as to fit pretty closely to the 
other. In the centre there was a hole, 
and above this a funnel or hopper, into 
which the grain was poured, and thus it 
ran in between the stones and was broken 
by them into meal, which fell over the 
edge upon a board. On the top of the 



other stone there was an upright peg, by 
means of which it was turned around. 

Frequent allusions are made in Scrip- 
ture to these utensils. Of leviathan it 
is said that his heart is "as hard as a 
piece of the nether millstone" Job 41 : 
24. At the siege of Thebez "a certain 
woman cast a piece of a millstone upon 
Abimelech's head, and all to brake his 
skull." Jud. 9:53. 

In the Law it was ordained : " No man 
shall take the nether or the upper mill- 
stone to pledge; for he taketh a man's life 
to pledge." Deut. 24 : 6. Each family had 
its own mill : and as fresh bread was 
made every day, no more corn was ground 
at a time than was necessary for one 
baking. Hence the noise of the grind- 
ing-mills and the voices of the women 
working them were the first sounds heard 
in the streets on a morning. The sound 
was pleasing, because it was naturally 
associated with industry and the supports 
and enjoyments of life. The noise of the 
millstones in the morning, and the light- 
ing up of candles in the evening, are 
circumstances belonging to inhabited 
places where men live together in social 
order ; hence the striking power of the 
prediction, Jer. 25 : 10, Gloomy shall 
be the silence of the morning, melan- 
choly the shadows of the evening — no 
cheerful noise to animate the one, no 
enlivening ray to soften the gloom of 
the other. Desolation shall everywhere 
reign. 

MLL/LET, the grain of the cultivated 
panic-grass (Panicum miliaceum) or of 
du-rah (variously spelled, but thus pro- 
nounced). Eze. 4 : 9. Both these large 
grasses are often sown in the Levant, 
and perhaps both may be included under 
the term millet. Durah or Egyptian 
corn (Sore/hum vvlgare) resembles maize 
in size and general appearance, and is 
largely cultivated upon the Nile. Both 
the above are grown in Palestine and 
used for bread. (See cut, p. 572.) 

M I Li ' L O (a mound, rampart ). 
" Millo " is used for a part of the citadel 
of Jerusalem, probably the rampart, or 
entrenchment. 2 Sam. 5 :U ; 1 Kgs. 9 : 15, 
24 ; 11 : 27; 1- Chr. 11 : 8. The same, or 
part of it, was probably the "house of 
Millo:" margin "Beth Millo." 2 Kgs. 
12 : 20 ; 2 Chr. 32 : 5. Some think it 
means the " stronghold of Zion." Lewin 
suggests that it refers to the whole of the 
571 



MIL 



MIN 



temple enclosure, while Conder curiously 
suggests that, from its root, it may mean 
a pool. The first seems the more probable 
view. 




Millet. (Sorghum Vulgare.) 

MILXO, HOUSE OF. 1. The 

place where Joash was murdered in Jeru- 
salem. 2 Kgs. 12 : 20. See Millo, above. 

2. Those who dwelt in the fortress of 
Shechem, Jud. 9:6,20 ; probably the same 
as "the tower" of Shechem. Jud. 9 : 46, 49. 

MI'NA. See Money. 

MINES, MIN'ING. Remains still 
exist of ancient Egyptian mines both on 
the border of the Ethiopian desert and 
in the Sinaitic peninsula, and, as Moses 
praises the Promised Land for its mineral 
wealth, Deut. 8 : 9, it is probable that at 
the time of the Exodus the Jews under- 
stood how to extract metals from the 
earth. How well acquainted with all 
mining processes they were at another 
period appears from Job 28 : 1—11. See 
Metals. 

MINFAMIN {from the right hand), 
a Levite in the reign of Hezekiah who 
had charge of the freewill - offerings of 
the people in the cities of the priests. 
2 Chr. 31 : 15. 

MINISTER, as distinguished from 
servant, denotes one in voluntary attend- 
ance on another. Thus Joshua is called 
572 



the minister of Moses, Ex. 24 : 13 ; 33 : 
11, and Elisha the minister of Elijah. 1 
Kgs. 19 : 21 ; 2 Kgs. 3:11. With various 
modifications of this, its general sense, it 
is applied in Scripture : 

]. To Christ, as the "minister of the 
sanctuary," Heb. 8 : 2 — that is, as our 
High Priest ; 2. To those persons who are 
appointed to preach the gospel and ad- 
minister its ordinances, 1 Cor. 4: 1 : 2 
Cor. 3:6: Eph. 3 : 7 : 1 Thess. 3 : 2 \ 1 
Tim. 4:6; 3. To magistrates, Rom. 13: 
16, as God's ministers to punish the evil 
and protect the good; and 4. To the 
angels, who stand ready to do the will 
of God. Ps. 103 : 21 j Dan. 7 : 10 ; Heb. 
1:14. 

MIN'NI, a portion of Armenia. Jer. 
51 : 27. See Armenia. 

MIN'NITH (divisions), an Ammonit- 
ish place to which Jephthah's victory 
extended, and from wheni-e wheat was 
brought to Tyre. Jud. 11 : 33 ; Eze. 27 : 
17; perhaps Minieh, south of Heshban. 
MIN'STREE, a musician or singer. 
As seen from the case of Jairus, it was 
customary in the time of our Saviour to 
employ minstrels at funerals — that is, 
players on stringed instruments, flute- 
players, and people hired to perform the 
official lamentation. Thus, when Christ 
came into the house to raise the daughter, 
"he saw the minstrels and the people 
making a noise." Matt. 9 : 23. 

MINT, well- 
known herbs akin 
to garden sage, 
several species of 
which are wild or 
cultivated in Pal- 
estine. Mint was 
commonly used by 
the ancients in 
medicine and as a 
condiment. It is 
said to have been 
one of the bitter 
herbs eaten with 
the paschal lamb. 
Deut. 14 : 22 re- 
quired that the 
Jews should pay 
tithe of all produce 
of the ground, but 
they were more 
careful about trifles 
than about the 
weightier matters. Matt. 23 : 23. 




Mint. 



(Mentha ISylves 
tris.) 



MIP 



MIR 



MIPH'KAD {appointed place), the 

name of a gate of Jerusalem, Neh. 3 : 31, 
either on the Zion side or a little south 
of the Sheep-gate. 

MIR'ACLE, an action or event 
produced by a supernatural or divine 
agency for the purpose of authenticat- 
ing the divine mission of the person 
who performs the act or is the subject 
of the event. A true miracle is above 
nature,. but not against nature; it is a 
temporary suspension of the operation 
of the laws of nature, but not a viola- 
tion of the laws themselves ; it is the 
manifestation of a higher order which 
the lower order obeys. We have an 
analogy in the power of our will over 
the body, as by raising our hand we 
suspend the operation of the law of 
gravity. God controls and directs, ex- 
tends and contracts, the forces of nature 
which are his agents. God alone can 
work miracles or enable men to per- 
form them. If we believe in an al- 
mighty personal God, we shall have 
no difficulty in believing the possibility 
of miracles. The first miracle was the 
creation of the universe out of nothing 
by his will. In the case of Christ his 
person is the great moral miracle, and 
his miracles are the natural manifesta- 
tions of his divine-human person, or 
simply his "works/' as John calls them. 
If we believe in Christ as the sinless Son 
of man and Son of God. we shall find no 
difficulty in believing his miracles. The 
devil (who is called God's ape) can per- 
form only pseudo-miracles — "lying won- 
ders," juggleries, and sorceries. Deut. 13 : 
1 ; Matt. 24 : 24 ; 2 Thess. 2:9; Rev. 13 : 
13, 14; 16 : 14; 19 : 20. 

The N. T. (in Greek) uses three terms 
for miracles : (1) Sign, by which a divine 
power is made known and a divine mes- 
senger attested. Matt. 12 : 38. 39; 16:1,6; 
Mark 8:11; Luke 11 : 16; 23 : 8 ; John 
2:11, 18, 23, etc. ; Acts 6 : 8 ; 1 Cor. 1 : 
22 ; (2) Wonder or portent, Avith regard to 
their astounding character. John 4:48; 
Acts 2 : 22, 43 ; 7 : 36 ; Rom. 15 : 19 ; 
usually in connection with "signs;" (3) 
Power or powers, mighty deeds, with ref- 
erence to their effect. Matt. 7 : 22 ; 11 : 
20, 21, 23; Luke 10 : 13; Rom. 15 : 19. 

Miracles were necessary for the found- 
ing of religion as divine seals of revela- 
tion. Bishop Butler says: "Revelation 
itself is miraculous, and miracles are the 



proof of it." The miracles of Christ are 
appealed to as evidence of his divinity 
and Messiahship. Matt. 9:6; 11 : 4, 5 ; 
John 10 : 47; 20 : 29, 31. They were 
wrought from the purest motives, for the 
glory of God and the benefit of the souls 
and bodies of men; they were wrought 
in open daylight, before great multitudes, 
in the face of his enemies, who did not 
deny them, but traced them to Beelzebub. 
Matt. 12 : 24. Tested by external evi- 
dence and intrinsic propriety and con- 
formity to his divine mission, they com- 
mend themselves to every honest and 
reasonable inquirer. The only alterna- 
tive is truth or wilful fabrication, and 
the latter is a moral monstrosity in the 
case of Christ and the apostles. 

The power of miracles continued in the 
apostolic age, but with the establishment 
and triumph of Christianity their neces- 
sity ceased, as the primitive creation gave 
way to preservation. Our faith must now 
chiefly rely on the moral miracles and in- 
ternal evidences which continue through- 
out Christendom. But God may at any 
time renew the miraculous gifts of the 
apostolic age. 

For a discussion of this subject see 
Mozley's Bampton Lectures on Miracles 
(delivered at Oxford, 1865), and Arch- 
bishop Trench's Notes on the Miracles 
of our Lord. 

The chief miracles recorded in the O. 
T. are the Creation, the Flood, the de- 
struction of Sodom and Gomorrah, the 
birth of Isaac, the burning bush, the 
miracles of Moses in Egypt, the cross- 
ing of the Red Sea, the pillar of cloud 
and fire, the quails and manna, the water 
from the rock, Aaron's rod budding, heal- 
ing by looking up to the brazen serpent 
(symbol of faith in the crucified Re- 
deemer, see John 3 : 14), Balaam's ass 
speaking, the crossing of the Jordan 
divided, the taking of Jericho, the stand- 
ing still of the sun (which, however, is 
taken by many only as a poetic hyper- 
bole), Elijah fed by ravens, restores a 
dead child to life, brings rain from 
heaven by prayer, is taken up to 
heaven in a chariot of fire, miracles of 
Elisha, Jonah preserved by a whale or 
shark (a type of the resurrection, see 
Matt. 12 : 40). No miracles are re- 
ported of John the Baptist, which is 
an indirect proof of the miracles of 
Christ and his apostles. 

573 



MIR 



MIR 



MIRACLES IN THE LIFE OF CHRIST. 



Miracles. 



The conception by the Holy Ghost Nazareth. 

Water turned into wine Cana. 

The Capernaum nobleman's son cured Cana. 

Draught of fishes Sea of Galilee. 



Place. 



led. 



Demoniac cured. 

Peter's mother-in-law healed 

Leper healed 

Centurion's servant healed...... 

Widow's son raised from the dead 

Tempest calmed 

Demoniacs of Gadara cured 

Man sick of the palsy cured 

Jairus's daughter raised to life 

Woman diseased with issue of blood In 

Sight restored to two blind men 

Dumb demoniac cured 

Diseased cripple at Bethesda cured 

A withered hand cured 

Demoniac cured 

Five thousand fed 

Canaanite woman's daughter cured 

Man deaf and dumb cured 

Four thousand fed 

Christ's transfiguration jMt. Tabor or Hermon. 

Blind man restored to sight JBethsaida. 

Boy possessed of a devil cured Mt. Tabor or Hermoi 



Capernaum. 

Capernaum. 

Capernaum. 

Capernaum. 

Nain. 

Sea of Galilee. 

Gadara. 

Capernaum. 

Capernaum. 

Capernaum. 

Capernaum. 

Capernaum. 

Jerusalem. 

Judaea. 

Capernaum. 

Decapolis. 

Near Tyre. 

Decapolis. 

Decapolis. 



Man born blind restored to sight 

Woman cured of eighteen years' infii 

Dropsical man cured , 

Ten lepers cleansed. 



mity. 



Jerusalem. 
Galilee. 
Galilee. 
Samaru 



fwo blind men restored to sight .| Jericho. 



Lazarus raised from the grave to life., 

Fig tree blasted 

The ear of Malchus healed. 

The resurrection 

Draught of fishes 

The ascension to heaven 



Bethany. 
Mt. Olivet. 
Gethsemane. 
Jerusalem. 
Sea of Galilee. 
Mt. Olivet. 



Record. 



Luke 1 : 


35. 


John 2 : 


1-11. 


John 4 : 


46-54. 


Luke 5 : 


1-11. 


Mark 1 


23-26. 


Mark 1 


30, 31. 


Mark 1 


40-45. 


Matt, 8 • 


'5-13. 


Luke 7 : 


11-17. 


Matt. 8 


23-27. 


Matt. 8 : 


28-34. 


Matt, 9 : 


1-8. 


Matt. 9 : 


18-26. 


Luke 8 : 


43-48. 


Matt, 9 : 


27-31. 


Matt. 9 : 


32, 33. 


John 5 : 


1-9. 


Matt. 12 


: 10-13. 


Matt, 12 


: 22, 23. 


Matt, 14 


: 15-21. 


Matt. 15 


: 22-28. 


Mark 7 : 


31-37. 


Matt. 15 


: 32-39. 


Matt, 17 


: 1-8. 


Mark 8 : 


22-26. 


Matt, 17 


: 14-21. 


John 9. 




Luke 13 


: 11-17. 


Luke 14 


: 1-4. 


Luke 17 


: 11-19. 


Matt. 20 


: 30-34. 


John 11. 




Matt. 21 


: 18-21. 


Luke 22 


: 50, 51. 


John 20 


: 1. 


John 21 


: 1-14. 


Luke 2 : 


42-51. 



MIRACLES IN THE APOSTOLIC AGE. 



Miracles. 



The outpouring of the Spirit on the day of 

Pentecost 

Miracles by the apostles 

Lame man cured 

Death of Ananias and Sapphira 

Apostles delivered from prison 

Miracles by Stephen 

Miracles by Philip 

iEneas made whole 

Dorcas restored to life 

Peter delivered from prison 

Elymas struck blind 

Miracles by Paul and Barnabas 

Lame man cured 

Paul restored 

Unclean spirits cast out 

Paul and Silas delivered from prison 

Special miracles 

Eutychus restored to life 

Paul unhurt by a viper 

Father of Publius and many others healed 

574 



Place. 



Jerusalem. 

Jerusalem. 

Jerusalem. 

Jerusalem. 

Jerusalem. 

Jerusalem. 

Samaria. 

Lydda. 

Joppa. 

Jerusalem. 

Paphos. 

Iconium. 

Lystra. 

Lyst ra. 

Philippi. 

Philippi. 

Ephesus. 

Troas. 

Melita. 

Melita. 



Record. 



Acts 2 : 1-11. 

Acts 2 : 43 ; 5 : 12, 15, 16. 

Acts 3 : 7. 

Acts 5 : 5, 10. 

Acts 5:19. 

Acts 6 : 8. 

Acts 8 : 6, 7, 13. 

Acts 9 : 34. 

Acts 9 : 40. 

Acts 12 : 6-10. 

Acts 13: 11. 

Acts 14:3. 

Acts 14 : 10. 

Acts 14 : 20. 

Acts 16 : 18. 

Acts 16 : 25, 26. 

Acts 19 : 11, 12. 

Acts 20 : 10-12. 

Acts 28 : 5. 

Acts 28 : 8, 9. 



MIK 



MIX 



MIK'l AM (rebellion). 1. The daugh- 
ter of Amrain, and the sister of Moses and 
Aaron, 1 Chr. 6 : 3, is supposed to have 
been ten or twelve years older than Moses; 
and, being appointed to watch the ark 
of bulrushes in which her infant brother 
was laid among the flags of the river, 
she was there when Pharaoh's daughter 
came down and discovered it, and pro- 
posed to go for a nurse, concealing her 
relation to the child. She immediately 
called her mother as the nurse, and the 
infant was placed under her care. Ex. 
2 : 4-10. After the passage of the Red 
Sea, she led the choir of the women of 
Israel in the sublime song of deliverance, 
Ex. 15 : 20, but afterward, having joined 
Aaron in mui'muring against Moses, she 
was smitten with leprosy, and restored 
only in answer to the prayers of Moses. 
Num. 12 : 1-15. She died and was bur- 
ie~d at Kadesh. Num. 20 : 1. 

2. A descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 
17. 

MIR' MA {fraud), a Benjamite 
born in the land of Moab. 1 Chr. 8:10. 

MIRRORS. See Looking-glass. 

MIS'GAB (high place), a place in 
Moab. Jer. 48 : 1. It appears to be 
mentioned also in Isa. 25 : 12, in Hebrew, 
rendered " high fort." It seems to re- 
fer to some special fortress, probably 
Kir-hareseth. 

MISH'AEL (who is what God is?). 
1. A son of Uzziel, the uncle of Moses 
and Aaron. Ex. 6 : 22 ; Lev. 10 : 4. 

2. One who stood at Ezra's left hand 
when he read the Law to the people. 
Neh. 8 : 4. 

3. One of Daniel's companions, who re- 
ceived the Babylonian name of Meshach. 
Dan. 1:6,7, 11, 19; 2:17. See Meshach 
and Abed-nego. 

MISHAL, and MI'SHEAL [en- 
treaty), a town in the territory of Asher. 
Josh. 19:26; 21:30. 

MI'SHAM ('purification, or swift- 
going), a Benjamite. 1 Chr. 8 : 12. 

MISH'MA (a hearing, report). 1. A 
son of Ishmael, Gen. 25: 14; 1 Chr. 1 : 
30, whose descendants may be repre- 
sented by the present Arabian tribe of 
the Bene-Misma. 

2. A son of Simeon. 1 Chr. 4: 25. 

MISHMANNAH (fatness), a Gad- 
ite who joined David at Ziklag. 1 Chr. 
12:10. 

MISH'RAITES, THE, one of 



the four families which proceeded from 
Kijrath-jearim and founded towns, 1 Chr. 
2 : 53 ; not further mentioned. 

MISFERETH. See Mizpae. 

MIS'REPHOTH-MATM (burn- 
ings of water), a place in Northern Pales- 
tine. Josh. 11 : 8 ; 13 : 6. Thomson treats 
Misrephoth-maim as identical with a 
collection of springs called Ain-Mu- 
sheirifeh, on the seashore, close under 
the Has en-Nakhura ; but this is far 
from Sidon. Conder suggests that it is 
identical with the present village Sara- 
fend, near Sidon. 

MITE, the lowest denomination of 
Jewish money — two mites making a 
farthing — and probably of the value of 
two mills of our currency. Mark 12 : 41- 
44 ; Luke 21 : 1-4. 

MITH'CAH (sweetness), a station 
of the Hebrews in the desert. Num. 33 : 
28 29 

MITHNITE, THE, the designa- 
tion of Joshaphat, one of David's war- 
riors, 1 Chr. 11 : 43, referring probably 
to some place of the name of Methen. 

MITHREDATH (given by Mithra, 
the sun-god). 1 . The treasurer of Cyrus, 
to whom he gave the vessels of the 
temple. Ezr. 1 : 8. 

2. A Persian officer stationed in Sa- 
maria. Ezr. 4 : 7. 

MITRE, the head-dress of the Jew- 
ish priest) was of fine flax or linen, made 
with many folds, making in length eight 
yards, finished with elegance and taste, 
and wreathed round the head in the shape 
of an Eastern turban. It bore upon its 
front a gold plate, on which was inscribed 
" Holiness to the Lord." Ex. 28 : 4, 
37, 39 ; 29 : 6 ; 39 : 28, 30 ; Lev. 8:9; 
16:4. 

MITYLE'NE (hornless), the chief 
town and capital of the isle of Lesbos. 
Situated on the east coast, Mitylene is 
the intermediate place where Paul stop- 
ped for the night between Assos and Chios. 
Acts 20 : 14,15. The town itself was 
celebrated in Koman times for the beauty 
of its buildings. In Paul's days it had 
the privileges of a free city. The island 
has been subject to Turkey, but the 
people are chiefly Greek. 

MIXED MULTITUDE, an ex- 
pression occurring Ex. 12 : 38 : Num. 11 : 
4, and Neh. 13 : 3, and denoting people 
who congregated with the Israelites 
without being of pure Israelite blood. 
575 



MIZ 



MIZ 



By some it is explained as referring to 
the offspring of mixed marriages between 
Israelites and those nations among which 
they lived ; by others as referring simply 
to those hangers - on who are always 
found hovering on the outskirts of a 
great camp. 

MI'ZAR (smallness), a hill named in 
Ps. 42 : 6 ; possibly a summit or peak on 
the eastern ridge of Lebanon. 

MIZ'PAH, and MIZ'PEH 
(loatch-tower), the name of several places 
in Palestine. 

1. On Mount Gilead, also called Miz- 
peh of Gilead, Jud. 11 : 29, and elsewhere 
probably Ramoth-mizpeh, Josh. 13 : 26, 
and Ramoth-gilead, 1 Kgs. 4 : 13 and 
elsewhere, the place where Laban and 
Jacob set up a heap of stones as a wit- 
ness and landmark between them. Gen. 
31 : 23, 25, 48, 52. Here also the Israelites 
assembled to fight against the Ammon- 
ites, Jud. 10 : 17 : and here Jephthah was 
met by his daughter. Jud. 11 : 29. Some 
suppose that this was the place also where 
the tribes assembled to avenge the great 
sin committed in Benjamin, Jud. 20 : 1, 
3 ; 21 : 1, 5, 8, but this is more usually 
applied to the Mizpah in Benjamin. See 
No. 6. This Mizpah has been identified 
with a high peak east of the Jordan, 3 
miles north-west of Ramoth-gilead, called 
Jebel 08h'a, or " the Mount of Hosea." 
Conder suggests RempJieh, 25 miles west 
of Bozrah, but Merrill, with greater prob- 
ability, locates it at Knlat er Rubad on 
the Wady 'Ajlun, about 10 miles east of 
the Jordan. This summit commands 
a wide view, and is in harmony with 
the name Mizpeh, or " watch-tower." 

2. Mizpeh of Moab, where the king of 
that nation was living when David com- 
mitted his parents to his care, 1 Sam. 
22 : 3 ; possibly now Kerak. 

3. The land of Mizpeh, in the North 
of Palestine, the residence of the Hivites, 
Josh. 11:3; possibly identical with — 

4. The valley of Mizpeh, Josh. 11 : 3, 8, 
whither the confederate hosts were pur- 
sued by Joshua; perhaps the modern 
Buka'a, the great country of Ccele-Syria, 
between Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon. 

5. A city in Judah, Josh. 15 : 38 : pos- 
sibly identical with the modern Tell 
e8-Sdfiyeh, or, as Conder has suggested, at 
Kirhbet el-Miisheirifeh, near Gaza. The 
position fits and the name is the Arabic 
equivalent of the Hebrew. This is the 

576 



place others have identified with Mis- 
rephothmaim, which see. 

6. A city in Benjamin, Josh. 18 : 26, 
where Israel assembled. 1 Sam. 7 : 5-7, 
11, 12, 16. Here Saul was elected king. 
1 Sam. 10 : 1 7-21. Asa fortified Mizpah, 
1 Kgs. 15 : 22 ; 2 Chr. 16 : 6 ; it was where 
Gedaliah was assassinated, 2 Kgs. 25 : 
23, 25 ; Jer. 40 : 6-15 ; 41 : 1-16 ; the men 
of Mizpah joined in rebuilding a part of 
the wall of Jerusalem. Neh. 3:7, 15, 19. 
Messepha of 1 Mace. 3 : 46, which is 
probably identical with this place, and 
about 3£ miles west of north from Jeru- 
salem, is the modern village of Neby 
Samwil, standing on a peak which rises 
about 600 feet above the plain of Gibeon. 
This village is claimed as the most prob- 
able site for Mizpah by Robinson. Porter, 
Baedeker, and others. It is 3006 feet 
above the sea-level, and the highest 
mountain near Jerusalem. From its 
summit the most extensive view in 
Southern Palestine is obtained, embra- 
cing the Mediterranean, Jerusalem, the 
Mount of Olives and the mountains of 
Moab. Upon its summit is a mosque, 
once a Christian church, built by the 
Crusaders on the spot where pilgrims 
first saw Jerusalem. Grove, Stanlej', 
Bonar, Major Wilson, and others would 
identify Mizpah with Mount Scopus, one 
of the summits just north of Jerusalem 
in the continuation of the Olivet range. 
From this place the traveller gets a very 
complete view of the Holy City, and from 
there the emperor Titus looked down 
upon it. Not far away is the modern 
village of Shafat. Conder notes that a 
part of the ridge is called Arkub es-Suffa, 
or " the ridge of the view." Eusebius 
and Jerome located Mizpah near Kirjath- 
jearim, and Conder notes a Shtifa im- 
mediately south of Kuryet el-Annb 
(Kirjath-jearim), a name having exactly 
the same meaning with Mizpah — viz., 
" place of view." Conder also says that 
there is a place called Umni S&ffa, equiva- 
lent to the Hebrew Mizpah, existing on 
the road from Samaria to Jerusalem, 
which would be a suitable position for 
the Mizpah of Jeremiah, 40, 41. which 
is not necessarily the Mizpah of Samuel. 
( Quarterly, 1876, p. 171.) But his final 
conclusion is that Mizpah and Nob are 
identical. Whether the Mizpah of Hosea, 
5:1, was in Benjamin or in Gilead is 
uncertain, 



MIZ 



MOA 



MIZ'PAR (number), one who return- 
ed with Zerubbabel, Ezr. 2:2; called 
Mispereth in Neh. 7 : 7. 

MIZ RAIM {limits, borders), the 
name by which the Hebrews generally 
designated Egypt, apparently from Miz- 
raim, the son of Ham. Gen. 10 : 6, 13. 
This name is in the dual form, and de- 
noted either lower and upper Egypt or 
two divisions of that land. Gen. 45 : 20 ; 
46 : 31 ; 47 : 6, 13. Sometimes it seems to 
be employed to designate lower Egypt, to 
the exclusion of Pathros or upper Egypt. 
Isa. 11 : 11 ; Jer. 44 : 15. See Egypt. 

MIZ'ZAH {fear), a grandson of 
Esau, and one of the chiefs of Edom. 
Gen. 36:13, 17; 1 Chr. 1 : 37. 

MNA'SON {remembering), a native 
of Cyprus, but a resident of Jerusalem, 
was an early convert to Christianity, and 
is mentioned, Acts 21 : 16, as the host of 
the apostle Paul. 

MO'AB {of the father), a name used 
for the Moabites, and also for their ter- 



ritory. Num. 22 : 3-14; Jud. 3 : 30 ; 2 
Sam. 8 : 2 ; 2 Kgs. 1:1; Jer. 48 : 4. The 
territory of the Moabites, originally in- 
habited by the Emims, Deut. 2:10, lay 
on the east of the Dead Sea and the Jor- 
dan, strictly on the south of the torrent 
Arnon, Num. 21 : 13 : Ruth 1 : 1, 2 ; 2 : 
6 ; but in a w^der sense it included also 
the region anciently occupied by the 
Amorites. Num. 21 : 32, 33 ; 22 : 1 ; 26 : 
3 ; 33 : 48 ; Deut. 34 : 1. The territory 
was 50 miles long and 20 wide. It was 
divided into three portions, each bearing 
a distinct name: 

(1) Land of Moab, Deut. 1 : 5, lying 
between the Arnon and the Jabbok; (2) 
The field of Moab, a tract south of the 
Arnon, Ruth 1:2; (3) The plains of 
Moab, the tract in the Jordan valley 
opposite Jericho, Num. 22 :1. 

Physical Features. — Except the narrow 
strip in the valley of the Jordan, Moab 
is nearly all table-land, consisting of an 
uneven or rolling plateau, elevated above 




Mountains of Moab. 



the Mediterranean about 3200 feet. At 
the north this plateau slopes gently into 
a plain, and on the east into the Syrian 
desert. The principal streams are the 
37 



Arnon and the Jabbok and the Jordan. It 
is admirably suited for pasture, as shown 
by Mesha, who paid a tribute of 100,000 
lambs and 100,000 rams. 2 Kgs. 3 : 4. 

577' 



MOA 



MOA 



History. — The race of Moab, having 
its origin about the time of the destruc- 
tion of the cities of the plain, and cradled 
in the mountains above Zoar, gradually 
extended over the region east of the 
Dead Sea, expelling the ancient original 
inhabitants, the Emim. Deut. 2 : 11. 
Five hundred years later, when the Is- 
raelites were approaching the Promised 
Land, the Moabites had become a great 
nation. But they had been driven south 
of the Arnon by the warlike Amorites. 
Num. 21 : 13 ; Jud. 11 : 18. Balak and 
Midian called Balaam to curse the chosen 
people. Num. 22 : 4, 5. The Israelites 
mastered the region from north of the 
Arnon, but Moab was allowed to hold the 
cities of the tract taken by the Israelites 
from the Amorite king, while the tribe 
of Reuben, to whom the district was as- 
signed, dwelt in tents and tended their 
flocks on the fine pasture-ground. The 
district south of the Arnon remained in 
the possession of Moab. The idolatries 
of Moab, and especially the worship of 
its god Chemosh, exercised an irresistible 
charm for the Israelites, and the Reuben- 
ites were greatly corrupted. The rela- 
tions between the Moabites and Israelites 
were at times amicable, but more fre- 
quently hostile. During the period of 
the Judges the Moabites compelled the 
Israelites to pay tribute until King Eglon 
was killed by Ehud. Jud. 3. Ruth, the 
great-grandmother of David, was a Moab- 
itess, and David entrusted the care of his 
father and mother to the king of Moab. 
1 Sam. 22 : 4. Saul conducted a success- 
ful campaign against Moab, and David 
inflicted a terrible punishment upon 
them. 2 Sam. 8 : 2. After Solomon's 
death Moab fell to the northern king- 
dom, and after Ahab's death the Moab- 
ites refused to pay tribute. The Moab- 
ites invaded Judgea in the reign of 
Jehoshaphat, and were discomfited. 
Later, their own country was overrun by 
Jehoram and Jehoshaphat, the towns 
destroyed, the wells stopped, etc., and 
Mesha, shut up in his capital, sacrificed 
his own son. 2 Kgs. 3 : 6-27. At a later 
period Moab was sometimes dependent 
and sometimes independent. It was 
allied with the Chaldaeans against Judah 
in the reign of Jehoiakim, 2 Kgs. 24: 
2, and the destruction of God's chosen 
people was received with a delight for 
which God threatened punishment. Eze. 
578 



25 : 8-11 ; Zeph. 2 : 8-10. The fulfil- 
ment of these prophecies is noted at 
the end of this article. 

Modern Discoveries and Present Con- 
dition. — Among the travellers who have 
visited Moab are Burckhardt, Seetzen, 
Buckingham, Irby and Mangles, De 
Saulcy, Porter, Tristram, Palmer, Drake, 
Paine, and Merrill. A large number of 
ruins have been discovered. Palmer 
counted eight fortified towns in view 
from a single eminence. The principal 
ruins are those of Rabbath-moab, Kerak, 
Dibon, Medeba, Main, and Umm Rasas. 
At Kerak (Kir-hareseth) are. very in- 
teresting and remarkable ruins. Dibon 
is noted as the place at which the famous 
Moabite Stone was discovered. This 
stone corroborates the Bible history of 
King Mesha. Hopes were entertained 
that other tablets of that character might 
be found, but Palmer, who investigated 
every written stone reported by the 
Arabs, came to the conclusion that there 
does not remain above ground a single 
inscribed stone of any importance. 
Everything in Moab speaks of its former 
wealth and cultivation. The soil is 
badly tended by the few Arab tribes who 
inhabit it, but there are extensive fields 
of grain. The Arabs are an essentially 
pastoral people, having great herds of 
cattle. Sour or fresh milk often takes 
the place of water, and the modern 
traveller finds the customs the same as in 
the time of Sisera. Jud. 4 : 18, 19. 

Prophecies Fulfilled. — Jeremiah de- 
scribes Moab as very prosperous, but 
the prophetic threats of its doom are 
most terrific, as set off against the resto- 
ration of Israel. Jer. 48. Porter indi- 
cates how completely those various 
prophecies have been fulfilled, but some 
of his statements require confirmation. 
From Salcah he saw upward of thirty 
deserted towns. Jer. 48 : 15-24. The 
neglected and wild vineyards and fig 
trees are rifled by the Bedouin every 
year in their periodical raids, vs. 32, 33. 
The inhabitants hide themselves in the 
mountain-fastnesses, oppressed by the 
robbers of the desert on the one hand 
and the robbers of the government on the 
other, vs. 28, 44. Cyril Graham, who 
explored this region, found cities with 
buildings in a good state of preservation, 
3 7 et everywhere uninhabited. " In the 
whole of these vast plains, north and 



MOA 



MON 



south, east and west, Desolation reigns 
supreme." The long-predicted doom of 
Moab is now fulfilled, and the forty- 
eighth chapter of Jeremiah is verified 
on the spot by the traveller. There are 
twenty-seven references to Moab in this 
chapter, and one hundred and twenty- 
cnein the Scriptures. See Ar, Dibon, Kir- 
hareseth. Moabite Stone. See p. 232. 

MOADI'AH. See Maadiah. 

MOLADAH (birth), a city in the 
South of Judah, Josh. 15 : 21-26 ; given 
to Simeon, and occupied by Shimei, 
Josh. 19 : 2 ; 1 Chr. 4 : 28 ; settled after 
the Captivity, Neh. 11 : 26. Probably el- 
Milh, 10 miles east of Beersheba, marks 
the site of ancient Moladah. There are 
ruins of a fortified town, two wells, one 
with water at the depth of 40 feet; and 
the wells are surrounded with marble 
troughs. Arab tradition says that Abra- 
ham dug these wells and watered his 
flocks here. 

MOLE. In Lev. 11 : 30 the Hebrew 
word is believed to denote the chameleon, 
already described. The most recent 
criticism would have this vexed verse 
read thus: " And the gecko and the 
monitor and the true lizard and the sand 
lizard and the chameleon." Another 
word rendered "mole," in Isa. 2 : 20, 
means " the burrower." As no true 
moles have been found in Palestine, this 
term may comprehend the various rats 
and weasels that burrow about ruins. 
The interesting mole-rat (Spalax typh- 
lus), a quadruped about 10 inches long, 
and whose habits are indicated by its 
name, is doubtless one of these burrowers, 
if not the only one intended. 

MO'LECH (the ruler), Lev. 18: 
21, or MIL/COM, 1 Kgs. 11 : 5, or 
MOLOCH, Acts 7: 43, the name of 
an idol-god worshipped by the Ammon- 
ites with human sacrifices, especially 
children. The Rabbins tell us that it 
was made of brass and placed on a brazen 
throne, and that the head was that of a j 
calf with a crown upon it. The throne ! 
and image were made hollow, and a fu- \ 
rious fire was kindled within it. The j 
flames penetrated into the body and j 
limbs of the idol ; and when the arms 
were red-hot, the victim was thrown into j 
them, and was almost immediately burn- 
ed to death, while its cries were drowned 
by drums. Though warned against this 
idolatry, common to all the Canaanite | 



tribes, though probably not of Canaanite 
origin, the Jews were repeatedly allured 
to adopt it. 2 Kgs. 23 : 10 ; Eze. 20 : 26. 
In the Valley of Hinnom they set up a 
tabernacle to Molech, and there they 
sacrificed their children to the idol. 

MO'LID (begetter), a descendant of 
Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 29. 

MON'EY. Commerce, in its most 
primitive state, is a mere bartering, one 
kind of goods being exchanged for an- 
other. The next stage in commercial 
development is the invention of a com- 
mon means of exchange, the establish- 
ment of the precious metals — gold and 
silver — as standards of value, the em- 
ployment of money. This money, how- 
ever, was not coined. It was simply the 
metal itself, kept in ingots, rings, etc., 
and used according to its weight, and 
when, in the period before the Captivity, 
the O. T. speaks of money — pieces of 
gold and silver, shekels, mina, talent, 
etc. — a certain weight of precious metal 
is meant thereby, and nothing more. 
Coined money does not occur among 
the Jews until after the Captivity, but 
then we meet successively with Persian, 
Greek, Syrian, Roman, and national 




Shekel. Ascribed to Simon Maccabseus. 

Jewish coins. The first Jewish coins 
were struck by Simon Maccabasus, who, 
ahout B. c. 139, obtained permission to 
coin money from the Syrian king Anti- 
ochus VII. Shekels, half-shekels, etc., 
of gold, silver, and copper, were struck, 
showing on one side a vase, perhaps 
representing a pot of manna, and on the 
other side an almond branch with three 
flowers, perhaps representing Aaron's 
staff. After this time coins were struck 
by the Asmonaean princes, the Idumaean 
kings, during the first revolt under Elea- 
zar, and during the second under Bar- 
cochebas ; and besides these national 
Jewish coins, foreign coins of Persian, 
Greek, and Roman make circulated in 
579 



MON 



MON 



great multitude in Palestine. Of these 
latter the following are mentioned in the 
Bible. 




Golden Daric. 

The daric, dram, or drachm, Ezr. 2 : 
69, is a Persian gold coin equal to about 
five dollars and fifty cents. 

The stater or piece of money, Matt. 17: 
27, a Greek or Roman silver coin (a 
shekel in weight), in value over fifty 
cents. The stater, or coined shekel, of 
the Jews is often found in the cabinets 
of antiquaries at the present day. 



Eoman Penny, or Denarius. 

The penny, Matt. 22 : 19, or denarius, 
h, Roman silver coin equal to an Attic 
drachma, or about sixteen American 
cents. " Shilling " would be a more 
correct translation. 





Assarion (farthing). Actual size. (From speci- 
men in British Museum.) 

The farthing, Matt. 10 : 29, a Roman 
silver coin equal to one cent and a quar- 
ter. 

Another piece of money equal to one- 
fourth of a farthing is called by the 
same name, Matt. 5:2fi; and the mite, 
Mark 12 : 42, was half of this last far- 
thing, or about two mills of our cur- 
rency. 

MONEY- CHANGERS. Every 

Israelite who had reached the age of 

twenty was required by the Law, Ex. 

30:13-15, to pay one half-shekel, as 

580 



an offering to Jehovah, into the sacred 
treasury whenever the nation was num- 
bered. As this offering should be paid 
in exact Hebrew coins, dealers in such 
coins established their booths in the 
temple and exacted high premiums 
from the Jews, who from all parts of the 
world came to Jerusalem during the great 
festival. But thev were expelled by our 
Lord. Matt. 21 : 12: Mark 11 : 15. 

MONTH. The ancient Hebrews call- 
ed the months by their numbers — first 
month, second month, third month, etc. — 
though at the same time they also applied 
a special name to each month. This 
double nomenclature had nothing to do, 
however,with the double course of months 
which the Jews employed after leaving 
Egypt, one making the civil and the 
other the sacred year. The former com- 
menced from the first new moon in Octo- 
ber — and this was used in civil and agri- 
cultural concerns only — and the latter 
from the first new moon in April, because 
they left Egypt on the fifteenth of that 
month, and it was used in regulating the 
time of their feasts, etc. The prophets 
use this reckoning. " From the time of 
the institution of the Mosaic Law down- 
ward, the month appears to have been a 
lunar one. The cycle of religious feasts, 
commencing with the Passover, depend- 
ed not simply on the month, but on the 
moon ; and the new moons themselves 
j were the occasions of regular festivals." 
I Num. 10 : 10; 28 : 11-14. 

The length of the month was regulated 
I by the changes of the moon, but, twelve 
I lunar months making only 354 days and 
! 6 hours, the Jewish year was short of 
I the true solar year by eleven days. To 
I compensate for this, the Jews, about 
j every three — or seven times in every 
i nineteen — years. intercalated a thirteenth 
j month, called Ve-adar, and thus their 
lunar year became equal to the solar. The 
changes of the moon were carefully 
watched, and a formal announcement 
made of the appearance of the new 
moon by sound of trumpets and beacon- 
! fires. Num. 10 : 10: Ps. 81 : 3. These 
' observations were continued throughout 
Jewish history, though it is evident that 
the Jews were in possession of calcula- 
tions by which the course of the moon 
could be predicted. 1 Sam. 20 : 5, 24, 27. 
The names of the Hebrew months are 
as follows : 



MOO 



MOR 



Civil. 


Sacred. 


Beginning with the New Moon. 


VII 


I. Nisan, or Abib. 
II. Zif, or Ziv. 

III. Sivan. 

IV. Tammuz. 
V. Ab. 

VI. Elul. 
VII. Tisbri, or Ethanim. 
VIII. Bui. 
IX. Kisleu, or Chisleu. 
X. Tebeth. 
XI. Shebat. 
XII. Adar. 


March, or April. Neh. 2 : 1. 
April, or May. 1 Kgs. 6 : 1. 
May, or June. Esth. 8 : 9. 
June, or July. 
July, or August. 

August, or September. Neh. 6 : 15. 
September, or October. 1 Kgs. 8 : 2. 
October, or November. 1 Kgs. 6 : 38. 
November, or December. Neh. 1 : 1. 
December, or January. Esth. 2 : 16. 
January, or February. Zech. 1 : 7. 
February, or Marcb. Esth. 3 : 7. 


VIII 


IX 


X 


XI 


XII 


I 


II 


Ill 


IV 


V , 


VI 





MOON, Deut. 33 : 14, or LES'SER 

LIGHT. Gen. 1:16. The Hebrew year 
was a lunar year, and the new moon 
regulated many of the feasts and sacred 
services of the Jews. It was always 
the beginning of the month, and this 
day they called Neomenia, new-moon 
day or new month, and celebrated it with 
special sacrifices. Num. 28 : 11-15. 

The heathens have generally worship- 
ped the moon, under the names of 
"Queen of Heaven," "Venus," "Ura- 
nia," " Succoth-benoth," "Ashtaroth," 
"Diana," "Hecate," or perhaps "Meni," 
etc. Deut. 4 : 19 ; 17 : 3 ; Job 31 : 26, 27. 
The Jews were warned against this kind 
of idolatry, Deut. 4 : 19 ; 17 : 3, but they 
nevertheless burnt incense to the moon, 
2 Kgs. 23 : 5 ; Jer. 8 : 2, and their women 
worshipped her as the queen of heaven 
and offered cakes of honey to her. 7 : 
18; 44:17-19, 25. 

MO'RASTHITE, the designation 
of the prophet Micah, as a native of Mo- 
resheth-gath. Jer. 26 : 18 ; Mic. 1:1. 

MOR'DECAI (little man, or wor- 
shipper of Mars), a captive Jew of the 
family of Saul, resident at the court of 
Ahasuerus. An uncle of his died, leav- 
ing an orphan daughter named Hadas- 
sah, whom Mordecai adopted, and who 
afterward became the queen of Persia. 
Mordecai fell under the displeasure of 
Haman, one of the king's principal offi- 
cers of state, and to be revenged on the 
despised Jew he laid a plan for the ex- 
termination of the whole body of Jews 
in the empire. His purpose was, how- 
ever, defeated by the interposition of the 
queen. Haman lost his life and Morde- 
cai was elevated to wealth and power. 

MOREH. 1. The Plain, Plains, or 
Oaks of Moreh. It is twice noticed in 
Scripture; first as the halting-place of 



Abram after his entrance into the land 
of Canaan. Gen. 12 : 6. It was near 
Shechem, 12 : 6, and the mountains Ebal 
and Gerizim. Deut. 11 : 30. 

2. The Hill of Moreh, where the Mid- 
ianites and Amalekites were encamped 
before Gideon's attack upon them. Jud. 
7:1. It lay in the valley of Jezreel, on 
the north side. It is identified with 
Jebel ed-Duhy, the "Little Hermon," 
and Ain Jalood, the spring of Harod, 
and Gideon's position was on the north- 
east slope of Jebel Fukua (Mount Gil- 
boa), between the village of Nuris and 
the spring. Little Hermon is 1815 feet 
above the Mediterranean. On the south 
is Gilboa, and on the north Tabor. 

MOR'ESHETH-GATH (posses- 
sion of ivine-piess), a town near Eleuther- 
ropolis, the birthplace of Micah, Mic. 1 : 
14; hence he is called the " Morasthite." 
Mic. 1:1; Jer. 26 : 18. 

MORIAH (chosen of Jehovah?). 1. 
The land where Abraham was directed 
to go and offer Isaac as a sacrifice. Gen. 
22:2. 

2. A mount on which Solomon built 
the temple in Jerusalem. 2 Chr. 3:1. It 
was in the eastern part of the city, over- 
looking the valley of the Kedron, and 
where was the threshing-floor of Araunah. 
2 Sam. 24 : 24 ; 1 Chr. 21 : 24. It lay 
north-east of Zion, from which it was 
separated by the Tyropoeon valley. Solo- 
mon erected the temple upon the levelled 
summit of the rock, and then immense 
walls were erected from its base on the 
four sides, and the interval between them 
and the sides filled in with earth or built 
up with vaults, so as to form on the top 
a large area on a level with the temple. 
Most authorities agree in regarding this 
as the place whither Abraham went to 
offer Isaac, and therefore identical with 
581 



MOR 



MOS 



No. 1, above. Samaritan tradition, how- 
ever, claims that the place of Abraham's 
altar was on Mount Gerizirn, and Stan- 
ley and Grove are inclined to accept the 
Samaritan claim : but the arguments in 
favor of this view are far from satisfac- 
tory. For a description of Moriah of 
Jerusalem, upon which now stands the 
Mohammedan mosque of Omar, see IV. 
Topography, under Jerusalem. 

MORNING. See Day, Watch. 

Morning Watch. See Watch. 

Morning Star. See Stars. 

MORTAR. See Lime. 

MOSE'RA, and MOSE ROTH 
{bond, bonds), a station in the journey of 
the Israelites through the wilderness, 
and near Mount Hor. Deut. 10: 6; Num. 
33 : 30, 31. 

MOS'ES (Heb. Mosheh, draion out — 
i. e. of the water ; Coptic Mo-use, water- 
saved), the leader and creator of the 
Jewish nation. This table shows the 
pedigree of Moses : 

Levi 

I 



Amram = Jochebed 



Hur= Miriam Aarou=Elisheba Moses =: Zipporah. 

!__ j 

I i I I II 

Nadab Abihu Eleazar Ithamar Gershom Eliezer 
Phineas Jonathan 



His life falls naturally into three divis- 
ions, of forty years each, according to 
the account preserved in Stephen's 
speech. Acts 7 : 23, 30, 36. 

1. Moses was born in the dark hour 
of Hebrew story when a son was an ob- 
ject of the murderous search of the 
Egyptian spies. His father was Amram, 
his mother Jochebed, his tribe was Levi, 
and this fact may have determined the 
choice of Levi for the priesthood. Moses 
was the youngest child of the family ; 
Miriam was the oldest, and Aaron came 
between. For three months his parents 
hid the babe, but at last it was no longer 
possible, and Jochebed, with a trembling 
heart, but it may be with a dim con- 
sciousness that God had great things in 
store for him, laid him in the little bas- 
ket of papyrus she had deftly woven, 
pitched with bitumen within and with- 
out, and, carrying it down to the brink 
582 



of one of the canals of the Nile, she hid 
it among the flags. The child was ten- 
derly watched "afar off " by Miriam, 
who, less open to suspicion than the 
mother would be, stood to see what 
would be done to him. The daughter 
of the Pharaoh, the oppressor, came to 
the sacred river to bathe, attended by 
her maidens, who, surprised to find the 
basket, which had providentially floated 
down to the princess' bathing-place — or 
had Jochebed purposely put it there? — 
call the attention of their mistress to the 
discovery. The basket is fetched by one 
of them, and when opened a little babe, 
evidently one of the Hebrews' children, 
but exceedingly fair, is revealed to view. 
The woman-heart of the princess, who 
was a childless wife according to tradi- 
tion, yearned over the little one. Her 
yearning was of God. Then Miriam 
drew near, gathered from the conversa- 
tion that the child's life was to be spared, 
proposed to get a nurse for him among 
the Hebrew women, and thus it came to 
pass that Jochebed again had her child 
at her breast, but this time as his hired 
nurse. The biblical history of this pe- 
riod closes with the child Moses in the 
palace under tutors and governors, and 
increasing in wisdom and in stature, and 
in the favor of God and of man. There is 
a break in this history, as in that of the 
greater than Moses, between the infancy 
and the manhood. 

2. The second division of Moses' life 
was totally different in its character from 
the first. Moses, at the age of forty, is 
learned in all the wisdom of the Egyp- 
tians. The adopted grandson of the 
Pharaoh, initiated in the secrets of the 
priests, to whose order he belonged, he 
had a brilliant and useful worldly career 
before him. Had he remained in his ad- 
vantageous surroundings, he would have 
been one of the great Egyptian sages — 
probably the greatest of them all. But 
God intended him to occupy a much 
more exalted position. There was needed 
by him a period of meditation. He must 
be cut off from books, and by direct con- 
tact with Nature in all her moods learn 
what books cannot give. The providen- 
tial occasion of this violent change was 
Moses' slaying of an Egyptian taskmas- 
ter who had ill-treated a Hebrew. This 
was no secret, as he hoped it would be. 
The news, indeed, had been carried to 



MOS 



MOS 



Pharaoh, and so Moses was compelled to 
flee. It is probable that the murder was 
intended to impress upon the Hebrews 
his desire to help them — that he, the 
king's son, would be their deliverer ; for 
it seems impossible to resist the conclu- 
sion that the pious teachings of his 
mother had not been forgotten, and that 
many prayers had been put up by him 
as he determined to be his brethren's 
saviour. But we see now that it was no 
wonder that this attempt at an insurrec- 
tion proved abortive, and likewise that 
Moses had much to learn before he could 
properly lead the great Exodus. Moses 
fled from the prominence, the refinement, 
and the luxury of the court to the ob- 
scurity, the roughness, and the poverty 
of the wilderness. He became the shep- 
herd of Jethro and the husband of his 
daughter Zipporah. Ex. 2. This second 
period lasted forty years, and again a 
wondrous transformation took place. 
The transition was made at Horeb when 
one day he saw a " bush " — probably an 
acacia tree — which was said to be on 
fire and yet was unconsumed. He drew 
near to examine the wondrous sight, 
and the Angel of the Lord appeared to 
him and gave him his prophetic call. 
But now the would-be leader of forty 
years agone was full of excuses, depre- 
cated his abilities, and disparaged his 
appearance. Accordingly, God appointed 
Aaron as his spokesman and brought 
about their meeting. Ex. 3 ; 4. Thus in- 
formed of the divine name, Ex. 3 : 14, 
promised divine aid, and strengthened 
by miracles, Ex. 4 : 1-7, Moses, at the 
age of eighty, now both a scholar and a 
practical man of affairs, starts out upon 
the deliverance of his people. On his 
way to Egypt his son Gershom was 
smitten by a mysterious illness, Zipporah 
thought because ch'cumcision had not 
been performed. Accordingly, although 
loath to do it, she herself circumcised 
Gershom. Ex. 4 : 24-26. The child recov- 
ered. 

3. Arrived at Goshen, Moses and Aaron 
at once began the discharge of their 
commission. But their primary efforts 
only increased the subject people's bur- 
dens, and the two brothers were wellnigh 
in despair. Then began the series of 
miraculous visitations recounted in Ex. 
7-12. The last of the plagues so stunned 
the Egyptians that they precipitately 



drove the Israelites out. See Plagues, 
Exodus. The Israelites were prepared 
and went ready for the journey, which, 
instead of being one of three days into the 
desert, Ex. 5 : 3, was one of forty years. 
Through all this time the Israelites were 
miraculously protected, fed, and led. 
Moses went in and out before them to 
the divine satisfaction, although his con- 
duct by no means pleased every one. 
Nor had Moses always the proper con- 
trol over himself. He flung down the 
God-engraven tables of the Law, enraged 
at the idolatry of the frivolous people 
while he was for forty days in the Mount 
with God. Ex. 32 : 19. But the most 
damaging act of this nature was at Ka- 
desh-meribah. The people murmured 
for water. Moses was commanded to 
speak to the rock ; instead, he struck 
the rock twice with his rod. It was be- 
cause on this occasion God was not 
honored that Moses and Aaron were for- 
bidden to enter the Promised Land. 
Num. 20 : 11, 12. 

But to counterbalance this evil trait 
there were many good ones. He makes 
mention of one of these — viz., his 
meekness. Num. 12 : 3. Besides, he 
was characterized by disinterestedness, 
impartiality, faithfulness, and courage. 
When he had risen superior to the 
fears which daunted him when he re- 
ceived the divine call, he was unwa- 
vering. The 'people might murmur 
or break out into rebellion, he was 
ready to plead with God for them ; yea, 
when they had so grievously sinned that 
God declared he would destroy them, 
Moses asked that his name might be 
blotted out of the book of God rather 
than behold their destruction. Ex. 32 : 
32. 

In addition must be mentioned his 
eminent services as lawgiver. It is in- 
deed a vexed question how much credit 
should be given to him as the publisher 
of a code marked throughout by "Thus 
saith the Lord." We are safe in saying 
that the Law, as we have it recorded in 
the Scriptures, was divinely inspired, 
and that Moses made the record as di- 
rected of the Lord. The Decalogue is a 
moral miracle in ancient legislation, and 
retains its power to this day in all Chris- 
tian lands. See Law. As an historian 
Moses also is to be honored. The five 
books commonly called the Pentateuch, 
583 



MOS 



MOS 



which he wrote, contain the only reliable 
history of the creation of man and the 
beginning of the human as well as of the 
Jewish race. See Pentateuch. But there 
are also other compositions attributed to 
him — namely, Ps. 90 and the book of Job. 
In regard to these there is no certainty, 
but the ninetieth Psalm seems to fit in 
well with the circumstances of the Wan- 
dering, and the book of Job is perhaps 
his in its first draft; the Talmud makes 
him the author, and several commenta- 
tors have adopted this view. See Job. 
We know Moses to have had the poetic 
gift, for in the Pentateuch there are 
several exhibitions of it: 

1. "The song which Moses and the 
children of Israel sung" (after the pas- 
sage of the Red Sea, Ex. 15 : 1-19). 

2. A fragment of a war-song against 
Amalek, Ex. 17 : 16 : 

"As the hand is on the throne of 1 Jehovah, 
So -will Jehovah war with Amalek 
From generation to generation." 

3. A fragment of a lyrical burst of in- 
dignation, Ex. 32 : 18 : 

" Not the voice of them that shout for mas- 
tery, 

Nor the voice of them that cry for being 
overcome, 

But the noise of them that sing do I hear." 

4. The song of Moses, composed on 
the east side of Jordan. Deut. 32 : 1-43. 

5. The prophetic blessing of Moses 
upon the tribes. Deut. 33 : 1-29. 

As a leader and as a prophet Moses 
comes before us. As the former "his 
life," says Dean Stanley in Smith's Dic- 
tionary of the Bible, "divides itself into 
the three epochs of the march to Sinai, the 
march from Sinai to Kadesh, and the con- 
quest of the Transjordanic kingdoms. 
Of his natural gifts in this capacity we 
have but few means of judging. The 
two main difficulties which he encoun- 
tered were the reluctance of the people 
to submit to his guidance and the im- 
practicable nature of the country which 
they had to traverse. The incidents with 
which his name was specially connected, 
both in the sacred narrative and in the 
Jewish, Arabian, and heathen traditions, 
were those of supplying water when most 
wanted. In the Pentateuch these sup- 
plies of water take place at Marah, at 
Horeb, at Kadesh, and in the land of 
Moab. Of the first three of these inci- 
584 



dents, traditional sites bearing his name 
are shown in the desert at the present 
day, though most of them are rejected 
by modern travellers. The route through 
the wilderness is described as having 
been made under his guidance. The 
particular spot of the encampment is 
fixed by the cloudy pillar. But the di- 
rection of the people, first to the Red 
Sea and then to Mount Sinai, is commu- 
nicated through Moses or given by him. 
On approaching Palestine the office of 
the leader becomes blended with that of 
the general or the conqueror. By Moses 
the spies were sent to explore the country. 
Against his advice took place the first 
disastrous battle at Hormah. To his 
guidance is ascribed the circuitous route 
by which the nation approached Pales- 
tine from the east, and to his generalship 
the two successful campaigns in which 
Sihon and Og were defeated. The nar- 
rative is told so shortly that we are in 
danger of forgetting that at this last 
stage of his life Moses must have been 
as much a conqueror and victorious sol- 
dier as Joshua." 

But as a prophet Moses is evidently 
the revealer of the will of God, and pre- 
eminent because with him the divine 
revelations were made "mouth to mouth, 
even apparently, and not in dark 
speeches," and he beheld " the similitude 
of Jehovah." Num. 12 : 8. He saw the 
flame in the bush ; for two periods of forty 
days each he was in the thick darkness 
with God, Ex. 24 : 18 : 34 : 28 ; and above 
all was he favored with the vision of the 
trailing garments of the Almighty, and he 
heard a voice which " proclaimed the two 
immutable attributes of God, justice and 
love," in words which became part of 
the religious creed of Israel and of the 
world. Ex. 34 : 6, 7. But perhaps the 
most remarkable fact is yet to be men- 
tioned. Moses frequently met God in 
the tent of the congregation, which he 
removed outside the camp. Ex. 33 : 9. 
No wonder that the subject of so many 
and so familiar interviews with God 
should be regarded with peculiar venera- 
tion by the Hebrews, the Mohammedans, 
and the Christians. 

When Moses was one hundred and 
twenty years old his eye was not dim 
nor his natural force abated. Deut. 34 : 
7. He was able, on the day of his death, 
to stand on Nebo, a height of the Pisgah 



MOS 



MOS 



range, and thence look across the Jor- 
dan and up and down the Promised Land. 
Bitter was his disappointment at not 
being allowed to enter, but meekly he 
submitted to the will of God. He had 
been so much with God that to die was 
simply to be always with Him whose voice 
he had heard and whose glory he had 
seen. But since his death would make 
a great change to his people, he prepared 
the way for it. He addressed the people 
and warned them against apostasy. He 
then gave a public charge to Joshua, his 
successor. He then uttered the song, 
Deut. 32, and blessed the people. Deut. 
33. Quietly, it would appear, unattended, 
perhaps secretly, the aged yet strong 
man climbed the Pisgah range, stood on 
the height of Nebo, and viewed the ex- 
tensive prospect. "As he gazed upon 
it the words fell upon his ears, ' This is 
the land which I sware unto Abraham, 
unto Isaac, and unto Jacob, saying, I 
will give it unto thy seed : I have caused 
thee to see it with thine eyes;' and then, 
not in sternness or in anger, but in ut- 
most love, like a mother lifting her boy 
into her arms, the Lord added, 'But 
thou shalt not go over thither,' and in a 
moment, in the twinkling of an eye, the 
soul of Moses had passed within the veil 
and was at home with God." — Rev. W. 
M. Taylor, D. D., Moses the Lawgiver, 
N. Y., 1879, p. 439. "And he buried 
him in a valley in the land of Moab, over 
against Beth-peor ; but no man knoweth 
of his sepulchre unto this day." Deut. 34 : 
6. In the words of the Rabbins, " Jeho- 
vah kissed him to death " (or rather into 
life eternal). His remains were removed 
from all reach of idolatry — the sin of 
sins, forbidden in the first command- 
ment. As Thomas Fuller quaintly says, 
" God buried also his grave." Vainly 
have men sought to find it. The familiar 
lines of Mrs. C. F. Alexander's ode, " The 
Death of Moses," may be appropriately 
quoted here : 

"And had he not high honor? 

The hillside for his pall, 
To lie in state while angels wait, 

With stars for tapers tall : 
And the dark rock-pines,like tossing plumes, 

Over his bier to wave ; 
And God's own hand, in that lonely land, 

To lay him in his grave." 

Centuries passed on. The land had 
witnessed many changes ; the promised 



One stood upon the Promised Land 
when once more Moses is seen by mortal 
sight. Upon the slopes of Hermon he 
appeared in company with Elijah to talk 
with Jesus of the decease Jesus should 
accomplish at Jerusalem. Luke 9 : 31. 
Thus was the type brought face to face 
with the Pattern. And this resurrection 
leads to the conclusion which some hold 
— that Moses, like Christ, was raised 
from the dead after a brief sleep in the 
grave. 

Moses was of God's special preparation, 
the resultant of many forces. Wrought 
upon by inspiration, he was able to be 
legislator, statesman, leader, poet, saint, 
because he was so variedly trained. An 
exceptional man in original gifts, he was 
equally exceptional in his opportunities. 
To be of Hebrew extraction, and there- 
fore by descent to share in the glorious 
hopes of his race, was to have a grand 
start Godward. To be the adopted child 
of Pharaoh's daughter, to breathe "the 
atmosphere of courts," to be acquainted 
as an equal with the nobility of the land, 
was to gain an intimate knowledge of 
statecraft from the best exponents of it. 
To be trained for the priesthood, initiated 
into the holy mysteries, learned in all 
the learning of the Egyptians, was to be 
thoroughly furnished unto religious 
service. To be exiled and compelled 
through many years to eat "the bread 
of carefulness," to be a keeper of sheep 
and a dweller in tents amid the sublimity 
of Sinaitic scenery, was to have time for 
reflection and for communion with God. 
Thus, when at eighty he returned to 
Egypt, he was able to debate with schol- 
ars and to sympathize with slaves. He 
towered above all his brethren. He was 
alone in the loneliness of genius. He 
was accessible in his feeling for the op- 
pressed. But Moses was unique in other 
ways. He alone has held friendly con- 
verse with Jehovah. What though he 
was slow of speech ? He was lofty of 
thought. What though he was timid? 
He had the promise of divine strength. 
And the good qualities he showed during 
the Wandering are such as come from 
fellowship with the Highest, while his 
bad qualities — his occasional infirmity 
of temper, for example — are mere spots 
upon the sun or temporary obscurations 
of the light, the times he forgot God. 
But when he fell all observed it, just as 
£85 



MOS 



MOS 



all notice the fallen monarch of the for- 
est ; when he stood firm few marked it, 
as few remark the upright tree. 

The above article is a mere sketch. 
To write fully the life of Moses would 
be to write the history of Israel during 
the Exodus. The reader will refer to 
the separate articles incidentally men- 
tioned. We close by a brief study of 
the character of Moses, following the 
Rev. Dr. W. M. Taylor in his book 
above quoted. 

Three qualities give him immortal in- 
terest and prominence. 1st. Faith. By 
faith he esteemed "the reproach of 
Christ greater riches than the treasures 
in Egypt." Heb. 11 : 26. "Never more 
alluring prospects opened up before any 
man than those which the world held 
out to him. The throne of the greatest 
monarchy of his age was within his reach. 
All that wealth could procure, or pleasure 
bestow, or the greatest earthly power 
command, was easily at his call. But 
the glory of these things paled in his 
view before the more excellent character 
of those invisible honors which God set 
before him. This faith sustained him in 
the solitudes of Miclian and animated 
him amidst all the conflicts attendant on 
the Exodus and all the difficulties that 
confronted him in the wilderness. This 
faith gave him courage in the hour of 
danger and calmness in the time of 
trial." (pp. 459, 460.) 

2d. Prayerfidness. " In every time 
of emergency his immediate resort was 
to Jehovah. He was not speaking to a 
stranger, but was like a son making ap- 
plication to his father; and so he never 
pleaded in vain." (p. 461.) His was the 
prayer.of faith. 

3d. Humility. "He coveted no dis- 
tinction and sought no prominence ; his 
greatness came to him, he did not go 
after it. And his humility was allied 
with or flowed naturally out into two 
other qualities, disinterestedness and 
meekness. (See Num. 11:29 and 12:3 
for striking illustrations.) He gave up 
his own ease and comfort to secure the 
emancipation of his people ; and while 
laboring night and day for them, he had 
no thought whatever of his own interests. 
His office brought him no emolument." 
In this he was like Nehemiah. He was 
free from all charge of nepotism. His 
meekness was shown in silently listening 
586 



to complaints against himself. He ap- 
pealed unto God. (pp. 462-3.) 

The only blot upon this beautiful cha- 
racter is a lack of patience or self-control, 
but this was more evident in the earlier 
portion of his life, nor was it prominent 
enough to belie his eulogy. 

Moses was a type of Christ. The 
parallel is readily traced. " As Moses, 
in the early part of his career, refused 
the Egyptian monarchy because it could 
be gained to him only by disloyalty to 
God, so Jesus turned away from the 
kingdoms of the world because they 
were offered on condition that he would 
worship Satan ; as Moses became the 
emancipator of his people, so was Jesus; 
as Moses, penetrating to the soul of the 
symbolism of idolatry, introduced a new 
dispensation wherein symbolism was 
allied to spirituality of worship, so Jesus, 
seizing the spirituality of the Mosaic 
system, freed it from its national restric- 
tions, and ushered in the day when the 
true worshipper would worship the Fa- 
ther anywhere; as Moses was pre-emi- 
nently a lawgiver, so Jesus, in his Ser- 
mon on the Mount, laid down a code 
which not only expounds but fulfils the 
Decalogue ; as Moses was a prophet, so 
Jesus is the great Prophet of his Church; 
as Moses was a mediator, so Jesus is the 
Mediator of the new covenant, standing 
between God and man, and bridging, by 
his atonement and intercession, the gulf 
between the two. We cannot wonder, 
therefore, that in the vision of the 
Apocalypse they who have gotten the, 
victory over the beast and his image are 
represented as singing the song of Moses 
the servant of God, and the song of the 
Lamb. Rev. 15 : 3." (p. 466.) 

God buried Moses. It was fitting, 
therefore, that he too should write his 
epitaph. Here it is given by his in- 
spiration, and, though written only in a 
book, having a permanence as great as 
if it had been graven with an iron pen 
in the rock for ever : " And there arose 
not a prophet since in Israel like unto 
Moses, whom the Lord knew face to face, 
in all the signs and the wonders which 
the Lord sent him to do in the land of 
Egypt, to Pharaoh, and to all his ser- 
vants, and to all his land, and in all that 
mighty land, and in all the great terror 
which Moses showed in the sight of all 
Israel." Deut. 34 : 10-12. (p. 468.) 



MOT 



MOU 



Moses, Song op. This wonderful ode 
celebrates more fitly the miraculous de- 
liverance of the children of Israel from 
Egyptian bondage. It is the national 
anthem, the Te Deum of the Hebrews. 
It sounds through the psalms of Israel, 
through the thanksgiving hymns of the 
Christian Church, through the touching 
songs of liberated slaves, and it will 
swell the harmony of the saints in 
heaven. Allusion to it is made in Rev. 
15 : 2, 3 : " Tbey stand on the sea of glass 
mingled with fire . . . and sing the song 
of Moses the servant of God." 

MOTH. By this word is meant the 
clothes-moth, which, in its caterpillar 
state, is very destructive to woven fab- 
rics. The eggs of this miller, being de- 
posited on fur or cloth, produce a small, 
soft worm which immediately forms a 
house for itself by cutting from the 
cloth, which it thus weakens and de- 
stroys. In Job 4:19 man is said to be 
" crushed before the moth " — that is, 
more easily than the moth. There are 
also references to the destructiveness of 
this insect in Job 13 : 28 ; Ps. 39 : 11 ; 
Isa. 50 : 9 ; 51 : 6, 8 ; Hos. 5:12; Matt. 
6 : 19, 20; Jas. 5:2. In Ps. 6 : 7 the 
word "consumed" properly means 
" moth-eaten." As much of the treasure 
of the ancients consisted in costly gar- 
ments, we may readily understand why 
the moth was considered so noxious an 
insect, and this will teach us the true 
import of our Saviour's words. Matt. 6 : 
19, 20. It was common in Asia to lay 
up stores of precious garments, which 
descended as an inheritance to children, 
for their modes of dress never changed ; 
but the moth was a formidable enemy to 
such treasures, so as to render it useless 
to take much pains to lay them up. 

MOTHER. Besides in the literal 
sense, the word is used in the 0. T. in 
reference to a grandmother, 1 Kgs. 15 : 
10, and a stepmother. Gen. 37 : 10. It 
has also a poetical use, as applied to a 
political leader, Jud. 5 : 7, a nation, as 
we say "mother-country." Jer. 50: 12; 
Eze. 19:2. As the position of woman is 
always the test of the true civilization 
of a people, it is pleasing to notice in 
what respect and affection the mothers 
stood. See, Prov. 10 : 1 ; 15 : 20 ; 17 : 25 ; 
29 : 1 5 ; 31 : 1, 30, and compare the com- 
mands given by Moses. Ex. 20:12; 
Deut. 5:16; 21 : 18, 21 ; Lev. 19 : 3, The 



queen-mother was in royal times a very 
much honored person. 1 Kgs. 2 : 19. See 
Queen. 

MOULD' Y, in Josh. 9 : 5, 12, prop- 
erly means " crumbs." 

MOUNT, MOUNTAIN, the 
translation of three words, of which the 
commonest, like our word, applies to 
both a single mountain and a range, 
The mountains mentioned in the Bible 
are Sinai, Ebal, Gerizim, Zion, and Oli- 
vet, and the range of Lebanon. Eze. 18 : 
6. Worship upon mountains was for- 
bidden. Dean Stanley gives (Sinai and 
Palestine) the following list, quoted in 
Ayre's Treasury of Bible Knoioledge, of 
Hebrew words used in reference to 
mountains or hills. It will be noticed 
the majority are in common use with us : 

"Head, rosh, Gen. 8:5; Ex. 19 : 20 ; 
Deut. 34 : 1 ; 1 Kgs. 18 : 42 (A. V. ' top'). 
Of a hill (gibeah), Ex. 17 : 9, 10. 

"Ears, aznSth, Aznoth-tabor, Josh. 
19:34; possibly in allusion to some 
projection on the top of the mountain. 

"Shoulder, chdteph, Deut 33:12; 
Josh. 15:8; 18 : 16 ('side'), all referring 
to the hills on which Jerusalem is placed. 
Josh. 15 : 10, ' the side of Mount Jearim.' 

" Side, tzad (see the word for the 
' side' of a man in 2 Sam. 2 : 16 ; Eze. 
4 : 4, etc.). Used in reference to a moun- 
tain in 1 Sam. 23 : 26; 2 Sam. 13 : 34. 

" Loins or flanks, chisloth, Chisloth- 
tabor, Josh. 19 : 12, and occurs also in 
the name of a village, probably situated 
on this part of the mountain, Ha-chesul- 
loth — i.e., the 'loins.' Josh. 19 : 18. 

" Bib, tzilah. Only used once, in 
speaking of the Mount of Olives, 2 
Sam. 16 : 13, and there translated ' side/ 

" Back, shechem. Probably the root 
of the name of the town Shechem,' which 
may be derived from its situation, as it 
were, on the back of Gerizim. 

" Elbow, ammah. The same word as 
that for ' cubit.' It occurs in 2 Sam. 2: 
24 as the name of a hill near Gibeon. 

" Thigh, yarchdh (see the word for the 
'thigh' of a man in Jud. 3:16,21). 
Applied to Mount Ephraim, Jud. 19 : 1, 
18, and to Lebanon. 2 Kgs. 19 : 23 ; Isa. 
37 : 24. Used also for the ' sides ' of a 
cave. 1 Sam. 24 : 3. 

" The word translated ' covert ' in 1 

Sam. 25 : 20 is sether, from sdthar, to hide, 

. . . and probably refers to the shrubbery 

or thicket through which Abigail's path 

587 



MOU 



MOU 



lay. In this passage 'hill' should be 
' mountain.'" 

MOURN, MOURNERS. The He- 
brews, at the death of their friends and 
relations, gave all possible demonstra- 
tions of grief and mourning. Gen. 50 : 
10. They wept, tore their clothes, smote 
their breasts, fasted and lay upon the 
ground, went barefooted, pulled their 
hair and beards or cut them, and made 
incisions on their breasts or tore them 
with their nails. Lev. 19 : 28 ; 21 : 5 ; 
Deut. 14:1; Jer. 16:6. The time of 
mourning was commonly seven days, but 
it was lengthened or shortened according 
to circumstances. That for Moses and 
Aaron was prolonged to thirty days. 
Num. 20 : 29 ; Deut. 34 : 8. They mourned 
excessively for an only son, as his death 
cut off the name of the family. Zech. 
12:10. 

The priest mourned only for near rela- 
tives, but the high priest for none. Lev. 
21 : 1-12. 

During the time of their mourning 
they continued sitting in their houses 
and ate on the ground. The food they 
took was thought unclean, and even 
themselves were judged impure. Hos. 9 : 
4. Their faces were covered, and in all 
that time they could not apply them- 
selves to any occupation, or read the 
book of the Law, or say their usual pray- 
ers. They did not dress themselves, or 
make their beds, or uncover their heads, 
or shave, or cut their nails, or go into 
the bath, or salute anybody. Nobody 
spoke to them unless they spoke first. 
Job 2:11-13. Their friends commonly 
went to visit and comfort them, bringing 
them food. They also went up to the 
roof or upon the platform of their houses 
to bewail their loss. Isa. 15 : 3. They 
sometimes went to the graves to lament 
their dead, and so the Oriental women 
do at this day. The Jews had a kind 
of prayer, or rather benediction of God, 
as of Him who raises the dead, which 
they repeated as they mourned, or even 
passed the graves of their dead. 

The mourning-habit among the He- 
brews was not fixed either by law or 
custom. Anciently, in times of mourn- 
ing, they clothed themselves in sack- 
cloth or haircloth — that is, in coarse or 
ill-made clothes, or brown or black stuff. 
2 Sam. 3 : 31. 

They hired women to weep and mourn, 
588 



and also persons to play on instruments, 
at the funerals of the Hebrews. Jer. 9 : 
17 ; Matt. 9 : 23. All that met a funeral 
procession or a company of mourners 




Eastern Mourners at the Grave. 

were to join them as a matter of civility, 
and to mingle their tears with those who 
wept. Something like this is still cus- 
tomary in Turkey and Persia, where he 
who meets the funeral takes the place 
of one of the bearers, and assists in 
carrying the bier until they meet some 
one by whom he is relieved. 

The custom of hiring women to weep 
and mourn is common at this day in 
many of the Eastern nations. See Burial. 

The wailing of the Jews at the exposed 
part of the foundation-wall of the tem- 
ple every Friday is a curiosity, particu- 
larly because it shows how customs of 
lamentation can be handed down, for 
they mourned in the same spot in Je- 
rome's day. 

MOUSE {the corn-eater). Tristram 
found twenty-three species of mice in 
Palestine. In Lev. 11 : 29, and Isa. 
66 : 17 this word is doubtless used gen- 
erically, including as unclean even the 
larger rat, jerboa, dormouse, and sand- 
rat. Mice are often in the East nearly 
as destructive to the crops as locusts. 
They made great havoc in the fields of 
the Philistines after that people had ta- 
ken the ark of the Lord. 1 Sam. 6:4, 5. 

In the twelfth century they destroyed 
the young sprouts of grain in some parts 
of Syria for four successive years and 



MOW 



MUS 



came near to producing a general fam- 
ine, and they abound in those regions at 
the present day. A modern traveller, in 
speaking of Hamath, says : " The west- 
ern part of its territory is the granary 
of Northern Syria, though the harvest 
never yields more than ten for one, chiefly 
in consequence of the immense numbers 
of mice, which sometimes wholly de- 
stroy the crops." 

MOWING means reaping with a 
sickle, for the heat dries up the grass 
before it is high enough for the scythe. 
Ps. 129 : 7. 

MOWINGS, KING'S. Grass cut 
with a sickle (never with a scythe) was 
used in Palestine for " soiling " cattle, 
but not made into hay, as in colder coun- 
tries. The " mower " was always a 
reaper. Amos, 7 : 1, seems to allude to 
some right of the king to the first grass 
in certain districts for his cavalry horses. 

MO'ZA (a going forth). 1. The sec- 
ond son of Caleb, the son of Hezron, by 
his concubine Ephah. 1 Chr. 2 : 46. 

2. A descendant of Saul. 1 Chr. 8 : 
36, 37 ; 9 : 42, 43. 

MOZAH (going forth), a town of 
Benjamin, Josh. 18:26; possibly mod- 
ern Beit Mizzr^ 5 miles north-west of 
Jerusalem, on the Jaffa road. 

MUF'FLERS are supposed to have 
been a covering for the face such as is 
now worn by women of the East. Isa. 
3:19. 

MULBERRY TREES. All 
agree that this is a mistranslation, but 
many different renderings are suggested. 
Some of the best recent authorities advo- 
cate the aspen or poplar, a few species of 
which grow in Palestine. The " going " 
in the tree-tops, which was to be the 
sign that God went out before the host, 
2 Sam. 5 : 23, 24, may have been the 
rustle of these leaves, which are prover- 
bial for their readiness to tremble before 
the slightest breeze. 

MULE, the name of the offspring 
of the horse and the ass. 2 Sam. 13 : 29. 
It is smaller than the former, and is a 
remarkably hardy, patient, obstinate, 
sure-footed animal, living ordinarily 
twice as long as a horse. Mules are 
much used in Spain and South America 
for transporting goods across the moun- 
tains. So also in the Alps they are 
used by travellers among the mountains 
where a horse would hardly be able to 



pass with safety. In the United States 
mules are much used for draught. 

Even the kings and most distinguished 
nobles of the Jews were accustomed to 
ride upon mules. See passage above 
cited, and also 2 Sam. 18 : 9 ; 1 Kgs. 1 : 
33 ; 10 : 25 ; 18 : 5 ; 2 Chr. 9 : 24 ; Esth. 
8 : 10, 14. It is probable that the Jews 
purchased, but did not raise, mules. Lev. 
19 : 19. 

MUP'PIM (serpent?), a descendant 
of Benjamin, Gen. 46 :21; called Shu- 
pham in Num. 26 : 39. 

MURDER. The Jewish law calls a 
murderer one who slays another from en- 
mity, hatred, or by lying in wait. Other- 
wise it is manslaughter, but the avenger 
of blood might kill the unintentional 
murderer if he overtook him before he 
reached the city of refuge. For inten- 
tional murder there was no pardon : the 
city of refuge, and even the altar, fur- 
nished no asylum, nor might money be 
taken in satisfaction. Ex. 21 : 14, 28, 29; 
Num. 35 : 30-32 ; 1 Kgs. 2 : 5, 6, 28-34. 
It was one of the most odious and abom- 
inable crimes, Deut. 19 : 13 ; 21 : 9 ; Num. 
35 : 33, 34, and was a subject of early 
and severe legislation. Gen. 9 : 6. See 
Cities of Refuge. 

A remarkable regulation made it legal 
to kill a housebreaker taken at night in 
the act, but murder if killed during the 
day. Ex. 22 : 2, 3. For the punishment 
of murder see Punishments. 

MUR'RAIN. Ex. 9:3. See 
Plagues of Egypt. 

MU'SHI (forsaking), the son of 
Merari, the son of Kohath. Ex. 6 : 19 ; 
Num. 3 : 20; 1 Chr. 6 : 19, 47; 23 : 21, 
23 • 24 * 26 30 

MUSHITES, THE, descendants 
of Mushi. Num. 3 : 33 : 26 : 58. 

MUS'IC. 1 Sam. 18: 6. This was 
an important part of the festivities and 
religious services of the Jews. In their 
annual pilgrimages to Jerusalem their 
march was thus enlivened. Isa. 30 : 29. 
This is still the custom in Oriental pil- 
grimages. The practice of music was 
not restricted to any one class of per- 
sons. 1 Chr. 13 : 8 ; 15 : 16. The sons of 
Asaph, Heman, and Jeduthun were set 
apart by David for the musical service, 
and "the number of them, with their 
brethren, that were instructed in the 
songs of the Lord" was two hundred and 
eighty-eight. They were divided, like 
589 



MUS 



MUS 



the priests, into twenty-four courses, 
which are enumerated. 1 Chr. 25. Of 
the 38,000 Levites, "four thousand 
praised the Lord with the instruments," 
1 Chr. 23 : 5, being more than one in ten 
of the whole available members of the 
tribe of Levi. Each of the courses or 
classes had one hundred and fifty-four 




Stringed Instruments, Cymbals, etc. 

musicians and three leaders, and all were 
under the general direction of Asaph 
and his brethren. Each course served 
for a week, but upon the festivals all 
were required to be present, or four 
thousand musicians. Heman, with one 
of his leaders, directed the central choir, 




Wind Instruments and Sistrum 



Asaph the right, and Jeduthun the left 
wing. These several choirs answered 
one another, as is generally supposed, in 
that kind of alternate singing which is 
called "antiphonal," or responsive. The 
590 



priests, in the mean time, performed upon 
the silver trumpets. 2 Chr. 5 :11-14 ; Num. 
10 : 2. It is necessary to suppose that, to 
ensure harmony from such a number of 
voices as this, some musical notes were 
used. This truly regal direction of sa- 
cred music continued after the death of 
David until the Captivity ; for though 
under the impious reign of 
some kings the whole of these 
solemnities fell into disuse, 
they were revived by Heze- 
kiah and Josiah. And al- 
though during the Exile the 
sweet singers of Israel hanged 
their harps upon the willows 
by the waters of Babylon, yet 
two hundred musicians re- 
turned with Ezra to the Holy 
Land. Ezr. 2 : 65. 

Musical Instruments. 
Eccl. 2 : 8. They were in- 
vented by Jubal, the son of 
Lamech, Gen. 4 : 21, and had 
appropriate names. Gen. 31 : 
27. They may be divided into three 
classes — stringed instruments, wind in- 
struments, and such as gave their sounds 
on being struck. Of stringed instru- 
ments were the harp, the instrument of 
ten strings, the sackbut, and the psaltery. 
They are described under their proper 
names. 

The instruments of music mentioned 
in 1 Sam. 18 : 6 as used by women are 
supposed to have been metallic triangles, 
as the name indicates. 

The instrument of ten strings re- 
sembled a modern guitar, having its 
strings stretched over something not un- 
like a drum ; and it was played with the 
fingers. See separate titles. 

MUSTARD. Matt. 13 : 31, 32 ; 
17 : 20 ; Luke 17 : 6. There can no longer 
be any question that this plant is the 
black mustard (Sinnpis nigra), which 
often grows wild in our own country. 
In the fertile and warm soil of Palestine, 
especially when cultivated, this herb 
must have reached considerable size. 
Dr. Thomson has seen it there as tall as 
the horse and his rider, and the ground 
near the Sea of Galilee is often "gilded 
over with its yellow flowers." The Bible 
does not say, as is often supposed, that 
the birds build nests in the mustard, but 
only that they lodge there, as they often 
do in much smaller plants. Flocks of 



MUT 



MYR 



goldfinches and linnets are accustomed 
to settle in these plants and eat the seed, 
of which they are very fond. " Small as 
a grain of mustard-seed" was a prover- 
bial expression of which Christ made 
use. Divested of the Orientalisms of the 
language, which our Saviour used in 




Mustard. (Sinapis nigra. After Br. Carruthers.) 

popular teaching, the following is an 
accurate paraphrase of his well-known 
parable, as suggested in Smith's Bible 
Dictionary : " The gospel dispensation 
is like a grain of mustard-seed which 
a man sowed in his garden ; which in- 
deed is one of the least of all seeds, but 
which, when it springs up, becomes a 
tall branched plant, on the branches of 
which the birds come and settle, seeking 
their food." 

MUTH-LAB'BEN, in the title to 
Ps. 9, is thus explained by the Rev. A. 
R. Fausset: " Labben is an -anagram for 
Nabal, 'the fool' or 'wicked,' concern- 
ing the dying {ninth) of the fool." This 
interpretation harmonizes well with the 
contents of the Psalm. But the titles to 
the Psalms are often enigmas. 



MY'RA (/lowing, weeping), an ancient 
port in Lycia, on the south-west coast 
of Asia Minor. Acts 27 : 5. It was on the 
river Andriacus, about 2£ miles from its 
mouth. The magnificent ruins of the 
city stand upon a hill not far from the 
sea. 

MYRRH, a gum, the thickened sap 
of a low thorny tree (Balsamodendron 
opsobalsumum) which grows chiefly in 
Arabia. Myrrh is sold for medical pur- 
poses in small globules of a white or 
yellow color, of a strong and agreeable 
smell, but a bitter taste. It was an in- 
gredient of the holy ointment, Ex. 30 : 
23, and of the embalming substance. 




Myrrh. (Balsamodendron. After Dr. Birdwood.) 

John 19 : 39. It was also used as an 
agreeable perfume, Esth. 2 : 12 ; Ps. 45 : 
8 : Prov. 7 : 17, and a valuable gift. Matt. 
2 : 1, 11. In Matt. 27 : 34 it is said that 
they gave Jesus to drink vinegar mixed 
591 



MYR 



MYS 



with gall, which, in Mark 15 : 23, is called 
wine mingled with myrrh. It was prob- 
ably the sour wine which the Roman 
soldiers used to drink mingled with 
myrrh and other bitter substances, very 
much like the bitters of modern times. 

The myrrh of Gen. 37: 25: 43 : 11 
represents a different Hebrew word, and, 
being brought from Palestine or Gilead, 
was doubtless another substance — prob- 
ably Gum ladanum, obtained from the 
cistus, a shrubby plant growing in those 
districts. This gum is sold in dark- 
colored, soft masses, of a more agreeable 
odor than opium, and possessing similar, 
though weaker, medical properties, for 
which it was valued. 

MYRTLE, a beautiful, fragrant, 
and ornamental shrub (Myrtus commu- 




Myrlle. {Myrtus communis.) 

Hi's), which abounds in Northern Pales- 
tine and once grew about Jerusalem. 
" In the bazaars of Jerusalem and Da- 
mascus the dried flowers, leaves, and 
berries of the myrtle are to be seen in 
separate heaps, offered for sale as a per- 
fume, and a fragrant water is distilled 



from the blossom. Both leaves, bark, 
and root are used in Damascus for tan- 
ning the finest leather, and give it a deli- 
cate scent." — Tristram. The seeds of a 
tropical species of the myrtle, collected 
and dried before they are ripe, are called 
pimento, or allspice. For the rich hue 
of its green polished leaves, its agreeable 
| fragrance and beautiful flowers, this 
shrub is used by the Bible writers, in 
contrast with the noxious, useless brier, 
1 to illustrate the prosperity and glory of 
! the Church. Isa. 41 : 19 ; 55 : 13 ; Zech. 
1 : 8-11. The myrtle furnished the 
wreaths of ancient heroes and victors. 
Branches of the myrtle were gathered, 
among others, to cover the booths and 
tents of the Jews at the celebration of 
the feast of tabernacles. Lev. 23 : 40 ; 
Neh. 8:15. 

MY'SIA (beech region ?), a province 
in the north-western angle of Asia Mi- 
nor, and separated from Europe by the 
Propontis and the Hellespont, having 
Lydia on the south, Bithynia on the 
east, and including the Troad. Mysia 
was anciently celebrated for its fertility, 
and it is at this day a beautiful and fer- 
tile country, but poorly tilled. Acts 16 : 
7 8 • 20 • 5 

' MYSTERY, in the N. T. usage, is 
a spiritual truth hitherto hidden, inca- 
pable of discovery by mere reason, but 
now revealed, though yet beyond the 
full understanding of our finite intelli- 
gence. The Greek word means " secret 
doctrine," and is mostly used in the plu- 
ral ("the mysteries"), denoting certain 
religious ceremonies and celebrations. 
The gospel is termed a " mystery," be- 
cause it was long hidden. Eph. 3:9; Col. 
1 : 26 ; 1 Tim. 3:9. In the same sense 
various doctrines are called mvsteries, 
Rom. 11 : 25 ; 1 Cor. 15 : 51 : Eph. 1:9; 
1 Tim. 3 : 16, and truths as well which 
required elucidation and received it. 
Matt. 13 : 11 : 1 Cor. 13 : 2. Again, the 
import of the seven stars and seven can- 
dlesticks, Rev. 1 : 20, of the woman ar- 
rayed in scarlet, 17 : 7, the deeper sig- 
nificance of marriage, as symbolizing the 
union of Christ and his Church, Eph. 5 : 
32, are mysteries. 



592 



ttAA 



NAA 



K 



NA'AM (pleasantness), a son of Ca- 
leb. 1 Chr. 4:15. 

NA'AMAH (pleasing). 1. Daugh- 
ter of Lamech and Zillah, Gen. 4 : 22, 
and one of the few women mentioned by 
name before the Flood. 

2. An Ammonitess, the mother of Re- 
hoboam, and one of Solomon's wives. 1 
Kgs. 14:21. 

NA'AMAH (pleasing), a city in the 
plain of Judah, Josh. 15 : 41, which 
Conder locates at Na'aneh, 5 miles south- 
east of el-Mv.gh.ar (Makkedah). 

NA'AMAN (pleasantness). 1. A dis- 
tinguished Syrian general, but a leper. 
2 Kgs. 5. Hearing, through a captive 
Jewish girl who waited on his wife, of 
the fame of the prophet Elisha, he set 
out on a journey to Israel with letters of 
recommendation from his sovereign to 
the king of Israel. When the king of 
Israel read the letter he was filled with 
apprehension, fearing, probably, lest the 
king of Syria intended to. find a pretext 
for a quarrel in his inability to cure the 
leprosy of his general. In this predica- 
ment, Elisha, on receiving the news of 
Naaman's arrival, despatched word to 
the king to give up his fears and to 
send the distinguished stranger to him. 
Naaman went, and received from Elisha's 
messenger the prescription to bathe sev- 
en times in the Jordan. The leper at 
first disdained the remedy. It was too 
simple, and attributed to the Jordan a 
virtue which he knew Abana and Phar- 
par, rivers of his own land, did not pos- 
sess. His retinue wisely advised him 
not to spurn the remedy on account of 
its simplicity. Following their counsel, he 
washed himself seven times in the Jor- 
dan, and his "flesh came again like unto 
the flesh of a little child." Out of grati- 
tude Naaman offered the prophet a pres- 
ent, but failed to induce him to take it. 
Subsequently, Gehazi, by uttering a 
falsehood, secured it, but in turn received 
Naaman's leprosy. As a result of the 
bodily cure, Naaman's mind became 
convinced that the God of Israel was 
alone worthy of worship and service. 
He took home with him " two mules' 
38 



burden of earth," probably in order to 
make an altar, Ex. 20 : 24, with the 
promise never to offer sacrifice to other 
than the God of Israel, and he begged 
the prophet to absolve him for continu- 
ing, out of allegiance to his sovereign, 
as his companion to go into the temple 
of Rimmon and bow before the false 
god. In this Naaman implies that his 
heart would refuse the worship of the 
idol which his outward act seemed to 
indicate. Elisha's parting words to him 
were, " Go in peace." Our Lord referred 
to Naaman's cure in his sermon to the 
Nazarenes. Luke 4: 27. The memory of 
Naaman is perpetuated in a leper-hospi- 
tal which occupies the traditional site of 
his house in Damascus, on the banks of 
the Abana. "I have often visited it " 
(says Dr. Porter, The Giant Cities of 
Bashan, p. 366), "and when looking on 
its miserable inmates, all disfigured and 
mutilated by their loathsome disease, I 
could not wonder that the heart of the 
little Jewish captive was moved by her 
master's suffering." 

2. A Benjamite. Gen. 46:21. 

NAAMATHITE, the designation 
of Zophar, one "of Job's friends. Job 
2:11. 

NA'AMITES, the descendants of 
Naaman, grandson of Benjamin. Num. 
26 : 40 ; 1 Chr. 8 : 4. 

NA'ARAH (girl), one of the wives 
of Ashur. 1 Chr. 4:6. 

NA'ARAI (God reveals), one of Da- 
vid's warriors, 1 Chr. 11 : 37 ; also called 
Paarai. 2 Sam. 23 : 35. 

NA'ARAN (juvenile), a town in 
Ephraim. 1 Chr.' 7 : 28. See Naarath. 

MARATH (girl, handmaid), a 
town of Ephraim, Josh. 16 : 7 : proba- 
bly in the Jordan valley, above Jericho. 
Eusebius speaks of it as Oorath, a village 
5 miles from Jericho, and Josephus 
mentions that Herod drew off part of 
the waters from the village of Neara to 
water the palm trees he had planted. 
Conder, therefore, suggests that the site 
of Naarath is to be found in el 'Aiijeh, 
near Jericho, where are a ruin and re- 
mains of an ancient aqueduct. 

593 



KAA 



KAtf 



NAASH'ON. Ex. 6 : 23. See Nah- 

SHON. 

NAAS'SON, the Greek form of 
Nahshon ; used Matt. 1:4; Luke 3 : 32. 
See Nahshon. 

NA'BAL {fool), a very wealthy citi- 
zen of Maon, whose property, consisting 
of 3000 sheep and 1000 goats, was in 
Carmel. 1 Sam. 25 : 2, 3. When he was 
shearing his sheep, David sent ten of 
his young men to ask him in the most 
courteous manner for supplies : but 
Nabal, who was proverbially churlish, 
refused, in the most offensive terms, to 
grant his request. David immediately 
ordered 400 of his men to arm them- 
selves, and set out with the resolution to 
destroy Nabal and his property. Abi- 
gail, the discreet and beautiful wife of 
this son of Belial, admonished of their 
purpose, promptly made up a sumptuous 
present, and set forth to meet David and 
to appease him with the gifts. Her 
mission was entirely successful. On re- 
turning to her home she found her hus- 
band at a feast and drunk, and waited 
till the following morning to apprise him 
of what had occuiTed. Nabal had no 
sooner received her statement than he 
was seized with a severe illness, which 
proved fatal at the end of ten days, and 
was regarded by David as the immediate 
judgment of God upon his sins. 1 Sam. 
25 : 39. Nabal is the type of a selfish, 
cruel, and churlish property-holder. 

NABOTH (fruits), an Israelite of 
the town of Jezreel who owned a vine- 
yard adjoining the palace of King Ahab. 
1 Kgs. 21 : 1. Anxious to secure this 
particular spot that he might use it for 
a garden, the king proposed to buy it or 
give him some other property of equal 
value; but Naboth declined, to the great 
disappointment of the wicked monarch. 
In this difficulty Jezebel devised a base 
plan to secure the coveted possession. At 
a large feast Naboth was accused by two 
sons of Belial of blasphemy and disloy- 
alty, and was forthwith stoned to death. 
The murder was avenged by the doom 
immediately passed upon Ahab and Jeze- 
bel, the royal murderers. 1 Kgs. 21 : 19. 

NA'CHON, the threshing-floor by 
which Uzzah died, 2 Sam. 6:6: called 
Perez-uzzah and Chidon in 1 Chr. 13 : 
9, 11. It was between Kirjath-jearim 
and Jerusalem. 

NA'DAB (liberal). 1. Son of Aaron. 
594 



For offering strange fire to the Lord, he 
and his brother Abihu were devoured 
with fire from God. Lev. 10 : 1-3. 

2. Son and successor of Jeroboam. 
His wicked reign of two years was 
brought to an end at Gibbethon by the 
successful conspiracv of Baasha. 1 Kgs. 
15 : 25-28. 

3. Son of Shammai. 1 Chr. 2 : 28. 

4. Son of Gibeon, and uncle of Saul. 

1 Chr. 8 : 30. 

NAG'GE (shining), an ancestor of 
our Lord. Luke 3 : 25. 

NAHALAL, NAHAL'LAL, 
AND NA'HALOL (pasture), a town in 
Zebulun belonging to the Levites. Josh. 
19 : 15 ; 21 : 35 : Jud. 1 : 30 ; one Hebrew 
manuscript in Josh. 21 : 35 reads Ma- 
halal. It has been identified with 
Mahlul and 'Ain Mdhil, 4 miles north- 
east of Nazareth. 

NAHALIEL (valley of God), a 
station of the Israelites,. Num. 21 : 19, 
between Mattanah and Bamoth, and 
probably in a valley of one of the chief 
northern tributaries of the Arnon. 

NA'HALOL. Jud. 1 : 30. See 
Nahalal. 

NA'HAM (consolation), brother of 
Hodiah. 1 Chr. 4 : 19. 

NAHAM'ANI (compassionate), one 
who returned with Zerubbabel from 
Babvlon. Neh. 7 : 7. 

NAHARAI, or NA'HARI 
(snorer), Joab's armor-bearer. 1 Chr. 
11 : 39 : 2 Sam. 23 : 37. 

NAHASH (serpent). 1. An Am- 
monite king. He offered to Jabesh-gilead 
a treaty on condition that the citizens 
should submit to the loss of their right 
eyes. This cruel stipulation aroused the 
indignation of Saul, who went to the 
assistance of the city and defeated its 
enemies. At a subsequent period he was 
on friendly relations with David. 2 Sam. 
10:2. 

2. Mentioned 2 Sam. 17 : 25 as father 
of Abigail. Some identify him with 
Jesse, and others with Nahash, king of 
the Ammonites. 

NA'HATH (rest). 1. Grandson of 
Esau, and duke in Edom. Gen. 36 : 13. 

2. A Levite. 1 Chr. 6 : 26. 

3. A Levite in the time of Hezekiah. 

2 Chr. 31 : 13. 

NAH'BI (hidden), one of the twelve 
spies. Num. 13 : 14. 

NA'HOR (snorting), Gen. 11 : 23, OR 



NAtt 



tfAM 



NA'CHOR, Josh. 24:2. 1. The name 
of Abraham's grandfather. Gen. 11 : 23. 

2. One of Abraham's brothers, Gen. 
11 : 26, who married Milcah, the daugh- 
ter of Haran. Gen. 11 : 29. He lived at 
Haran, which is thence called " the city 
of Nahor." Gen. 24 : 10. 

NAHSHON (enchanter), a leader 
of the children of Judah in the wilder- 
ness. Ex. 6 : 23 ; Num. 2:3: 10 : 14. 
His name occurs in the genealogy of our 
Lord, Matt. 1:4; Luke 3 : 32, in the 
Greek form, Naasson. 

NA'HUM (consolation), one of the 
twelve minor prophets, of whose private 
life we know only what is contained in 
Nah. 1 : 1, where he is called an Elkosh- 
ite. Some refer this name to a place in 
Galilee, others to a village on the Tigris. 
The intimate acquaintance the book 
shows with Assyrian affairs makes it 
probable that Nahum lived an exile in 
Assyria, and perhaps at the village on 
the Tigris. 

Nahum prophesied before the destruc- 
tion of Nineveh, which he predicts, and 
probably in the reign of Hezekiah. 

Prophecy of. It is a poem of great 
sublimity, and admirable for the ele- 
gance of its imagery. In ch. 1 the 
prophet depicts the majesty and suprem- 
acy of God, who will surely visit wick- 
edness with retribution, but at the same 
time is good to such as trust in him. ch. 
1 : 7. Chs. 2 and 3 describe with much 
beauty and poetic force the siege and 
destruction of Nineveh as a punishment 
for her wickedness, ch. 3 : 19. The 
battle, the confusion of the chariots in 
the streets, the opening of the gates, the 
destruction of the palace, the flight and 
captivity of the citizens, and the subse- 
quent desolation of the magnificent city, 
are brought before us as in a vivid pano- 
ramic vision. 

NAIL. 1. Of the finger.— The direc- 
tion, Deut. 21 : 12, in regard to the treat- 
ment of the captive woman's nails is 
translated in the text of the A. V. " pare 
her nails:" in the margin, "suffer to 
grow." The text is probably correct, as 
the general intention of the treatment 
was to make her lay aside all belonging 
to her condition as an alien. 

2. Of a tent or house. — Two Hebrew 
words are thus translated: (1.) The 
tent-peg or pin, likewise a stake. Isa. 
22 : 25 ; 33 : 20 ; Ex. 27 : 19. That which 



fastened the cloth in the loom was called 
a pin. Jud. 16 : 14. The word, meta- 
phorically, is that which gives support 
or keeps together — e. </., the prince. 
Zech. 10 : 4. (2.) A nail of iron, 1 Chr. 
22 : 3, or of gold. 2 Chr. 3 : 9. 

NA'IN (beauty), a town in Galilee 
where Christ raised the widow's dead 
son to life. Luke 7:11. It is now 
called Nein, and is on the north-west- 
ern edge of Little Hermon, 6 miles 
south-east of Nazareth, and 25 miles 
south-west of Tell Hum (Capernaum?). 
Jesus must have met the funeral pro- 
cession on the steep downward slope, 
down which a road now leads toward 
the ancient sepulchral caves on the 
west side of the village. The ruins 
indicate that Nain was a considerable 
town, once protected by walls and gates. 
It is now a miserable Mohammedan ham- 
let of about twenty mud and stone houses. 
It is in full view of Mount Tabor, and of- 
ten used by travellers as a stopping-place 
for luncheon. 

NA'IOTH (habitations), a place 
near Ramah where Samuel dwelt. 1 
Sam. 19 : 18-23; 20 : 1. Some inter- 
pret the word to mean a school of 
prophets over which Samuel presided. 

NAKED. The word in the A. V. 
is used absolutely , as in the case of 
Adam and Eve, Gen. 2 : 25 ; comj^ara- 
tively, to indicate that the usual outer 
garments were missing, 1 Sam. 19 : 24; 
John 21 : 7, the loin-cloth and the shirt 
being kept on ; and figuratively, to de- 
scribe spiritual destitution. Rev. 3 : 17. 

NAME. Gen. 2 : 19. A name is a 
word by which a thing, or more espe- 
cially a person, is made known. The 
names of places and of persons in the 
Bible have for the most part, if not all 
of them, a special significance. As now, 
so then, children received their names 
either directly at birth (as Benjamin, 
Gen. 35 : 18) or later, as at circum- 
cision, Luke 1 : 59, and at the selection 
of the mother (as Joseph, Gen. 30 : 24, 
and Samuel, 1 Sam. 1 : 20), or that of 
the father (Gershom, Ex. 2 : 22). The 
names were given in allusion to some 
circumstance at the birth (Benoni, Gen. 
35 :18; Pharez, Gen. 38 : 29), or to 
some event prior to it (Samuel, 1 Sam. 1 : 
20), or to some condition or appearance 
of the body (Esau, Gen. 25 : 25), or to 
some hope (Joseph, Gen. 30 : 24), etc. 
595 



NAO 



NAP 



The same is true for localities. Bethel, 
Peniel, Gen. 32 : 30, Mahanaim, Gen. 
32 : 2, etc., recalled historical events. 

The names of persons were not infre- 
quently changed — Benoni to Benjamin, 
Gen. 35 : 18, Abram to Abraham, Gen. 
17 : 5, Jacob to Israel, Gen. 32 : 28, Solo- 
mon to Jedidiah. 2 Sam. 12 : 25, etc. The 
name is also sometimes emphasized as 
the true indication of character or of 
the person's circumstances. Abigail 
thus emphasizes her husband's name, 
Nabal ("fool"), 1 Sam. 25:25; Esau, 
Jacob's ("supplanter"), Gen. 27:36; 
Naomi, her own (" my delight"). Ruth 
1 : 20. 

There are some words which appear 
more frequently in compounds of proper 
names than others, and to which we will 
refer in passing. Beer means "well" 
(Beersheba, "well of the oath," Gen. 
21 : 31); Beth means "house" (Bethle- 
hem, "house of bread"); En means 
"fountain" (En-gedi, "fountain of the 
kid"); El means "God" (Samuel, 
"asked of God," 1 Sam. 1:20; Eli- 
sha, "God is salvation"). On the 
other hand, Bath means " daughter " 
(Bathsheba), while Ben and Bar mean 
" son " (Benjamin, Barjonas). 

The Name of God was held in a pecu- 
liar reverence. To such an extent of su- 
perstition is this carried that the mod- 
ern Jews never pronounce the word 
"Jehovah," it being considered too sa- 
cred. In' reading the 0. T. they substi- 
tute " Adonai " for it. They misunder- 
stand the passage in Lev. 24 : 16, which 
forbids the cursing use of " Jehovah," 
as forbidding the mere naming. An 
abuse of the name of God is expressly 
forbidden in the Decalogue. Ex. 20 : 7 ; 
Lev. 18 : 21. In the N. T. miracles are 
performed in the name of Jesus, Acts 3 : 
6 ; 4:10, and they who are baptized are 
baptized in the name of the Trinity. 
Matt. 28 : 19. 

The two special terms used for God by 
the Hebrews were " Elohim " and " Je- 
hovah" (or " Javeh"). The firstcontains 
an allusion to majestj r and power; the 
second refers to God's absolute existence, 
his eternity and unchangeableness, and 
means " I am." Ex. 3 : 14. God had not 
been known by this name to Abraham, 
Isaac, or Jacob. Ex. 6 : 3. 

The many names used of our Lord 
are all highly significant. Emmanuel 



(" God with us ") points to his incarna- 
tion ; Jesus ("Saviour ") to his mission 
of salvation; Christ ("Anointed") to 
his appointment as the promised Mes- 
siah ; Son of Man to his humility ; Son 
of God to his divine origin and 
character. Amongst the many other 
names and titles of Christ are Shiloh, 
Gen. 49 : 10, the Wonderful, etc., Isa. 9 : 
6, Prophet, High Priest, King, the Word, 
John 1:1, etc. 

NAO'MI (my delight), the wife of 
Elimelech, and the mother-in-law of 
Ruth, who moved with their two sons 
from Judaea to Moab in the time of a 
famine. Ruth 1:2. Elimelech died, and 
also his two sons, each leaving a widow; 
Naomi, thus bereaved, started back to 
her native country. Orphah remained 
behind, but Ruth accompanied her. Once 
back in Bethlehem, she wished to be 
known by the name Mara ("bitterness"). 
She thenceforth acted the part of a faith- 
ful mother to Ruth. Naomi is one of the 
most pathetic characters in all history, 
and engages our admiration by her calm 
and unselfish conduct in the hour of af- 
fliction. 

NA'PHISH (recreation), a son of 
Ishmael. Gen. 25 : 15 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 31. 

NAPH'TALI {mi/ wrestling), Gen. 
30 : 8, or NEPHTHALIM, Matt. 4 : 
15, a son of Jacob by Bilhah, Rachel's 
handmaid. 

Tribe of. At Mount Sinai the tribe 
numbered 53,400 fighting-men, Num. 1 : 
43 ; on the entrance into Canaan, 45,400. 
26 : 50. Jacob, from his death-bed, rep- 
resented Naphtali as a " hind let loose ; 
he giveth goodly words." Gen. 49 : 21. 
Barak, Jud. 4 : 10, was the chief hero 
which the tribe produced. At the divis- 
ion of the kingdom Naphtali became a 
part of the northern monarchy. Later, 
its territory was overrun and its people 
taken captive by Tiglath-pileser of As- 
syria. 2 Kgs. 15 : 29. Isaiah prophesied 
of the Messianic light to break over her, 
9 : 1, 2, which was fulfilled. Matt. 4 : 15, 
16. 

NAPH'TALI (my wrestling), the 
territory given to the tribe descended 
from the fifth son of Jacob. Gen. 30 : 8 ; 
35 : 25 ; Ex. 1 : 4 ; 1 Chr. 2:2. On leav- 
ing Egypt the tribe numbered 53,400 
fighting-men, Num. 1 : 42, 43 ; on reach- 
ing the plains of Moab it had decreased 
to 45,400. Num. 26 : 48-50. Jacob 
597 



NAP 



NAZ 



ed this tribe and compared it to a hind 
or gazelle. Gen. 49 : 21. Moses describes 
its territory. Deut. 33 : 23. The land of 
Naphtali was the most northerly of the 
portion allotted to Israel, and its bound- 
aries are found in Josh. 19 : 32-39. 
The territory reached to the Leontes, 
and east to the Jordan, the waters of 
Merom, and the Sea of Galilee, by 
which it was separated from Manasseh 
east of the Jordan. It afforded a great 
variety of soil and climate. Josephus 
describes the fertility and productive- 
ness of this region along the Jordan and 
Sea of Galilee in glowing language. 
The table-lands west of the Jordan val- 
ley were 2000 feet above the sea, and in 
the mountains of Naphtali were found 
ridges and peaks, not barren and bleak, 
but covered with oak, terebinth, aromatic 
shrubs, and flowers of variegated hues. 
It still teems with animal life, beasts and 
birds being abundant. See Palestine. 

History. — Stanley says Naphtali was 
one of the four northern tribes which 
kept aloof from the great historical 
movements of Israel. It gained renown 
in the war against Jabin and Sisera, 
Jud. 4, 5, but later the people appear to 
have become allied with their Gentile 
neighbors, and some of their cities were 
transferred to Hiram of Tyre. 1 Kgs. 
9 : 11-13. Their land lay in the track of 
the invaders from the north, and their 
cities were captured, as Ijon. Abel, Ka- 
desh, and Hazor. 1 Kgs. 15:20; 2 Chr. 
16:4. Tiglath-pileser, b. c. 720, overran 
Northern Palestine, and Naphtali was 
the first territory depopulated and its 
people carried into captivity. It was 
afterward repeopled by a mixed popula- 
tion. Within its territory Jesus taught 
and wrought many miracles, though the 
land is alluded to by its ancient title 
only once in the N. T., where it occurs 
as Nephthalim. Matt. 4 : 15. See also 
Capernaum, Galilee, and Tiberias. 

NAPH TUHIM, an Egyptian 
tribe descended from Mizraim. Gen. 10 : 
13. 

NAP'KIN is used in the A. V. in a 
wider sense than at present — as a little 
cloth, which is the literal meaning of the 
word. Luke 19 : 20. 

NARCIS'SUS {daffodil), a Christian 
at Rome to whom Paul sends greeting. 
Rom. 16 : 11. He is otherwise unknown. 
The name was a common one. 
598 



NATHAN (given). 1. A distin- 
guished prophet of Judaea, who lived in 
the reigns of David and Solomon and 
enjoyed a large share of their confidence. 
2 Sam. 7:2. To him David first in- 
timated his design to build the temple, 
and he was divinely instructed to inform 
the king that this honor was not for him, 
but for his posterity. Nathan was also 
charged with the divine message to David 
upon the occasion of his sin against 
Uriah, which he conveyed under the 
significant allegory of the rich man and 
the ewe-lamb. Nathan was one of David's 
biographers, 1 Chr. 29 : 29, and also 
Solomon's. 2 Chr. 9 : 29. 

2. One of the sons of David by Bath- 
sheba. 1 Chr. 3 : 5. 

3. Father of one of David's warriors. 
| 2 Sam. 23 : 36. 

4. One of the chief men who returned 
to Jerusalem with Ezra. Ezr. 8 : 16. 

5. A descendant of Caleb. 1 Chr. 2 : 36. 
NATHANAEL (gift of God), a 

native of Cana of Galilee, John 21 : 2, 
and an Israelite without guile, as stated 
by our Lord. John 1 : 47. He was con- 
ducted by Philip (immediately after his 
call) into the presence of Christ. He 
went an incredulous Hebrew, with the 
words on his lips, " Can there any good 
thing come out of Nazareth ?" Jesus, 
however, at once convinces him that he 
is the Messiah by the exhibition of his 
omniscience, declaring that he had seen 
Nathanael under the fig tree before ever 
Philip had called him. Nathanael con- 
fesses him to be the Son of God and the 
King of Israel. 

The name Nathanael occurs only in 
John. For this reason, combined with 
the fact that John never mentions the 
name of Bartholomew, it is generally 
supposed that the two are identical. 

NATHAN-ME'LECH, an officer 
in Jerusalem. 2 Kgs. 23 : 11. 

NAUGHTY, NAUGHTINESS, 
originally " nothing, nothingness," 
mean, in the A. V., " wicked, wicked- 
ness." Prov. 6 : 12. 

NA'UJI, an ancestor of our Lord. 
Luke 3 : 25. 

NAVES, the centres of wheels, from 
which the spokes radiate. 1 Kgs. 7 : 33. 

NAZARENE'. Matt. 2 : 23. This 
term is used of Jesus in this passage as 
a fulfilment of prophecy. It is also used 
of him (though translated " of Nazareth ") 



NAZ 



NAZ 



by Bartimeus, Mark 10 : 47, in the in- 
scription on the cross, John 19 : 19, by 
Peter, Acts 2 : 22, by Paul, Acts 26 : 9, 
by our Lord himself. Acts 22 : 8, etc. 
The followers of Christ are also denom- 
inated "Nazarenes," Acts 24 : 5, by 
enemies. 

The expression has been derived from 
the Hebrew word Netzar, translated 
" Branch." Isa. 11 : 1. It has also been 
taken in a general sense to refer to the 
humiliation of our Lord, Nazareth being 
at this time under a stigma. John 1 : 46. 
In this case no specific prophecy can be 
found answering literally to the descrip- 
tion, but many in a general way which 
refer to the humiliation of the Messiah. 

NAZARETH {separated /), a city 
of Galilee, famous as the home of Jesus 
during his childhood and youth until he 
began his public ministry. It was about 
14 miles from the Sea of Galilee, 6 miles 
west of Tabor, and 66 miles north of 
Jerusalem in a straight line. On the 
north side of the plain of Esdraelon is a 
crescent-shaped valley about a mile long 
and averaging a quarter of a mile wide, 
but swelling out into a broader basin, 
completely shut in by a wall of gently- 
rounded hills, some fifteen in number, 
and from 400 to 500 feet in height. With- 
in this basin, and on the lower slope of 
these hills, is Nazareth. Although the 
village itself was shut in by these hills, 
the view from the summit behind the 
town is quite extensive, taking in Her- 
mon, Carmel, Gilead, Tabor, Gilboa, and 
the plain of Esdraelon. It is one of the 
most beautiful views in the Holy Land. 
History. — Nazareth is not mentioned 
in the 0. T. nor by any classical author, 
nor by any writer before the time of 
Christ. It was for some unknown reason 
held in disrepute among the Jews of 
Judasa. John 1 : 46. It was situated in 
a mountain, Luke 4 : 29, within the pro- 
vince of Galilee, Mark 1 : 9, and near 
Cana, as John 2 : 1, 2, 11 seems to imply. 
There was a precipice near the town, 
down which the people proposed to cast 
Jesus. Luke 4 : 29. It is mentioned 
twenty-nine times in the N. T. At Naz- 
areth the angel appeared to Mary ; the 
home of Joseph, Luke 1 : 26 ; 2 : 39, and 
to that place Joseph and Mary returned 
after their flight into Egypt. Matt. 2 : 23. 
The hills and places about the town 
possess a deep and hallowed interest to 



the Christian as the home of Jesus during 
his childhood and youth, until he entered 
upon his ministry, and had preached in 
the synagogue, and was rejected by his 
own townspeople. Even after Capernaum 
became "his own city" he was known as 
" Jesus of Nazareth," Matt. 13 : 54-58 ; 
Mark 6:1-6; Acts 2 : 22 ; 3:6; 4:10; 
6 : 14, and his disciples were called 
"Nazarenes." In the days of Constan- 
tine, Nazareth was peopled by Samaritan 
Jews, but in the sixth century Christian ( 
pilgrimages began to be made to the 
town. In 1109, Tancred held Galilee, and 
Nazareth became the seat of a Christian 
bishopric. In 1160 a council was held 
at Nazareth which made Alexander III. 
pope of Rome. During the Middle Ages 
Christian pilgrims frequently visited 
Nazareth. When the Turks conquered 
Palestine, in 1517, the Christians were 
driven from the town. In 1620 the 
Franciscan monks gained a foothold 
there, and began to rebuild the village. 
At the battle of Mount Tabor, in 1799, 
Napoleon with his army encamped near 
Nazareth. 

The town is now called En-Ndsirdh, 
or Nasrah, and has from 5000 to 6000 
population, though the Turkish officials 
estimate it at 10,000. There are about 
2000 Mohammedans, 2500 Greeks, 800 
Latins, and 100 Protestants. The in- 
habitants pursue farming, gardening, 
and various handicrafts, and the village 
is quite a centre of trade for the adjoin- 
ing districts. The houses are well built. 
There are a large Latin church and mon- 
astery, a synagogue, a Greek church, a 
fine Protestant church under the care of 
the English Church Missionary Society, 
a Protestant hospital, and a large female 
orphanage (completed 1874). The syna- 
gogue is claimed by tradition to be the 
one in which Christ taught, but cannot 
be traced to a date earlier than A. d. 570. 
Near the Greek church of the Annunci- 
ation is a spring called " Mary's Well," 
to which the women resort every even- 
ing with their water-jars for their daily 
supply, and to which Mary with her holy 
Child may have gone. The women of 
Nazareth, like those of Bethlehem, are 
distinguished for beauty above their sis- 
ters in the East. The brow of the hill 
over which the enraged Nazarenes threat- 
ened to cast Jesus is probably near the 
Maronite church, though tradition places 
599 



NAZ 



NEB 



it at the " Mount of Precipitation/' 2 or 
3 miles south of the town. 

NAZARITES. Num. 6 : 2, etc. 
The term is derived from a Hebrew word 
signifying "to separate." A Nazarite, 
under the ancient law, was one, either 
male or female, engaged by a peculiar 
vow. It required total abstinence from 
wine and all intoxicating liquors and the 
fruit of the vine, that the hair should be 
allowed to grow without being shorn, 
and that all contamination with dead 
bodies should be avoided. The Nazarite 
was not even to approach the corpse of 
father or mother, Num. 6 : 7, and if by 
accident this should occur, he was re- 
quired to shave his head, make offerings, 
and renew the vow. When the time of 
Nazariteship had expired, the person 
brought an offering to the temple ; the 
priest then cut off his hair and burnt it; 
after which the Nazarite was free from 
his vow and might again drink wine. 
The term of the vow is left indefinite. 
" The days of the vow " is the expression 
in Num. 6. We know, however, that 
there were perpetual Nazarites. Samson 
belonged to this class. It is also prob- 
able that Samuel and John the Bap- 
tist were perpetual Nazarites. Hannah 
promised the Lord that no razor should 
touch the head of her child if the Lord 
would give her one, 1 Sam. 1 : 11, and 
the angel predicted to Zacharias that 
John would abstain entirely from wine 
and strong drink. Luke 1 : 15. 

It has sometimes been asserted, on the 
basis of his having his head shorn at 
Cenchraea, that Paul was a Nazarite. 
Acts 18 : 18. This is nothing more than 
a conjecture. 

The exact significance of this vow is 
difficult to ascertain. The most plausible 
and satisfactory explanation is that it 
indicates an entire consecration of the 
body to the Lord, and is in the spirit 
of St. Paul's exhortation to present the 
body a living sacrifice, holy and accept- 
able, unto God. Rom. 12:6. It is ex- 
pressly said that during the days of his 
separation the Nazarite "is holy unto 
the Lord." Num. 6 : 8. The significance 
of the different exercises is as follows : 
The touch of the dead was considered 
defiling at all times, and the indulgence 
in strong drink and wine was expressly 
forbidden to the officiating priests. The 
meaning of the long hair, it has been 



suggested, is this : Long hair is a sign 
of effeminacy and weakness in a man. 1 
Cor. 11 : 14. In letting his hair grow 
the Nazarite manifested his entire sub- 
jection to God and his relinquishment 
of all trust in human strength. 

NE'AH (shaking), a town on the east 
side of Zebulun. Josh. 19 : 13. Porter 
suggests ' Ain, about 3 miles north-west 
of Nazareth, as its site. 

NEAP'OLIS (new city), a place in 
Northern Greece where Paul first landed 
in Europe, and where he probably landed 
on his second visit, Acts 16 : 11 ; 20 : 1, 
and whence he embarked on his last 
journey to Jerusalem. Acts 20 : 6. It 
was on a rocky eminence, the most con- 
spicuous object being a temple of Diana, 
which crowned the top of the hill. The 
great Roman road Via Egnatia, from 
Macedonia to Thrace, passed through 
Neapolis, which was 8 or 10 miles from 
Philippi. It is now a Turko-Grecian town 
of 5000 or 6000 population,' and called 
Kavalla : it has numerous ruins. An- 
other site has been proposed (Eski) for 
Neapolis, but the arguments for it are 
unsatisfactory. The Roman name of 
Shechem was also Neapolis, but it is not 
so named in Scripture. 

NEARI'AH (servant of Jehovah). 
1. One of the six sons of Shemaiah. 1 Chr. 
3:22. 

2. A leader in the tribe of Simeon. 1 
Chr. 4 : 42. 

NEB'AI (fruitful), one of those who 
sealed the covenant with Nehemiah. 
Neh. 10:19. 

NEBA'IOTH, Isa. 60 : 7, or NE- 
BA'JOTH (heights), Gen. 25 : 13, 
the first-born, 1 Chr. 1 : 29, son of 
Ishmael, whose descendants are sup- 
posed to have settled in Arabia, and to 
have been the Nabatheans of Greek and 
Roman history. They were a pastoral 
people, Isa. 60 : 7, whence the beautiful 
figure of the prophet above cited respect- 
ing the gathering of the Gentile nations 
to the sceptre of the Messiah. Petra was 
their chief city. 

NEBAI/LAT (hidden folly), a town 
peopled by the Benjamites. Neh. 11 : 
34. The Pal. Memoirs locate it at Beit 
Nebdla, a village on the plain, about 
4 miles north-east of Ludd, where are 
ruins of cisterns and large cut stones. 

NE'BAT (aspect), the father of King 
Jeroboam, 1 Kgs. 11 : 26 j 12 : 2, etc. 
601 



NEB 



NEB 



NE'BO (proclaimer), one of the As- 
syrian deities, who is represented, with 




Nebo. (From a Statue in the British Museum.) 

Bel, as being unable to resist the destruc- 
tion to which Cyrus subjected their idols. 
Isa. 46 : 1. This god was called " he 
who possesses intelligence," and statues 
of him are still preserved. One is in the 
British Museum which was erected by 
the Assyrian monarch Pul. The word 
" Nebo " occurs in the compounds Na- 
bopolassar, Nebuchadnezzar, etc., which 
points to the esteem in which the god 
was held. Nebo was regarded as the 
protector against misfortune. 

NE'BO (prophet), a mountain of 
Moab '•' over against Jericho," from which 
Moses beheld the land of Canaan. Deut. 
32 : 49. " And Moses went up from the 
plains of Moab unto the mountain of 
Nebo, to the top of Pisgah, . . . and the 
Lord showed him all the land of Gilead 
unto Dan." Deut. 34 : 1. Nebo was a 
mountain in the range of mountains 
called Abarim. Eusebius says it was 
shown in his day on the other side of 
Jordan, six miles to the west of Hesh- 
bon. If then definitely known, its loca- 
tion was afterward lost. Of the peaks 
in the Abarim range which have been 
suggested as Nebo are — Jebel Attnrnn, but 
this is not " over against Jericho," and 
602 



is too far south : Jebel JiVdd, 1 5 miles far- 
ther north than Jericho, and therefore no1 
answering to the scriptural narrative. 

The explorations of De Sauley, Due 
de Luynes, Tristram, Warren, Paine, and 
Merrill have led to the conclusion that 
Nebo was at the northern end of the 
Abarim range of mountains, i. e. Jebel 
Nebd. This mountain was 5 or 6 miles 
south-west of Heshbon, is about 2700 
feet high, and commands a fine view of 
the country. Paine appears to apply 
Jebel Nebd to the eastern portion of the 
northern group of peaks, and Jebel 
Siaghah to the western portion; Dr. 
Merrill claims that the Arabs use Jebel 
Nebd, Jebel Musa, and Jebel Siaghah 
indiscriminately for this group. While 
the discussions respecting Pisgah have 
been sharp, the majority of explorers 
and scholars agree in identifying Nebo 
with the northern end of the Abarim 
range, Jebel Nebd. See Pisgah. 

NE'BO, a city east of the Jordan; 
rebuilt by the Gadites, Num. 32 : 3, 38 ; 
33 : 47 ; captured by the Moabites. Isa. 
15 : 2 ; Jer. 48 : 1, 22. It was 8 miles 
south of Heshbon; perhaps el Hdbis. 
2. A town in Benjamin, Neh. 7 : 33 : 
possibly Nuba, 7 miles north-west of 
Hebron. 

NEBUCHADNEZZAR {may 
Nebo protect the crown!), or, more cor- 
rectly, NEBUCHADREZZAR, 
the son and successor of Nabopolassar, 
the founder of the Babylonish mon- 
archy, was the most illustrious of these 
kings, and one of the greatest rulers of 
history. 2 Kgs. 24 : 1 ; Dan. 1-4. We 
know most of him through the book of 
Daniel ; but we read of him also in Be- 




Cameo of Nebuchadnezzar, 
rosus and upon numerous monuments. 
In the Berlin Museum there is a black 



NEB 



NEB 



cameo with his head upon it, cut by his 
order, with the inscription, " In honor 
of Merodach, his lord, Nebuchadnezzar, 
king of Babylon, in his life-time had 
this made." From these various sources 
the following details have been derived. 
Nebuchadnezzar was entrusted by his 
father with the important task of re- 
pelling Pharaoh-necho, and succeeded 
in defeating him at Carchemish, on 
the Euphrates (b. c. 605), Jer. 46 : 2, 
and brought under subjection all the 
territory Necho had occupied, including 
Syria and Palestine, overrunning these 
countries, taking Jerusalem, and carry- 
ing off a portion of the inhabitants as 
prisoners, including Daniel and his com- 
panions. Dan. 1 : 1-4. Having learned 
that his father had died, Nebuchadnezzar 
hastened back to Babylon and planted 
himself firmly on the throne, giving to 
his generals instructions to bring the 
Jewish, Phoenician, Syrian, and Egyp- 
tian captives to Babylon. Thus the re- 
mark, " In his days Nebuchadnezzar, 
king of Babylon, came up, and Jehoi- 
akim became his servant three years," 
2 Kgs. 24: 1, is easily explained. The 
title is given by anticipation, and the 
" three years" are to be reckoned from 
605 to 603 inclusive. The rebellion of 



changed to Zedekiah, was put upon the 
throne, but after a reign of nearly ten 
years he rebelled, and was punished by 
Nebuchadnezzar, who went up against 
Jerusalem and reduced the city to the 
horrors of famine before taking it. 
Zedekiah's two sons were killed before 
his eyes and then his eyes put out, and 
he, as a captive, was carried to Babylon. 
B. c. 588. 2 Kgs. 25 : 7. On Nebuchad- 
nezzar's order. Jeremiah was kindly 
treated. Jer. 39 : 11-14. 

The scenes related in the first four 
chapters of Daniel occurred during 
Nebuchadnezzar's reign. See Daniel. 
Two incidents there recorded have re- 
ceived remarkable confirmation from 
recently-deciphered inscriptions, which 
are quoted by Dr. Buddensieg in his 
pamphlet Die Assyrischen Ausgrabungen 
und das Alte Testament, 1880 (" The 
Assyrian Excavations and the Old 
Testament"), pp. 64, 65. The words, 
"The king spake and said, Is not this 
great Babylon, that I have built for 
the house of my kingdom, by the might 
of my power, and for the honor of my 
majesty ?" Dan. 4 : 30, are proved to 
be characteristic by those on an in- 
scription : " I say it, I have built the 
great house which is the centre of 
Babylon for the seat of my rule in 
Babylon." Of the king's madness there 

But 



■^^-IMSMKT ^ 



^3>>^5$>^^[ & 



ff>flHFWi>2iH 



Jehoiakim, entered upon, probably, be- 
cause Nebuchadnezzar was carrying on 

wars in other parts of Asia, took place j is of course no direct mention 
B.C. 602, and was punished by 
the irruption of Chaldaeans, 
Syrians, Moabites, and Am- 
monites, incited, perhaps, by 
Nebuchadnezzar, who, as soon 
as possible, sent his troops 
against Jerusalem, and had 
him taken prisoner, but ulti- 
mately released him. See Je- 
hoiakim. 2 Kgs. 24 : 2. After 
his death his son Jehoiachin 
reigned, and against him Ne- 
buchadnezzar, for the third 
time, invaded Palestine and 
besieged Jerusalem. Jehoia- 
chin and his family and house- 
hold voluntarily submitted 
themselves, the city was taken, 
and all the treasures of the 
house of the Lord and of the 
palace, and all the principal inhabit- I there is an inscription which is read by 
ants of the city, were carried to Baby- j Sir H. Rawlinson in a manner which 
Ion. 2 Kgs. 24 : 12-16. Mattaniah, the finds its readiest explanation in the 
uncle of Jehoiachin, whose name was ; fact stated in Dan. 4 : 33 : ''For four 

603 



<vm [pfm&s*^i 



$K^ & &&d & 



^£> :e^jeK|M2e? 



Inscribed Brick of Nebuchadnezzar. 



NEB 



NEG 



years the residence of my kingdom did 
not delight my heart; in no one of my 
possessions did I erect any important 
building by my might. I did not put up 
buildings in Babylon for myself and for 
the honor of my name. In the worship 
of Merodach, my god, I did not sing his 
praise, nor did I provide his altar with 
sacrifices, nor clean the canals." 

Nebuchadnezzar was a mighty mon- 
arch, and is denominated " king of 
kings " by Daniel, 2 : 37, and ruler of a 
" kingdom with power and strength and 
glory." He gave much attention to the 
architectural adornment of Babylon, and 
amongst other great structures built the 
hanging-gardens, on a large and artificial 
mound, terraced up to look like a hill. 
This great work, called by the ancients 
one of the Seven Wonders of the world, 
was executed in order to please his wife, 
whose maiden home had been in a hilly 
country. Secular history also tells us 
of vast projects of irrigation and a canal- 
system which he carried out. An idea 
of the extent of this monarch's building 
enterprises may be drawn from the fact 
that nine-tenths of the bricks found 
amongst the ruins of the ancient capital 
are inscribed with his name. 

Nebuchadnezzar was a cruel despot and 
the perfect type of an Oriental autocrat, 
as is proven by the murder of the two 
boys in the presence of their father, 
Zedekiah, the resolution to punish a 
failure to discover his dream, Dan. 2, 
with the death of the astrologers, etc., 
and the requisition of worship for the 
golden image on the plain of Dura. He 
is said to have worshipped the " King of 
heaven," Dan. 4 : 37, but it may be 
questioned whether he did not conceive 
of the Jehovah of the Hebrews to be only 
one of many gods. He died about B. c. 
561, after a reign of 44 years. 

NEBUCHADREZZAR, Jer. 21 : 
2, 7, and elsewhere in Jeremiah, Eze. 
26 : 7, the more correct translitera- 
tion of the name Nebuchadnezzar, 
which see. 

NEBUSHAS'BAN (Nebo saves 
vie), the chief of the eunuchs of Nebu- 
chadnezzar. Jer. 39 : 13. 

NEBUZAR-A'DAN (Nebo sends 
posterity), captain of the body-guard 
of Nebuchadnezzar. 2 Kgs. 25 : 8. He 
conducted the siege of Jerusalem to a 
successful issue, the particulars of which 
604 



are given in 2 Kgs. 25 : 8-21. He treated 
Jeremiah with generous consideration, as 
Nebuchadnezzar commanded. Jer. 39 : 
11 ; 40 : 1. His speech to Jeremiah is 
preserved in Jer. 40 : 2, sqq. When 
Nebuchadnezzar, five years later, be- 
sieged Tyre, Nebuzar-adan came again 
to Jerusalem, and carried off seven hun- 
dred and forty-five Jews more into cap- 
tivity. Jer. 32 : 30. 

NE'CHG, a" king of Egypt after 
Psammetichus ; founder of the twenty- 
sixth dynasty, b. c. 610-594. He greatly 
enlarged Egyptian trade. For peaceful 
I and warlike operations he had ships 
built after the pattern of the Syrian 
triremes. He endeavored to unite the 
Red and Mediterranean Seas. Herod- 
otus states (II. I 158) that 120,000 
Egyptians lost their lives in making 
the excavation. But he discontinued 
j his project in consequence of an oracle 
which warned him "that he was labor- 
ing for the barbarians," as the Egyptians 
| called all such as spoke a language dif- 
| ferent from their own. It was after this 
| that he built the ships mentioned above. 
He sent out a fleet manned by Phoeni- 
cians, which circumnavigated Africa in 
three years. He also directed military 
operations against enfeebled Assyria, 
but was defeated by Nebuchadnezzar 
at Carchemish, on the Euphrates, b. c. 
605. History relates no further wars 
of Necho's. He is brought before us in 
the sacred narrative first in this expe- 
dition against Assyria. 2 Chr. 35 : 20. 
King Josiah marched against him, and 
closed with him in battle in spite of the 
message he sent that he was under a 
divine commission in making war. The 
battle occurred at Megiddo, and Josiah 
was killed by an arrow. On his return 
Necbo deposed the son of Josiah, Jeho- 
ahaz, whom the people had proclaimed 
king, and put on the throne Eliakim, 
whose name he changed to Jehoiakim. 
2 Chr. 36 : 4. 

NECROMANCER. Deut. 18 : 11. 
See Divination. 

NEDABI'AH (whom Jehovah im- 
pelled), a descendant of David. 1 Chr. 
9 : 18. 

NEG'INAH (a stringed instrument), 
used in Ps. 61, title ; the singular of 
" Nesjinoth." 

NEG'INOTH, a word occurring 
in the titles of Ps. 4, 6, 54, 55, 67, 76, 



NEH 



KEH 



and in the margin of Hab. 3:19. It 
seems to be a general designation for 
musical instruments, and is translated 
"stringed instruments" in Hab. 3:19. 
It thus includes the harp, sackbut, etc. 

NEHEL AMITE, an appellative 
of Shemaiah, Jer. 29 : 24, 31, 32, and 
translated in the margin "dreamer." 
As no town of Nehelam is known, it is 
possible the appellation is meant as a 
play on the " dreamers " whom Jeremiah 
denounces. 

NEHEMI'AH (whom Jehovah con- 
soles). 1. Son of Hachaliah, the dis- 
tinguished and pious restorer and gov- 
ernor of Jerusalem after the Babylonian 
exile. The forlorn condition of the 
remnant of neturned Hebrews in" Jerusa- 
lem awakened his deepest sympathy and 
enkindled his patriotism, ch. 1 : 4. The 
condition of his feelings soon became 
known to King Artaxerxes, at whose 
court he held the high position of cup- 
bearer. 2:1. At his eager request, 2 : 
5, the king granted Nehemiah permis- 
sion to return to the land of his fathers, 
2 : 7, and gave him letters of safe escort 
to the governors beyond the Euphrates, 
and orders for timber on the keeper of 
the royal forest. 

At Jerusalem desolation and ruin met 
him on every hand, but he makes the 
proposition and oversees the execution 
of restoring the city. 2 : 18. The people 
co-operate heartily with their enthusias- 
tic leader in the reconstruction of the 
walls and gates, but the work is not com- 
pleted without insidious and determined 
opposition. Sanballat was at the head 
of it. These enemies endeavored to 
overthrow Nehemiah by false charges 
of intended rebellion against the Persian 
supremacy, 6 : 7-19, and to intimidate 
him, but all in vain. 

The work of reconstruction accom- 
plished, he re-established the religious 
customs of his fathers by bringing the 
Law into new esteem, 8 : 3, and the re- 
institution of the Sabbath, offerings, etc., 
10 : 29, sqq. He also made special legis- 
lation for the government of the city. 

Nehemiah administered the govern- 
ment of Jerusalem twelve years, 5 : 14, 
and at the end of this period returned to 
Persia, where he remained for some time. 
Neh. 13 : 6. During his absence most 
flagrant abuses crept in, which on his 
return he made it his first business to 



correct, especially the violation of the 
Sabbath and heathen marriages, ch. 13. 
By these means he restored his people, 
in some degree, to their former happy 
condition, and probably remained in 
power till his death, which it is supposed 
took place in Jerusalem. Few men in 
any age of the world have combined in 
themselves a more rigid adherence to 
duty, a sterner opposition to wrong, pri- 
vate or public, a more unswerving faith 
in God, or a purer patriotism, than Nehe- 
miah. 

Book of, is the sixteenth in the order 
of the books of the 0. T. It may be re- 
garded as a continuation of or supple- 
ment to the book of Ezra, which imme- 
diately precedes it. It is concerned 
with Nehemiah's great work of rebuild- 
ing Jerusalem and the reclamation of 
the customs and laws of Moses, which 
had fallen into desuetude. It gives the 
whole history of this movement in the 
circumstances which led to it, the ele- 
ments of opposition which threatened to 
defeat it, and the complete success which 
crowned it. Incidentally we are admitted 
to a glance at the then condition, moral 
and political, of the Jews, at the growing 
bitterness between them and the Samari- 
tans, and at some scenes in Assyrian life. 
The account of the walls and gates in 
ch. 3 is among the most valuable docu- 
ments for the settlement of the topography 
of ancient Jerusalem. The registers and 
lists of names are also of value. Nehe- 
miah is the author of the first seven 
chapters, and part of the twelfth and 
thirteenth. The change from the use of 
the first person to that of the third in 
the remaining chapters, and the fact 
that some names in the lists were not 
extant till after Nehemiah's death, point 
to some other hand as their author. 

2. One who returned in the first ex- 
pedition from Babylon under Zerubba- 
bel. Ezr. 2:2; Neh. 7:7. 

3. The son of Azbuk, who helped to 
repair the gates of Jerusalem. Neh. 3 : 
16. 

NE'HILOTH, a word found at the 
beginning of the fifth Psalm. Its signi- 
fication, " perforated," points to wind in- 
struments, such as the flute. The title 
of the fifth Psalm may be thus trans- 
lated : "A Psalm of David, addressed 
to the master of music, presiding over 
the flutes." 

605 



NEH 



NE£ 



NE'HUM (comfort), one who re- 
turned with Zerubbabel, Neh. 7:7; he 
is called Rehum in Ezr. 2 : 2. 

NEHUSH'TA (brass), mother of 
Jehoiachin. 2 Kgs. 24 : 8. 

NEHUSHTAN (brazen thing), a 
name given by Hezekiah, king of Ju- 
dah, 2 Kgs. 18 : 4, to the brazen serpent 
that Moses had set up in the wilderness, 
Num. 21 : 8, and which had been pre- 
served by the Israelites to that time. 
Hezekiah caused it to be burned, because 
the people had come to regard it as an 
idol, " burning incense to it," and in de- 
rision gave it the name of " Nehushtan." 

NE'IELi (treasured of God), a place 
which formed one of the landmarks of 
the boundary of Asher and Zebulun. 
Josh. 19 : 27. It occurs between Jiph- 
thah-el and Cabul. Neiel may pos- 
sibly be represented by Mi'ar, a village 
conspicuously placed on a lofty moun- 
tain-brow just halfway between the two. 
Conder suggests Y'anin, 16 miles east 
of Caesarea, as the site of Neiel. 

NEIGHBOR. Luke 10: 29. The 
Pharisees restricted the meaning of the 
word "neighbor" to those of their own 
nation or to their friends. But our Sa- 
viour informed them that all men were 
their neighbors, and illustrated the 
proposition in the parable of the Good 
Samaritan who helped the wounded Jew 
in spite of the bitter feeling existing be- 
tween the Samaritans and the Jews. 

NE'KEB (cavern), one of the towns 
on the boundary of Naphtali. Josh. 19 : 
33. It lay between Adami and Jabneel. 
The Palestine Fund " Memoirs " identify 
it with the ruin, Seiyddeh, 4 miles south- 
west of Tiberias. 

NEKO'DA (distinguished), one 
whose descendants returned from the 
Captivity with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 48. 
They were not able to prove their He- 
brew extraction. Ezr. 2 : 59, 60. 

NEMU'EL (day of God). 1. A 
Reubenite. Num. 26 : 9. 

2. A son of Simeon, Num. 26 : 12 ; 1 
Chr. 4 : 24 ; he is also called Jemuel in 
Gen. 46: 10 and Ex. 6 : 15. 

NEMUELITES, descendants of 
Nemuel, the son of Simeon. Num. 26 : 
12. 

NE'PHEG (sprout). 1. A brother 
of Korah. Ex. 6 : 21. 

2. A son of David, born at Jerusalem. 
2 Sam. 5:15; 1 Chr. 3:7; 14:6. 
606 



NEPHEW, in the A. V., should 
always be understood " grandchild " or 
"descendant" generally, as was the old 
English usage. Job 18 : 19 ; Isa. 14 : 22. 

NE'PHISH, incorrect form of Na- 
phish. 1 Chr. 1 : 31 ; 5 : 19. 

NEPHISH'ESIM, a corruption 
of Nephusim, which see. Neh. 7 : 52. 

NEPHTALI, NEPH'THA- 
LIM, forms of " Naphtali." Matt. 4: 
13, 15; Rev. 7:6. 

NEPHTOAH (opening), THE 
WATER OF. The spring or source 
of the water of Nephtoah, was one of the 
landmarks between Judah and Benjamin. 
Josh. 15 : 9 ; 18 : 15. It has been located 
north-west of Jerusalem and identified 
with Ain Lifta, a spring situated a little 
distance above the village of the same 
name. But Conder makes it identical 
with Ain 'Atdn, south-west of Bethle- 
hem, and from whence an old aqueduct 
once led to the temple, and now at inter- 
vals supplies the Haram area at Jerusa- 
lem through Pilate's aqueduct. 

NEPHUSIM, NEPHISHE- 
SIM (expansions), some who returned 
with Zerubbabel from Babylon. Ezr. 2 : 
50 : Neh. 7 : 52. 

NER (light, lamp), father of Kish, 
and grandfather of Saul. 1 Chr. 8 : 33. 
He is named, 1 Chr. 9 : 36, as brother of 
Kish. This Kish was an uncle of the 
other. 1 Chr. 9 : 39. 

NE'REUS, a Christian at Rome. 
Rom. 16:15. 

NERGAL (great hero), a deity of 
the Assyrians, and corresponding to 
Mars. 2 Kgs. 17 : 30. Monuments have 
been found with his name and titles. 
(See cut p. 612.) 

NER'GAL-SHAREZER (fire- 
prince), the name of two Babylonian 
noblemen, Jer. 39 : 3, 13, who accom- 
panied Nebuchadnezzar in his expedi- 
tion against Zedekiah. One of these 
individuals is entitled Rab-mag. This 
designation probably means " chief of 
the magicians." He is generally iden- 
tified with Neriglissar of profane his- 
tory, who married Nebuchadnezzar's 
daughter, and ascended the throne two 
years after that monarch's death. A 
' palace built by him has been discovered 
j among the ruins of Babylon, and his 
! name found on bricks. 

NE'RI (lamp of Jehovah), one of the 
I ancestors of our Lord. Luke 3 : 27. 



NER 



KE2 



NERFAH (lamp of Jehovah), the 
father of Baruch. Jer. 32: 12, etc. 

NET. See Fish, Fishing. 

NETHAN'EEL(j.»e»o/ffod). 1. 
A captain in the tribe of Issachar in the 
wilderness. Num. 1 : 8 : 2 : 5 ; 7 : 18 ; 10 : 
15. 

2. Fourth son of Jesse. 1 Chr. 2 : U. 

3. A priest in David's time. 1 Chr. 
15 : 24. 

4. A Levite. 1 Chr. 24:6. 

5. A son of Obed-edom. 1 Chr. 26:4. 

6. A prince in the reign of Jehosh- 
aphat. 2 Chr. 17 : 7. 

7. A Levite in the time of Josiah. 2 
Chr. 35 : 9. 

8. One of those who married strange 
wives in the time of Ezra. Ezr. 10:22. 

9. A priest in the days of Joiakim. 
Neh. 12:21. 

10. One who played on musical in- 
struments at the dedication of the wall 
of Jerusalem. Neh. 12 : 36. 

NETHANI'AH (given of Jehovah). 
1. The son of Elishama, and of royal 
blood. 2 Kgs. 25:23, 25; Jer. 40:8; 
41 : 9. 

2. A son of Asaph. 1 Chr. 25 : 2, 12. 

3. A Levite in the reign of Jehosh- 
aphat. 2 Chr. 17 : 8. 

4. The father of Jehudi. Jer. 36 : 14. 
NETHINIM. Ezr. 2 :43, 58. The 

word signifies "given" or "dedicated 
persons." This class are mentioned 
prominently in Ezra and Nehemiah as 
returning from the Captivity and con- 
stituting an official order. They are 
mentioned in association with the Le- 
vites and pi-iests, as well as with the 

?orters and singers. 1 Chr. 9:2; Ezr. 
: 24. They had been appointed for 
the first time by David, as far as we 
know, to do service for the Levites. Ezr. 
8 : 20. Some were therefore associated 
with the temple-service and dwelt at 
Jerusalem. Neh. 11:21. As in the 
case of the priests and Levites, "no toll, 
tribute, or custom" was exacted from 
them. Ezr. 7 : 24. The service they per- 
formed was, no doubt, of a menial sort; 
still, their names were all carefully pre- 
served. Ezr. 8 : 20. 

It has been thought by many that 
the Gibeonites, Josh. 9 : 27, who were 
made to do menial service for the con- 
gregation, and also the fifty captive 
Midianites, Num. 31 : 47, who were por- 
tioned off" to the Levites, occupied a 



I similar position to the Nethinim. The 
) name, however, is of a later date. 

NETOTHAH [dropping), a town, 
apparently in Judah, the name of which 
I occurs only in the catalogue of those 
' who returned with Zerubbabel from the 
j Captivity. Ezr. 2 : 22; Neh. 7 : 26; 1 
I Esd. 5 : 18. Netophah was really an old 
I place. Two of David's guard, 1 Chr. 
| 27 : 13, 15, were Netophathites. The 
! " villages of the Netophathites " were the 
j residence of the Levites. 1 Chr. 9 : 16. 
I Levites who inhabited these villages 
| were singers. Neh. 12 : 28. From Neh. 
j 7 : 26, the town seems to have been in 
! the neighborhood of, or closely connected 
with, Bethlehem. Van deVelde suggests 
Antubeh, 2 miles north-east of Bethle- 
hem, as the site of Netophah. The 
Palestine Memoirs note ruins north-east 
of Bethlehem that were called Metoba or 
Umm Toba, probably the same as Antu- 
beh of Van de Velde, and Conder iden- 
tifies them as ancient Netophah. 

NETOPH'ATHITE, an inhabit- 
ant of Netophah. 2 Sam. 23 : 28 ; 2 Kgs. 
25 : 23. 

NET'TLES, well-known wild 
plants, the leaves of which are armed 
with stings connected with a small bag 
of poison ; and when the leaves are 
pressed by the hand, the stings pene- 
trate the flesh and produce a swelling 
with a sharp, burning pain. Those who 
grope among the ruins of Palestine are 
often made to know that these weeds 
still abound there. The presence of 
nettles betokens a waste and neglected 
soil; hence the figure in Isa. 34: 13; 
Hos. 9 : 6. The word rendered " net- 
tles" in Job 30 : 7 ; Prov. 24 : 31 ; Zeph. 
2 : 9 is supposed to refer to a different 
species of nettles, or to some shrub of 
similar properties, else it could not af- 
ford shelter. Tristram believes this 
plant to have been the formidable 
pricklv acanthus. 

NEW MOON. 1 Sam. 20 : 5. See 
Moox, Feasts, Month. 
NEWTES'TAMENT. See Bible. 
NEW YEAR. See Trumpets, 
Feast of. 

NEZI'AH {famous), one whose 
children were Nethinim and returned 
j from the Captivity to Jerusalem. Ezr. 
I 2 : 54 : Neh. 7 : 56. 

NE'ZIB (statue), a city of Judah, 
j Josh. 15 : 43, in the lowland, one of 
607 



NIB 



ma 



the same group with Keilah and Mare- 
shah. Eusehius and Jerome place it on 
the road between Eleutheropolis and 
Hebron, 7 or 9 miles from the former, 
and there it still stands under the al- 
most identical name of Beit Nurib, a 
small hamlet. The ruins are of con- 
siderable extent, consisting of massive 
foundations, broken columns, large 
building- stones, and a grand tower 60 
feet square. 

NIB'HAZ( barker), an idol-god of the 
Avites. 2 Kgs. 17: 31. The name being 
derived from a word meaning "to bark," 
it is supposed that the god was repre- 
sented by the figure of a dog. It would 
therefore be allied to Anubis of the 
Egyptians. A large figure of a dog was 
found on the road from Beirout to 
Tripolis. 

NIB'SHAN (light, soft soil), one of 
the six cities in the " Midbar," or wilder- 
ness of Judah. Josh. 15 : 62. It was 
apparently near En-gedi, on the western 
shore of the Dead Sea. Its site is unknown. 

NICA'NOR (conqueror), one of the 
first seven deacons appointed by the early 
Church. Acts 6 : 5. 

NICODE'MUS (victor of the 
people), a ruler of the Jews, and a dis- 
tinguished member of the sect of the 
Pharisees, whose conversation with the 
Messiah, as recorded in John 3, reveals 
one of the grand doctrines of the 
Christian system — viz., regeneration by 
the Spirit of God. On this occasion he 
betrayed himself as a timid disciple, or 
as one just seeking after the truth, for 
he came to Christ under the cover of 
darkness. Later he defends Christ 
against the bitter injustice of the Phari- 
sees, John 7 : 50, and finally he appears 
as a professed follower, helping in the 
sepulture of the crucified Lord. John 
19 : 39. 

NICOLAITANS, an ancient sect 
whose deeds are expressly and strongly 
reprobated. Rev. 2 : 6, 15. Some have 
supposed that they were the followers of 
Nicolas, Acts 6 : 5, one of the first 
deacons of the church, whom they regard 
as having degenerated from the true 
faith. For this view there is no 
authority. Others regard the term 
" Nicolaitans" as a symbolical expres- 
sion. Since "Nicolas" means "victor 
of the people," and " Balaam " " devourer 
of the people," the two. in symbolical 
608 



unity, signify religious seducers of the 
people. It is more probable that the 
Nicolaitans were identical with those 
who held the doctrine of Balaam, men- 
tioned in v. 14. Cf. 2 Pet. 2 : 15. So, 
likely, the Nicolaitans associated forni- 
cation and the eating of things sacrificed 
to idols with an outward profession of 
Christianity. 

NICOLAS (victor of the people), one 
of the deacons of the church at Jeru- 
salem in the days of the apostles. Acts 
6 : 5. He was a native of Antioch, 
converted to Judaism, and thence to 
Christianity. 

NICOP'OLIS (city of victory), the 
city where Paul determined to winter. 
Tit. 3 : 12. There has been some uncer- 
tainty in respect to the city intended, as 
there were four of this name in Asia, five 
in Europe, and one in Africa. It must 
have been one of three cities: (l)Nicop- 
olis in Thrace; (2) in Cilicia ; or (3) in 
Epirus. The subscription to the Epistle 
to Titus calls it " Nicopolis of Mace- 
donia" — i. e., Thrace. This subscrip- 
tion, however, is no part of the inspired 
text, and there is little doubt that the 
view of Jerome is correct, which identifies 
the Pauline Nicopolis with the noted 
city of that name in Epirus. It was 
built by Augustus Caesar to commemorate 
his victory over Antony and Cleopatra 
at the battle of Actium, b. c. 31. Its 
modern name is Paleoprevesa, or " old 
Prevesa." The place has extensive ruins 
of temples, theatres, aqueducts, and a 
small building in the form of a pagan 
temple, which tradition says was used 
by Paul as a house of prayer. Some 
suppose that Paul was arrested here, 
and taken to Rome for his final trial. 

NI'GER (black), a surname of Sim- 
eon. Acts 13 : 1. 

NIGHT, one division of the twenty- 
four hours composing a day. It includes 
the period of darkness, Gen. 1 : 5, and 
was divided from the day by "lights in 
the firmament." Gen. 1 : 14. Figura- 
tively, it has been taken to designate 
death, John 9 : 4, and sin, 1 Thess. 5 : 5. 
In the beautiful passage, " There shall be 
no night there," Rev. 21 : 25 ; 22 : 5, the 
meaning is that heaven is a place where 
no sorrow or sin or death finds entrance. 

NIGHT-HAWK, a species of bird 
unclean by the Levitical law, Lev. 11 : 
16, but not the bird known to us by this 



NIL 



NIL 



name. The translators supposed that 
the common night-jar (Caprimulgus} 
was the bird alluded to by the Hebrew 
tachmas, but probably the screech-owl 



(St n'x Jiammea), which lodges in the 
large buildings or ruins of Egypt and 
Syria, and sometimes even in the dwell- 
ing-houses, is intended. See Owl. 




The Night-jar (Caprimulgus). 



NTLE (blue, dark), the great river 
of Egypt and of Africa, and probably 
the second longest river in the world, 
its entire length being estimated at 
4000 miles. The word "Nile" does not 
occur in Scripture, but the river is 
frequently referred to as Sihor or Shihoi', 
which means "black" or "turbid" 
stream. Josh. 13 : 3 ; Isa. 23 : 3 ; Jer. 2 : 
18; 1 Chr. 13 : 5. It is also designated 
simply "the river," Gen. 41 : 1 ; Ex. 1 : 
22 : 2 : 3, 5, and the " flood of Egypt." 
Am. 8 : 8 ; 9 : 5. In the plural form this 
word yeor, rendered " river," frequently 
refers to the branches and canals of the 
Nile. This famous river is connected 
with the earliest history of the Egyptian 
and the Israelitish nations. Ex. 2:3; 
7 : 20, 21 ; Num. 11 : 5 : Ps. 105 : 29 : Jer. 
46 : 7, 8 ; Zech. 14 : 17, 18. The Nile is 
not named in the N. T. 

Physical Features. — The discovery of 
the true source of the Nile, and the 
reason for its annual overflow, are two 
scientific problems which have been dis- 
cussed for upward of 2000 years. The 
course of the stream is now known for 
about 3300 miles, and with two interrup- 



tions — the cataract of Syene (Assouan) 
and the Upper Cataract — it is claimed 
by Baedeker's Handbook on Lower 
Egypt to be navigable throughout nearly 
the whole of that distance. But as there 
are many other cataracts, this statement 
cannot be correct. The principal stream 
is now known to be the White Nile, 
while the Blue or Black Nile is of greater 
importance in contributing to the annual 
inundation of the lower river. The two 
streams unite at the town of Khartoom, 
the capital of Nubia, and from this point 
to the mouths of the stream at Damietta 
and Rosetta, upward of 1800 miles, it. 
falls 1240 feet, and attains its greatest 
width a little below Khartoom and a 
little above Cairo, at each of which 
places it is about 1100 yards wide. The 
source of the White Nile is doubtless Lake 
Victoria Nyanza, the largest part of 
which lies south of the equator, and from 
3000 to 4000 feet above the level of the 
sea. The White Nile is so named from 
the color of the clay with which its waters 
are stained. The Blue Nile resembles 
a mountain-toi-rent, being liable to rise 
suddenly with the Abyssinian rains and 
609 



NIL 



NIL 



sweep away whatever it encounters in its 
rapidly-descending course. The source 
of the Blue Nile is high up in the Abys- 
sinian mountains, from 15000 to 10,000 
feet above the sea-level, and in springs 
which are regarded with superstitious 
veneration by the neighboring people. 
The river causes what would be other- 
wise a barren valley to be one of the 
most fertile regions in the world. Hence, 
Herodotus justly calls Egypt, "an ac- 
quired country and the gift of the Nile." 
The waters of the Nile now empty into 
the sea through two streams, known as 
the Damietta and the Rosetta mouths; 
ancient writers, however, mention at 
least seven branches or mouths through 
which the Nile found its way to the sea. 
There is the strongest proof that the Nile 
has filled up the sea for many miles to 
the north, and that its ancient mouths 
were several miles farther south. It has 
been ascertained that within the last 
half century the mouth of the Nile has 
advanced northward 4 miles, and the 
maps of Ptolemy, of the 
second and third centuries 
of the Christian era, show 
that the mouth was then 
about 40 miles farther 
south than at present. 
Hence, at this rate of de- 
posit, the sea-coast, in the 
earlier history of ancient 
Egypt, must have been 
nearly as far south as its j 
ancient capital, Memphis, j 
As rain seldom falls in ~< 
Egypt proper, the fertility \ 
of the country is entirely 
dependent upon the annual 
rise of the Nile. This usu- 
ally begins in June and eon- j 
tinues until near the end of \ 
September, the river re- 
maining stationary for two 
or more weeks, and .then _ 
attaining its highest level 
in October, when it begins 
to subside. " The height 
of the inundation most favorable for ag- 
riculture at the present day has been as- 
certained by long observation to be 23 
cubits 2 inches — i.e., about 41 feet 2 
inches, the cubit being 21 inches — while 
in the time of Herodotus 10 cubits suf- 
ficed: and the god of the Nile in the 
Vatican is therefore represented as sur- 
610 



rounded by sixteen children. A single 
cubit more is apt to cause terrible de- 
vastation in the Delta, and elsewhere 
cover the fields destined for the autumn 
crop, while a deficiency of 2 cubits causes 
drought and famine in Upper Egypt." 
(See Baedeker's Lower Eyypt.) 

The successive years of famine in the 
days of Joseph were doubtless due to a 
deficient overflow of the Nile for those 
years. Formerly this annual inundation 
turned Egypt into a vast lake, but in 
later times the water has been distributed 
by a great network of canals, from which 
the huge basins of cultivated land into 
which the canals divide the country, are 
supplied with water of the depth required 
to leave a deposit of mud to fertilize the 
land. The native uses his feet to regu- 
late the flow of water into each of the 
squares or basins of land, and by a 
dexterous movement of his toes forms or 
removes a tiny embanKment, as may be 
required to admit the proper flow of 
water. Another common mode is to use 




the Shadoot. 



the "shadoof." a bucket attached to a 
long pole hung on a pivot, balanced by 
a stone or a lump of clay at one end, and 
having the bucket on the other end. To 
this day the Nile is lined for hundreds 
of miles with these shadoofs, worked by 
men, women, and children, who lift the 
water out of the river to irrigate their 



NIL 



NIM 



fields. Both these methods are believed 
to be very ancient, and may be alluded 
to by Moses in contrasting the fountains 
and rainfalls in Palestine with the ab- 
sence of this supply in Egypt : " For the 
land, whither thou goest in to possess it, 
is not as the land of Egypt, from whence 
ye came out, where thou sowedstthy seed, 
and wateredst it with thy foot as a garden 
of herbs." Deut. 11 : 10, 11. A number 
of festivals were celebrated in connection 
with the annual rise of the Nile, which 
appear from the monuments to have 
been common as early as the fourteenth 




century b. c. The height of the Nile was 
measured by. the Nilometer, a square 
well having in its centre an octagonal 
column, on which were inscribed the 
ancient Arabic measures and Cufic in- 
scriptions. This was erected in A. D. 
716, and was used to determine the 
height of the overflow, upon which was 
based the rate of taxation. The govern- 
ment, however, cheated the poor people 
by false statements of the overflow, indi- 
cated by this measurement. 

The ancient Egyptians worshipped the 
river Nile as a god. Two of the ten 
plagues sent upon Pharaoh and Egypt 
before the departure of the Israelites 
were turning the water of the Nile into 



blood and bringing forth frogs from the 
river. Ex. 7 : 1 5-25 ; 8 : 3-7. The papy- 
rus reeds — whence paper is designated — 
the flags, the lotus, and the various colored 
flowers formerly beautifying the banks 
of the river have nearly all disappeared, 
thus fulfilling prophecy. Isa. 19 : 6, 7. 
This river, so intimately associated with 
the early history of the human race, is 
a favorite resort for tourists, who can go 
in steamers as far as the First Cataract, 
near Assouan (Syene), where were the 
great quarries which supplied stone for 
ancient Egyptian monuments, and from 
Philae up to Aboo-Simbel and the 
Second Cataract. The Nile voyage, 
broken by donkey rides and visits to the 
pyramids, tombs, and ruins of temples 
and palaces of the Pharaohs, is one of 
the greatest enjoyments and best recrea- 
tions of body and mind. 

NIM RAH {limpid, pure), a city of 
I Gad east of the Jordan ; noticed only in 
j Num. 32 : 3, and probably identical with 
I Beth-nimrah. Num. 32 : 36. Its site may 
! be on the hill of Nimrin, about 3 miles 
I east of the Jordan and 10 miles north of 
! the Dead Sea. where are some ruins. 
NIM'RIM {limpid, pure). The word 
"Nimrim/' plural of "Nimrah," is prob- 
l ably from the obsolete root, namar, "to 
I be limpid or pure." " The waters of 
! Nimrim" was a stream or brook in the 
territory of Moab, referred to by Isaiah 
I and Jeremiah. -Isa. 15 : 6 ; Jer. 48 : 34; 
comp. Num. 32 : 3, 36. There are copi- 
ous springs near Nimrah, and Porter, 
Conder, and Baedeker would locate the 
waters of Nimrim in its vicinity. Dr. 
Merrill regards it as the largest stream 
east of the Jordan and south of the 
Zerka. Wady Nemeirah, at the south- 
east corner of the Dead Sea, has been 
claimed as the " waters of Nimrim," but 
the stream is small and the name has 
a different signification. Perhaps the 
"brook of the willows," Isa. 15 : 7, may 
be in that region. 

NTM'ROD {firm, strong), the son of 
Cush and grandson of Ham. Gen. 10 : 8. 
He is described as having been a 
" mighty hunter before the Lord," and 
was thus pre-eminent in the chase, a 
pursuit practised very early in the 
history of the race. He, however, was 
also a great conqueror, "a mighty one 
in the earth," and founded the classical 
and most ancient kingdom of Babylon, 
611 



NIM 



NIN 



and built the city of that name and 
others. Gen. 10 : 10. 

The territory and kingdom of Babylon 
was long known, after the name of its 
first hero, as the land of Nimrod. Mic. 
5:6. 

NIM'SHI {drawn out, saved), the 
father of Jehu, the king. 1 Kgs. 19 : 16; 
2 Kgs. 9:2, 14: 2 Chr. 22:7. 

NINEVEH (perhaps dwelling of 
Nin), the capital and greatest city of 
Assyria. 

Situation. — The city was founded by 
Nimrod, Gen. 10 : 11, and was situated on 
the eastern bank of the river Tigris, 
opposite the modern town of Mosul. It 
was about 250 miles in a direct line 
north of the rival city of Babylon, and 
not far from 550 miles north-west of the 
Persian Gulf. 

Extent. — Assyrian scholars are not 
agreed in respect to the size of this 
ancient city. Some, as Layard, regard 
it as covering a large parallelogram, 
whose sides were each from 18 to 20 
miles long, and the ends 12 to 14 miles 
wide. This view would include the ruins 
now known as Kouyunjik, Nimrud, 
Khorsabad, and Keremles. Diodorus 
Siculus makes the circumference of the 
city 55 miles, including pastures and 
pleasure-grounds. See article Assyria, 
p. 82. This view of the great 
extent of the city is, on the 
other hand, sharply disputed 
by Kawlinson, who thinks it 
highly improbable that this 
ancient city should have had 
an area about ten times that 
of London. He would reject 
it on two grounds, the one 
historical and the other topo- 
graphical. He maintains 
that the ruins of Khorsabad, 
Keremles, Nimrud, and 
Kouyunjik bear on their 
bricks distinct local titles, 
and that these titles are 
found attaching to distant 
cities in the historical in- 
scriptions. According to 
his view, Nimrud would be 
identified with Calah, and 
Khorsabad with Dur-sargina, 
or " the city of Sargon." He 
further claims that Assyrian 
writers do not consider these places to be 
parts of Nineveh, but distinct and sepa- 
612 



rate cities ; that Calah was for a long time 
the capital, while Nineveh was a provin- 
cial town ; that Dur-sargina was built 
by SargOD — not at Nineveh, but near 
Nineveh ; . and that Scripture similarly 
distinguishes Calah as a place separate 
from Nineveh, and so far from it that 
there was room for a great city between 
them. See Gen. 10 : 12. He also sug- 
gests that a smaller city in extent would 
answer the requirements of the descrip- 
tion in the book of Jonah, which makes 
it a city of "three days' journey." Jon. 
3 : 3. He would limit its extent, there- 
fore, to the ruins immediately opposite 
Mosul, including two principal mounds, 
known as Nebi-Yunus and Kouyunjik. 
The latter mound, which lies about half 
a mile north-west of the former, is the 
larger of the two. In shape it is an 
irregular oval, the sides, sloping at a 
steep angle, furrowed with numerous 
ravines, worn out by the rains of thirty 
centuries. The greatest height of the 
mound is about 95 feet, and it is esti- 
mated to cover an area of 100 acres. 
The other mound, Nebi-Yunus, is tri- 
angular in shape, loftier in height, with 
more precipitous sides than the other 
mound, and covers an area of about 40 
acres. The reputed tomb of Jonah is on 
the western side of the mound, while the 




Nergal's Emblem, the Man-Lion. 

eastern portion forms a burial-ground 
for Mohammedans. 




From Fairbairn, 



NIN 



NOA 



History. — As already stated, Nineveh 
was founded by Asshur, or, as the mar- 
ginal reading of Gen. 10 : 11 states, 
Nimrod. When Nineveh became the 
capital of Assyria is not definitely known, 
but it is generally believed it was during 
the reign of Sennacherib. The proph- 
ecies of the books of Jonah and Na- 
hum are chiefly directed against this 
city. The latter prophet indicates the 
mode of its capture. Nah. 1:8; 2 : 6, 
8; 3:18. Nineveh was the capital of 
Assyria during the height of the grandeur 
of that empire, and in the time of Sen- 
nacherib, Esarhaddon, and Assurbanipal. 
It was besieged for two years by the com- 
bined forces of the Medes and Babylo- 
nians, was captured, and finally destroyed 
B. c. 606. 

Ruins. — According to George Smith, 
Nineveh is now represented by the 
mounds of Kouyunjik or Telarmush, 
Nebi-Yunus, and some surrounding re- 
mains. The circuit of the walls, includ- 
ing these ruins, measures about 8 miles. 
The palace-mounds are on the side next 
to the river Tigris. Excavations have 
been made by M. Botta, Layard, Hor- 
muzd Rassam, Loftus, and George Smith. 
They have brought to light, among others, 
the following noted buildings : (1) Three 
ruined temples, built and restored by 
many kings in different ages; (2) the 
palace of Shalmaneser, as improved by 
subsequent rulers ; (3) a palace of an- 
other ruler, restored by Sennacherib and 
Esarhaddon : (4) a palace of Tiglath- 
pileser II.; (5) a temple of Nebo ; (6) 
the south-west palace of Sennacherib; 
(7) the north-west palace of the same 
ruler; (8) the city walls built by the 
latter king and restored by Assurbani- 
pal. For further accounts see Assyria 
and George Smith's Assyrian Discoveries 
(N. Y., 1875). 

NFVEVITES, the inhabitants of 
Nineveh. Luke 11 : 30. 

NFSAN. Neh. 2 : 1. See Month. 

NIS'ROCH {great eagle?), an As- 
syrian deity in whose temple at Nineveh 
Sennacherib was murdered by his sons 
Adrammelech and Sharezer. 2 Kgs. 19 : 
37; Isa. 37 : 38. The etymology of the 
name, even the Shemitic origin of the 
word, is doubtful, and nothing definite 
is known of this deity. Some suppose 
him to he represented in the Assyrian 
tablets by a human form with the wings 
614 



and head of an eagle. Others suggest 
that the word refers to Noah's dove, which 
had been made an object of worship. 




Nisroch. (After Layard.) 

NFTRE, an earthy alkaline salt, 
resembling and used like soap, which, 
separating from the bottom of the lake 
Natron, in Egypt, and rising to the 
top, is condensed by the heat of the sun 
into a dry and hard substance similar 
to the Smyrna soap, and is the soda 
of common earth. It is found in many 
other parts of the East. Vinegar has 
no effect upon common nitre, and of 
course this could not be meant by the 
wise man, who in Prov. 25 : 20 says, "As 
he that taketh away a garment in cold 
weather, and as vinegar upon nitre, so is 
he that singeth songs to a heavy heart." 
Now, as vinegar has no effect upon nitre, 
but upon natron or soda its action is very 
obvious, it seems the English translation 
should have been "natron." In Jer. 
2 : 22 the same word again is improperly 
used: "For though thou wash thee with 
nitre, and take thee much soap, yet thine 
iniquity is marked before me, saith the 
Lord God." The alkaline earth natron 
is obviously designed in this passage. It 
is found as an impure carbonate of soda 
on the surface of the earth in Egypt and 
Syria, and is also native in some parts 
of Africa in hard strata or masses, and 
is called trona, being used for the same 
purposes as the barilla of commerce. 

NO. See No-amon. 

NOADFAH (whom Jehovah meets) 
1. A Levite. Ezr. 8 : 33. 

2. A prophetess upon whom Nehemiah 
invoked the vengeance of God for her 



FOA 



NOA 



attempt to hinder him in his work of 
reconstruction. Neh. 6:14 

NO'AH (rest), am eminent patriarch, 
and the ninth in descent from Adam. 
Gen. 6 : 8. He is described as a " just and 
perfect" man who "walked with God/' 
Gen. 6 : 9, as a " preacher of righteous- 
ness," 2 Pet. 2 : 5, and has a place in the 
catalogues of those who were eminent 
for their faith. Heb. 11 : 7. Noah is the 
second father of the human race, all the 
families of the earth being in a direct 
line of descent from him. 

The life of this patriarch was cast in 
times of such unusual violence and 
wickedness that the Almighty deter- 
mined to destroy the agents in order 
thereby to purify the world. Gen. 6 : 13. 
This he accomplished by visiting the 
earth with a deluge, which submerged 
in its waters all the human family, Gen. 
9 : 11, except eight persons. God re- 
vealed his design to Noah a full century 
before its execution, and commanded 
him to construct an ark. See Ark. 
This preacher of righteousness during 
this period warned his contemporaries 
and exhorted them to repent. At the 
end of this time Noah went into the 
ark with his wife and his three sons 
and their wives. By commandment of 
God he also took with him of the clean 
and unclean animals of the earth. These 
alone were saved. All the rest in " whose 
nostrils toas the breath of life, of all that 
was in the dry land died." The waters 
prevailed upon the earth one hundred and 
fifty days, Gen. 7 : 24, at the end of which 
time a wind from God dried them up, and 
the ark rested upon the " mountains " of 
Ararat. See Ararat. 

The first thing Noah did upon leaving 
the ark was to offer up on an altar which 
he built a sacrifice that proved to be 
well-pleasing to God. Gen. 8 : 20. He 
thereupon received the promise that no 
more should such a widespread destruc- 
tion of the human race occur, and as a 
pledge of this covenant God appointed 
the rainbow. Its appearance was there- 
after to remind men of the divine prom- 
ise. Two commandments were also 
given to Noah. The one referred to the 
meat of strangled animals or animals 
dying a natural death : this he was for- 
bidden to eat. The other referred to 
murder, which was to be punished by 
the death of the murderer, Gen. 9 : 1-7. 



The last incident narrated of this 

j eminent man betrays his weakness. He 

had planted a vineyard, and, drinking 

i to excess, he on one occasion exposed 

j his shame. Ham, seeing his father's 

I nakedness, informed his brothers, who, 

! however, with becoming modesty, re- 

I fused to look upon their father in this 

I condition. On arousing from his de- 

[ bauch the father uttered a curse upon 

the head of Canaan, Ham's son, and 

uttered a special blessing upon Japheth. 

Gen. 9 : 20-27. 

Noah was 950 years old at the time of 
his death. Our Lord illustrates the sud- 
denness of his second coming and the 
wickedness of the world by the circum- 
stances prior to the Flood. Matt. 24 : 
32, 38. 

NO'AH (motion), one of the five 
daughters of Zelophehad. Num. 26 : 33 ; 
27:1; 36:11: Josh. 17:3. 

NO-A'MON (place of Anion f), a 
populous and celebrated city of Egypt, 
and the capital of Upper Egypt, named 
after the god Anion, and called by the 
Greeks Diospolis, or " city of Zeus," but 
better known by the name of " Thebes." 
It was situated on both sides of the Nile, 
from 400 to 500 miles from its mouth. 
The only mention of the city in the Bi- 
ble occurs in the prophecies. It is called 
No, Eze. 30 : 14-1 6 ; Jer. 46 : 25, and, mar- 
gin, No-amon, rendered "populous No." 
Nah. 3 : 8. 

The Nile valley at Thebes, resembles 
a vast amphitheatre, enclosed by the 
grand forms of the Arabian and Libyan 
mountains, the river running through 
nearly the centre of this space. The 
area surrounded by these mountain- 
bulwarks is filled with ruins — avenues 
of sphinxes and statues, miles in length, 
at the end of which were massive col- 
umnal structures, the entrances to im- 
mense temples and palaces, and colossal 
images of the ancient Pharaohs, relics 
of regal magnificence so extensive and 
stupendous that the beholder might well 
imagine all the grandest ruins of the 
Old World had been brought together on 
j this Theban plain. The extent of the 
j city has been variously given by histo- 
I rians. According to Strabo, it covered an 
area 5 miles in length and 3 miles in 
! breadth, and Diodorus makes its circuit 
about the same. Wilkinson also infers 
j from its ruins that its length must have 
615 



NOA 



NOB 



been about 5J miles and its breadth 3 
miles. Others suppose that the ancient 
city of Thebes, or No-amon, included 
the three sites of Luxor, Karnak, and 
Thebes, and that in the days of its glory, 
from b. c. 1600 to b. c. 800, it stretched 




Colossi : the Vocal M 



about 33 miles on both banks of the Nile. 
Certainly the ruins testify to a city of 
great splendor, whose buildings, palaces, 
and monuments were among the most 
imposing in the world. The temples, 
tombs, and palaces have been described 
under the article Egypt. The two co- 
lossi, or immense statues, before the 
destroyed temple of Amenophis III., 
are still standing, partially buried in the 
sand and considerably mutilated. They 
are, however, yet some 60 feet high, and 
one of them is the " vocal Memnon," so 
celebrated for the musical sound which 
it is reputed to have given forth, when 
touched by the morning beams of the 
rising sun, as a greeting of Amenophis 
to his mother, Aurora. One of the obe- 
lisks of Luxor, or Thebes, was trans- 
ported to France in the reign of Louis 
Philippe, and now stands in the Place 
de la Concorde in Paris. The grandeur 
of Thebes during the period when it was 
the capital of Upper Egypt was well 
known to Homer, who speaks of its 
hundred gates and twenty thousand war- 
chariots, and Diodorus was informed 
that Sesostris took the field with 600,000 
616 



infantry, 24,000 horsemen, and 27,000 
chariots. Thebes was captured and 
sacked by Sargon, probably in the reign 
of Hezekiah, Nah. 3 : 8, 10 ; was twice 
destroyed — by Nebuchadnezzar and by 
Assurbanipal, as predicted by Jeremiah, 
46 : 25, 26 : and was again burned by 
the Persian Cambyses, b. c. 525, and 
finally destroyed by Ptolemy X. Lath- 
urus, b. c. 81. 

NOB (height), a city of the priests 
in Benjamin, near Jerusalem. 1 Sam. 
22 : 19 j Isa. 10 : 32 j Neh. 11 : 31, 32. 
In the time of Saul the tabernacle 
and the ark were probably at this 
place. 1 Sam. 21 : 1, 4. The city was 
destroyed by Saul. 1 Sam. 22 : 9-19. 
Van de Velde proposed to identify 
Nob with el-Isawiyeh, 1^ miles north- 
east of Jerusalem, on the road to Ana- 
thoth, and this view is favored by Tris- 
tram, Baedeker, and Grove ; but Jeru- 
salem cannot be seen from that point, 
which is against this identification. 
Porter suggests a site about half a 
mile south of Tuleilel-Ful (Gibeah), 
where are ruins of cisterns, a tower, 
and large hewn stones — a site which 
commands a distant view of Zion. 
Conder, however, considers Nob and 
the Mizpeh of Jud. 20 : 1 ; Josh. 18 : 26 ; 
1 Sam. 7:15 as the same place. The 
Pal. Memoirs suggest Sha/dt, 2 miles 
north of Jerusalem, as the site of Miz- 
peh of Benjamin, and possibly, also of 
Nob. It is a small village sun*ounded 
by olive trees, with wells to the north of 
it. Conder formerly suggested Neby 
Samwil as the site of these towns, and 
thought he found traces of the court 
of the tabernacle there. This seemed 
exceedingly improbable, and he now 
accepts Sha/dt as the more probable 
site. 

NO'BAH (barking), the conqueror 
of the city of Kenath. Num. 32 : 42. 

NO'BAH (barking), & name of Ke- 
nath and the villages dependent on it, 
given by Nobah when he conquered the 
place. Num. 32:42; Jud. 8:11. It 
would appear to have retained the name 
for 200 years. It was about 48 miles east 
of the Sea of Galilee. See Kenath. 

NOBLEMAN, perhaps an officer 
in the court of Herod. He came to 
Christ to entreat him to heal his child, 
who was at the point of death. John 
4 : 46-54, He believed Christ's words, 



NOD 



NUM 



" Thy son liveth," and on returning 
home found his child restored. 

NOD ( flight), the region eastward of 
Eden, to which Cain fled from the pres- 
ence of Jehovah. Gen. 4 : 14, 16. The 
Chaldee interpreters apply the term to 
Cain, and not to a land: " He dwelt a 
fugitive in the land." 

NO'DAB {nobility), an Arab tribe 
against which the trans-Jordanic tribes 
waged war. 1 Chr. 5 : 19. The other 
names associated with Nodab — Hagar 
Jetur, and Nephish — were sons of Ish- 
mael, 1 Chr. 1 : 31, which seems to point 
to Nodab's descent from Ishmael also. 

NO'E, the same as Noah. Matt. 24 : 
37, etc. 

NO'GAH (brightness), a son of 
David, born at Jerusalem. 1 Chr. 3 : 
7 ; 14 : 6. 

NO'HAH (rest), the. fourth son of 
Benjamin. 1 Chr. 8 : 2. 

NOISOME (Old French noiser, "to 
hurt") is used in the A. V. in the sense 
of "baneful." Ps. 91 : 3 ; Eze. 14 : 21. 

NON ( fish). 1 Chr. 7 : 27. See Nun. 

NOPH, a city of Egypt. Isa. 19 : 
13; Jer. 2 : 16; Eze. 30 : 13, 16; Hos. 
9 : 6. See Memphis. 

NOTHAH (blast), a town of Moab. 
Num. 21 : 30. Ewald locates Nobah near 
Heshbon, and identifies it with Nophah. 
Canon Cook suggests that Nophah may 
be identical with Arneibah, 10 miles south- 
east of Medeba. 

NOSE-JEWELS, mentioned in 
Isa. 3 : 21, consisted of a ring of gold 




Nose-Jewels worn in the East. 

or other metal upon which jewels were 
strung. The nose-rings now worn by 



the lower classes in Egypt are from 1 
to 1£ inches in diameter, and are 
passed through the right nostril. 

NOVICE. 1 Tim. 3 : 6. The word in 
the Greek means " newly planted." Paul 
counsels that such persons should not be 
raised to the position of overseers or pas- 
tors, urging that they were liable to be- 
come proud and commit faults. There 
were necessarily many novices in the 
early church organizations. 

NUMBER. The following num- 
bers were understood by the Hebrews 
to have a symbolical or representative 
significance: 

1. Three was deemed to have a pecu- 
liar mystic meaning. It is the number 
of the Deity (the Trinity), of the thrice- 
repeated " Holy," Isa. 6:3; of the three- 
fold priestly blessing, Num. 6 : 23-26 ; 
Daniel's three hours of prayer. Dan. 
6 : 10, etc. 

2. Four symbolizes the world or hu- 
manity. There are four winds, Eze. 37 : 
9, four beasts, Rev. 4 : 6, and four living 
creatures with four faces, four wings, 
and four sides. Eze. 1 : 5-10, etc. 

3. Five, the half of ten, as in Ex. 22 : 
1 ; Lev. 22 : 14; Matt. 25 : 2, etc. The 
Decalogue is divided into two tables, 
each containing five commandments. 

4. Seven, the union of three and four, 
is the number of the covenants between 
God and man. It implies perfection. 
The number occurs very frequently in 
connection with both holy things and 
things unholy; for example, the seven 
priests that carried seven trumpets seven 
times in front of the ark and around the 
walls of Jericho, Josh. 6 : 4, the seven 

! days in the week, the seven churches, 
Rev. 1 : 4, the seven years of plenty in 
Egypt, Gen. 41 : 26, the seven angels 
with seven golden vials, Rev. 15 : 1 ; but 
also the seven heads and seven crowns 
of the dragon. Rev. 12 : 3. 

5. Ten, the number of fingers (two 
hands), symbolizes harmony and com- 

j pleteness. It is the number of the fun^ 
damental commandments. 

6. Twelve, the multiple of three and 
four, is also a covenant number, like 
seven. Hence we have the twelve 

i tribes, the twelve stones in the high 
priest's breastplate, Ex. 28 : 21, twelve 
apostles, twelve gates in the New Jeru- 

| salem, etc. 

7. Forty, four multiplied bv ten : as 

617 



NUM 



NYM 



the forty days of our Lord's temptation, 
Matt. 4, the forty years in the wilder- 
ness, etc. 

8. Seventy, seven multiplied by ten ; 
as the seventy elders of Israel, Xum. 11 : 
16, the seventy disciples of our Lord. 
Luke 10 : 1. 

It is very difficult, if indeed at all 
possible, to get the exact and definite 
meaning of these numbers, and we must 
not carry the search too far. But that 
they had a special meaning for the He- 
brews there can be little doubt. (Com- 
pare the extended and ingenious treat- 
ment of Lange, Com. on Revelation, pp. 
14 sqq.) 

NUMBERS, BOOK OF, the 
fourth book of Moses, and so called on 
account of the two censuses to which 
it refers. It gives some detached legal 
enactments and many valuable histor- 
ical facts. 

1. In the first division, chs. 1-10 : 
10, an account is given of the prepa- 
rations for the departure from Sinai. 
In ch. 6 we have the description of 
the Xazarite's vow. 

2. The second division, ch. 10 : 11- 
14, contains an account of the jour- 
ney from Sinai to the borders of Ca- 
naan. In chs. 13 and 14 the spies are 
mentioned by name, and a most in- 
teresting description is given of their 
discoveries in Canaan, their return to 
the camp, and the treatment they re- 
ceived. 

3. The third division, chs. 15-19, 
gives various legal enactments and a 
few historical facts. 

4. The last division, chs. 20-36, 
contains an account of the events of 
the last year before crossing the Jor- 
dan. In ch. 20 we have the descrip- 
tion of Moses smiting the rock and 
the notices of Miriam's and Aaron's 
deaths. In ch. 21 we have a picture 
of the discontentment and rebellion 
of the Israelites, their punishment 
through fiery serpents, and the sim- 
ple remedy of a brazen serpent erected 
on a pole. Comp. John 3 : 14, 15. Chs. 
22-24 are concerned with Balaam. In 
ch. 32 the land east, of the Jordan is as- 
signed to Reuben and Gad, and in ch. 33 
a list is given of the various stations in 
the wilderness. 

NUN {fash), the father of Joshua, Ex. 
33 : 11 ; also called 2s T on. 1 Chr. 7 : 27, 
618 



NURSE. The position was one of 
much importance and honor. Rebek- 
ah's nurse accompanied her mistress 
to Canaan, and was buried with much 
mourning at Allon-bachuth. Gen. 24 : 
59 : 35 : 8. The tenderness of a nurse 
i is not infrequently referred to. Isa. 49 : 
23; 1 Thess. 2 : 7. 

NUTS. Those mentioned in Gen. 
i 43 : 11 are doubtless pistachio-nuts, 
i which were produced in Syria, but not 
j in Egypt. The pistachio tree (Pistacia 
J vera) resembles the sumac, to whose fam- 
| ily it belongs. It is still cultivated in 
j the Levant, and produces thin-shelled 
nuts resembling almonds, but smaller 
' and with a green meat tasting like that 
1 of the walnut. 




Pistachio-Nuts. 

Another word translated "nuts" in 

Cant. 6:11 denotes what are known in 

our markets as " English walnuts," pro- 

l duced by a noble tree {Juglana reyin) 

which is everywhere cultivated in the 

, East. 

NYM'PHAS (bridegroom), a mem- 
. ber of the church of Laodicaea. Col. 
I 4 : 15. 



OAK 



OAT 



O. 



OAKS (strong is the meaning of most 
of the six Hebrew words thus rendered). 
In the following passages, at least, the 
word probably denotes the terebinth, or 
the elm of Hos. 4 : 13, see Teil Tree : 
Gen. 35 : 4, 8; Jud. 6 : 11, 19; 2 Sam. 
18 : 9, 10, 14 ; 1 Kgs. 13 : 14 ; 1 Chr. 10 : 
12; Isa. 1 : 30; Eze. 6 : 13. In other 
instances "oak*' may denote any strong 
flourishing tree, Am. 2 : 9, or a grove of 
such trees. 

Botanists find three species of this 
tree in Palestine. One of the most uni- 
versal and characteristic bushes of the 
country is the prickly evergreen-oak 
(Quercus pseudo-cocci/era), which has a 
leaf like the holly, but smaller. This 
oak now rarely exceeds 12 feet in height, 
but when the destruction of trees was 
less universal it doubtless attained great 
size and age. "Abraham's Oak,"' in the 
field of Mamre, near Hebron, the noblest 
tree of Southern Palestine, is of this 
species, and is 23 feet in girth ; and there 
are said to be still finer specimens in the 
north and east. 

The Yalonia oak (Q. spgilop>s) sheds its 
leaves and more resembles some of our 
own species. The trunk is unusually 
massive, and the tree often grows to a 
magnificent size. It is not seen in the 
south, but abounds in the north, especi- 
ally about Mount Tabor and also east 
of the Jordan, and is doubtless the " oak 
of Bashan." Isa, 2 : 12, 13 ; Zech. 11 : 2. 
It produces very large acorns, which are 
eaten by the poor, while their cups are 
employed by tanners under the name of 
Valeria, and exported from many parts 
of the Turkish empire. 

Another kind ( Q. infectoria) some- 
times occurs in Samaria and Galilee as 
a small tree with deciduous leaves, white 
beneath. Travellers through the unin- 
habited districts of Gilead and Bashan 
have found there magnificent forests of 
all three species. 

In the Bible we find these noble trees 
often mentioned for the purpose of desig- 
nating the locality of important events, 
as in Gen. 35 : 8 : Josh. 24 : 26. Oak- 
wood was used for idols. Isa. 44 : 14, 



The word translated "plains" in 
several passages — Gen. 12 : 6 : 13 : 18 ; 
14 : 13; 18: 1 ; Deut. 11 : 30 ; Jud. 4 : 11 ; 
9 : 6, 37; 1 Sam. 10 : 3 — means place* 
noted for one or more oaks. See cut 
under Abraham's Oak. 

OATH, a solemn affirmation, made 
with an appeal to the Deity in attesta- 
tion of its truth. Heb. 6:16. The cus- 
tom of taking oaths was in vogue in the 
earliest patriarchal times, Gen. 21:23, 
but their use is not confined to men. 
God also has bound himself by oaths. 
Acts 2:30; Gen. 26 : 3 ; Deut. 29 : 12, 
etc. Their use was the subject of legis- 
lation, Ex. 20 : 7 ; Lev. 19 : 12, and our 
Lord prohibits careless and profane oaths. 
Matt. 5 : 34-36. Various formularies 
were employed for oaths, such as : "As 
the Lord liveth," 1 Sam. 14 : 39 ; " Would 
God," Num.14: 2; "As the Lord liveth, 
and as thy soul liveth." 2 Kgs. 2 : 2, etc. 
From our Lord's prohibition of profane 
and careless oaths, we learn that oaths 
were taken by the more common things, 
such as the throne of God, Jerusalem, 
the earth, etc., Matt. 5 : 34, sqq., and the 
temple, the gold of the temple, and the 
altar. Matt. 23:16-22. 

As to-day the elevation of the right 
hand is associated with taking an oath 
in our courts, so amongst the Hebrews 
oaths were frequently accompanied with 
peculiar ceremonies. As far back as 
Abraham's time lifting the hand was 
practised in this connection, Gen. 14: 
22; Deut. 32:40, etc.. as also placing 
the hand under the thigh of another. 
Gen. 24:2: 47:29. 

In the O. T. the oath is taken as a 
ratification of agreements between the 
most diverse parties. The king or ruler 
takes an oath, solemnly pledging him- 
self to perform a promise. 2 Kgs. 25 : 
24; Matt. 14:7: the subject to his 
sovereign, Eccl. 8:2; the governor ex- 
acts the oath from the priests, Neh. 5 : 
12; the master from his servant, Gen. 
24 : 2 : the patriarch from his people. 
Gen. 50 : 25, etc. 

Our Lord's prohibition of profane and 
careless swearing, Matt. 5 : 34. has been 
619 



OBA 



ODE 



understood by some — as the Friends — 
to exclude all oaths whatever. No doubt, 
should the spirit of Christ completely 
pervade the world, the simple assevera- 
tions "Yea" and "Nay" would be all- 
sufficient. By coupling together parts 
of two commands, Lev. 19 : 12 and 
Deut. 23 : 23, the rabbis of our Lord's 
day virtually nullified both. 

OB AD I 'AH (servant of Jehovah). 
1. A descendant of the house of David. 
1 Chr. 3 : 21. 

2. A chief of Issachar. 1 Chr. 7 : 3. 

3. One of the six sons of Azel. 1 Chr. 
8 : 38 ; 9 : 44. 

4. A son of Shemaiah. 1 Chr. 9 : 16. 

5. A Gadite who joined David in the 
wilderness. 1 Chr. 12 : 9. 

6. A godly officer in the court of Ahab 
who concealed one hundred and fifty 
prophets in the persecution of Jezebel. 
1 Kgs. 18 : 3-16. 

7. A prince who taught the Law in 
Jehoshaphat's reign. 2 Chr. 17 : 7. 

8. Father of Ishmaiah. 1 Chr. 27 : 19. 

9. One of the overseers of the temple- 
repairs in Josiah's reign. 2 Chr. 34 : 12. 

10. A son of Jehiel. Ezr. 8 : 9. 

11. One of those who sealed the cove- 
nant with Xehemiah. Xeh. 10 : 5. 

12. A porter in Jerusalem. Xeh. 12 : 
25. 

13. The prophet whose prophecy is 
placed fourth among the minor proph- 
ecies. Absolutely nothing is known of 
his life. His prophecy was uttered sub- 
sequently to B. c. 588, as we draw from 
Ob. 11, where the capture of Jerusa- 
lem and the captivity of Jacob are re- 
ferred to as past events. The captivity 
of this verse is in all probability that by 
Xebuchadnezzar in B. c. 588. 

Prophecy of, contains (1) a general 
arraignment of Edom for its pride and 
presumption, vs. 1-9. (2) A more par- 
ticular statement of its offence as violence 
against Jacob, his brother, and neglect 
to help Jerusalem against the enemies 
that took her inhabitants captive, vs. 
10-16. (3) An account of the prosperity 
of Zion when Jacob should return from 
his captivity and Esau be discomfited, 
vs. 17-21. It is doubtful whether the 
final verses have yet been fulfilled. 
There is a striking resemblance between 
the first nine verses of this prophecy 
and Jer. 49 : 7-16. One prophet must 
have read the other's prophecy. 
620 



O'BAIj (bare), a son of Joktan who 
1 gave his name to an Arab tribe. Gen. 
10 : 28. The name is written "Ebal" 
in 1 Chr. 1 : 22. 

O'BED (serving). 1. The son of 
Ruth and Boaz, and father of Jesse. 
Ruth 4 : 17; 1 Chr. 2 : 12. His name 
occurs in the genealogical tables of our 
Lord. Matt. 1:5; Luke 3 : 32. 

2. A descendant of Sheshan by his 
Egyptian slave Jarha. 1 Chr. 2 : 37. 

3. One of David's warriors. 1 Chr. 11 : 
47. 

4. One of the porters of the temple. 
1 Chr. 26 : 7. 

5. The father of Azariah. 2 Chr. 23 : 1. 
0'BED-E'DOM(sen'an(o/^o»i). 

1. A Gittite who lived in David's time, 
1 Chr. 13 : 13, and at whose house the 
ark was deposited, after the dreadful 
death of Uzzah. 2 Sam. 6 : 6-10. The 
blessing which came on the house of 
Obed-edom for the ark's sake encouraged 
David to remove it to Jerusalem. 2 Sam. 
6 : 10-12. 

2. The temple-treasurer in the reign 
of Amaziah. 2 Chr. 25 : 24. 

O'BIL [camel-driver), the overseer 
of the camels in the reign of David. 1 
Chr. 27:30. 

OBLATION. Lev. 2 : 4. See Of- 
fering. 

O'BOTH (bottles, icater-skins), one 
of the stations of the Israelites east of 
Moab. Xum. 21:10: 33:43. It was the 
first encampment after the brazen ser- 
pent was set up, and before they reached 
Ije-abarim. It is perhaps near the 
Wady el-Ahsa, on the pilgrim-route be- 
tween Damascus and Mecca. This was 
probably on the boundary between Edom 
and Moab, and extends north-westward 
to the Dead Sea. 

OCCUPY (from the Latin occupare), 
literally "to lay hold of," then "to use," 
" employ," "trade with :" and, in aneu- 
ter sense, " to trade " is used in all these 
senses in the Bible. 

OCR AN (troubled, or troubler), the 
father of Pagiel, a prince of the tribe 
of Asher after the Exodus. Xum. 1 : 13 : 
2:27: 7:72: 10 : 26. 

O'DED (erecting). 1. The father of 
the prophet Azariah, who flourished in 
Asa's reign. 2 Chr. 15 : 1-8. In v. 8, Oded 
is called "prophet," where probably 
" the son " is meant. 

2, A prophet at the time of Pekah's 



OFF 



OFF 



invasion of Judah who prevailed upon 
the victorious army to let the captives 
free. 2 Chr. 28:9-11. 

OFFEND', OFFENSES These 
words are often wrongly translated in 
the A. V. (as Matt. 5:29; 18 : 6). The I 
Greek verb strictly means " to make to 
stumble." And so the noun means " that J 
which causeth to stumble," or leads to 
sin. It is in these senses that the eye is 
said "to offend" (better "causeth thee 
to stumble"), Matt. 5 : 29 — that is, it 
may allure to sin. So, in Matt. 18 : 7, 
" offenses " are causes of sin. Our Saviour 
is said to be a " rock of offense," Rom. 
9 : 33, because the humility of his life 
and death was an obstacle in the way of 
the Jews' accepting him, as they associ- 
ated with their idea of the Messiah the 
external grandeur and pomp of the world. 
The " offense of the cross," Gal. 5 : 11, is 
that in the doctrines of Christ or in fhe 
cross which is offensive to the natural man. 

OF'FERING, Gen. 4: 3, OBLA- 
TION. Lev. 2 : 7. Offerings or sacri- 
fice among the Jews formed the most 
essential part of religious worship. 
They indicated confession, self-dedica- 
tion, expiation, and thanksgiving. The 
books of Leviticus and Numbers are our 
principal sources of information on the 
subject. 

The offerings were either bloody or 
bloodless, and taken from the animal 
and vegetable creation. Of animals 
only tame cnes were used, as oxen, goats, 
and sheep. To these must be added the 
dove. Lev. 5 : 11, etc. From the vegeta- 
ble kingdom, wine, flour, etc., were set 
apart. Human sacrifices or offerings were 
especially forbidden. Lev. 18 : 21 ; 20 : 2. 
. In the act of offering, the offerer, after 
bringing the victim to the altar, laid his 
hand on its head. Lev. 1 :4: 4:4, etc. 
He then slew it, Lev. 1 : 4, himself, or 
the priest for him. 2 Chr. 29 : 24. The 
blood was received by the priest, who 
either sprinkled or poured it upon ob- 
jects. The victim was then flayed and 
cut in pieces. Lev. 1 : 6, 8, some or all of 
which, according to the kind of offering, 
were burnt on the altar. In the case of 
some of the offerings the victim was lifted 
up or waved, in token of its presentation 
to Jehovah. 

The first offerings of which record is 
made are those of Cain and Abel. Gen. 
4 : 3-8. Both the animal and the vegeta- 



ble kingdoms contributed on this occa- 
sion. The second offering is that of 
Noah, Gen. 8 : 20, after the Flood. 

The various offerings were the burnt- 
offerings, meat- offerings, peace-offerings, 
and the sin- and trespass-offerings. 

The burnt-offering was to be a male 
without blemish, of the herd and of the 
flock, offered voluntarily at the door of 
the tabernacle, the hand of the offerer 
being upon the head of the victim. Lev. 
1 : 2-4. 

The design of the burnt-offering was 
an atonement for sin. Lev. 1:4: comp. 
Heb. 10 : 1-3, 11. It was presented every 
day, Ex. 29 : 38-42, on the Sabbath, 
Num. 28 : 9, 10, and on the great day of 
atonement, Lev. 16 : 3, and the three 
great festivals. Num. 28 : 11-31 ; 29. 

The meat-offering consisted of flour, 
or cakes, prepared with oil and frank- 
incense. Lev. 2:1; 6 : 14-23. It was to 
be free from leaven and honey, but was 
to have salt. Lev. 2:11, 13. With this 
was connected the drink-offering, which 
was never used separately, but was an 
appendage of wine to some sacrifices. 
Ex. 29:41. A meat-offering was pre- 
sented every day with the burnt-offer- 
ing. Ex. 29^:40, 41. 

The first-fruits, offered at Pentecost, 
Lev. 23 : 17-20, and at the Passover, 
Lev. 23:10-14, were called icave-offer- 
ings ; those offered in harvest-time, 
Num. 15 : 20, 21,' heave-offerings. 

Peace-offerings were eucharistic in 
their nature, and were offered in 
thanksgiving or at a special dedica- 
tion of something to the Lord. Lev. 
3; 7:11-21. The animal as well as 
the vegetable kingdom contributed to 
this class of offerings. 

The sin- and trespass-offerings were 
expiatory. It is difficult to determine 
exactly how they were distinguished. 
The first seem to have more especial 
reference to universal sinfulness, the 
second to specific acts of sin. Both 
alike testify to the consciousness of 
sin and the felt need of atonement. 
Sin-offerings were presented by the 
high priest for personal offences, for 
national sins, and on the great day of 
atonement, when he confessed the sins 
of the whole nation with his hand on 
the scapegoat's head, and the goat 
was driven off into the wilderness. 
Lev. 16 : 1-34, etc. 

621 



OFF 



OIL 



These offerings all had a typical 
significance, especially the expiatory 
offerings, While they ever reminded 
the people of God's holiness and of 
their own sinfulness, which demands 
expiation, they also prefigured the 
atonement of Jesus Christ, on whom 
was laid the iniquity of us all, and 
" his own self bare our sins on the 
tree." 

OF'FICER, the translation of 
several Hebrew and Greek words. The 
commonest in the 0. T. is the term mean- 
ing " scribe who keeps registers and ta- 
bles." Ex. 5 : 14. The N. T. words re- 
late to legal functionaries: (1) Bailiff's, 
Matt. 5 : 25 ; John 7 : 32, 45 ; Acts 5 : 
22; (2) Those who register and collect 
the fines imposed by courts of justice. 
Luke 12 : 58. 

OG (long-necked?), a king of Bashan, 
of gigantic stature, Deut. 3 : 11, who 
opposed the passage of the Israelites 
through his territories. Deut. 3 : 1. 
He was defeated in a pitched battle 
in Edrei, and, together with his sons, 
was slain. Deut. 1:4; Num. 21 : 34. 
His sixty fenced and walled cities were 
given with Bashan and all his king- 
dom to the half-tribe of Manasseh. 
Deut. 3:3, 4; Num. 32 : 23. He 
was a giant, Josh. 13 : 12, and his long 
iron bedstead was regarded as a curios- 
ity, and was preserved as a memorial of 
his huge stature. Deut. 3 : 11. 

O'HAD [power), one of the sons of 
Simeon. Gen. 46 : 10; Ex. 6 : 15. 

O'HEL (tent), a son of Zerubbabel. 
1 Chr. 3 : 20. 

OIL, amongst the Hebrews, was 
made from olive - berries and from 
spices. Ex. 25 : 6. It was used — 

1. In the preparation of food, much as 
butter and lard are used to-day. 1 E>s. 

17 : 12-15; Ex. 29 : 2 ; Lev. 2 : 4, etc. 

2. As a cosmetic for anointing the 
body, the beard, and the head. 2 Sam. 
14 : 2 ; Ps. 23 : 5 ; Luke 7 : 46, etc. 

3. For illuminating purposes in lamps. 
Ex. 25 : 6 ; 27 : 20 ; Matt. 25 : 3, etc. 

4. In worship. The first-fruits, Num. 

18 : 12, and the tithes were dedicated to 
the Lord. Neh. 13 : 5. The meat-offer- 
ings were also dipped in oil. Lev. 2:10; 
7 : 16, etc. 

5. In the ritual of consecration of 
kings and high priests. 1 Sam. 10 : 1 ; 
Lev. 8 : 12, etc. 

622 



6. For medicinal purposes. Mark 6 : 
13 ; Luke 10 : 34 ; Isa. 1:6; Jas. 5 : 14. 

7. For anointing the dead. Matt. 26 : 
12; Luke 23 : 56. 

The practice in the early Church of 
anointing the bodies of persons whose 
lives were despaired of was derived 
from Jas. 5 : 14. The Koman Catholic 
Church has placed the practice among 
the sacraments, denominating it " ex- 
treme unction." 

As an ordinary cosmetic, the use of 
oil is significant of joy and gladness, 
Ps. 92 : 10/ and the omission of it be- 
tokens sorrow. 2 Sam. 14 : 2 ; Matt. 6 : 
17. See Olive. 

OIL-PRESS. " The oil of Pales- 
tine is expressed in a rude way. The 
olive is subjected to pressure in a mill 
consisting of a great millstone with a 
hole in its centre ; this stone is laid on 
one of its flat surfaces, and a beam of 
wood fastened upright in the axis. The 
upper surface of the stone is slightly 
depressed, except at its margin and 
around the central hole. Another mill- 
stone is set up on its edge in the depres- 
sion of the upper surface of the lower 
stone. Through the axis of this stone 
passes a long beam, which is fastened 
at one end by a pin to the axis of the 
horizontal stone, and at the other to a 
whiffletree, to which a horse or ox is 
geared when the mill is in operation. 
The upright stone is moved around the 
axis of the lower, and crushes the olives 
by its great weight. The oil which is 
expressed by this crushing mill is in- 
corporated with the crushed mass, which 
is then transferred to baskets of flexible 
structure, 18 inches wide and 6 inches 
deep. A pile of these baskets, 8 feet or 
more in height, is raised within a hollow 
erect cylinder of stone, which is open in 
front by a slit, 4 inches in width, from 
top to bottom of the cylinder. Into the 
top of this cylinder passes a piston, which 
is connected with a lever, to which are 
attached heavy stones, and by means of 
the piston the baskets of olives are sub- 
jected to as much pressure as is necessary 
to extract the oil. The quality of oil thus 
made is quite inferior to that imported 
from Italy and France. It is largely used 
in making soap, and was formerly much 
more used for burning than now." — Dr. 
Post. of Beirut. (Contributed.) See Olive. 

OIL TREE (tree of oil). Isa. 41 r 



OIN 



OLI 



19. In 1 Kgs. 6 : 23, 31, 32, 33 these 
words are rendered "olive tree," and 
represent the material of the cherubim, 
doors, and posts of Solomon's temple. 
They are translated "pine" in Neh. 8 : 
15. But the olive tree is also unmistak- 
ably mentioned in this verse. If the oil 
tree was not the olive tree, what was it? 
Tristram and others believe it to be the 
oleaster (Elea</)itts angustif alius). This 
shrub has no affinity to the 
olive, though resembling it 
in leaf and general appear- 
ance and yielding from its 
berries an inferior oil. It 
is found plentifully on the 
highlands of Palestine and 
about Jerusalem, thus meet- 
ing the direction of Neh. 8: 
15, as the Balanites JSgyp- 
tiaea, a shrub of the Jordan 
valley, does not. Dr Tris- 
tram therefore suggests in 
one place (under "Oil 
Tree") that its "fine hard 
wood " was the wood of the 
cherubim, but in another 
place (under "Olive") states 
that material to have been 
olive wood (as the A. V. 
reads). The latter opinion 
has a strong probability in 
its favor, and it does not 
appear that the oleaster is 
more than a large shrub, 
though the author cited 
calls it, as compared with 
the olive, " a smaller tree." 
For the passage in Nehe- 
miah there would then be 
no present explanation un- 
less we believe, as is very 
possible, that the term " oil 
tree," in later times at least, 
was extended or restricted 
to the oleaster. 

OINTMENT. Isa. lr.fi. 
12. See Anoint and Oil. 

OLD TESTAMENT. See 
Bible. 

OI/IVE. From ancient times this 
has been one of the most common fruit 
trees of Palestine. Deut. 6 : 11. As the 
olive stands in the orchard it resembles 
the apple tree in shape, size, and mode 
of cultivation. Its leaves are narrow, dull 
above and silvery beneath, so that the re- 
sulting gray-green of these trees becomes 



beautiful by association. Hos.14 : 6. The 
white flowers, produced in the greatest 
profusion, are like those of the lilac, to 
which the tree is botanically allied ; and, 
though millions are prematurely scatter- 
ed by the breezes, Job 15 : 33, enough re- 
main to load down the trees with fruit. 
This latter is like a plum in shape and 
color, being first green, then pale, and, 
when ripe, nearly black. Olives are some- 




Matt. 26 



Olive Branches and Olives. 

times plucked in an unripe state and put 
into some pickle or other preserving liquid 
and exported. For the most part, how- 
ever, they are valuable for the oil they 
produce, which is expressed from the 
fruit in various ways, and constitutes 
an important article of commerce and 
luxury. Job 24 : 11 ; Eze. 27 : 17. The 
fruit is gathered by beating, Deut. 24 : 
20, or shaking the tree, Jsa. 17 : 6; and 
by Jewish law gleanings were to be left 
for the poor. A full-sized tree in its vigor 
623 



OLI 



OLI 



annually produces from ten to fifteen gal- 
lons of oil. 

The olive seems to flourish best where 
it can get its roots into the crevices of 
the rock. Deut. 32 : 13. It grows slowly, 
lives to an immense age, and still bears 
fruit when the trunk is but a hollow shell 
or strip of such a shell, illustrating Ps. 
92 : 14. The olive-branch is regarded 
universally as the symbol of peace, Gen. 
8 : 11, and plenty. 

The olives from which oil is to be ex- 
pressed must be gathered by the hands 
or softly shaken from the trees before 
they are fully ripe, in September or Oc- 
tober. The best oil is that which comes 
from the fruit with very light pressure. 
This is sometimes called in Scripture 
"green oil," not because of its color — 
for it is pellucid — but because it is from 
unripe fruit. It is translated, in Ex. 27 : 
20, "pure oil-olive beaten," and was used 



for the golden candlestick. For the ex- 
traction of the first oil panniers or bas- 
kets are used, which are gently shaken. 
The second and third pressing produces 
inferior oil. The best is obtained from 
unripe fruit; the worst from that which 
is more than ripe, and which often is not 
gathered till winter. The oil of Egypt 
is worth little, because the olives are too 
fat. Hence the Hebrews sent gifts of oil 
to the Egyptian kings. Hos. 12 : 1. 

The olives are themselves eaten, and 
the oil is employed not only as salad, but 
as butter and fat are in our domestic 
economy, and the inferior qualities are 
used for making soap. It is observed 
by travellers that the natives of oil- 
countries manifest more attachment to 
this than to any other article of food, 
and find nothing adequate to supply its 
place. For other uses see Oil. 

A press was often used for the extrac- 




Oil-Press and Olive Tree. 



tion of the oil, consisting of two reser- 
voirs, usually 8 feet square and 4 feet 
deep, situated one above the other and 
hewn out of the rock. Job 29 : 6. The 
berries, being thrown into the upper one, 
were trodden out with the feet. Mic. 6:15. 
Olive-wood, which is close-grained, 
of a dark amber color, and beautifully 
veined, was probably used in the temple. 
624 



1 Kgs. 6 : 23, 31, 33. See Oil Tree. 
Ordinarily, at present, there are no 
fences about olives, but each tree has its 
one or more owners, and is inherited, 
bought, or sold separately, while the 
ground belongs to the village. This 
tree, like the apple, requires grafting, 
for seedlings produce but scanty, small, 
and poor fruit. 



OLI 



OLI 



Olite, WrLD. Rom. 11 : 17-24 does 
not teach that a wild twig grafted upon 
a good stock will produce good fruit, for 
this is not the fact. Paul refers rather 
to the adoption of the Gentiles among 
God's people as a process " contrary to 
nature," but accomplished by grace. 

OL IVES, and OLIVET, 
MOUNT OF, a noted mountain or 
range of hills east of Jerusalem. 

Names and Scripture History. — The 
mountain derives its name from the 
olive trees which formerly abounded on 
its sides, some of which- are still found 
thereon. It is called "Olivet'" and 
" Mount of Olives " in the 0. T., 2 Sam. 
15:30: Zech. 14 : 4, and is also alluded 
to as the "mount," Neh. 8 : 15, the 
mount facing Jerusalem, 1 Kgs. 11 : 7, 
the "mountain which is on the east side 
of the city," Eze. 11 : 23 ; and the " mount 
of corruption " probably refers to a por- 
tion of Olivet. 2 Kgs. 23 : 13. It is also 
called, in the N. T., " Mount of Olives " 
and " Olivet," and was a scene of several 
of the most interesting events in the life 
of our Lord. Matt. 21 : 1 ; 24 : 3 ; 26 : 30 ; 
Mark 11 : 1 ; 13 : 3 ; 14 : 26 ; Luke 19 : 29, 
37: 21 : 37 ; • 22 : 39; John 8:1; Acts 

1 : 12. The modern Arabic name is 
sometimes Jebel ez-Zeitun, or "mount 
of olives," but more usually it is Jebel 
et-Tor, or "mount of the summit." The 
mountain is first mentioned in connection 
with David's flight from Jerusalem to 
escape from Absalom. 2 Sam. 15 : 30, 32 ; 
16 : 1. Upon it Solomon built high 
places for the gods of his numerous 
wives, but these idolatrous places were 
destroyed by King Josiah. 1 Kgs. 11 : 7 ; 

2 Kgs. 23 : 13, 14. When the captive 
Jewscelebrated the feast of tabernacles, 
the olive, pine, myrtle, and palm branches 
used in building their booths were 
brought from this mountain. Neh. 8 : 15. 

The greatest interest, however, in this 
mountain is in connection with the clos- 
ing scenes of our Saviour's ministry. 
At Bethany, on the eastern slope of the 
mountain, lived Mary, Martha, and 
Lazarus, and here he performed his last 
and greatest miracle ; from Olivet he 
made his triumphal entry into Jeru- 
salem ; upon it he spent the nights 
during the week of his passion; from 
its slopes he looked down upon Jeru- 
salem and wept over the ungrateful city 
as he foretold its fearful doom ; on the 
40 



night of his betrayal he retired to a 
garden at its foot, and spent those hours 
of prayer and agony; and after his 
resurrection, in the presence of his dis- 
ciples, he ascended from Olivet to heaven 
to sit on the right hand of the Father in 
his glory. John 11 : 1 ; 12 : 1 ; Matt. 21: 
1 : Mark 11 : 1 ; Luke 19 : 29-38 : 21 : 37 ; 
Matt. 26 : 36; Mark 14 : 32 ; Luke 22 : 
39; 24: 50; Acts 1 : 12. 

Physical Features. — Olivet, or the 
Mount of Olives, is not a single peak, 
but a ridge having not less than four 
separate summits. Osborne describes 
six prominent heights in the Olivet 
range, but he includes Scopus, on the 
north, and the hill of " Evil Counsel," 
on the extreme south, of the ridge The 
Olivet range extends north without any 
marked depression to the portion called 
Scopus, and the general elevation of the 
ridge is a little less than 3000 feet above 
the sea-level. It lies directly east of 
Jerusalem, and is separated from the 
city by the valley of the Kedron. The 
four chief peaks south of Scopus are : 
(1) The northern summit, called Viri 
Galilsei; from a tradition that the angels 
stood upon it when they spoke to the 
disciples. Acts 1 : 11. It is about half a 
mile north-east from the city, and is 
2682 feet above the sea. (2) The central 
summit, or the " Mount of Ascension," 
2665 feet in height, is situated directly 
east of the temple-area, and is the Mount 
of Olives proper. Three paths lead to 
this summit — one by a nearly direct 
ascent, another winding around the 
southern shoulder, and a third path lead- 
ing around the northern shoulder. On 
the top of this peak is a chapel built 
upon the site of a church erected by 
Helena, the mother of Constantine, since 
tradition points out this spot as the place 
of the ascension of Christ. The monks 
point out even the footprint made by 
the ascending Lord, and the spot, a little 
south of this, where Christ is said to 
have taught the disciples the model, or 
Lord's, prayer. The true place of the 
ascension, however, was beyond the 
summit of Olivet, and near Bethany. 
Luke 24 : 50. (3) The third summit, 
about 600 yards south-west of the former, 
and three-fourths of a mile.from Bethany, 
is called " the Prophets," from a curious 
catacomb called the " Prophets' Tombs" 
on its side. (4) The fourth summit, 
625 



OLI 



OJLI 



about 1000 yards from No. 3, is the 
"Mount of Offence," so called from ^he 
idol-worship which Solomon established 
there. None of the depressions which 
separate these summits are very deep ; 
some are to be regarded as quite slight. 
It is evident that in ancient times this 
mountain-ridge was covered with olives, 
myrtles, figs, cypresses, and some species 
of the terebinth or oak, and also abounded 
in flowers. " The olives and olive-yards," 
says Stanley, "from which it derived its 
name must in earlier times have clothed 
it far more completely than at present, 
where it is only in the deeper and more 
secluded slopes leading up to the north- 
ernmost summit that these venerable 
trees spread into anything like a forest. 
And in those times, as we see from the 
name of Bethany ('house of dates'), and 
from the allusions after the Captivity 
and in the gospel history, myrtle-groves, 
pines, and palm trees — all of which have 
now disappeared — must have made it a 
constant resort for pleasure and seclu- 
sion. Two gigantic cedars, probably 
amongst the very few in Palestine, stood 
near its summit, under which were four 
shops where pigeons were sold for puri- 
fication. The olive and fig alone now 
remain — the olive still in more or less 
abundance, the fig here and there on the 
roadside, but both enough to justify the 
Mussulmans' belief that in the oath in 
the Koran, 'By the olive and the fig/ 
the Almighty swears by his favorite 
city of Jerusalem, with this adjacent 
mountain." — Sinai and Palestine, p. 184. 
As our Lord must frequently have 
looked over the city and the surrounding 
country from the top of this mount, it 
will be interesting to describe the scene 
now presented to the eye of the traveller 
from this spot. The view from the top 
of the minaret upon the central summit, 
or Mount of Ascension, is extensive and 
magnificent. " Beyond the valley of the 
Kedron extends the spacious plateau of 
the Haram esh-Sherif, where the Dome 
of the Rock and the Aksa mosque pre- 
sent a particularly imposing appearance. 
The spectator should observe the direc- 
tion taken by the temple-hill, the higher 
site of the ancient Bezetha, to the north 
of the temple, and the hollow of the 
Tyropoeon, which is plainly distinguish- 
able, though now filled with rubbish, 
between the temple-hill and the upper 



part of the town. The dome-covered 
! roofs of the houses form a very peculiar 
i characteristic of the town. Toward the 
! north, beyond the olive-grove outside 
the Damascus Gate, is seen the upper 
(western) course of the valley of the 
Kedron, decked with rich verdure in 
i spring, beyond which rises the Scopus. 
i The view toward the east is striking. 
j Here, for the first time, we perceive that 
extraordinary and unique depression of 
the earth's surface which few travellers 
[ thoroughly i-ealize. The blue waters of 
; the Dead Sea, lying at the foot of the 
; mountains which bound the eastern 
horizon, and apparently not many hun- 
dred feet, below us, are really no less 
than 3900 feet below our present stand- 
point. The clearness of the atmosphere, 
too, is so deceptive that the mysterious 
lake seems quite near, though it can only 
be reached after a seven hours' ride over 
barren, uninhabited ranges of hills. The 
blue mountains which rise beyond the 
deep chasm, reaching the same height 
as the Mount of Olives, once belonged 
to the tribe of Reuben, and it is among 
these that Mount Nebo must be sought. 
To the extreme south of that range a 
small eminence, crowned by the village 
of Kerak, is visible in clear weather. 
On the eastern margin of the Dead Sea 
are seen two wide openings : that to the 
south is the valley of the river Arnon, 
and that to the north the valley of the 
Zerka. Farther north rises the Jebel 
Jilacl, once the possession of the tribe 
of Gad. Nearer to us lies the valley of 
Jordan, the course of the river being 
indicated by a green line on a whitish 
ground. Toward the south-east we see 
the course of the valley of the Kedron, 
or 'Valley of Fire,' and on a hill-pla- 
teau, to the left, the village of Abu Dis. 
Bethany is not visible. Quite near us 
j rises the ' Mountain of Offence :' beyond 
j the Kedron that of 'Evil Counsel,' and 
farther distant, to the south, is the sum- 
mit of the 'Frank Mountain/ or 'Hill 
of Paradise/ with the heights of Beth- 
lehem and Tekoah ; to the south-west, 
on the fringe of hills which bounds the 
plain of Rephaim on the south, lies the 
monastery of Mar Ely as, past which 
winds the road to Bethlehem. That town 
itself is concealed from view, but the 
large village of Bet Jala and several 
villages to the south of Jerusalem, such 
627 



0L1 



ON 



as Beit Su/a/a and Esh-Sherafat, are 
distinctly visible." — Baedeker's Pales- 
tine and Syria, p. 219. 

The slopes of Olivet are terraced and 
cultivated, but the vegetation is not 
luxuriant. The principal trees now are 
the olive, fig, and carob, with here and 
there a few apricot, almond, terebinth, 
and hawthorn. At the western base of 
the mountain is Sihcan, a miserable 
little village. Jewish tradition declares 
that the shekinah, or divine presence, 
after retiring from Jerusalem, dwelt 
three years and a half on Olivet, to see 
whether the Jews would repent, but 
when they would not, retired to his own 
place. See Jerusalem and Gethsem- 

ANE. 

OL'IVE-YARD, a grove of olives, 
tended for the sake of the fruit. Ex. 23 : 
11, etc. 

OLYMTAS, a Christian at Rome. 
Rom. 16: 15. 

O'MAR {eloquent?), a grandson of 
Esau. Gen. 36 : 11, 15 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 36. 

OMEGA. Rev. 1:8. See Alpha. 
,0'iHER. Ex. 16:36. See Measures. 

OM'RI (servant of Jehovah). 1. An 
officer in the army of Israel. 1 Kgs. 16 : 
16. He was engaged in the siege of 
Gibbethon (which see) when he re- 
ceived intelligence that Zimri, another 
officer of the army, had assassinated the 
king and usurped the throne. The army, 
by general acclamation, made Omriking, 
and, raising the siege of Gibbethon, 
they forthwith marched to Tirzah, where 
Zimri resided, and captured it. Zimri 
set fire to the house he occupied, and was 
consumed. The Israelites were then 
divided into two parties ; but after a 
short struggle Omri prevailed and 
took the throne, which he disgraced 
through a reign of twelve years. Omri, 
in the sixth year of his reign, built Sa- 
maria, which thereafter became the 
capital of the ten tribes. The prophet 
Micah, ch. 6 : 16, speaks of the " statutes 
of Omri," and denounces them. They 
were probably of an idolatrous charac- 
ter. 

2. A descendant of Benjamin. 1 Chr. 
7:8. 

3. A descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 
9:4. 

4. Chief of the tribe of Issachar in the 
reign of David. 1 Chr. 27 : 18. 

ON (strength), a grandson of Reuben 
628 



who took part with Korah, Dathan, and 
Abiram in their rebellion. Num. 16:1. 
As his name is not subsequently men- 
tioned, it has been conjectured that he 
repented and withdrew. 

ON (sun, light), a celebrated city of 
Lower Egypt, Gen. 41 : 45, 50 ; called 
Bethshemesh, or " house of the sun," 
Jer. 43 : 13, and known to the Greeks as 
Heliopolis, or "city of the sun." Eze. 
30 : 17, margin. Some suppose it to be 
referred to as the '* city of destruction " 
in Isa. 19 : 18, 19. The Arabs call it, 
Ain Shems, or the "fountain of the sun." 
On was situated upon the Pelusiac 
branch of the Nile, about 20 miles north- 
east of ancient Memphis, and 6 miles 
north from Cairo. 

History. — On was one of the oldest 
cities in the world. Its origin and founder 
are unknown, but it has an obelisk which 
has been standing about 4000 years. It 
has been considered the Rome and the 
Athens of ancient Egypt, the centre of its 
religion and learning. In it stood the 
great temple of Ra, with one exception 
the most famous ancient shrine in Egypt. 
Ra, next to Ptah, was the greatest 
Egyptian deity, bearing seventy-five 
different forms, and regarded as a king 
of gods and men, and as the sun who 
illumines the world with the light of his 
eyes, and is the awakener of life. Every 
Pharaoh was also regarded as a human 
embodiment of Ra, and hence one of his 
titles was " Lord of Heliopolis." To the 
chief shrine of the god Ra each king pre- 
sented special offerings, making it one 
of the richest temples of ancient times. 
The immense wealth of this shrine is 
mentioned in various papyri, particu- 
larly the "Harris Papyrus," in London, 
which gives a list of the gifts of Rameses 
III. Its companies of priests and at- 
tendants are reputed to have numbered 
over 12,000. The legend of the wonder- 
bird Phcenix, early used to illustrate the 
doctrine of the resurrection, arose here; 
to this city Joseph, delivered from prison, 
came with royal honors to marry the 
daughter of Potipherah, ("dedicated to 
Ra "). Josephus reports that On was the 
home of Jacob on his arrival in Egypt. 
In its grandeur it was the resort of men 
of learning from all countries. In its 
schools and universities Moses, accord- 
ing to Manetho, was instructed in all the 
learning of the Egyptians, and hither 



ON 



ONA 



came Plato, Eudoxus, and the wisest of 
the Greeks to be initiated into the mys- 
tic lore of its priests. From the teachers 
of its ancient schools Herodotus gained 
his knowledge of the country and its 
history. In the time of Strabo, B. c. 60, 
this famous seat of learning had ceased 
to exist, though he was shown the houses 
of the priests and the dwelling occupied 
by Plato. He states that its teachers 
were admirably imbued with the know- 
ledge of heavenly things, and that they 
could be persuaded only by patience and 
politeness to communicate some of their 
doctrines, which they concealed from 
barbarians. Josephus speaks of a tem- 
ple built at Heliopolis by order of Ptol- 
emy Philometor for the Jews when Onias 
was high priest, and which lasted for 




Obelisk at On, or Heliopolis. 
220 years, when it was destroyed by 
Vespasian. The city, however, is said 
to have been devastated by Cambyses at 
an earlier date. 



Present Condition. — The site of this 
once famous city is now marked with a 
few ruins of massive walls, fragments 
of sphinxes, a noted obelisk of red gran- 
ite of Syene (one of the two which stood 
before the temple of the Sun), and some 
low mounds enclosing a space about 
three-quarters of a mile long by half a 
mile wide. The obelisk, rising amid the 
desolation, is 66 feet high, and, except a 
small one found by Lepsius in Memphis, 
is the oldest one yet discovered, having 
been erected by Usertesen, the second 
king of the twelfth dynasty. Each of 
the four sides is covered with hieroglyph- 
ics, rendered illegible on two sides by 
the mud-cells of bees. The inscriptions 
are, however, the same on each of its 
faces, and simply record when, why, and 
by whom it was erected. It is partly 
buried in the sand. " There," says 
Schaflf, "it has been standing for near- 
ly 4000 years, and there it still stands in 
solitary grandeur and unbroken silence. 
Had it a mouth to speak, it could tell of 
the visit of Abraham and Sarah, of the 
wisdom and purity of Joseph, the in- 
quisitiveness of Herodotus, the sublime 
speculations of Plato, the mysteries of 
Egyptian learning and idolatry, the rise 
and fall of ancient empires." It appears 
to the traveller as the only important 
survivor of the avenues of spinxes, the 
temples, palaces, colleges, and obelisks 
beheld or described by the Grecian his- 
torians. Formerly the two obelisks of 
Alexandria called the " Needles of 
Cleopatra" or the "Obelisks of Pha- 
raoh " stood at On, but they were re- 
moved in the reign of Tiberius, and one 
of them now stands on the bank of the 
Thames, in London (since 1879) ; the 
other has been presented to the city of 
New York, whither it was transported in 
1880, and now stands in the Central Park. 

Tradition indicates On as the place to 
which Joseph and Mary and the child 
Jesus came to escape from the cruelty 
of Herod, and a sycamore tree is shown, 
under which they are reputed to have 
rested in their flight. 

O'NAM {strong). 1. One of the sons 
of Shobal. Gen. 36 : 23 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 40. 

2. A son of Jerahmeel. 1 Chr. 2 : 26, 28. 

O'NAN (strong), the second son of 

Judah, Gen. 38 : 4: 1 Chr. 2 : 3, who 

refused to raise up seed to his elder 

brother after his death. Gen. 38 : 8, 9. 

629 



ONE 



OPH 



He died before the migration of Jacob's 
family to Egypt. Gen. 46 : 12 ; Num. 
26:19. 

OJVES'IMUS (useful), a slave of 
Philemon in whose behalf Paul wrote 
the Epistle to Philemon. Col. 4:9. He 
seems to have fled from his master, 
Phile. 15, but returned to him a Chris- 
tian. His conversion was brought about 
through Paul at Rome. Phile. 10. Tra- 
dition says he was afterward made 
bishop of Bersea, in Macedonia. 

OIVESIPHORUS [profit-bring- 
ing), a primitive Christian who minis- 
tered to the wants of Paul at Ephesus, 
and afterward sought him out at Rome 
and openly sympathized with him. 2 
Tim. 1:16-18; 4: 19. 

ON'ION , a well-known garden vege- 
table which grew in great perfection in 
Egypt, and was longed for by the Israel- 
ites. Num. 11 : 5. The onions of Egypt 
are of large size and exquisite flavor, 
" differing from the onions of our coun- 
try as much as a bad turnip differs in 
palatableness from a good apple." 

O'NO (strong), a town in Benjamin, 
and reoccupie^i after the Captivitv. 1 
Chr. 8 : 12 ; Ezr. 2 : 33 ; Neh. 7 : 37." A 
plain and a valley — the two perhaps 
identical — were connected with it. Neh. 
6:2; 11 : 35 ; 1 Chr. 4 : 11. As it is 
named with Lod, Van de Velde, Por- 
ter, Baedeker, and others locate it at 
Kefr 'Ana, 5 miles north of Lydda 
(Lod). 

OJV'YCHA, an ingredient of the 
sacred incense which was prepared un- 
der divine direction. Ex. 30 : 34. It 
was probably the horny li'd or door of a 
univalve shell (Strombus) found in the 
Red Sea. When burnt this " operculum " 
emits a strong pungent odor. 

O'lVYX, one kind of chalcedony; a 
precious stone, Ex. 25:7; Eze. 28:13, 
exhibiting two or more colors disposed 
in parallel bands or layers. The Hebrew 
word shoham is uniformly so translated 
in the Bible. Opinion is divided as to the 
exact meaning of the term. Josephus 
says the onyx is meant. It was found 
in the land of Havilah, Gen. 2 : 12, and 
was evidently of high value, as it is 
mentioned among precious stones and 
metals. Job 28: 16; Eze. 28 : 13. It 
adorned the breastplate of the high 
priest and the two shoulders of his 
ephod. Ex. 28 : 9-12, 20. David also 
630 



collected onyx-stones for the adornment 
of the temple. 1 Chr. 29 : 2. 

OTHEL (hill, swelling), a hill of 
ancient Jerusalem. More accurately, it 
was the southern extremity of the hill 
on which the temple stood, and from 
whence the hill sunk gradually toward 
the sun-ounding valleys. It was enclosed 
! and fortified by a wall, 2 Chr. 27 : 3 ; 
j 33: 14: Neh. 3:26, 27; 11:21, but it is 
, now outside the walls of the city. The 
i term has usually been understood to ap- 
i ply to the entire hill. Warren, however, 
! suggests that Ophel was originally the 
J designation of the palace which Solomon 
! built, a building which in later reigns 
j would command the Kedron valley by a 
! wall at least 150 feet in height, increased 
i to 200 feet by the building of the royal 
j cloisters. The excavations of Warren 
I exposed a wall 70 feet in height, which 
, he supposes to have been Manasseh's, 
J and in conjunction with it is a great 
tower built of drafted stones — perhaps 
that " which lieth without." Upward 
j of 50 shafts were sunk about Ophel in 
search of the wall, and a line of wall 
j was found to extend as far as 700 feet 
■ from the first tower in a south-easterly 
direction along the ridge of Ophel. 
There it ends abruptly. About 200 feet 
southward in the same line some mas- 
sive walls were uncovered. On the east- 
ern side of Ophel is the Fount of the 
Virgin, and below is the pool of Siloam. 
See Jerusalem. 

O'PHIR (fruitful?), one of the sons 
of Joktan. Gen. 10 : 29 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 23. 

O'PHIR, the celebrated gold-region 
to which the ships of Solomon and Hi- 
ram sailed from a port on the Red Sea, 
and from whence they returned bearing 
gold, silver, precious stones, and algum- 
tree wood ; and they also brought ivory, 
apes, and peacocks, though it is not said 
that these latter came origin all y from 
Ophir. 1 Kgs. 9:28; 10:11,22. The 
ships of Jehoshaphat, built to make a 
similar voyage, were wrecked at Ezion- 
geber. 1 Kgs. 22 : 48. The abundance and 
fineness of the gold of Ophir were pro- 
verbial. Job 22 : 24 : 28 : 1 6 : Ps. 45 : 9 : 
Isa. 13:12: 1 Chr. 29 : 4 ; Tobit 13 : 17 ; 
Ecclus. 7:18. 

The precise situation of Ophir is an 
unsettled question in scriptural geogra- 
phy. Three chief locations have been 
suggested: (1) Arabia; (2) India; (3) 



OPH 



OEA 



Eastern Africa. The arguments in favor 
of each location may be briefly stated as 
follows : 

1. Arabia. — The reason for placing 
Ophir in Arabia is that this land of gold 
was probably named after Ophir, a son 
of Joktan. and a descendant of Shem, 
whose dwelling was between Mesha and 
Sephar, a mount of the east. Gen. 10 : 
29, 30. Now, we find that Ptolemy, in 
his description of Arabia Felix, speaks 
of a town called Sapphara or Saphar, 
which resembles the Hebrew Sephar. 
This would place Ophir in Southern 
Arabia, upon the border of the Indian 
Ocean. Ritter objects to this location 
because Arabia does not now produce 
gold. There is abundant evidence, how- 
ever, to show that in ancient times gold 
was obtained in Arabia. Solomon re- 
ceived gold brought by the queen of 
Sheba. and Tyrian merchants traded in 
Arabian gold* 1 Kgs. 10 : 15 ; 2 Chr. 9 : 
14: Eze. 27:22. Diodorus and Pliny 
also testify that Arabia formerly abound- 
ed in gold, as well as in precious s r ones 
and sweet-smelling wood like the algum 
trees. 

2. l n( fia.— The argument of Ritter, 
Ewald. nnd Max Muller in favor of lo- 
cating Ophir in India is that some of 
the articles brought in the ships of Solo- 
mon a-e productions peculiar to India. 
Max Muller has also made an ingenious 
linguistic argument in favor of this 
theory, based upon the fact that the 
names of some of these articles are for- 
eign words in Hebrew, and that they be- 
long especially to the Sanscrit, the pa- 
rent language of Eastern India. Neither 
of these considerations is of sufficient 
weight to decide the question. 

3. Eastern Africa. — The idea that 
Ophir was identical with Sofala, on the 
Mozambique coast of Africa, appears to 
have b^en first suggested by Portuguese 
travellers in the sixteenth century. Some 
French scholars have approved of the 
theory, but it has not met with general 
favor. 

It is safe to conclude from the above 
statements that when the Heb-ew wri- 
ters spoke of going to Ophir they re- 
ferred to the Joktnnite Ophir of the 
Arabian cast, though it is not improb- 
able that the voyage of Solomon's ships 
extended to India. 

OPH'M {mouldy), a town in Benja- 



■ min. Josh. 18 : 24. It was probably iden- 
' tical with Gophna of Josephus and with 
[ the modern village of Jufna, or Jifna, 

about 2 or 3 miles north-west of Bethel. 

It was an important town in the time of 

Vespasian. 

OPH'RAH ( female fawn), the son 

of Meonothai. 1 Chr. 4: 14. 

OPH'RAH (female fawn), the name 

of at least two places in Scripture. 

1. A town in Benjamin toward which 
an invading company of Philistines 
went. Josh. 18 : 23 ; 1 Sam. 13 : 17. Some 
suppose it is identical with Ephrain or 
Ephron. 2 Chr. 13:19. and with the 
city of Ephraim. to which our Lord re- 
tired after raising Lazarus. John 11: 54. 
Eusebius and Jerome located it about 5 
Roman miles east of Bethel. This would 
identify it with the modern village er- 
Taiyibeh. 

2. Ophrah of the Abi-ezerite. Jud. 6 : 
11, 24. This was the place where Gideon 
saw the angel, erected an altar, and 
where he was buried. Jud. 8 : 27, 32. 
Here Abimelech slew seventy of his 
kindred, and the town appears to have 
been near Shechem. in the territory of 
Manasseh. Jud. 9 : 1, 5, fi, 15. "The 
Pal. Memoirs suggest as its site the 

: village of Ferata, near Shechem. 

ORACLE. This term is in the 0. 
T. in every case but one applied to the 
most holy place in the temple, whence 
God declared his will to ancient Israel. 
1 Kgs. 6 : 5. 19-23 : 8 : 6. But in 2 Sam. 
16 : 23 it is used in the ordinary sense. 
In the N. T. it is in the plural, and is 
applied to the Scriptures, which contain 
the will of God. Rom. 3:2: Ileb. 5:12; 
1 Pet. 4:11. Once they are called " liv- 
ing " because of their quickening effects. 
Acts 7 : 38. 

By the oracles, in the heathen world, 
were understood the shrines where ut- 
terances concerning the future were given 
and the utterance itself. The Greeks 
had many such oracles, of which the 
most famous was the oracle of Delphi. 
The priestess, sitting on a tripod ever a 
chasm from which an intoxicating vapor 
was said to ascend, uttered incoherent 
words, which were then interpreted by a 
prophet. The-e oracles at one time stood 
in high repute and were consulted by 
kings. They did not, however, with- 
stand very long the corruptive power 
of money and bribery. 

631 



OKA 



OSS 



ORATOR, or ADVOCATE, 

because acquainted with. Roman law. 
See Tertuxlus. 

ORDINANCES. The term, as 
used by the sacred writers, designates 
laws and commandments of God, Ex. 
18 : 20, or of civil rulers, 1 Pet. 2 : 13, 
and sometimes religious ceremonies. 
Heb. 9 : 1, 10. In one passage, 1 Cor. 
11 : 2, the word is a translation for the 
Greek word paradosis, which in twelve 
other passages of the N. T. is more cor- 
rectly translated "tradition." 

OREB (raven), a prince of Midian 
defeated and driven back by Gideon. 
Jud. 7 : 25. His fate is alluded to in Ps. 
83:11 and Isa. 10 : 26. 

O'REB(mrai). The "rock of Oreb" 
was named after Oreb, one of the princes 
of Midian, whom the men of Ephraim 
slew. Jud. 7 : 25 : Isa. 10 : 26. Reland 
and others would locate Oreb east of the 
Jordan and in the neighborhood of 
Bethshean, at a place called Orbo. It 
appears from Jud. 8 : I that Gideon 
crossed the river in pursuit of the kings 
of Midian. Hence, Condor formerly 
suggested that the Midianite leaders 
were executed on the west side of the 
Jordan and their heads carried to Gid- 
eon, on the other side, and that the rock 
Oreb was at Ash el-Ghorab. He adds: 
"The sharp peak overlooking the broad 
plain north of Jericho would indeed 
form a natural place for a public execu- 
tion, which would be visible to the whole 
multitude beneath." — Palestine Quar- 
terly, July, 1874, p. 184. In the Hand- 
book of the Bible, however, he appears 
to have abandoned this identification, 
which leaves that of Reland as the only 
probable location of Oreb suggested. 

O'REX (pine tree), a son of Jerah- 
meel. 1 Chr. 2 : 25. 

ORGAN. Gen. 4: 21. The "organ," 
as it is called, is thought to have been 
what the ancient Greeks called the " pipe 
of Pan." It consisted of seven or more 
reeds of unequal length. These are still 
used by the shepherds of the East, and 
in skilful hands produce quite tolerable 
music. 

ORI'ON, a constellation of about 
eighty stars, south of Taurus, and, part- 
ly, of the equator. Job 9 : 9. The Arabs 
called it the " Giant," meaning thereby 
Nimrod. The constellation is also men- 
tioned in Job 38 : 31 and Am. 5 : 8. 
632 



OR'NAMENTS. The fondness 
which the human race in general, and 
Oriental nations in particular, have for 
personal ornaments was shared in by 
the ancient Hebrews. The first mention 
of jewelry is in Gen. 24 : 22, where 
Abraham's servant presented Rebekah 
with earrings and bracelets. The weak- 
ness of Hebrew women for jewelry is 
well brought out, Jer. 2 : 32 : " Can a 
maid forget her ornaments ?" The orna- 
ments worn by the Hebrews consisted 
of bracelets, necklaces, earrings, nose- 
rings, Eze. 16 : 11, 12, etc. Isaiah, ch. 
3 : 16-25, gives a graphic picture of the 
fashionable woman of his day and her 
ornaments. The apostles exhort the 
women of their day to adorn themselves 
with good works, 1 Tim. 2 : 10, and with 
a meek and quiet spirit rather than with 
the wearing of gold. 1 Pet. 3 : 4. 
OR'NAN. 1 Chr. 21 : 15. See Araunah. 
OR 'PAH (fawn, or mane), the 
daughter-in-law of Naomi, who with Ruth 
accompanied her part of the way on the 
road to Bethlehem. Her affection, how- 
ever was not so strong as Ruth's, and, 
kissing Naomi, she returned to her 
people and her gods. Ruth 1 : 4, 14. 

ORPHANS. Special privileges 
were accorded to them by the Mosaic 
Law, as well as to the widow and 
stranger, Deut. 14 : 21, and special kind- 
ness and leniencv enjoined toward them. 
Deut. 24 : 17. Job adduced it as one of 
his merits that he had helped the father- 
less. Ch. 29: 12, etc. James, ch. 1: 27, 
classes the visitation of orphans amongst 
the acts of pure and undefiled religion. 
The word, John 14 : 18, translated " com- 
fortless" is "orphans" in the Greek. 

O'SEE, the Greek form of writing 
" Hosea." Rom. 9 : 25. 

OSHE'A (deliverance), the original 
name of Joshua. Num. 13 : 16. 

OS'PRAY, mentioned with the ossi- 
frage as an unclean bird. Lev. 11 : 13; 
Deut. 14 : 12. If not a generic term for 
eagles, perhaps the short- toed eagle 
(Circaetus (jalliewj), by far the most 
abundant of the Palestine species. 

OS'SIFRAGE (Heb. the breaker). 
Thp original word well suits the remark- 
able habits of the lammergeier, or 
bearded vulture, known also among the 
Alps, and one of the most formidable 
birds of its tribe. It is mentioned with 
the ospray, as above. The propriety of 



OST 



OST 



the name "ossi-frage" — i.e., "bone- 
breaker" — is seen from the following 
description: " Marrow- bones are the 
dainties he (the lammergeyer) loves the 
best ; and when the other vultures have 
picked the flesh off any animal, he comes 
in at the end of the feast and swallows 
the bones, or breaks them and swallows 




Ossifvage or Lammergeier {Gypaetus barbatus). 

the pieces if he cannot get the marrow 
out otherwise. The bones he cracks by 
taking them to a great height and letting 
them fall upon a stone. This is probably 
the bird that dropped a tortoise on the 
bald head of poor old iEschylus. Not, 
however, that he restricts himself, or the 
huge black infant that he and his mate 
are bringing up in one of the many 
holes with which the limestone precipice 
abounds, to marrow, turtle, bones, and 
similar delicacies ; neither lamb, hare, 
nor kid comes amiss to him, though, his 
power of claw and beak being feeble for 
so large a bird, he cannot tear his meat 
like other eagles. To make amends for 
this, his powers of deglutition are enor- 
mous." — N. H. Simpson. 

QS'TRICH, a remarkable bird of 



the hot regions of Africa and Arabia, 
often attaining the height of 7 feet, of 
which the head and neck make 3. It is 
also 7 feet from the head to the end of 
the tail when the neck is stretched hori- 
zontally on a line with the body. The 
ostrich loves solitary and desolate places, 
and is the bird intended in Job 30 : 29 ; 
Isa. 13 : 21 : 34 : 13 : Jer. 50 : 39 ; Mic. 
1 : 8 (though called the owl), and its cry 
is piercing and mournful. 

The plumage of the ostrich is white 
and black. Its weight (which is often 
75 or 80 pounds) and the construction of 
its body prevent its flying. 

The habits of this bird are described 
with scientific accuracy in Job 39 : 13-18. 
Its timidity is such that the least noise 
frightens it from the nest, which is often 
made on the ground and in the most 
exposed places; and from the same 
cause the young of the ostrich are often 
suddenly abandoned. Hence she seems 
to be regarded as lacking the usual 
share of instinct or natural affection. 
Lam. 4:3. A modern traveller tells us 
that the Arabs meet sometimes with 
whole nests of these eggs (containing 
from thirty to fifty in number), 5 inches 
in diameter, and weighing several 
pounds; some of them are sweet and 
good, others are addled and corrupted ; 
others, again, have their young ones of 
different growth, according to the time, 
it may be presumed, since they have 
been forsaken of the dam. They often 
meet with a few of the little ones no 
bigger than well-grown pullets, half 
starved, straggling and moaning about 
like so many distressed orphans for their 
mother. In this manner the ostrich may 
be said to be " hardened against her 
young ones, as though they were not 
hers ; her labor," in hatching and at- 
tending them, being " vain, without 
fear" or the least concern of what be- 
comes of them afterward. 

The most remarkable characteristic 
of the ostrich is the rapidity with which 
it runs, and which the fleetest horse 
cannot equal. The surprising swiftness 
of this bird is expressly mentioned by 
Xenophon. Speaking of the desert of 
Arabia, he states that ostriches are 
frequently seen there; that none could 
take them, the horsemen who pursue 
them soon giving it over, for they es- 
caped far away, making use both of 
633 



OTH 



OVE 




their feet to run and of their wings, 
when expanded, as a sail to waft them 
along. This representation is confirmed 
by the writer of A Voyage to Senegal, 
who says, " She sets off at a hard gallop, 
but, after being excited a little, she ex- 
pands her wings as if to catch the wind 
and abandons herself to a speed so great 
that she seems not to touch the ground. 
I am persuaded/' continues the writer, 
"she would leave far behind the swiftest 
English courser." See Owl, Peacock. 

OTH'NI {lion of Jehovah), son of 
Shemaiah, and a " mighty man of valor," 
1 Chr. 26 : 7. 

OTH'NIEL, the son of Kenaz, Jud. 
1: 13, who displayed his valor in seizing 
the city of Debir, or Kirjath-sepher, for 
which exploit he was rewarded by the 
gift of the daughter of his uncle Caleb 
in marriage. Josh. 15: 17. Afterward he 
634 



was made the instrument of delivering 
the Israelites from the oppression of the 
king of Mesopotamia. Jud. 3 : 8, 9. 

OU'CHES were sockets in which 
precious stones were set. Ex. 39 : 6. 

OUTLANDISH. The women who 
"caused Solomon to sin" are so called.' 
Neh. 13 : 26. The term means " foreign." 

OVENS. Ex. 8:3. In the Eastern 
cities the ovens at the present day are 
not materially different from our own. 
The more common way of constructing 
them in the country, however, is to take 
ajar or pot of a cylindrical shape, and, 
after having partly filled it with pebbles, 
to apply heat and use it for baking. The 
dough is plastered upon the outside, and, 
when baked (as it is almost instantly) 
comes off in thin cakes. All Eastern 
bread is of this thin sort. The bread 
made in this way is clean and white. 



OVE 



OWL 



The Bedouin Arabs use three or four dif- 
ferent ovens, the description of which 
may throw some light upon the oven of 
the Bible. 

1. The sand oven. — This is nothing 
more than the sand of the earth, upon 
which a fire is made until it is supposed 
to be sufficiently heated. The fuel and 
fire are then cleared away, and the dough 
is laid on the hot sand in flat pieces 
about the thickness of a plate. Isa. 
44 : 15, 19. These are the "ash-cakes." 
Gen. 18 : 6 ; 1 Kgs. 17 : 13 ; 19 : 6. See 
Cake. 

2. The earth oven is a 
round hole in the earth. 
Stones are first put into 
this, and a fire is kindled 
upon them. When the 
stones have become 
thoroughly hot, the fire 
is removed and the 
dough spread in thin 
flakes upon the heated 
stones, and turned as of- 
ten as may be necessary. 
The ovens used in Per- 
sia are about 1\ feet wide 
and not less than 5 or 6 
feet deep. They resem- 
ble pits or wells, and 
sheep are hung length- 
wise in them and cooked 
whole. These may be 
what are rendered in 
our version " ranges for 
pots." Lev. 11 : 35. 

3. Portable oven. — 
This is an earthen ves- 
sel without a bottom, 
about 3 feet high, 
smeared outside and 
inside with clay and 
placed upon a frame or 
support. Fire is made 
within it or below it. 
When the sides are suf- 
ficiently heated thin 
patches of dough are 
spread on the inside, 
and the top is covered 
without removing the 
fire, as in the other 
cases, and the bread is 
quickly baked. To this 
we may refer the phrase 
oven." Lev. 2 : 4. 

Convex plates of iron, pans or plates, 



flat stones, etc., are often used for bak- 
ing. See Bake, Bread. 

OVERSEERS'. Acts 20: 28. This 
term denotes the pastor of a congrega- 
tion of Christians, and is identical with 
presbyter or elder. Comp. v. 17. The 
same Greek word is elsewhere translated 
" bishop." See Bishop. 

OWL. In Deut. 14: 16,17; Isa. 34: 
11, 15: Ps. 102:6 this word doubtless 
denotes some one or other of the five 
species of owl common in Egypt and 
Syria. The Hebrew word translated 




Eagle Owl. {Bubo Maximus. After Houghton.) 



baken in the 



" owl " in eight other cases means the 
ostrich, as is often indicated in the 
margin. Some of these birds we know 
635 



ox 



OZN 



are very abundant in Palestine, espe- 
cially among ruins, and their doleful 
hooting as they seek their prey by night 
intensifies the present desolation of these 
former habitations of pride and glory. 
The prophecies of Isa. 34 find a fulfil- 
ment in modern Petra — ancient Idumsea 
— as described by Irby and Mangles : 
" The screaming of eagles, hawks, and 
owls, which were soaring above our 
heads in considerable numbers, seem- 
ingly annoyed at any one approaching 
their lonely habitation, added much to 
the singularity of the scene." See 
Night-hawk, Ostrich. 

OX, a well-known domestic animal, 
clean by the Levitical Law, strong and 
patient of labor, of great use in agricul- 
tural pursuits, and one of the most val- 
uable possessions of the Jewish husband- 
man. Gen. 24 : 35 ; 30 : 43 ; 1 Sam. 11 : 7 ; 
Job 1 : 3. Oxen were used for ploughing, 
Deut. 22 : 10 ; 1 Kgs. 19 : 19 ; Job 1 : 14 ; 
Prov. 14 : 4: Isa. 30 : 24; for drawing, 
Num. 7 : 3, 7, 8 ; for threshing or treading 
out grain, Deut. 25 : 4 ; 1 Cor. 9:9; for 
beasts of burden, 1 Chr. 12 : 40 ; for sac- 
rifice, Gen. 15 : 9 ; 1 Kgs. 8 : 63 ; 2 Chr. 
29 : 33 ; to produce milk and butter, Deut. | 
32 : 14 : Isa. 7 : 22 : 2 Sam. 17 : 29 ; and 
their flesh as food. 1 Kgs. 19 : 21 ; 1 Chr. 
12 : 39, 40 ; Matt. 22 : 4. The full-grown 
ox was,however, rarely slaughtered either 
for food or sacrifice, being esteemed too { 
valuable for any ordinary use of this kind. 
The young animal was taken instead. Of , 
the herds of Moab in our day Tristram ■■ 
says : " Unlike the sheep, the cattle do not 
find their way across Jordan to the mar- 
kets of Jerusalem or Nablous. Beef is 
a costly luxury, for the bullocks are as 
valuable for the plough as the heifers 
are for milch-kine." The cattle of the 
Jews were probably broken to service 
when three years old. Isa. 15 : 5 : Jer. 
48 : 34. 

The oxen of ancient Egypt are shown 
by the monuments to have been large 
and handsome creatures, and it is likely 
that those of Palestine were then similar, 
though they have now much deteriorated, 
636 



in size at least. As is shown by the above 
synopsis, oxen were used in general as 
horses are now. 

East of the Jordan vast herds of cattle 
grazed through the entire year, being 
driven to new pastures as old ones were 
exhausted. This was sometimes possible 
in Western Palestine, owing to the vari- 
ety of elevation and climate. When these 
resources failed, a mixture of grains (as 
the Hebrew indicates) called " fodder" 
or "provender," Job 6:5; Isa. 30 : 24, 
was given, or the torn "straw" left by 
the threshing-machine. See Thresh. 
In the more populous districts cattle 
were stall-fed, as to some extent in all 
parts. 1 Kgs. 4 : 23 ; Prov. 15 : 17 ; Hab. 
3 : 17. At present the herds and flocks 
of a whole village are commonly pastured 
together, and at night driven into some 
large cave, natural or artificial. It is 
possible that the cave shown at Bethle- 
hem as our Saviour's birthplace was thus 
used — in part at least — and was really 
the manger in which the new-born Christ 
was laid. 

Various provisions of the Mosaic Law 
concerning cattle are recorded in the fol- 
lowing additional references : Ex. 20 : 
10: 21:28; 34:19; Lev. 19 : 19 ; 25:7; 
Deut. 22 : 1, 4, 10. 

Herds were often left to care for them- 
selves in the vast feeding-grounds east of 
the Jordan. These half- wild cattle will 
gather in a circle around any strange 
object, and. if irritated, charge upon it 
with their horns. Ps. 22 : 13. 

The wild ox of Deut. 14 : 5, or loild 
hull of Isa. 51 : 20, is probably the oryx, 
a powerful creature of the antelope kind, 
See Agriculture, Herd. 

OX'-GOAD. See Goad. 

O'ZEM (strength). 1. The sixth son 
of Jesse. 1 Chr. 2 : 15. 

2. A son of Jerahmeel. 1 Chr. 2 : 25. 

OZI'AS, the same as Uzziah. Matt. 
1 : 8, 9. 

OZ'IVI (having ears ; attentive), a, son 
of Gad: called Ezbon in Gen. 46 : 16. 

OZ'NITES, descendants of Ozni. 
Num. 26 : 16. 



PAA 



PAL 



P. 



PA'ARAI, one of David's mighty 
men, 2 Sam. 23 : 35; called Naarai in 1 
Chr. 11 : 37. 

PA'DAN {field), Padan-aram. Gen. 
48 : 7. 

PADAN-ARAM (the low high- 
land), the country from which Abraham 
obtained a wile for his son Isaac. Gen. 
24 : 10 ; 25 : 20 ; 28 : 2, 5, 7, from whence 
Jacob secured his wives, and where Laban 
lived. Gen. 31 : 18; 33 : 18; 35 : 9, 26; 
46 : 15. Padan-aram has usually been 
identified with Mesopotamia, the region 
between the two great rivers Euphrates 
and Tigris, and is believed more par- 
ticularly to designate the plain, in dis- 
tinction from the mountainous district, 
in the North of Mesopotamia. Another 
theory in respect to the location of Padan- 
aram has been advocated at various pe- 
riods, to which attention has been directed 
of late by Dr. Merrill and Prof. Paine. 
They suggest that Milton places Haran 
(and of course Padan-aram) south or west 
of the Euphrates, and Dr. Beke (1845) 
wrote a learned work to prove that Pa- 
dan-aram was in the vicinity of Damas- 
cus. This view, however, is opposed by 
the great majority of the most eminent 
scholars, and has too few facts in its favor 
to give it much importance. See Meso- 
potamia and Syria. 

PAD'DLE, a small spade. Deut. 
23 : 13. 

PA'DON (deliverance), ancestor of 
a family of Nethinim which returned 
with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 44 ; Neh. 7 : 47. 

PA'GIEL (God allots) was the chief 
of the tribe of Asher in the wilderness. 
Num. 1:13: 2:27; 7 : 72, 77 ; 10 : 26. 

PA'HATH-MO'AB {governor of 
Moab), the head of one of the princi- 
pal families of the tribe of Judah, whose 
descendants returned with Zerubbabel. 
Ezr. 2:6; 8:4: 10:30; Neh. 3:11; 
7 : 1 1 ; 10 : 14. With respect to the name, 
it may be noticed that, according to 1 
Chr. 4 : 22, a family of Shilonites, of the 
tribe of Judah, had in early times " do- 
minion in Moab." 

PA'I (bleating), a place in Idumaea. 
1 Chr. 1 : 50. See Pau. 

PAINT, PAINTING, and PIC- 



TURE. Paint was well known as a 
cosmetic in Egypt and Assyria, and uni- 
versally applied by the women of those 
countries to the eyes. Also among the 
Hebrews the custom obtained, though it 
must be noticed that it is always spoken 
of in terms of contempt. 2 Kgs. 9 : 30 ; 
Jer. 4:30; Eze. 23 : 40. See Eye. Paint- 
ing as a decoration was much practised. 
In the houses the walls and beams were 
colored, Jer. 22 : 14 ; also idols, either in 
the form of. sculptures or in the form of 
drawings on the walls of temples, were 
colored. Wisd. 13 : 14 ; Eze. 23 : 14. But 
pictures, in the modern sense of the 
word, as products of free art, were un- 
known to the ancient Jews, and would 
perhaps have been regarded as viola- 
tions of the second commandment. The 
drawings upon mummy cases were, how- 
ever, doubtless familiar to them. 

PAI/ACE. In the 0. T. the word 
is used both in a wider sense, denoting 
the whole mass of buildings, courts, and 
gardens belonging to a royal residence 
and enclosed by the exterior wall, Dan. 
1:4; 4:4, and in a narrower sense, de- 
noting some special part of the whole 
construction ; for instance, the fortress 
or citadel. 1 Kgs. 16 : 18 ; 2 Kgs. 15 : 25. 
In the N. T. the word generally signifies 
the residence of any man of wealth or 
prominent social position. Matt. 26 : 3 ; 
Luke 11 : 21 ; John 18 : 15. The " palace " 
of Phil. 1 : 13 is the barrack of the 
Praetorian camp attached to the emperor's 
palace in Rome, on the Palatine. The 
emperor was " praetor " or commander- 
in-chief; so the barrack of his body- 
guard was the praetorium. The Roman 
governors occupied Herod's palace in 
Jerusalem. 

The most interesting building of this 
kind mentioned in the 0. T. is the pal- 
ace erected by Solomon. 1 Kgs. 7 : 1-12. 
It occupied an area of about 150,000 
square feet, consisted of several inde- 
pendent structures — the house of the 
forest of Lebanon, the hall of judgment, 
the porch, etc. — and took thirteen years 
to build. Besides the description given 
of this building in First Kings, there is 
another by Josephus, but they remained 
637 



PAL 



PAL 



almost unintelligible as long as the 
principles of Greek or Egyptian archi- 
tecture were applied to them, while the 
investigations of the ruins of the pal- 




Grouud-plan of Solomon's Palace. 

aces in Nineveh and Persepolis have 
thrown much light on the subject. 

PA'LAli (judge), the son of Uzai, 
who assisted Nehemiah in restoring the 
walls of Jerusalem. Neh. 3 : 25. 

PAL'ESTINE [land of sojourners), 
a country east of the Mediterranean Sea, 
and sacred alike to Jew, Mohammedan, 
and Christian. See Maps at the end of 
the volume. 

Name. — " Palestine " — or " Palestina," 
which has become the most common name 
for the Holy Land — is found only three 
times in our version of the Bible, Ex. 
15 : 14; Isa. 14 : 29, 31, and in the 0. T. 
represents the Hebrew name elsewhere 
rendered " Philistia." Ps. 60 : 8 ; 87 : 
4; 108 : 9; Zeph. 2 : 5. etc. The term, 
therefore, originally referred only to the 
country of the Philistines, and in its 
Greek form is so used by Josephus. 
The name is also applied to the whole 
land of the Hebrews by Josephus, Philo, 
and by Greek and Roman writers. Its 
638 



first and native name was " Canaan." 
Gen. 12 : 5 ; 16 : 3 ; Ex. 15 : 15 ; Jud. 3 : 
1. It was also known as the Promised 
Land, land of Israel, land of Judah or 
" Judsea," and the Holv Land. Gen. 12 : 
7; Ps. 105 : 9; Zech. 2 : 12, etc. 

Situation and Extent. — Palestine is 
situated at the south-eastern end of the 
Mediterranean Sea, being the southern 
portion of the high table- and lowlands 
lying between the great plains of Assyria 
and the shores of that sea. This central 
location in the midst of the great nations 
of the East has been frequently noticed. 
It was about midway between Assyria 
and Egypt on the south-west, and be- 
tween Persia and Greece on the north- 
west, being on the high-road from one 
to the other of these mighty powers, and 
often the battle-field on which they fought 
to decide which should become the mis- 
tress of the world. This central position 
gave it the opportunity to become ac- 
quainted with the progress which these 
great nations had gained in the arts, the 
sciences, and in civilization. This also 
exposed it to the powerful religious in- 
fluences which these great but idolatrous 
nations constantly exerted. The weak- 
ness of the Hebrew nation in following 
these forms of false religion and wor- 
ship caused it to be frequently visited 
with the judgments of the Almighty. 

The boundaries of Palestine cannot 
now be accurately determined. While 
the boundaries between the tribes were 
defined with much care and precision, 
the portions bordering on other nations 
to the north, east, and south on their 
outlying sides Avere described in general 
terms only, and these border-lines seem 
to have varied at different periods of their 
history. The land promised to Abraham 
and described by Moses extended from 
Mount Hor to the entrance of Hamath, 
and from the "river of Egypt" to "the 
great river, the river Euphrates." Gen. 
15 : 18 ; 17 : 8 ; Num. 34 : 2-12 ; Deut. 1 : 7. 
Some understand by the "river of Egypt" 
the Nile, but, as Eastern Egypt was never 
held by the Hebrews, such a promise was, 
of course, never fulfilled. To account for 
this it is said that the promise was made 
upon conditions which the nation failed 
to meet, and hence the failure of the He- 
brews to possess all the land which, ac- 
cording to this view, had been promised 
to them. Others suppose that the " river 



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of Egypt " means the Wady el-Arish, and 
all this territory was actually possessed 
during the period of the monarchy un- 
der David and Solomon. Palestine in 
its greatest extent, therefore, was bound- 
ed on the north by Syria, on the east by 
the Euphrates and the great desert, on 
the south by Negeb or " the south coun- 
try," and on the west by the Mediterra- 
nean Sea. Scarcely more than one-half 
of this region lay west of the Jordan be- 
tween that river and the great sea, the 
other portion lyingto the eastward and in- 
cluding all the fertile table-land between 
the Jordan and the great Arabian desert, 
which reached to the borders of Assyria. 
The greatest length of Palestine is about 
160 miles, its breadth not far from 90 
miles; the average length of the terri- 
tory, according to the latest authorities, 
is about 150 miles, its average breadth 
west of the Jordan a little more than 40 
miles, and its breadth east of the Jordan 
rather less than 40 miles. The total area 
of that portion which lies between the 
Jordan and "the great sea" is about 
6600 square miles ; that portion east of 
the Jordan has an area of about 5000, 
and perhaps of 6000, square miles, mak- 
ing the whole -area of Palestine, on both 
sides of Jordan, 12,000 or 13,000 square 
miles, or about equal to that of the two 
States of Massachusetts and Connecticut. 

Physical Features. — This land natu- 
rally divides itself into four long parallel 
tracts, extending north and south, two 
of them low and two of them elevated: 
(1) The plain along the sea-coast, broken 
at the north by Carmel ; (2) The hill- 
country and table -land between the 
Jordan valley and the coast-plain, reach- 
ing from the north to the south end of 
the land, and broken only by the great 
plain of Jezreel, or Esdraelon ; (3) The 
valley of the Jordan, with its remarkable 
depression below the level of the sea; 
(4) The high table-land east of the Jor- 
dan, reaching from Mount Hermon on 
the north, through Bashan, Gilead, and 
Moab, and extending eastward to the 
Arabian desert. Each of these four 
natural divisions will be described, be- 
ginning with the plain along the Medi- 
terranean Sea. 

1. The coast-plain. — This district is 
supposed to have been formed b} 7 the 
denudation of the mountains, the sand- 
dunes along the shores, and partly by 



the deposit of the Nile mud, which has 
been noticed as far north as Gaza. This 
plain extends without a break from the 
desert below Gaza to the ridge of Car- 
mel : north of Carmel is the plain of 
Acre, which reaches to a headland known 
as the " Ladder of Tyre ;" north of this 
headland lies the narrow plain of Phoe- 
nicia. That portion of the plain which 
lies between Carmel and Jaffa (Joppa) 
was known as the plain of Sharon. A 
great portion of this plain is flat, but 
north of Jaffa are low hillocks, through 
which, in ancient times, tunnels were cut 
to drain the marshy land lying back of 
them. The soil is of marvellous fertility, 
producing good crops without irrigation, 
though it is tilled in the rudest manner. 
" Deep gulleys intersect the plain," says 
Conder, " running westward to the sea, 
and carrying down the drainage of the 
mountain-system. They have generally 
high earthen banks, and in some cases 
contain perennial streams. The neigh- 
borhood of these streams is marshy, 
especially toward the north of Sharon, 
and the dunes and marshes together 
reduce the arable land by about one- 
fourth. The maritime plain is some 80 
miles long, and from 100 to 200 feet 
above the sea, with low cliffs near the 
coast. Toward the north it is 8 miles, 
and near Gaza 20 miles, broad." — Hand- 
book, p. 211. Wilson speaks of the broad 
expanse of the Philistine plain as cover- 
ed in harvest-time with a waving mass 
of golden grain unbroken by a. single 
hedge, and presenting one of the most 
beautiful sights in Palestine. The stub- 
ble becomes so di - y under a scorching 
Syrian sun that a spark would set it on 
fire, and the flames would sweep over it 
like the fires upon an American prairie. 
Such a fire was no doubt kindled b} r 
Samson when he turned his three hun- 
dred foxes or jackals with their fire- 
brands into the standing grain of the 
Philistines in the time of wheat-harvest. 
Jud. 15 : 4, 5. The Shephelah, or "low 
country," in which were the towns of 
Beth - shemesh, Aijalon, Timnah, and 
Gimzo, 2 Chr. 28 : 18, consisted of a 
series of low undulating hills lying be- 
tween the great southern plain on the 
coast and the hill-country toward Jeru- 
salem. There is not to be found a single 
good harbor along this entire coast. 
2. The highlands west of the Jordan. — 
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Next to the coast-plain eastward comes 
the high-table land, including the hill- 
country of Judaea — a tract about 25 miles 
wide, and which begins at the foot of 
Lebanon in the north and extends south- 
ward through the hills of Galilee, is 
broken by the plain of Jezreel, rises 
again with the hills of Samaria, and 
extends southward beyond Jerusalem for 
about 50 miles. It has been designated 
geologically as the " back-bone of Pales- 
tine." As seen from the sea, it has a 
general resemblance to a long continuous 
wall. The following are the heights 
above the sea of some of its chief points : 
Hebron, 3040 feet; Olivet, 2683 feet; 
Nebi Samwil, 29oU feet; Mount Ebal, 
3077 feet; Nebi Ismail, 1790 feet; and 
JebeL Jermuk, 4000 feet. " The hills are 
broad-backed," says Wilson, " and pre- 
sent none of the grander features of 
mountain-scenery, but every here and 
there a rounded summit rises above the 
general level of the range and affords 
striking panoramas of the surrounding 
country : such are the views from Mount 
Ebal, Little Hermon, Nebi Ismail, near 
Nazareth, and the hill on which Safed 
stands, each embracing no inconsiderable 
portion of the Holy Land. The effect of 
the view is increased by the transparency 
of the atmosphere, which diminishes 
apparent distances in a manner unknown 
in moister climes, and by the rich and 
varying tints that light up the steep 
slopes of the Jordan valley. Through 
the centre of the hill-counti-y runs the 
main road from Jerusalem through Sa- 
maria to Galilee, following nearly the 
line of the watershed, and passing close 
to many of the chief cities of Judah and 
Israel. It is the route now usually 
followed by travellers, and was probably 
always one of the most important 
thoroughfares in the country. East of 
this road the hills descend abruptly to 
the Jordan valley ; west of it they fall 
more gradually to the coast-plain. The 
wonderful ramifications of the valleys 
which cut up the hill-country on either 
side of the watershed form one of the 
peculiar features of Palestine topog- 
raphy; rising frequently in small up- 
land plains of great richness, such as 
el-Mukhna, near Nablus, the valleys at 
first fall very rapidly, and then, after a 
tortuous course, reach the plain on the 
one side and the Jordan valley on the 
640 



other. The effect of this is to split up 
the country into a series of knife-like 
ridges, generally preserving an east-and- 
west direction, and effectually preventing 
any movement over the country from 
south to north, except along the central 
highway ; the valley of the Kishon, 
which spreads out into the broad plain 
of Esdraelon, and the valley of Jezreel, 
are the only two which are more than 
mere torrent-beds." — Bib. Educator, vol. 
ii.' p. 214. Near Jerusalem the tract 
becomes lower, about 2600 feet above the 
sea, and the hills are capped with chalk, 
but south of Jerusalem the ridge becomes 
higher and more rugged, the slopes to 
the west very steep, deep ravines run- 
ning north and south, while south of 
Hebron is a plain upon the table-land, 
partially broken by a valley extending 
from Hebron to Beersheba, and thence 
north-westward nearly to Gaza. Pres. 
Bartlett, speaking of the hill-country of 
Judah, says : " Perhaps no one aspect 
of Palestine along its central line of hills, 
both here and north of Jerusalem, strikes 
the stranger more with surprise than the 
amount and roughness of its rock- sur- 
face. It is not unlike the stony parts of 
New Hampshire in this respect. At the 
first glance, especially in its present 
wretched desolation and neglect under a 
government that crushes all the hopes 
of industry, and in possession of a people 
that destroy and never replace, the 
thought of the superficial observer is 
that of disappointment. He sees it 
almost treeless, rocky, and rough and 
neglected, and thinks that it is, after all, 
a much overrated and overpraised coun- 
try. But when he looks more closely he 
perceives that all this rock, being lime- 
stone, and not sandstone or granite, when 
it pulverizes, carries with it, not barren- 
ness, but fertility. He observes how the 
noble olive grows in successive tiers up 
the sides of seemingly hopeless hills, 
what sunny exposures are everywhere 
offered to the vine, and how green are 
the wheat-fields even when wedged in 
among the cliffs, and how all these hills 
appear once to have been diligently and 
laboriously laid out in terraces almost to 
their tops; and he changes his mind. 
He travels through a multitude of fertile 
valleys, and crosses plains, like that of 
Esdraelon, as rich of soil as a Western 
prairie, almost abandoned now. He 



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passes from the deep tropical valley of 
the Jordan by the Dead Sea to the high 
mountains of Galilee and the still higher 
range of Lebanon, and sees how this 
little country, not larger than Wales, is 
fitted to produce almost every species of 
fruit or grain, of whatever climate, upon 
the globe. And as he watches the brooks 
and springs of water, and the singular 
variety of surface, orchards, glens, bold 
mountains, fertile flowery plains, pictu- 
resque sites — such -as those of Jerusalem, 
Hebron, Samaria, and a multitude of 
other places — he cannot but perceive 
how in its palmy days, when the heights 
were crowned with foliage, the hillsides 
with cattle, and the fields with grain, 
Palestine must have been indeed a goodly 
land, presenting to its children home- 
attractions and inextinguishable recol- 
lections beyond even those of Scotland, 
Switzerland, or New England." — From 
Egypt to Palestine, p. 409. 

3, The Jordan valley and plain. — This 
valley, extending from the base of Her- 
mon to the south end of the Dead Sea, 
is one of the wonders in physical geog- 
raphy. It varies greatly in width from 
half a mile to 5 miles, and at some points 
is 12 miles broad. At the foot of Her- 
mon this valley is about 1000 feet above 
the sea ; at Lake Huleh, about 12 miles 
south of Hernion, the valley is upon the 
sea-level ; at the Sea of Galilee, some 10 
miles farther south, the valley falls 682 
feet below the level of the sea ; while at 
the Dead Sea, about 65 miles south of 
Galilee, the valley sinks to the astonish- 
ing depth of 1300 feet below the ocean- 
level. The sea has on its shore a salt- 
mountain, Jebel Usdum, a long mass of 
rock-salt several hundred feet high, 
nearly 7 miles long, and from 1 to 3 
miles wide. The mountain is capped 
with marl and gypsum, and in this region 
are numerous salt pillars, among them 
one spire which tradition points out as 
Lot's wife. Bitumen abounds also, and 
sometimes is strongly impregnated with 
sulphur. See Salt Sea. The mountains 
on either side of this immense depression 
rise to a height, near Beisan, of about 
2000 feet above the valley, while near 
Jericho they are nearly 4000 feet above 
the river Jordan. These heights, com- 
bined with the deep depression, afford a 
great variety of temperature, and bring 
into close proximity productions usually 
41 



found widely apart in the temperate and 
torrid zones. See Jordan. 

4. The table-land east of the Jordan. 
— The broad eastern plateau beyond 
Jordan may be described as having a 

' general altitude of about 2000 feet above 
the sea, though at some points it attains 
a height of 3000 feet : the surface is tol- 
erabty uniform, but broken on its west- 
ern edge by deep ravines running 
into the Jordan valley. Within this re- 
gion were the ancient forests and rich 
pastures of Bashan, famous from a very 
early age, and still regarded as among 
the most fertile portions of Palestine. 
This plateau, upon its extreme eastern 
edge, sinks away into the Arabian desert. 
Eastward of the Sea of Galilee, however, 
it is broken by a mountainous tract ex- 
tending from 40 to 50 miles from north- 
east to south-west. The region known 
as the Lejah is one vast lava-bed, bro- 
ken by deep ravines, where water is found 
and where people dwell in caves. See 

i Bashan. 

This volcanic . or basaltic tract rises 

I gradually from the north, and is inter- 
spersed with many isolated hills, some 

| of which are beyond doubt craters of 
extinct volcanoes. Nearly opposite Jeri- 
cho is the range of Abarim, which in- 
cludes Nebo and Pisgah, the place where 
Moses viewed the land and died. Deut. 
34 : 1-6. See Abarim. 

Mountains, Passes, and Plains. — The 
only mountain of importance along the 
coast is the promontory and ridge of 
Carmel, which extends north-west and 
south-east, being from 12 to 18 miles in 
length, about 1750 feet high at its high- 
est point, and about 600 feet high where 
it breaks off into the sea. Among the 
noted elevations of the district known 
as " the hill-country," west of the Jor- 
dan, are the following : At the extreme 
north the Anti-Lebanon range, and 
southward, in Galilee, Little Hermon, 
Tabor, the Horns of Hattin, the hill 
of Nazareth, and Mount Gilboa ; still 
farther south, Mount Ebal, Mount Geri- 
zim, Gibeah, Olivet, the mountain Quar- 
antania, and, at the extreme south, 
Mount Seir. Among the mountains 
in the district east of Jordan are 
Mount Gilead, the range of Abarim, 
which included Pisgah, Nebo, and Peor. 
Among the noted " passes " on the west 
side of Jordan is that at Beth-horon, 
641 



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the one in the south at Akrabbim, and 
that on the road from Jerusalem to Jeri- 
cho through the Wady Kelt. There are 
numerous other deep ravines on both 
sides of the Jordan, like that of Mar 
Saba, and of the Callirrhoe along the 
Zerka Main. Among the plains, the 
two most remarkable are the plain of 
Jezreel and the plain of Sharon. See 
Jezreel and Sharon. 

Rivers, Lakes, and Fountains. — The 
great river of Palestine is the Jordan, 
which divides the land into two almost 
equal portions. It has no important 
tributary from the west, but there are 
some small streams, as the Derdarah, 
the Nahr el-Jalnd, rising in the fountain 
of Jezreel, and the Wady el-Faria. Of 
the streams running into the Mediter- 
ranean are the Leontes, the Belus, the 
Kishon — " that ancient river" — the Zer- 
ka, north of Csesarea, and the Aujeh, 
near Jaffa, which drains the mountains 
of Samaria. The streams running into 
the Jordan from the east are the Wady 
Za'areh, the Yarmuk or Hieromax, the 
Jabbok — now called the ez-Zerka — the 
Zerka Main, the Arnon — now called the 
el-Mojib — and the Wady Kerak. Many 
of the so-called " rivers " of Palestine 
are only winter-torrents, whose beds are I 
dry in summer. The lakes of import- j 
ance are Lake Huleh, or the " waters of 
Merom," the Lake of Galilee, and the I 
Salt or Dead Sea. A description of 
these is given under their respective ti- 
tles. Palestine was noted of old for its 
fountains. Among the most important 
are those which constitute the sources 
of the Jordan, as the great fountain at 
Banias, the ancient " Csesarea Philippi," 
at Tell el-Kady, the ancient Dan, the 
fountain of Jezreel, the source of the 
Kishon, the fountain of Nazareth, that 
of et-Tabighah, the hot springs of Ti- 
berias, the various fountains in and 
about Jerusalem — of which Robinson 
says there are not less than thirty — the 
" fountain of Elisha," near ancient Jeri- 
cho, those near Hebron, and the noted 
fountain near ancient En-gedi. Upon 
the east of the Jordan, near the Dead 
Sea, were the famous hot springs of Cal- 
lirrhoe, and similar springs near the 
Zerka, the Yarmuk or Hieromax, and, 
besides these, the copious fountains at 
some of the principal towns, as Kuna- 
wat, Hebron, Ornam, and Busra or Boz- 



rah. The mineral springs are found 
chiefly in the valley of the Jordan, and 
are divided by Robinson into three 
classes: (1) Hot sulphur springs, 
which are found in five places — near 
Tiberias, on the western shore of the 
lake, with a temperature of 144° ; near 
Um Keis, in the valley of the Yarmuk, 
with a temperature of 109° ; at Callirr- 
hoe, east of the Dead Sea ; and in Wady 
Hamad. (2) Wai*m saline springs occur 
at only one place, the Wady Malih, south 
of Beisan, which have a temperature of 
98°. (3) Warm springs in general, of 
which there are several. The " fountain 
of Elisha," near Jericho, is slightly 
warm, but not brackish, and the same is 
true of the fountains et-Tabighah and 
el-Feshkah, on the western shore of the 
Dead Sea, except that the latter is quite 
brackish. 

Geology. — There never has been a com- 
plete geological survey of Palestine. 
The general character of its formation 
has been ascertained, however, and will 
be briefly described. The Lebanon and 
Anti-Lebanon ranges of mountains are 
chiefly composed of hard limestone over- 
laid with a formation of soft white chalk, 
the latter containing numerous fossils, 
those of the fish being the most common. 
These formations occur in Western Pal- 
estine, though in the higher hills of 
Galilee there is a second layer of lime- 
stone above the chalk. The upper 
limestone varies from white to reddish- 
brown, has few fossils, and abounds in 
caverns, the strata being sometimes vio- 
lently twisted, as between Jerusalem 
and Jericho, and in other places blends 
into dolomite or magnesian limestone, as 
on the western shore of the Dead Sea. 
East of the Jordan and south of Her- 
mon are vast beds of volcanic rock, and 
in the Lejah district there is a great 
field of basalt covering about 500 square 
miles. East of the Dead Sea occurs the 
Nubian sandstone, while beneath this 
formation, especially near Petra, igne- 
ous formations are to be found, the 
chains of Sinai and Serbal being formed 
of different varieties of granitic rock. 
The geological origin of the great de- 
pression of the valley of the Jordan 
may be due to volcanic causes, though 
this question has not yet been settled. 
Some think the basins of the Sea of 
Galilee and the Dead Sea resemble era- 



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ters; others attribute the chasm to the 
gradual action of the ocean at some im- 
mensely remote period. All agree that 
the theory which ascribes the formation 
of the Dead Sea to the time of the over- 
throw of the cities of the plain is without 
any scientific support, and it is not re- 
quired by the language of Scripture. 
The soil of Palestine is noticed under 
Agriculture. 

Climate. — Though the present climate 
of Palestine appears to be unhealthy 
for Occidentals, it is on the whole mild, 
and tends toward an extreme of heat 
rather than of cold. The mean tem- 
perature at Beirut (a little north of Pal- 
estine proper) of each month for eleven 
years (1875-86) was as follows : Jan- 
uary, 56.8°; February, 57.7°: March, 
61.7°, • April, 65.7°; May, 72°; June, 
78.7° ; July, 83.3° ; August, 84.2° ; Sep- 
tember, 81.5° ; October, 76. 6°; Novem- 
ber, 69°; December, 62°,— making the 
mean for the whole period 71.6°. The 
coldest month, on the average, was Jan- 
uary; the warmest, August. The aver- 
age summer heat, according to Conder, 
ranges between 100° in the plains and 
85° in the mountains as a maximum 
temperature in the shade. In the plains 
the winter temperature seldom falls be- 
low freezing-point, but in the mountains 
frost and snow are of frequent occur- 
rence. On the sea-coast the heat of the 
summer is tempered by the cool breezes, 
but in the valleys of the Jordan the 
heat is often terrible, sometimes reach- 
ing 110° in the shade. 

The highest temperature at Jerusalem 
(1864-71) was 103.5°; the lowest, 25° 
Fahr. The mean temperature for the 
eight years was 62.8°. The greatest 
average cold is in February : the great- 
est heat is in August. Mount Her- 
mon, in the north, 9300 feet high, is 
never entirely clear of snow, though 
sometimes there is very little of it left 
upon its sides late in autumn. As a 
rule, the year consists of two seasons 
•only, the rainy and the dry. The rainy 
season begins near the end of October, 
sometimes preceded by violent thunder- 
storms. This may be the " former rain " 
noticed in the Bible. Deut. 11 : 14; Joel 
2 : 23. The winds from the south and 
south-west bring frequent showers. De- 
cember is usually stormy, January and 
February cold and rainy, the rain fall- 



ing in the valleys and uplands and the 
snow upon the mountains. The "latter 
j rains " come in March and April. If 
! scanty, they impair, or even destroy, the 
! crops ; if violent, they sometimes sweep 
I away the fruit trees and gardens, and do 
not spare the mud hovels, or even the 
j better houses of the peasantry. The 
I average annual rainfall at Jerusalem 
| for 22 years (1860-82) was about 23 
inches ; with us it is 45, and in Califor- 
nia, where the climate resembles Pales- 
tine, it is only 22 inches. The annual 
rainfall at Beirut for 11£ years (1874- 
85) averaged 35.66 inches, the least fall 
for a year being 30.14, and the great- 
est 51.04 inches. Snow fell at Beirut 
only once in this period. The dry 
season extends from April to November, 
during which period the sky is almost 
uninterruptedly cloudless. Thunder- 
i storms occasionally occur in May, but 
[ are very rare. 1 Sam. 12 : 17, 18. Mists 
hover about the mountains, but other- 
wise the atmosphere is generally bril- 
• liantly clear. Heavy dews fall at night, 
even in the midst of summer, except in 
; the desert. The east wind, or sirocco, 
blows during February, March, and 
April, and sometimes darkens the air 
with clouds of fine dust. A drought of 
three months before harvest is fatal to 
the crops, the harvest coming in the 
valley of the Jordan a month in ad- 
vance of that on the highland. The 
barley-harvest usually comes early in 
May in the valley ; the wheat-harvest is 
a few weeks later. But the harvest-time 
varies in different years, and even in dif- 
ferent parts of the country, in the same 
season, owing to the different elevations 
of the land. 

In regard to the climate and seasons 
of Palestine now, Warren says : 

" There is but one rainy season, and 
then a long interval of drought and des- 
olation from July — I might say May — 
to November. During this long period 
scarcely a green blade can be seen as far 
as the eye can stretch over the vast plains, 
nothing but sticks, stones, and dust, the 
monotony relieved only by the noise of 
the wild artichoke careering on the wings 
of the whirlwind, or by a troop of Bed- 
ouins rushing off on a plundering ex- 
pedition. Toward the end of October 
there is a sullen stillness in the air; the 
atmosphere is loaded to the senses, and 
643 



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PAL 



the soul is heavy with melancholy, wait- ! 
ing for the rains. Then the spell of : - 
drought is broken; a storm occurs. For 
three days there is abundance of soft 
showers,- with a few downpours, and again 
often some weeks of drought until the 
winter solstice; then there is a thorough 
break up : cold and rain spread over the 
land. In January the rain falls now and 
again for three days, with a week's in- j 
terval ; but February is the really rainy j 
month. I have known it to rain every j 
day throughout the month. There is, I 
however, no certainty in the matter ; j 
one year the rain is later than the next. 
In March there are pleasant showers and I 
storms, and in April there are showers : 
and often intervals of intense cold ; even j 
snow I have known at Jerusalem during 
that month. May is frequently a month 
of hot winds blowing from the east, but 
in June there are clouds and a few show- 
ers. Now, it is this early portion of the \ 
year that would be most affected by the 
growth of trees and the terracing of the | 
hillsides. The April showers would be 
extended into May, the June clouds and 
showers into July ; the latter rains of 
June will fall in abundance, giving a 
second season — a never-ending succes- 
sion of crops — when the ploughman will 
overtake the reaper and the treader of 
grapes him that soweth seed. The rich 
soil is well prepared to yield a second 
crop year by year; all that is required 
is water and warmth, and this it will 
have, for water will now be found gush- 
ing from the rock?, from springs which 
have long been silent. Carried along the 
hillsides in ducts, it may be used for ir- 
rigation purposes in the undulating coun- i 
try, and then into the plains, to be used 
again, or else it may assist in filling up 
the wells of the plain to near the surface 
of the ground — wells which are now 30 
to 90 feet deep — with water. The water 
so freely used Avill evaporate and form 
clouds over the land without ever 
reaching the sea, thus preventing the 
formation of the unhealthy lagoons of 
half-salt, half-fresh water along the 
shore of Palestine, now so common. 

" Philistia, Sharon, and the other j 
plains bordering on the sea, are even 
now exceptionally fertile, but they may. 
by a regular succession of crops, be 
made to yield far more abundantly, and 
the advance of the rolling sand-hills may 
641 



be arrested — an advance which, if not 
looked to, will soon overwhelm the fair- 
est of the maritime plains. The rich 
ground between G-aza and Ascalon, be- 
tween Ascalon and Jaffa, which the 
sand has swallowed up, must again be 
uncovered. United action is requisite 
for this, for individual efforts can be of 
no avail : the rolling sand-hills are a 
common enemy, and must be attacked 
by the nation." 

Of the effect of the "former rains " in 
October and November, Tyrwhitt Drake 
wrote in 1872 : " These rains produced an 
immediate change in the appearance of 
the country. Grass began to sprout all 
over the hills; the wasted grain on the 
threshing-floors soon produced a close 
crop some 6 inches high. The cyclamen, 
white crocus, saffron crocus, and jonquil 
are in full flower on the mountains ; the 
hallat ( Quercus segilops) is fast putting 
out its new leaves, and in sheltered nooks 
some of the hawthorn trees are doing 
the same. . . . These, to our notions, are 
hardly signs of coming winter, but the 
advent of numberless starlings and com- 
mon plovers on the plains and woodcock 
in the woodlands points to rain not far 
distant." 

Productions. — Among the trees and 
plants of Palestine, the more important 
are the cedar and the cypress, now quite 
rare ; the Aleppo pine, still abundant on 
the slopes of Lebanon ; the terebinth, 
evergreen oak, and the common oak, for 
which Bashan was famed; the locust tree, 
the carob — the pods of which were the 
" husks " the prodigal would have eaten — 
the walnut, the plane tree, the tamarisk, 
the common willow, the white or silver 
poplar, the maple, juniper, ash, alder, 
and hawthorn. Of fruit trees there are 
the sycamore-fig, olive, quince, mulberry, 
almond, banana, pomegranate, orange, 
pear — though not abundant — and the 
common fig, which is one of the staple 
products of the country. The prickly 
pear is used for hedges ; the palm tree, 
once abundant, is now rarely seen ; 
though the date-palm is occasionally 
found, yet its fruit does not ripen. 
Vines are very common, grapes being 
one of the principal products of the 
hill-countr}\ Melons of various kinds, 
cucumbers, lettuce, purslane, endive, 
gourds, and pumpkins are likewise 
common, some of the latter attaining 



PAL 



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great size. The egg-plant and cauli- 
flower are also common, and artichokes 
and asparagus grow wild. Potatoes are 
grown in some places, as at Jerusalem. 
Among the flowering-plants may be no- 
ticed the tulip, various kinds of the an- 
emone, the lily, the white narcissus, the 
iris, the flowering oleander, the honey- 
suckle, the jessamine, the primrose, mis- 
tletoe, acacia, poppy, geranium, and 
pink, and altogether more than five 
hundred different varieties of wild- 
flowers of rich and delicate color, giv- 
ing the country, in the height of the 
season, a showy and gorgeous appear- 
ance. Indeed, the wild flowers of Pal- 
estine are the chief natural attractions 
of the country. The various grains 
grown in Palestine are described under 
Agriculture and under their different 
titles. 

The wild animals of Palestine are 
about the same as in ancient times, ex- 
cept that the lion and a species of the 
wild ox have become extinct. The num- 
ber of species of mammals is about eighty 
— a large number for so small a country. 
Among the animals are the badger, bat, 
bear, zemer, coney, various kinds of deer, 
ferret, fox, wild goat, hare, hedgehog 
and porcupine, hyaena, jackal, cheetah 
or leopard, wild boar and wild ass, the 
mole, mouse, the jerboa or jumping 
mouse, weasel, and the wolf. Of domestic 
animals there are the camel, dog, cat, 
goat, horse, mule, ass, ox, sheep, and the 
half-wild swine. Of the reptiles and 
''creeping things" of Palestine every 
traveller is painfully conscious. They 
are the adder, lizard, chameleon, frog, 
shrill-crying little gecko, the viper, and 
scorpions under every stone. Insects 
abound on every hand. The more 
common are the ant, honey-bee, flea, 
locust, wasp, hornet, spiders without 
number, various kinds of gnats and 
flies, beetles, and butterflies. Of fish 
the most common are the carp, perch, 
minnow, barbel, bream, sheat-fish, and 
the dog-fish, all of which abound in 
the Jordan and the Sea of Galilee. 
Larger fish are found in the Mediter- 
ranean, among them the shark, which 
was doubtless the "great fish" (incor- 
rectly rendered "whale") that swal- 
lowed the truant prophet Jonah. 

The birds of Palestine are very numer- 
ous, more than three hundred and twenty 



species having been already identified. 
The hills abound in fine specimens of the 
parti'idge, and quails are found in the 
grain-fields. Wild ducks frequent the 
plains of the Jordan, and pigeons swarm 
everywhere. Large flocks of storks and 
cranes hover about the plain of Jezreel, 
while sparrows and swallows swarm in 
the ruins of towns and boldly enter the 
very sanctuaries of the Muslims in Jeru- 
salem and elsewhere. The most con- 
spicuous of the birds of prey are the 
eagle, ospray, vulture, kite, the lapwing 
or hoopoe, the' filthiest of scavengers 
among birds, the hawk, and the majestic 
lammergeier. The ravens are still abun- 
dant as in the days of Elijah, and are 
of various kinds. Singing-birds are not 
wanting, Cant. 2 : 12; Ps. 104 : 10, 12, 
the more common being the thrush, 
nightingale or bulbul, and the cuckoo, 
whose sweet call-notes are often heard 
in spring. The cormorant, heron, and 
pelican are also found upon the lakes or 
along the coast. Gulls and petrels skim 
the shores of the sea: jays and wood- 
peckers sport in the 'forests of Carmel, 
Gilead, and Bashan ; kestrels, griffons, 
and buzzards soar over the rugged cliffs 
of Jordan or sweep across the marshes 
of the plains ; bats and owls swarm in 
the numerous caverns in the sides of the 
deep ravines and limestone precipices 
abounding in the land : larks and linnets 
are taken in snares, tamed, and used like 
pigeons as decoys to catch other birds : 
while chattering sparrows are on every 
hand, until we do not wonder that a 
skigle one of these birds was counted 
worth next to nothing — two for a 
farthing or five for two farthings. 
Matt. 10 : 29 : Luke 12 : 6. While the 
thrift, prosperity, and true religion of 
the people of Palestine have disappeared, 
and with them the beauty and natural 
loveliness of the land, the prominent 
physical features remain as they were 
4000 years ago, and our eyes behold the 
same valleys, hills, and mountains, our 
feet may cross the same streams, and our 
thirst may be quenched from the same 
fountains and wells that were famed in 
the days of the patriarchs. The same 
kind of animals survive to bear bur- 
dens .for the trader and to feed the 
hungry now as in those remote ages, 
the same kind of insects annoy and 
destroy the comfort of the "sojourner," 
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and the same sort of birds delight the 
eye with their majestic flight or please 
the ear with their song. 

Palestine is itself one vast ruin ; even 
the very land seems to sympathize with 
the general desolation which rests upon 
its cities and towns. A bad government 
has for years not only failed to protect 
its inhabitants : it has burdened them 
with taxes, and when it had brought 
them to poverty it added extortion to 
oppression, allowed justice and honesty 
to be disregarded by its officials, made 
bribery and corruption so common, and 
the reward to the extortionate so great, 
that no officer could afford to be honest 
or dare to be just. The whole system of 
civil rule is on a rotten foundation, and 
cannot be made solid so long as it is 
based on the Turkish belief that a 
Christian and a Jew can never be raised 
to an equality with a follower of Mo- 
hammed. Added to this there are great 
physical causes which have been sug- | 
gested as reasons why a land once so ! 
fruitful has become so barren an>d deso- 
late. Among these are : (1) Rains have 
ceased to fall in proper propoi-tion ; (2) 
Clouds fail to. protect the soil from the 
sun in spring; (3) There are neither 
people, facilities, nor skill to till the land 
properly; (4) Soil once terraced on the 
mountain-sides is now washed into the 
valleys. 

Respecting the possibilities of recover- 
ing the former fertility and productive- 
ness of the Holy Land, Warren eloquently 
declares : ". Put the country under proper 
cultivation, and will not all be changed? 
Rich loam clogs the valleys, the hillsides 
ai-e bare. The work to be done is not 
difficult. It is practicable ; it is going 
on in Spain, and even in parts of Pales- 
tine at the present time. Walls of rough 
stones are built along the hillsides, 3 to 
4 feet high, according to the steepness 
of the slope, and the space between them 
and the hill filled up with the jet loam; 
this is continued from bottom to top 
until the mountain - side presents the 
appearance, from the opposite side, of a 
series of steps : from the bottom it looks 
like a great stone wall ; from the top, like 
a loamy plateau. On these terraces are 
planted the young trees, figs, olives, mul- 
berry, apricot, the pine, those of a more 
delicate nature being planted on the 
northern terraces in order that they may 
648 



suffer less from the sun's rays, the walls 
not being exposed to the heat. These 
trees thrive rapidly, as they will do in 
Palestine, and spread out their leaves 
and thrust their roots into the rocky 
clefts. The rain falls, but not as hereto- 
fore ; there are no bare rooks for it now 
to course down, no torrent is foaming in 
the valley. No ! Now it falls on the 
trees and terraces, it percolates quietly 
into the soil and into the rocky hillside, 
and is absorbed, scarcely injuring the 
crops in the valley, where before it would 
have ruthlessly washed them away. 

" The water that thus sinks into the 
rocks is not lost, for it will shortly re- 
issue at some distance lower down in 
perennial springs, so refreshing in a 
thirsty land. The rain that remains in 
the soil keeps about the roots of the 
trees, enabling them to spread out their 
leaves in rich groves over the land to 
protect it from the sun, whose rays are 
now intercepted and absorbed by the 
leaves and fruits, giving forth no glare 
or reflection, but a delicious green shade. 
The soil, though warm, is not burnt up 
at once, but every day gives out a moist- 
ure which rises above the trees, and on 
reaching the higher and cooler winds is 
condensed into visible vapor or clouds, 
constantly forming as the breeze passes 
over the groves, thus protecting them 
from the sun as with an umbrella. The 
climate becomes changed, for the rocks, 
once bare and exposed to the sun, have 
now upon them soil, and, sheltering the 
soil, trees, and, sheltering the trees, 
clouds. Thus where were but glaring 
sun, dry winds, dry with stony land, 
absence of vegetable products, are now 
to be found fleecy clouds floating through 
the air, the heat of the sun tempered by 
visible and invisible vapors, groves with 
moist soil, ti'ickling streamlets issuing 
from the rocks, villages springing up 
apace — Palestine renewed." 

History. — The history of the Holj 
Land is treated in detail under Canaan, 
Israel, Judah, and Jerusalem. A con- 
cise general view may here be added foi 
convenience to the reader. The history 
of this land may be not inappropriately 
divided into five great periods : (1) Be- 
fore the Israelitish conquest; (2) Undei 
the Judges and kings; (3) During the 
Captivity and Maccabasan period; (4) 
The Roman and Christian period ■ (5) 



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PAL 



The Mohammedan period. An outline 
only can be given under each period. 

1. Before the Israelitish Conquest. — 
The earliest inhabitants of Palestine of 
whom we have any notice were Hamites, 
descended from Canaan, and included 
ten or more tribes, grouped under the 
general name of Canaanites. Gen. 10 : 
15-18. Some suppose these tribes were 
in two groups, Sidon and Heth, and that 
the curious inscriptions found at Hamath, 
yet undeciphered by scholars, are of 
Hittite origin. At an early date there 
may have been only four leading tribes 
within the bounds of Palestine— Jebus- 
ites, Amorites, Girgasites, and Hivites ; 
others were soon added, however, and 
appear in the days of Abraham, the 
Hittites probably coming from the north, 
as did also the Amorites. The walls of 
the temple at Karnak, in Egypt, bear a 
hieroglyphic inscription, lately deci- 
phered, recording an invasion by Thoth- 
mes III. of the countries east of the 
Mediterranean, including Palestine, and 
the conquest of one hundred and nineteen 
towns and cities, a large portion of them 
being identified as cities mentioned in 
the Bible. For the later conquest of the 
land by Joshua, and the division of it 
among the tribes, see Canaan. 

2. Under the Jndyes and Kings. — Dur- 
ing the rule of the Judges the land was 
not under any united or strong govern- 
ment. The fortunes and the possessions 
of the people were subject to constant 
fluctuations — sometimes overrun by ene- 
mies, at others victorious over them, as 
under the leadership of Samson, Gideon, 
and Jephthah ; but there was little general 
security, and the former tribes kept the 
new settlers in a state of constant alarm. 
They longed for a central and monarch- 
ical government, and God granted their 
desire, though warning them, through 
the prophet Samuel, of the result. Under 
David and Solomon the nation was con- 
solidated and reached the highest point 
of temporal prosperity. The rupture fol- 
lowed, and for five hundred years the na- 
tion gradually declined in greatness and 
power, until it fell into captivity under 
the Assyrian and Babylonian empires. 
See Israel and Judah, Kingdoms of. 

3. The Captivity and Maccnbsean Rule. 
— After the seventy years' captivity por- 
tions of the southern nation returned to 
repeople Palestine. The ten tribes com- 



posing the northern kingdom of Israel 
were "lost," and portions of their terri- 
tory were repeopled by a mixed class, 
afterward known as Samaritans. Later, 
Philip and his son Alexander extended 
the Grecian conquests into Asia. The 
decisive battle of Issus, b. c. 333, in which 
Darius was completely defeated, caused 
Palestine to pass from the Persian to the 
Grecian sway. The country was ruled 
under the Seleucidse by governors ap- 
pointed by the king at Antioch. The 
war of independence, under the leader- 
ship of the Maccabaean princes, is among 
the most important events of this period. 
4. Roman and Christian Period. — About 
B. c. 40 the Parthian s plundered Syria 
and Palestine; Herod I. (afterward the 
Great) obtained the vassal-kingship from 
the Romans, and was confirmed in office 
B. c. 37. After his death (b. c. 4), and dur- 
ing the ministry of our Lord, the land 
was divided and ruled by his sons and by 
Roman procurators, Herod Antipas and 
Pilate being among those more prominent 
in biblical history. A national (Jewish) 
insurrection broke out in consequence 
of the maladministration of the Roman 
governor, and in A. d. 70 the capital, 
Jerusalem, was captured after great 
loss of life. The whole land was soon 
after reduced to the condition of a 
colony, and the Jews excluded from 
their capital. Later, the eastern empire 
gained the ascendency in Western Asia, 
and under the Constantines the land was 
favored, Christianity was recognized, 
churches built. Christian sees established, 
and partial prosperity restored. The 
birth of the false prophet Mohammed, 
a. n. 570, and the rapid rise of Moham- 
medanism, led the way for the Holy 
Land to fall into the hands of the Arabs. 
5. The Mohammedan Period. — The 
battle of Hieromax (Yarmuk), A. D. 634, 
opened the whole of Palestine to the 
Arabs, followers of Mohammed. The 
political history of the Arab rulers of 
these centuries presents a continuous 
scene of war and bloodshed, accompanied 
by an interminable series of intestine dis- 
sensions, intrigues, and murders. The 
Arabs, however, made considerable pro- 
gress in scientific knowledge, in phil- 

J osophy, and in mathematics. The 
internal disorders of the Muslim empire 
aided in giving success to the bold bands 

| of Christian Crusaders who were deter- 
(549 



PAL 



PAL 



mined to wrench the Holy Land from 
the hand of the Muslim, and for a time 
they held the country, but their rule was 
comparatively short: and, though four 
or five crusades were undertaken with 
remarkable zeal, the Mamelukes suc- 
ceeded in coming into possession of the 
land, to be followed by the Osmans, who 
have held the country under their mis- 
rule, scarcely interrupted by the famous 
invasion of the French under Napoleon 
I., who signally defeated the Turks in 
battle on the plain of Jezreel. The 
recent intervention of England and the 
nations of Europe was supposed to 
promise some reforms in misgoverned 
Turkey and its possessions, including 
Palestine, but the realization of the 
promise must be found in the future, 
if at all. 

Palestine now belongs to the pashalic 
of Damascus, which includes the three 
sub-pashalics of Beirut, Akka, and 
Jerusalem. 

Present Inhabitants. -^As no census of 
Palestine has been taken under its pres- 
ent rule, the number of its inhabitants 
can be only approximately determined. 
The estimates of the present population 
vary widely. The pashalic of Jerusalem, 
according to Hitter, has 602,000; the 
pashalic of Acre, according to Robinson, 
has 72,000 ; the remaining part of the 
pashalic of Sidon in Palestine and the 
East Jordanic region is estimated to 
contain about 150,000, making a total 
population of 824,000. Dr. Hitchcock, in 
Johnson's Cyclopaedia, supposes the pres- 
ent population "to be well on toward 
400,000, less than a tenth of what it 
probably was in the time of Solomon." 
The correct number can only be ascer- 
tained by a census under a government 
with more trustworthy officials than the 
present Turkish rule sustains. Of the 
population of Palestine probably about 
20,000 are Jews, chiefly dwelling in the 
four sacred cities of Jerusalem, Safed, 
Tiberias, and Hebron. The Samaritans 
number scarcely one hundred and fifty, 
dwelling in Nablus. The rest of the 
population is Mohammedan, with a 
few Christians from the ancient Syri- 
ans and their conquerors the Arabs. 
Computations based on the statements 
of Josephus make the population of 
Palestine in the time of our Lord from 
4,000,000 to 6,000,000; the number in 
650 



the most prosperous days of the mon- 
archy under Solomon is estimated at 
from 3,000,000 to 4,000,000. 

The peasantry of Judaea are termed 
fellaheen Arabs, but M. Ganneau argues 
that this sedentary and not nomadic race 
must be distinguished from the nomad 
Arabs who came from Arabia with Caliph 
Omar. He thinks that the fellaheen Arabs 
are descendants, not of the conquering 
Arabs, but of the peasants found by them 
upon the soil. " Of what race, then, were 
these peasants? Were they Jews ? No; 
for the wars of extermination waged by 
Vespasian, Titus, Trajan, and Hadrian, 
and the persecutions of the Christian em- 
perors left not one stone upon another of 
either political or ethnic Judaism. . . . 
Jewish tradition, properly so called, is 
for ever lost in Palestine; and all the 
Jews now found there have, without ex- 
ception, come to the country at a com- 
paratively recent date." Were they 
Greeks ? No ; for they spoke a Sem- 
itic dialect. M. Ganneau's conclusion 
is "that the fellaheen of Palestine, 
taken as a whole, are the modern rep- 
resentatives of those old tribes which 
the Israelites found in the country, such 
as the Canaanites, Hittites, Jebusites, 
Amorites, Philistines, Edomites, etc." 
He designates these as " pre-Israelite " 
races. " Each successive change in the 
social and political condition of the 
country has more or less affected it in 
various ways ; and we must not be sur- 
prised, when we study the fellaheen, 
at finding Jewish, Hellenic, Rabbinic, 
Christian, and Mussulman reminiscences 
mingled pell-mell and in the quaintest 
combinations with traits which bring 
us back to the most remote and obscure 
periods of pre-Israelite existence. 

" The tenacity with which old relig- 
ious customs have been kept up is an- 
other remarkable circumstance. Not 
only have the fellaheen, as Robinson 
conjectured, preserved, by the erection 
of their Mussulman kubbehs and their 
fetichism for certain large isolated trees, 
the site and the souvenir of the hill- 
sanctuaries and shady groves which 
were marked out for the execration of 
the Israelites on their entry into the 
Promised Land, but they pay them al- 
most the same veneration as did the 
Canaanite Kooffars, whose descendants 
they are. These makome, as Deuter- 



PAL 



PAL 



onomy calls them — which Manasseh 
rebuilt, and against which the proph- 
ets in vain exhausted their invectives 
— are word for word, thing for thing, 
the Arabic makoms, whose little white- 
topped cupolas are dotted so pictu- 
resquely over the mountain-horizon of 
Central Judaea. 

" In order to conceal their suspicious 
origin, these fellah sanctuaries have been 
placed under the protection of the purest 
Mohammedan orthodoxy by becoming 
the tombs or shrines of sheykhs, welys, 
and nebys — elders, saints, and prophets — 
deceased in the odor of sanctity. But 
there are many traces of their true ori- 
gin beneath this simple disguise." 

On account of the close connection 
between the names and places, Moses 
insisted upon destroying both. The i 
fellaheen will " swear fluently and ! 
perjure themselves without scruple by 
any other sacred object, even by the 
Sakhrah — the rock upon which stood 
the altar ; but if they take an oath on 
their local sanctuary, it is extremely 
rare to find them faithless or bearing 
false witness." 

Antiquities and Exploratio)is. — Pal- 
estine has no wonderful pyramids and 
obelisks like Egypt, nor has it ruins of 
vast temples and palaces like Assyria. 
There are few remains of the work and 
art of the Israelites, most of the ruins 
of edifices being not older than the Ro- 
man period. There are some coins of the 
Maccabaean era, some of the stones of 
Solomon's temple and palace have been 
found, and the enclosure of Abraham's 
tomb at Hebron has not been explored 
and its age is unknown. The wells at 
Beersheba are, however, of the patri- 
archal ages, and the well at Sychar has 
also been generally accepted as the one 
dug by the patriai'ch Jacob. 

The exploration of this land may be 
traced back to the era of pilgrimages, 
when Eusebius and Jerome wrote a de- 
scription of Palestine in the Onom ant icon. 
Little was added to the information they 
gathered until a recent period, when Seet- 
zen (1805-1807), Burckhardt (1810), Irby 
and Mangles (1817), and, pre-eminently, 
Robinson (1838 and 1852) brought a true 
critical and scientific method to the ex- 
amination of this land of lands. Be- 
sides these, a multitude of noted trav- ' 
ellers have visited and explored the \ 



country, and presented the results of 
their labors to the world. 

In 1865 the English Palestine Fund 
was formed for an exact survey and 
thorough scientific exploration of West- 
ern Palestine. This has been completed, 
and the results have been very satisfac- 
tory, the latest being given in the ad- 
mirable large sheet-maps of the whole 
territory between the Jordan and the 
Mediterranean, accompanied by full de- 
scriptive memoirs of the survey. 

The American Palestine Exploration 
Society was formed in 1870 to make 
a similar survey of the Holy Land east 
of the Jordan. It has furnished valu- 
able information relating to the identi- 
fication of Mt. Nebo and of man}' places 
east of the Jordan. Its work of ex- 
ploration has now (1884) been assumed 
by the English Palestine Fund. The 
Moabite Stone, found by Mr. Klein in 
1868 (see Dibon), had caused explorers 
to expect rich results from a thorough 
survey of the East Jordanic region — 
expectations which may yet be realized. 

Meanwhile, there are a number of 
topographical questions unsettled in 
respect to cities in the West Jordanic 
territory, as the locations of Capernaum, 
Chorazin, Bethsaida, Cana of Galilee, 
Emmaus and the sites of the lost cities 
of the plain, the true Calvary, and a 
large number of points in Jerusalem 
topography. Some of these will be 
settled more surely with the spade 
than with the pen: others it may be 
impossible to solve satisfactorily by 
either method. It is, however, remark- 
able to note how completely every suc- 
cessive fact in the history or topography 
of this land has tended to throw addi- 
tional light upon the Book of books, and 
to add to the external evidence of its 
divine origin, by showing how writers 
of such a variety of grades of intelli- 
gence, trained under such widely-differ- 
ent circumstances, and at eras separated 
by upward of fifteen centuries, each re- 
corded descriptions, allusions, and inci- 
dents which are now found to be in exact 
accord with what we know must have 
been the physical features of the land, 
the character, customs, conditions of the 
people, and the influences existing at 
each of the periods of which he professes 
to write. Renan happily calls Palestine 
"the fifth Gospel." The Book fits the 
651 



PAL 



PAL 



Land, and the Land testifies to the ac- 
curacy and the inspiration of the Book. 

The literature upon Palestine would 
fill a large library. Tobler notes over 
one thousand writers on the topic. A 
few of the most important and of the 
later works only can be given on the 
subject. Onomasticon, by Eusebius and 
Jerome (330-338), edited by Lasson 
and Parthey (1862); Description's 
Terrse Sanctse, of writers in the eighth, 
ninth, twelfth, and fifteenth centuries, 
edited by Tobler (1874); Aleppo to Je- 
rusalem, by Maundrell (1697); Palestine/, 
Illustrata, by Reland (1714) ; Voyages 
and Travels in the Levant, by Hasselquist 
(1749-1752), edited by Linnaeus (1766); 
Travels in Syria and the Holy Land, 
by Burckhardt (1822); Egypt, Xvhia, 
Syria, and Asia Minor, by Irby and Man- 
gles, (1822); Biblical Researches, by Rob- 
inson (1838-1811 and 1856); Lands of 
the Bible Visited and Described, by John 
Wilson (1847) ; Physical Geography of 
Palestine, hj Robinson (1865); Expedition 
to the Dead Sea and Jordan, by Lynch 
(1849); Sinai and Palestine, by Stanley 
(1857) ; Land and Book, by Thomson 
(1859, and new edition 1880); Narra- 
tive of a Journey through Syria and 
Palestine, by Van de Velde (1858 and 
1865); Bob Boy on the Jordan, by 
Macgregor (1870); Land of Israel, by 
Tristram (1865); Natural History of the 
Bible, by Tristram (1867): Land of 
Moab, by Tristram (1873); Geography 
of Palestine, Ritter, translated by 
Gage (1866); Damascus; Giant Cities 
ofBashan,bj Porter (1855-1865); Hand- 
book of Syria and Palestine, by Mur- 
ray (1875); Bible Educator, by Plumptre 
(1873-1875); Handbook of Syria and 
Palestine, by Baedeker (1876) ; Bible 
Lands, their Modern Customs, etc., by 
Van Lennep (1875); Quarterlies Pales- 
tine Exploration Fund (organized, 1865- 
1880); American Palestine Exploration 
Society's Statements (1871-1877) : Our 
Work in Palestine (1875) ; Through Bible 
Lands, by Schaff (1878); Tent-work in 
Palestine, by Conder (1S78) ; From Egypt 
to Palestine, by Bartlett (1879); Hand- 
book to the Bible, by F. R. and C. 
R. Conder (1879); Sheet Maps and 
Memoirs of the Palestine Exploration 
Fund (1880). 

PAL'LU (distinguished), the second 
sun of Reuben, and founder of the family 
652 



of the Palluites, Ex. 6:14; Num. 26 : 5, 8 ; 
1 Chr. 5:3: called Phallu in Gen. 46 : 9. 
PALLUITES. See above. 
PALM TREE. The date-palm 
(Phoenix dactylifera) is found from the 
Indus to the Nile, through most of 
Northern Africa, and upon all the warm- 
er shores of the Mediterranean, but it is 
now rare in Palestine. Yet in ancient 
times, when the land was peopled with 
many industrious inhabitants, it was 
very common. Lev. 23 : 40 ; Deut. 34 : 
3; Jud. 1:16; 3:13; 4:5. Ancient 
historians corroborate this statement, 
and inform us that the region of the 
Dead Sea was noted for the palm, of 
which there were groves twelve miles in 
extent. 

The general figure and appearance of 
this tree is familiar to our minds from 

I pictures and descriptions. It grows in 

| sandy soils, in hot and dry climates, but 
flourishes best in the vicinity of streams 
and where it can be watered, and in 
valleys and plains, especially where the 

[ water is moderately salt or brackish. It 
is always green -and grows to a great 
height— from 60 to 100 feet. Its straight 

j and slender trunk rises very high before 
it puts forth any leaves, and its foliage 

| is in one mass at the top. Cant. 7:7; 
Jer. 10 : 5. This ever green and stately 
tree is the emblem of the righteous. Ps. 
1 : 3 and 92 : 12. The columns of costly 
edifices were sometimes hewn in imita- 
tion of its trunk, as maybe observed in 
some of the ruins of Egypt. Palm trees 
were carved upon the doors of the tem- 
ple. 1 Kgs. 6 : 32 ; comp. Eze. 41 : 19. 

It is a peculiarity of palms and simi- 
lar endogenous trees that the diameter 
of the trunk is as great as it ever be- 
comes when the tree first rises above the 
ground, as seen in the cut of young 
palms. Hence there is growth yet com- 
pleteness almost from the first. 

Strictly speaking, the palm has no 
branches, but at the summit from forty 
to eighty leaf-stalks spring forth, which 
are intended in Neh. 8 : 15. These are 
set around the trunk in circles of about 
six. The lower row is of great length, 
and the vast leaves, often 12 feet in 
length, bend themselves in a curve to- 
ward the earth; as the circles ascend the 
leaves are shorter. In the month of 
February there sprout from between the 
junctures of the lower stalks and the 



PAL 



PAL 



trunk little scales, which develop a kind 
of bud, the germ of the coming fruit. 
These germs are contained in a thick 
and tough skin not unlike leather. Ac- 




Date-Palm. {After Photograph.) 

cording to the account of a modern 
traveller, a single tree in Barbary and 
Egypt bears from fifteen to twenty large 
clusters of dates, weighing from fifteen 
to twenty pounds each. The palm tree 
lives more than two hundred years, and 
is most productive from the thirtieth un- 
til the eightieth year. The Arabs speak 
of three hundred and sixty uses to 
which the different parts of the palm 
tree are applied. 

The inhabitants of Egypt, Arabia, and 
Persia depend much on the fruit of the 
palm tree for their subsistence. Camels 
feed on the seed, and the leaves, branches, 
fibres, and sap are all very valuable. 

When the dates are ripe they are 
plucked by the hand or shaken into a 
net, which is held below. The person 



who ascends the lofty trunk is assisted 
by the ragged processes or scales with 
which the body of the tree is armed. 
The dates ripen at different times, so 
that a tree is commonly ascended two or 
three times in a season. When gathered 
they are spread upon mats in the open 
air, and after a few days begin to be 
used. Some are eaten fresh, and some 
are laid aside for future use. Others 
yield a rich syrup ; which being ex- 
pressed, the remaining mass is steeped 
in hot water, and after being macerated 
and cleansed affords a pleasant drink. 
These different kinds of syrups are the 
celebrated date-trine, which was greatly 
prized in ancient times by the Orientals. 
Some suppose it to be the " strong 
drink " often named in the Scriptures ; 
but this term rather designates all in- 
toxicating liquors except wine. See 
Wine. 

The shoots, which are annually cut 
away from the bottom of the tree, and 
the leaves themselves, are used for mak- 
ing ropes, baskets, sacks, mats, fans, 
hats, and sandals. The Hebrews were 
accustomed to carry the leaves, which 
they called " branches," in the solemn 
festivities of the feast of tabernacles, 
and to strew them in the way of tri- 
umphal processions. Thus branches 
were spread in the way of Christ upon 
his entry into Jerusalem. John 12 : 13. 
They were anciently used as a symbol 
of victory, and carried before the con- 
queror in triumphal processions. Hence 
the force and beauty of the figure in 
Rev. 7 : 9. 

The former abundance of the palm 
and the estimation in which the He- 
brews held it are seen from many Bible 
names and references. Phoenicia and 
Phoenice came from the Greek name of 
the palm ; Elim and Elath, or " trees," 
refer evidently to this species ; Hazezon- 
tamar, "the filling of the palm trees," 
is identified with En-gedi, Gen 14 : 7 ; 
2 Chr. 20 : 2, whose palm trees are men- 
tioned by Josephus and Pliny ; Tamar, 
" a palm," occurs twice in Ezekiel for a 
place, and, referring to the tree as tall, 
straight, and graceful, was a favorite fe- 
male name among the Hebrews ; Baal- 
tamar, " the sanctuary of the palm," 
occurs ; Bethany is " the house of dates:" 
and Jericho is often called " the city of 
palm trees." This tree is found upon 
653 



PAL 



PAP 



ancient Hebrew coins as the symbol of 
Judaea, and Roman coins struck after 
the conquest of Judaea have a palm with 
an inscription commemorating the event. 

PALM'CRIST, mentioned in the 
margin of Jonah 4:6, is the Gourd, 
which see. 

PALMER-WORM, a destructive j 
insect of the locust tribe, figuratively 
spoken of in Joel 1:4; Am. 4:9 as an 
instrument employed to afflict the rebel- 
lious Jews. See Locust. 

PAI/SY (contr. from paralysis), a 
disease which deprives the part affected 
of sensation or the power of motion, or 
of both, according as the sensory or the 
motor nerves, or both, are attacked. As 
the term is used in the N. T. it imports 
apoplexy, or paralysis of the whole sys- 
tem ; paralysis of one side ; a paralysis 
affecting the whole body below the neck; 
and a paralysis caused by a contraction 
of the muscles, so that the limbs can be 
neither drawn up nor extended, and soon 
become emaciated and dried up. 1 Kgs. 
13 : 4-6 ; Matt. 4 : 24; 12 : 10-13; Luke 
6:6; John 5 : 5-7. A fearful form of 
this disease is known in Eastern coun- 
tries. The limbs remain immovably fixed 
in the position in which they were at the 
time of the attack, and the suffering is so 
exquisitely severe that death is often oc- 
casioned in a few days. Matt. 8:6. 

PAL/TI (deliverance of Jehovah), a 
Benjamite, and one of the twelve spies. 
Num. 13 : 9. 

PAL'TIEL {deliverance of God), 
the chief of the tribe of Issachaf, and 
one of the twelve appointed to superin- 
tend the division of the land of Canaan. 
Num. 34 : 26. 

PAL/TITE, THE, one of David's 
mighty men, 2 Sam. 23:26; called the 
Pelonite in 1 Chr. 11 : 27. 

PAMPHYLIA (region of every 
tribe), a Roman province in Asia Minor. 
Acts 27 : 5. It was bounded on the east 
by Cilicia, on the north by Pisidia — from 
which it was separated by the Taurus 
Mountains — on the west by Lycia, and 
on the south by the sea. Claudius made 
Pamphylia an imperial province, includ- 
ing in it the regions of Pisidia and 
Lycia, which are distinguished from 
Pamphylia proper. Acts 13 : 13, 14; 14 : 
24; 27 : 5. 

Physical Features. — Sweeping around 
the head of the bay in crescent form and 
654 



extending to the Taurus Mountains on 
the north is a plain about 80 miles long 
and 30 miles broad. This is Pamphylia 
proper. Three principal rivers intersect 
this plain, the Catarrhactes, the Cestrus, 
and the Eurynedon. The Cestrus was 
navigable for 7 miles to the city of Perga, 
which appears to have been the capital 
of the province, and Attalia its chief sea- 
port. Acts 14 : 25. 

History. — Pamphylia, according to 
Herodotus, was a small territory during 
the Persian war, when it sent only thirty 
ships, while Cilicia contributed one hun- 
dred. The Romans united it to the 
province of Asia, but later it was de- 
tached, and was included in the juris- 
diction of M. Tullius Cicero. Its capital, 
Perga, was the first place in Asia Minor 
visited by Paul on his first missionary- 
tour, and there Mark left him. Acts 13 : 
13. On his return from Pisidia he 
preached at Perga, and from Attalia 
sailed to Antioch. Acts 14 : 24-26. 
Strangers from Pamphylia were at Jeru- 
salem on the day of Pentecost. 

PA1V is, in our version, the rendering 
of six different Hebrew words, of which 
two seem to have denoted flat plates of 
metal, such as are still used in the East 
for baking cakes of meal, while the others 
seem to have denoted deeper vessels, used 
for boiling purposes. Lev. 2:5; 6:21. 

PAN'NAG. Eze. 27:17. Our trans- 
lators wisely did not render this word 
into English. The most probable opin- 
ions are that it meant some kind of 
spice, or that it is millet. It has also 
been interpreted "balsam," "cassia," 
" sweetmeats," " panax." 

PAPER, 2 John ver. 12, PAPER 
REEDS. See Books, Bulrush. 

PATHOS (boiling, or hot), a town 
in the western end of Cyprus. There 
were two towns of this name — old Pa- 
phos, or Paphos of the poets, situated on 
a height about 2 miles from the sea, and 
new Paphos, on the seashore, about 10 
miles to the north-west of the old town. 
It was founded b. c. 1184. Paul and 
Barnabas visited it, and the Roman 
governor was converted. Acts 13 : 6-11. 
At the old town there was a famous 
temple dedicated to Venus, which was 
visited annually by great numbers of 
heathen pilgrims. There are still exten- 
sive ruins and catacombs on its site. 
Not long before the visit of Paul and 



PAP 



PAR 



Barnabas the new town had been de- 
stroyed by an earthquake. Augustus 
rebuilt it, and it became famous from its 
shrine and from the worship of Venus. 
Mingled with the ruins of palaces and 
churches are the poor dwellings and 
hovels of the Greek and Mohammedan 
inhabitants. The harbor is now nearly 
filled up. The modern name of the town 
IS Baffa. 

PAPY'RUS. Job 40: 21. See Reed. 

PARABLE (from a Greek word 
signifying comparison) is used in the 
Bible in both a wider and a narrower 
sense. In the first case it comprises all 
forms of teaching by analogy and all 
forms of figurative speech, and is applied 
to metaphors, whether expanded into 
narratives, Eze. 12 : 22, or not, Matt. 
24 : 32 ; to proverbs and other short say- 
ings, 1 Sam. 10 : 12 ; 24 : 13 ; 2 Chr. 7 : 
20 ; Luke 4 : 23 ; to dark utterances or 
signs of prophetic or symbolical mean- 
ing. Num. 23 : 17, 18 ; 24 : 3 ; Eze. 20 : 
49 ; Heb. 9 : 9, etc. In the second case 
it means a short narrative of some every- 
day event, by which some great spiritual 
truth is conveyed to the hearer. In this 
sense the parable differs — 

1. From the fable, by its higher aim 
to illustrate spiritual truth, and by the 
intrinsic possibility and probability of 
its fictitious narrative, which could have 
happened, though perhaps it did not 
actually happen ; while the fable uses 
the wonderful, and even the impossible 
(thinking, talking, acting animals and 
plants), for teaching maxims of prudence 
and lower morality, the parables of Christ 
always keep within the limits of the 
simple every-day experience. 

2. The parable differs from the allegory 
by its meaning, its idea not being repre- 
sented, but simply suggested. The alle- 
gory is self-interpreting, the imaginary 
persons being named and performing 
acts which declare the meaning; while 
the parable must be interpreted by means 
of a knowledge of him who speaks it and 
of those to whom it is spoken. The alle- 
gory itself says what it means ; the par- 
able receives its whole meaning from the 
situation which called it forth. For him 
who knows not Christ the parable of the 
Sower contains nothing beyond a com- 
mon every-day experience, but to him 
who knows the Man sitting there in the 
boat and speaking to the multitude on 



the shore this parable reveals a sublime 
spiritual truth. 

From this peculiarity of the character 
of the parable it is easy to understand 
its signification in the teaching of Christ, 
and easy to derive the law for its in- 
terpretation. " The purpose of our Lord 
in teaching by parables was twofold — to 
reveal and to conceal the truth : to reveal 
to those who really sought the truth, to 
conceal from those who did not desire 
such knowledge, thus rewarding the for- 
mer and punishing the latter." — Schaff. 
To him who has, the parable gives more; 
but it takes away from him who has not. 
No pondering over its details will ever 
bring out its meaning, for, although the 
idea may be reflected a thousand times 
from evei*y turn of the narrative, still it 
is not present in the words : it is a light 
thrown upon the words from without, 
from the situation, from the speaker. 

Teaching by parables was an ancient 
method. Striking instances occur in the 
0. T. — Nathan's address to David, 2 
Sam. 12:1-4; the woman of Tekoah, 
2 Sam. 14 : 6 ; the rebuke of Ahab, 1 
Kgs. 20,: 39 ; the denunciation of Isaiah, 
Isa. 5 : 1-7 — and later on, the method 
found much favor with the Hebrew 
teachers. But it reached its perfection 
by the application it found in the teach- 
ing of Christ. 

Matthew gives, in ch. 13, seven par- 
ables, which represent the several stages 
of the kingdom of God and its relation 
to the world: (1) The parable of the 
Sower, or the beginning of the kingdom 
and its reception or rejection by the 
different classes of men ; (2) The parable 
of the Tares, or the kingdom of heaven 
in conflict with the kingdom of Satan ; 

(3) The parable of the Mustard-seed and 

(4) the parable of the Leaven, or the 
growth of the kingdom of heaven exten- 
sively, comprising all nations and in- 
tensively pervading all forms of human 
life ; (5) The parable of the Hidden 
Treasure; (6) The parable of the Pearl 
of Great Price; and (7) The parable of 
the Net cast into the Sea, or the relation 
between the kingdom of heaven and 
individual man and his efforts to grasp 
it and to develop it. 

The parables occurring in the N. T. 
are : 

1. The Sower. Matt. 13:3-8; Mark 
4:3-8; Luke 8 : 5-8. 

655 



PAR 



PAR 



2. The Wheat and the Tares. Matt. 
13 : 24-30. 

3. The Mustard-seed. Matt. 13 : 31, 
32 ; Mark 4 : 30-32. 

4. The Leaven. Matt. 13 : 33. 

5. The Seed cast into the Ground and 
Growing up Secretly. Mark 4 : 26-29. 

6. The Hidden Treasure. Matt. 13 : 44. 

7. The Pearl of Great Price. Matt. 
13 : 45, 46. 

8. The Net cast into the Sea. Matt. 
13 : 47, 48. 

9. The Lost Sheep. Matt. 18 : 12, 13 ; 
Luke 15 : 4-6. 

10. The Merciless Servant. Matt. 18 : 
23-34. 

11. The Two Debtors. Luke 7 : 41, 42. 

12. The Good Samaritan. Luke 10 : 
30-35. 

13. The Importunate Friend. Luke 
11 : 5-8. 

14. The Rich Fool. Luke 12 : 16-20. 

15. The Return from the AVedding. 
Luke 12 : 35-40. 

16. The Fig Tree. Luke 13 : 6-9. 

17. The Great Supper. Luke 14 : 
16-24. 

18. The Lost Piece of Money. Luke 

15 : 8, 9. 

19. The Prodigal Son. Luke 15 : 11-32. 

20. The Unjust Steward. Luke 16 : 
1-8. 

21. The Rich Man and Lazarus. Luke 

16 : 19-31. 

22. The Unjust Judge. Luke 18 : 2-5. 

23. The Pharisee and the Publican. 
Luke 18 : 10-13. 

24. The Pounds. Luke 19 : 12-27. 

25. The Laborers in the Vineyard. 
Matt. 20 : 1-16. 

26. The Two Sons. Matt. 21 : 28-30. 

27. The Vineyard let to Husbandmen. 
Matt. 21 : 33-39 ; Mark 12 : 1-9 ; Luke 
20 : 9-15. 

28. The Marriage-Feast. Matt. 22 : 
2-14. 

29. The Wise and the Foolish Virgins. 
Matt. 25 : 1-13. 

30. The Talents. Matt. 25 : 14-30. 

31. The Sheep and the Goats. Matt. 
25 : 31-46. 

The number of parables in the Gospels 
differs according to the range given to 
the application of the term. Greswell 
reckons 27; Trench, 30 ; Plumptre, 31 ; 
others, 50. 

Matthew and Luke give us most of the 
parables. Mark dwells more on the acts 
656 



than the discourses of Christ. John has 
no parables proper. He took them for 
granted from the earlier Gospels, and 
gives us instead those higher discourses 
of our Lord respecting his relation to 
the Father. 

The best special works on the parables 
are by Lisco, Greswell, Trench, Arndt, 
Arnot, Stier. Our Lord has himself ex- 
plained the parable of the Sower and the 
parable of the Wheat and the Tares. 
His explanation must be the standard 
by which our interpretations are to be 
regulated and measured. 

PARACLETE. See Advocate. 

PAR'ADISE, a word of Persian 
origin, meaning a "garden," "orchard," 
or other enclosed place, filled with beauty 
and delight. Hence it is used figuratively 
for any place of peculiar happiness, and 
particularly for the kingdom of perfect 
happiness, which is the abode of the 
blessed beyond the grave. Luke 23 : 43 ; 
2 Cor. 12 : 4 : Rev. 2 : 7. See Eden. 

PA'RAH {heifer-town), a place in 
the territory of Benjamin. Josh. 18 : 23. 
It has been located south-east of Mich- 
mash, at the ruined village Farah, at the 
junction of the Wady Farah with the 
Wady Suweinit, and about 6 miles north- 
east of Jerusalem. 

PARALYTIC. See Palsy. 

PA'RAN (place of caverns), a wil- 
derness or desert region west of the 
Elanitic Gulf, and within the Sinaitic 
peninsula. It was bounded on the north 
by the wilderness of Shur and the land 
of Canaan ; on the east by the great 
valley of the Arabah — which separated 
it from the mountains of Moab — and the 
Gulf of Akabah ; on the south by a great 
sand-belt, separating it from the gran- 
itic mountains of Sinai ; and on the west 
by the wilderness of Etham, which sepa- 
rated it from the Gulf of Suez and from 
Egypt. A range of mountains sweeps 
around this wilderness on all sides ex- 
cept the north. It is a high limestone 
plateau, crossed by low ranges of hills 
and intersected by few watercourses, 
always dry except in the rainy season. 
In this blanched and dreary waste of 
chalk, covered with coarse gravel, black 
flint, and drifting sand, upon which a 
slight coating of vegetation struggles for 
existence, the Israelites spent thirty- 
eight years after leaving Sinai. Num. 
10 : 12. The modern name, Badiet et 



PAR 



PAR 



Tih, or "desert of the wandering," com- 
memorates this historic fact. Across 
this desert lay the road from Canaan to 
Egypt which was travelled by Abraham, 
Jacob, and Joseph. The north-east 
corner of the wilderness is a hilly pla- 
teau, the home and pasture-ground of 
the patriarchs, the Negtb, or " south 
country," of Scripture. 

Scripture History. — Paranis first men- 
tioned in connection with the conquest j 
of the confederate kings, when it appears 
to have been the home of the Horites. 
Gen. 14 : 6. Hagar and Ishinael, after 
being driven away by Abraham, went 
into the wilderness of Paran, Gen. 21 : 
21 ; the Israelites entered it soon after 
leaving Sinai, Num. 10 : 12, 33 ; 11 : 3, 
34, 35 ; 12 : 16 ; the spies were sent up 
to Canaan and returned from this region ; 
and eighteen stations of the Israelites' 
journey are noted in this wilderness. 
Num. 13 : 3, 26 : 33 : 17-36 ; comp. Deut. 
1 : 1. Probably, during their thirty- 
eight years of sojourn in the wilderness, 
the people were scattered over a wide 
extent of territory, like the modern Bed- 
ouin tribes. David found refuge in this 
wilderness, 1 Sam. 25 : 1, and Hadad 
passed through it when escaping to 
Egypt. 1 Kgs. 11 : 18. 

PARAN, MOUNT OF, the place 
where the Lord is said to have shined 
forth. Deut. 33 : 2 ; Hab. 3:3. It was 
probably the most southern portion of 
the mountain-plateau in the north-east- 
ern part of the wilderness of Paran, now 
Jebel Mag rali. In this region is situ- 
ated 'A in Gadis, which some identify 
with Kadesh, and the one encampment 
in the wilderness of Kadesb. Jebel 
Magra'h would always be the most con- 
spicuous object, and would completely 
shut out from view the more fertile 
mountains bevond. 

PAR'BAR occurs only in 1 Chr. 
26 : 18? where it denotes some place on 
the western side of the temple-enclosure. 

PARCHED CORN, mentioned 
in Ruth 2 : 14, consisted of roasted 
heads of grain. 

PARCHED GROUND. The 
Hebrew word thus rendered, Isa. 35 : 7, 
denotes that optical delusion known by 
the name of "mirage," and frequently 
occurring in the African and Asiatic 
deserts. On account of the different 
refraction of the solar rays in the various 
42 



layers of the atmosphere, the white, bar- 
ren sand-waste suddenly assumes the 
aspect of a beautiful lake surrounded by 
trees and a most luxuriant vegetation. 

PARCHMENTS. The skins of 
beasts were early and extensively used 
for writing ; the Ionians wrote upon 
sheep-skins five centuries before Christ. 
Very slight preparation was used, how- 
ever, until under Eumenes, a king of 
Pergamos, a mode of producing a really 
fine material was discovered, whence the 
skins thus prepai'ed were called by the 
Latins pergamena, which is translated 
"parchments." 2 Tim. 4:13. 

PAR'DON. Ps. 25 : 11. The 
scriptural import of this term is very 
imperfectly indicated by the common 
acceptation of it among men. In the 
dispensation of grace pardon is insepa- 
rably connected with justification. Hence 
it is spoken of as the covering of sin, 
Ps. 85 : 2; the non-imputation of it, Ps. 
32 : 2 ; a blotting out, Ps. 51 : 1, 9 ; Isa. 
43 : 25 ; forgetting it, Heb. 8:12; passing 
by it or removing it to an immeasurable 
distance from us. Ps. 103 : 12; Mic. 7 : 
19. 

It is evident that God only has power 
to bestow pardon, Mark 2 : 7, 10-12, and 
that it proceeds from free sovereign 
grace, Eph. 1 : 6, 7, through the media- 
tion and atonement of Jesus Christ. Heb. 
9 : 9-28 : 1 John 1 : 7. 

Men are commissioned to preach par- 
don and salvation through the blood 
of Christ, but no man can forgive sin 
or pretend to the right and power of 
absolution without direct and daring 
blasphemy. 

PARLOR. See Dwellings. 

PARMASH'TA {superior), one of 
the ten sons of Haman ; slain by the Jews 
in Shushan. Esth. 9 : 9. 

PAR'MENAS {steadfast), one of the 
seven deacons ordained by the disciples 
to administer alms to the widows and 
the poor of the church. Acts 6 : 5. 

PAR'NACH {swift), the father of 
Elizaphan, chief of the tribe of Zebulun. 
Num. 34 : 25. 

PAROSH {flea). Of his descend- 
ants one group, comprising 2172 persons, 
returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel, 
Ezr. 2:3; Neh. 7:8; and another, com- 
prising 150 males, with Ezra. Ezr. 8 : 3. 

PARSHAN'DATHA {given by 
prayer), the eldest of the ten sons of 
657 



PAR 



PAR 



Haman ; slain by the Jews in Shushan. 
Esth. 9 : 7. 

PAR'THIA. Originally a province 
of Media, on its eastern side, in the time 
of the apostles it had spread its sway 
from India to the Tigris, and from the 
Kharesem desert to the southern ocean. 
Seleucia was a chief city, and Ecbatana 
was its king's summer residence. Par- 
thia was united to the Persian empire 
under Cyrus, b. c. 550. But in b. c. 256 
it revolted and became an independent 
empire. At last, however, Parthia was 
conquered by the Persians and united 
to their empire, A. d. 226. 

PAR'THIANS, inhabitants of Par- 
thia, were at Jerusalem during the Pen- 
tecost. Acts 2 : 9. They spoke the Per- 
sian language, so that, in Scripture and 
other ancient writing, " Persia " and 
" Parthia " are often used interchange- 
ably. Coming from the ruins of the 
Persian empire, they were a powerful 



enemy to the Romans, whom they 
defeated at Carrhae (Haran). Under 
Mithridates I. their cavalry and bow- 
men were very expert, and dangerous 
to an opposing army. They were ac- 
customed to shoot their arrows while 
at full speed. They possessed, also, 
considerable knowledge of architecture 
and art. But it is for their remark- 
able skill in archery that they are 
now remembered, and for a long time 
they were Rome's formidable rival in 
the East. 

PARTITION, MIDDLE 
WALL OF, is supposed to have 
reference to the wall in the temple which 
separated the court of Israel from the 
court of the Gentiles, Eph. 2 : 14, and is 
figuratively used to denote whatever in 
their laws or customs separated the Jews 
from the Gentiles, and rendered the 
former any more the objects of divine 
favor than the latter. See Temple. 




The Greek 

PAR'TRIDGE (Heb. the caller). 
The Greek partridge {Gaccabis saxatilis) 
is very common in Palestine, and one or 
two other kinds are found. The modern 
peasants esteem the flesh of these birds 
a luxury ; and as, when hunted, they try 
to save themselves by running rather 
than by flight, they are often chased till, 
being fatigued, they can be knocked 
658 



Partridge. 

down with a stick or a stone. 1 Sam. 
26 : 20. The partridge lays many eggs, 
which are prized by the Syrians and 
gathered in large numbers. The ancients 
undoubtedly hunted the bird and its eggs 
in the same way as is now customary. 
Thus the partridge often laid her eggs 
and brooded upon them in vain, which 
is the meaning of Jer. 17 : 11. 



PAR 



PAS 



PAR'UAH (blossoming), the father 
of Jehoshaphat, one of Solomon's officers. 
1 Kgs. 4 : 17. 

PARVA'IM (eastern regions) occurs 
only once, 2 Chr. 3 : 6, and is the name 
of the country or place producing the 
gold which Solomon used for the decora- 
tion of the temple ; but this country or 
place it has not been possible to identify. 
Some regard it as an abbreviation for 
" Sepharvaim," or " Sephar," supposed 
to be a seaport in Arabia. 

PA'SACH (cut off), one of the chiefs 
of the tribe of Asher. 1 Chr. 7 : 33. 

PAS-DAM' MIM (boundary of 
blood), the scene of fierce contests be- 
tween the Israelites and the Philistines. 
1 Chr. 11 : 13. It is called Ephes-dammim 
in 1 Sam. 17 : 1. It was on the side of 
the valley of Elah, and Van de Velde 
proposes to identify it with the ruins 
called Damum, 3 miles east of Shochoh, 
about 11 miles south-west of Jerusalem. 

PASE'AH (lame). I. One of the 
descendants of Judah. 1 Chr. 4:12. 

2. One whose descendants returned 
from Babylon with Zerubbabel, Ezr. 2 : 
49 j called Phaseah in Neh. 7 : 51. One 
of the family, Jehoiada, assisted in re- 
building the gate under Nehemiah. Neh. 
3:6. 

PASH'UR (freedom). 1. The son 
of Malchijah, and founder of a family 
of priests, 1 Chr. 9:12; 24 : 9 ; Neh. 11 : 
12, which seems to have returned with 
Zerubbabel, and which, in the time of 
Nehemiah, was one of the chief houses, 
its head being the head of a course. Ezr. 
2:38; Neh. 7:41; 10 : 3. Sent by King 
Zedekiah to Jeremiah to inquire about 
the issue of Nebuchadnezzar's prepara- 
tions against Jerusalem, Pashur received 
a sombre warning, Jer. 21 ; but when 
later on the siege of Jerusalem was raised 
by the advance of the Egyptian army, 
Pashur, together with other prominent 
men, demanded of Zedekiah that Jer- 
emiah should be put to death as a traitor, 
and the prophet was actually cast into 
the dungeon or well where was mire. 
Jer. 38. 

2. The son of Immer, also a priest, 
and chief governor in the house of the 
Lord. Jer. 20 : 1. In the reign of Jehoi- 
akim he caused Jeremiah to be put in 
the stocks because he prophesied evil 
against Jerusalem ; but the prophet pro- 
nounced a fearful sentence against him, 



Jer. 20 : 1-6, and his name was changed 
to Magor-missabib, which see. 

PASSION. Acts 1 : 3. The word, 
in this connection, denotes the last suf- 
ferings of Christ, or rather his death as 
the consummation of his sufferings. The 
expression in Acts 14 : 15 and Jas. 5 : 17 
signifies like propensities, feelings, and 
susceptibilities. See Cross. 

PASS'OVER, the principal annual 
feast of the Jews, which typified the 
sacrifice of Christ, the Lamb of God, 
slain for the sins of the world. Comp. 1 
Cor. 5 : 7, 8, Christ our Passover is slain 
for us, etc. It was appointed to com- 
memorate the exemption or "passing 
over" of the families of the Israelites 
when the destroying angel smote the 
first-born of Egypt, and also their de- 
parture from the land of bondage. 

At even of the 14th day of the first 
month (Nisan) the Passover was to be 
celebrated, and on the 15th day com- 
menced the seven days' feast of unlea- 
vened bread. The term "Passover" is 
strictly applicable only to the meal of 
the paschal lamb, and the feast of un- 
leavened bread was celebrated on the 15th 
onward for seven days to the 21st inclu- 
sive. This order is recognized in Josh. 
5 : 10, 11. But in the sacred history the 
term " Passover" is used also to denote 
the whole period — the 14th day, and the 
festival of the seven days following. Luke 
2:41; John 2:13,23; 6:4: 11:55. 

As to the time of the celebration of 
the Passover, it is expressly appointed 
" between the two evenings," Ex. 12 : 6 ; 
Lev. 23 : 5 ; Num. 9:3, 5, or, as it is 
elsewhere expressed, "at even, at the 
going down of the sun." Deut. 16 : 6. 
This is supposed to denote the com- 
mencement of the 15th day of Nisan, 
or at the moment when the 14th day 
closed and the 15th began. The 
twenty-four hours, reckoned from thii 
point of time to the same period of the 
next day, or 15th, was the day of the 
Passover. At sunset of the 14th day 
the 15th began, and with it the feast 
of unleavened bread. The lamb was to 
be selected on the 10th day, and kept 
up till the 14th day, in the evening of 
which day it was to be killed. Ex. 12 : 
3-6. A male lamb was demanded, not 
more than one year old and without 
blemish ; but often several households, 
comprising, perhaps, one hundred per- 
659 



PAS 



PAT 



sons, associated and had a lamb in 
common, in which case each person was 
provided with a piece at least as large 
as an olive. The feast began by the 
handing around of a cup of wine mixed 
with water, over which the head of the 
family or the chief of the association 
pronounced the benediction. The lamb, 
roasted whole, and the other dishes were 
then placed on the table, and after a 
second cup of wine the meal was eaten. 
Everybody present partook of the lamb, 
the bitter herbs, and the unleavened 
bread, and care was taken that no bone 
was broken. What was left of the flesh 
was imcnediately burnt. After the meal 
followed the third cup of wine, then the 
singing of psalms and hymns, and finally 
a fourth, and perhaps a fifth, cup of 
wine. Then followed the feast of un- 
leavened bread, occupying seven days, 
the first and last of which were pecu- 
liarly holy, like the Sabbath. Ex. 12 : 
15, 16. 

The "preparation of the Passover," 
John 19 : 14, or " the day of the prep- 
aration," Matt. 27 : 62. was the Paschal 
Friday, as in John 19 : 31 and 12, or 
the day preceding the regular Sabbath 
(Sabbath eve). It was, then, at the close 
of the 11th day of the month, when the 
feast of unleavened bread, called, in the 
larger sense, the Passover, Luke 22 : 1, 
approached, that Jesus directed the lamb 
for the paschal sacrifice to be prepared 
for himself and his disciples. This being 
done immediately after sunset of the 
14th, which was the beginning of the 
15th, the paschal supper was eaten. 
After this supper, and in the course of 
that night, Christ was arrested, tried 
during the night, condemned the next 
morning, crucified at 9 a. m., and died at 
3 p. M. of the 15th of Xisan (this being 
a Friday). The whole series of events 
occurred between what we should call ! 
Thursday evening and Friday evening, i 

The facts of chief importance in rec- 
onciling all the evangelists are that 
the word "Passover" is applied some- 
times strictly to the 14th day. and at 
other times to the whole festival of un- ' 
leavened bread : that the Passover, or J 
paschal supper, strictly speaking, was 
celebrated at 6 p. m. at the close of the 
14th or at the beginning of the 1,3th 
day of the month, and that the 15th of j 
Xisan, or first day of the festival, was 



the day of the crucifixion. This has 
been verified by astronomical calcula- 
tion, which proves that in the year a. d. 
30, the year of our Saviour's death, the 
15th of Xisan (April 7), fell on a Fri- 
day, which agrees with the testimony of 
all the evangelists. 

PASTOR. Jer.2:8. See Shepherd. 

PAT'ARA, a seaport-town on the 
south-west shore of Lycia, near the left 
bank of Xanthus, and opposite Rhodes. 
Acts 21 : 1, 2. It was about 7 miles east 
of the mouth of the river, had a con- 
venient harbor, and was visited by ships 
of all nations. The gospel was early 
preached there, and it became the seat 
of a bishopric and was represented in the 
Council of Nice. The city was given up 
to tne worship of Apollo, its founder, 
Patarus, being reputed to be a son of 
that god. Patara is now in ruins, but 
retains its ancient name. The remains 
prove it to have been a city of consider- 
able importance. Among them are a 
theatre, some massive walls and arches, 
a gate of the city with three arches nearly 
perfect, and numerous sarcophagi. Near 
the theatre is a deep circular pit, and a 
square pillar rising above it, which 
Lewin thinks was the seat of the oracle 
of Patareus Apollo. The port is com- 
pletely filled with sand, and is a malari- 
ous swamp : all communication with the 
sea is cut off by a sand-beach, and the 
sand is also gradually encroaching upon 
the ruins. 

PATHROS {region of the south), a 
district of Egypt near Thebes ; named, 
as some suppose, from a town called 
Ha-hathor, or "the abode of Hathor." 
the Egyptian Venus. Originally it was 
ruled by its own kings, independent of 
Egypt. It was probably the Thebaid of 
the Greeks and the Said of the Arabs. 
The country is mentioned in the Proph- 
ets, and nearlv alwavs in connection with 
Egypt. Isa. U : 11 ;' 19 : 11-13 ; Jer. 44 : 
1-15: Eze. 29 : 14. Its inhabitants were 
known as the Pathrusim, the descend- 
ants of Ham through Mizraim. Gen. 10 : 
14: 1 Chr. 1:12. 

PATHRUSIM. See above. 

PA TIENCE. With God, patience 
is a form of his infinite love which causes 
him to bear long with sinners. Isa. 30 : 
] 8 : Pom. 3 : 25 : 2 Pet. 3 : 9, and to send 
them warnings of judgments before the 
judgments are executed. Hos. 6:5; Am. 



PAT 



PAT 



1:1; 2 Pet. 2 : 5. With man, patience 
is a grace enabling him to bear with 
meekness and confidence the trials which 
God sends him, Rom. 2 : 7 ; 2 Tim. 3 : 10, 
and to deal with his fellow-men with 
love and forbearance. 1 Thess. 5 : 14. In 
many passages of our English Version 
where " patience" occurs, ''endurance" 
or " constancy " would be a better render- 
ing of the Greek {vTro^ovri). 

PAT'MOS, a little rugged island in 
the iEgean Sea, 20 miles south of Samos 
and 24 miles west of Asia Minor. Rev.l : 9. 



It is from 15 to 25 miles in circumference, 
and is very rocky and barren. The coast 
is rock-bound, but indented with several 
deep bays. It has only a few large trees, 
among them a palm, some olives, and 
cypresses. The barrenness of the island 
made it a suitable spot for the banish- 
ment of Roman criminals. To it the 
apostle John was banished by the em- 
peror Domitian, A. d. 95. Its rocky 
solitude well suited the sublime nature 
of the Revelation. There is a grotto on 
a hill in the southern part of the island 




Isle of Fatmos. 



which tradition points out as the place 
where John received the Revelation. 
Upon the summit of the mountain is a 
monastery built in honor of St. John, 
and having a library containing about 
two hundred and forty manuscripts.- In 
the Middle Ages the island was called Pal- 
mosa, and now bears the name of Patmn. 
PATRIARCH. Acts 2 : 29. In 
the early history of the Jews we find the 
ancestor or father of a family retaining 
authority over his children and his 
children's children so long as he lived, 
whatever new connections they might 
form. When the father died the branch- 
families did not break off and form new 
communities, but usually united under 
another common head. The eldest son 
wa= generally invested with this dignity. 
His authority was paternal. He was 
honored as the central point of connec- 
tion, and as the representative of the 
whole kindred. Thus each great family 



had its patriarch or head, and each tribe 
its prince selected from the several heads 
of the families it embraced. These 
princes were called " elders of Israel." 
See Elders. The word "patriarch" is 
also applied to the founder of a family 
or to any illustrious ancestor. Acts 2 : 29. 
In later ages of the Church the same 
title is found, but is applied to ecclesi- 
astical dignitaries, and denotes the sup- 
posed paternal character of their author- 
ity. The sons of Jacob, as the progenitors 
of the Jewish nation, are called, by way 
of distinction, "the twelve patriarchs." 
Acts 7 : 8. 

. PATROBAS (life of his father?), 
a Christian in Rome to whom Paul sends 
salutation, Rom. 16 : 14, was, according 
to a late tradition, one of the seventy 
disciples, and became bishop of Puteoli, 
where he suffered martyrdom on No- 
vember 4, which accordingly is his 
anniversary in the Romish calendar. 
661 



PAT 



PAU 



PATTERNS , in Heb. 9 : 23, should 
be "copies." 

PAU (bleating), a place in Idumaea; 
called Pai in 1 Chr. 1:50; Gen. 36 : 39. 
It may be identical with Phauara, a 
ruined site in Idumaea. 

PAUL (small), OR SAUL (asked 
for). 1. Life. — Paul, or Saul, was a native 
of Tarsus, in Cilicia, and inherited the 
privileges of a Roman citizen. Acts 22 : 
28, 29. His original Hebrew name was 
" Saul," which he exchanged afterward in 
his intercourse with the Gentiles for the 
Hellenistic or Latin form, " Paul." His 
descent and education were Jewish, but he 
had also a good knowledge of the Greek 
language and literature, and quotes from 
three poets not much known — Aratus, 
Acts 17 : 28; Menander, 1 Cor. 15 : 33 ; 
and Epimenides. Tit. 1 : 12. Being a 
Jew of the tribe of Benjamin, born in 
the Greek city of Tarsus, and a Roman 
citizen, he combined the three great 
nationalities of the Roman empire, and 
was providentially prepared for his 
apostolic mission among Jews and Gen- 
tiles, Greeks and barbarians. Under the 
instruction of Gamaliel, a distinguished 
rabbi at Jerusalem, Acts 5 : 34, he be- 
came master of the Jewish law, Acts 22 : 
3 ; Gal. 1 : 14, and was also taught a 
useful mechanical trade, according to the 
custom of the rabbis. Acts 18 : 3. His 
residence at Jerusalem commenced at an 
early period, Acts 26 : 4, and he was 
probably from twenty-two to twenty- 
five years old when Christ commenced 
his public ministry. He belonged to 
the strict sect of the Pharisees. Acts 
23 : 6. 

The preaching of the apostles, and 
especially the fact of Christ's resur- 
rection, on which they placed their 
chief stress, excited a violent opposi- 
tion among the Jews. Stephen, an 
eloquent and powerful advocate of 
the new religion, was seized and 
stoned to death. Among the spec- 
tators and promoters of this bloody 
deed was Paul. Acts 7 : 58 ; comp. 
22 : 20. His temperament, talents, 
and education fitted him to become 
a leader in the persecution; and he 
commenced his career with a degree of 
fanatical zeal bordering on madness. 
He even sought for authority to go to 
Damascus, whither many of the disci- 
ples had fled after the murder of Ste- 
662 



phen, to bind and drag to Jerusalem, 
without distinction of age or sex, all 
the followers of Christ whom he could 
find. 

Just before he reached Damascus, 
however, he was arrested by a miracu- 
lous light so intense as to deprive him 
of sight. Acts 9 : 8. 9. At the same time 
Christ revealed himself as the real object 
of his persecution. Acts 26: 15; comp. 
1 Cor. 15 : 8. From this time he became 
a new man, and received from the lips 
of Christ himself his commission as an 
apostle to the Gentiles. Acts 26 : 16. 
The miraculous restoration of his sight, 
his baptism, and the gifts of the Holy 
Spirit followed in quick succession, and 
we soon find him zealously preaching the 
faith he had set out to subvert. Acts 9 : 
20, 21 ; Gal. 1 : 16. 

To this one purpose he thenceforth 
gave all the energies of his mind and all 
the affections of his heart. Forsaking, 
and indeed forgetting, all other purposes 
and pursuits, he devoted the residue of 
his life to the cause of Christ with a 
singleness of purpose and an energy of 
devotion that have no parallel in history. 

The Acts trace his career, till the first 
imprisonment at Rome, which lasted two 
years, a. d. 61-63, and left him compara- 
tively free to labor for the gospel. After 
this we are left in the dark. Some 
scholars maintain that he suffered mar- 
tyrdom in the Neronian persecution of 




Traditional Room in the Centurion's House at 
Kome in which Paul was Imprisoned. 

A. D. 64: others that he was freed from 
the first Roman imprisonment, made 
new missionary tours in the East, and 
possibly also to the "West as far as 
Spain, was taken prisoner to Rome a 




Portrait of Paul. (From a Roman Two-leaved Tablet not later than the Fourth Century.) 



PAU 



PAU 



second time, and suffered martyrdom 
A. D. 67 or 68. The hypothesis of a 
second Roman imprisonment has some 
support in an ancient tradition (men- 
tioned by Eusebius), and explains cer- 
tain historical allusions in the Pastoral 
Epistles, which cannot well be placed 
before the first imprisonment, but were i 
probably composed between the first 
and the second Roman imprisonments, j 
except Second Timothy, the last of all ! 
Pauline Epistles. Ancient tradition is j 
unanimous as to his martyrdom in 
Rome, and the place of his execution by 
the sword is still shown a little distance 
from the city. He himself alludes to his 
approaching martyrdom in those noble 
words, 2 Tim. 4 : 6-8 : I am already 
being offered, and the time of my depar- 
ture is at hand. I have fought the good 
fight, I have finished the course, I have 
kept the faith : henceforth there is laid 
up for me the crown of righteousness, 
which the Lord, the righteous Judge, 
shall give to me at that day : and not 
only to me, but also to all them that 
have loved his appearing. 

2. Character of Paul. — Whether we 
regard his sudden and radical change 
from an enemy to a most devoted friend 
of the Christian religion, or the purity 
and loftiness of his character, or the 
strength and depth of his mind, or the 
extent of his missionary labors, or his 
whole heroic career from his conversion 
in Damascus to his martyrdom in Rome, 
St. Paul is beyond doubt one of the most 
remarkable men that ever lived, and 
perhaps the greatest man in the history 
of Christianity. Without money, without 
family, without friends, lonely by land 
and lonely by sea, he faced a hostile 
world and converted it to Christ, whom 
he himself once persecuted, and by his 
Epistles and example he still rules the 
theology and feeds the devotions of 
believers in all parts of Christendom. 
His motives are above suspicion : his 
intellect is apparent on every page of 
his letters ; it is impossible to charge 
him with hypocrisy or self-delusion, as 
even infidels admit; he furnishes an 
irresistible argument for the divine truth 
of the religion he taught and practised 
to the end. 

3. Chronological Summary of the Chief 
Events in the Life of Paul (from Schaff's 
History of the Apostolic Church): 

'664 



A.D. 

Paul's conversion 37 

Sojourn in Arabia 37-40 

First journey to Jerusalem after his 
conversion, Gal. 1 : 18 ; sojourn at 
Tarsus, and afterward at Antioch, 
Acts 11 : 26 40 

Second journey to Jerusalem, in com- 
pany with Barnabas, to relieve the 
famine 44 

Paul's first great missionary journey, 
with Barnabas and Mark ; Cyprus, 
Antioch in Pisidia, Iconium, Lystra, 
Derbe ; return to Antioch in Syria.. 45-49 

Apostolic Council at Jerusalem ; con- 
flict between Jewish and Gentile 
Christianity; Paul's third journey 
to Jerusalem, with Barnabas and 
Titus; settlement of the difficulty; 
agreement between the Jewish and 
Gentile apostles ; Paul's return to 
Antioch ; his collision with Peter 
and Barnabas at Antioch, and tem- 
porary separation from the latter.... 50 

Paul's second missionary journey 
from Antioch to Asia Minor, Cilicia, 
Lycaonia, Galatia, Troas, and Greece 
(Philippi, Thessalonica, Bersea, Ath- 
ens, and Corinth). From this tour 
dates the Christianization of Europe. 51 

Paul at Corinth (a year and a half). 
First and Second Epistles to the 
Thessalonians 52-53 

Paul's fourth journey to Jerusalem 
(spring) ; short stay at Antioch. His 
third missionary tour (autumn) 54 

Paul at Ephesus (three years) ; Epistle 
to the Galatians (56 or 57). Excursion 
to Macedonia, Corinth, and Crete 
(not mentioned in the Acts); First 
Epistle to Timothy (?). Return to 
Ephesus. First Epistle to the Cor- 
inthians (spring, 57) 54-57 

Paul's departure from Ephesus (sum- 
mer) to Macedonia. Second Epistle 
to the Corinthians 57 

Paul's third sojourn at Corinth (three 
months). Epistle to the Romans 57,58 

Paul's fifth and last journey to Jeru- 
salem (spring), where he is arrested 
and sent to Csesarea 58 

Paul's captivity at Csesarea. Testi- 
mony before Felix, Festus, and 
Agrippa (the Gospel of Luke and 
the Acts commenced at Csesarea, 
and concluded at Rome) 58-60 

Paul's voyage to Rome (autumn); ship- 
wreck at Malta; arrival at Rome 
(spring, 61) 60,61 

Paul's first captivity at Rome. Epistles 
to the Colossians, Ephesians, Philip- 
pians, Philemon 61-63 

Conflagration at Rome (July) ; Nero- 
nian persecution of the Christians ; 
martyrdom of Paul (?) 64 

Hypothesis of a second Roman cap- 
tivity and preceding missionary 
journeys to the East, and possibly 
to Spain. First Epistle to Timothy ; 
Titus (Hebrews?), Second Timothy. 63-67 



PAV 



PEA 



4. The Epistles of Paul are thirteen, 
or, if we count the Hebrews (as the pro- 
duct of Paul's mind, though probably 
not of his pen), fourteen, in number. 
They are the most remarkable body of 
correspondence in the history of litera- 
ture. They are tracts for the times, and 
yet tracts for all times. They will be 
found separately considered under their 
titles. Here only some general remarks 
are given. They may be arranged dif- 
ferently. 

(a) Chronologically : 

1 and 2 Thessalonians, written a. d. 52, 53, 

from Corinth. 
Galatians, written a. d. 56-57, from Ephesus. 

1 Corinthians, written A. D. 57, from Ephesus. 

2 Corinthians, written a. d. 57, from Mace- 
donia. 

Romans, written A. I>. 58, from Corinth. 
Colossians, Ephesians, Philippians, and Phil- 
emon, written a. t>. 61-63, from Rome. 
Hebrews, written a. d. 64 (?), from Italy. 

1 Timothy and Titus, written a. d. 65 or 57 (?), 

from Macedonia. 

2 Timothy, written A.JX 67 or 64 (?), from 
Rome. 

The time of the composition of the 
Pastoral Epistles depends upon the 
question of the second Roman cap- 
tivity. The Second Epistle to Timothy 
was at all events the last, whether writ- 
ten in the first or second captivity. 

(b) Topically : 

Romans and Galatians : doctrines of sin and 
grace. 

1 and 2 Corinthians: moral and practical 
questions. 

Colossians and Philippians : person of 
Christ. 

Ephesians: the Church of Christ. 

1 and 2 Thessalonians: the second advent. 

1 and 2 Timothy and Titus : church govern- 
ment and pastoral care. 

Philemon : slavery. 

Hebrews : the eternal priesthood and sacri- 
fice of Christ. 

(c) As to importance, the order in our 
Bible is pretty correct. The Epistles are 
all important, but were not equally well 
understood in all ages of the Church. 
Thus the Galatians and Romans were 
more appreciated in the time of the 
Reformation than in any preceding cen- 
tury; they are the stronghold of the 
evangelical doctrines of total depravity 
and salvation by free grace. Paul's 
Epistles give us the most complete ex- 
hibition of the various doctrines of 
Christianity and of the spiritual life of 



the apostolic Church, and are applicable 
to all ages and congregations. 

Works on the life and Epistles of Paul 
are very numerous, and constantly in- 
creasing. We mention only three, which 
are very elaborate, yet popular, and en- 
riched with fine maps and illustrations : 
Conybeare and Howson (1854 and later 
editions), Thomas Lewin (1875, 2 vols.), 
and Canon Farrar (1879, 2 vols.). — See 
map of journeys of St. Paul at the close 
of this volume. 

PAVE'MENT, an area in Pilate's 
court-room, the floor of which was paved 
with marble or other stones. John 19 : 13. 
See Gabbatha. 

PAVIL'ION, a small movable 
tabernacle or tent, chiefly used for a 
king, prince, or general. 1 Kgs. 20 : 
12-16; Jer. 43 : 10. The Psalmist sub- 
limely describes Jehovah as surrounding 
himself with dark waters and thick clouds 
of the skies as with a tent or pavilion. 
Ps. 18:11. 

PEACE. Employed in various 
phrases, such as " Peace be to thee," " Go 
in peace," etc., this word occurs both in 
the 0. T. and the N. T. as a common 
form of" salutation. Ex. 4:18; Mark 4 : 
34; Luke 10: 5; John 20 : 19, 21; Rom. 
1:7. 

In a more special sense, the word 
denotes a Christian grace obtained by 
faith in Christ, who by his death has 
restored us to peace with God. Rom. 5 : 
1 ; Eph. 2 : 14. Peace with ourselves 
springs from peace with God, and peace 
with God from the assurance of pardon 
and reconciliation with God by the 
atoning merits of Christ, who " is our 
peace." Without such peace there can 
be no true happiness. 

PEACOCK. 1 Kgs. 10 : 22. This 
singular and beautiful bird is mentioned 
among the articles imported by Solomon 
from Tharshish, the modern Ceylon or 
Malabar coast of India, where the peacock 
is indigenous. In Job 39 : 13 another 
Hebrew word is found, better rendered 
"ostriches," and the word "ostrich" 
should be translated (as it is elsewhere) 
" stork." The wings of the ostrich can- 
not raise it from the ground; yet in 
running it catches (or, as the word ren- 
dered " goodly " imports, " drinks in ") 
the wind. The construction of the ostrich 
and that of the stork are thus contrasted, 
as are also their habits; for the stork is 
665 



PEA 



PEK 



as proverbial for her tenderness to her 
young as is the ostrich for her seeming 
indifference. Job 39 : 14-16. See Ostrich, 
Stoek. 




PEARL. The best pearls are pro- 
duced by a shell-fish of the oyster 
species, though they are found in other 
mollusks. The pearl-oysters grow in 
clusters on rocks (hence called "pearl- 
banks") in the Persian Gulf, on the 
western coast of Ceylon, on the coasts 
of Java, Sumatra, etc., and in some parts 
of Europe. The shells are obtained by 
diving, and this is done by a class of 
persons ti-ained to the business. The 
Ceylon pearl-fishery bank is about 15 
miles from the shore, and 72 feet deep 
on an average. The fishery begins in 
April, when the sea is most calm, and 
continues five or six weeks. One 
shell contains from eight to twelve 
pearls. The largest are of the size 
of a walnut, but they are rarely as 
large as a cherry - stone. The shell 
of the pearl-oyster, or, more properly, 
the interior coat, is called "mother-of- 



pearl." A single pearl has been valued 

at $350,000. 

Pearls were anciently, as now, used in 

the East as personal ornaments. 1 Tim. 
2:9; Rev. 17 : 4 ; 18 : 12- 

/ 16. From the various il- 

lustrations in which the 
pearl is introduced in the 
N. T., it was evidently 
regarded as among the 
most precious substances, 
and, compared with gems, 
it was esteemed as more 
valuable than at present. 
Matt. 7:6; 13 : 45, 46 ; 
Rev. 21 : 21. 

PEDAHEL {whom 
God delivers), the son of 
Ammihud, chief of the 
tribe of Naphtali, one of 
the superintendents of the 
division of Canaan. Num. 
34 : 28. 

PEDAH'ZUR (whom 
the Rock — i. e. God, — de- 
livers), the father of Gam- 
aliel, and chief of the 
tribe of Manasseh in the 
time of the Exodus. Num. 
1 : 10 ; 2 : 20 ,■ 7 : 54, 59 ; 
10 : 23. 

PEDA'IAH (whom 
Jehovah delivers). 1. The 
father of Zebudah, Jehoi- 
akim's mother. 2 Kgs. 23 : 
36. 

2. The brother of Shealtiel, and father 
of Zerubbabel. 1 Chr. 3 : 17-19. 

3. One who assisted Nehemiah in re- 
pairing the walls of Jerusalem. Neh. 
3:25. 

4. A Levite who stood on the left hand 
of Ezra when he read the Law to the 
people. Neh. 8:4; called Phaldaius in 
1 Esd. 9 : 44. 

5. A Benjamite, ancestor of Sallu. 
Neh. 11 : 7. 

6. A Levite in the time of Nehemiah. 
Neh. 13 : 13. 

7. The father of Joel, chief of the 
half-tribe of Manasseh in the reign of 
David. 1 Chr. 27 : 20. 

PEEP, to " chirp " like young birds. 
Isa. 8 : 19; 10 : 14. The wizards who 
pretended to raise the dead spoke in low 
shrill tones because the dead were sup- 
posed to speak thus. 

PE'KAH (open-eyed), a general of 



PEK 



PEL 



the Israelitish army who assassinated the 
king Pekahiah in his palace and usurped 
the government ; but his reign, which last- 
ed twenty years, b. c. 758-738, was highly 
inauspicious ; the country was invaded 
and greatly harassed by the Assyrians, 
and the king himself became finally the 
victim of a conspiracy. 2 Kgs. 15 : 25. 

PEKAHIAH {Jehovah has opened 
his eyes) succeeded 
his father, Menahem, 
as king of Israel in 
760, and reigned only 
two years, being mur- 
dered bv Pekah, b. c. 
758. 2 Kgs. 15: 22-26. 
_ PEKOD (visita- 
tion ?), a symbolical 
name for Babylon. 
Jer. 50:21. In Eze. 
23 : 23 it appears to 
be applied to a Chal- 
daean province. A 
Pekod is mentioned 
in the cylinder of 
Sennacherib as near 
the Hauran, and Le- 
normant thinks it was 
the collective name of 
several tribes in the 
Euphrates valley. 
The exact meaning 
of the term is not 
known. Some ex- 
plain it as "visita- 
tion," "punish- 
ment," others as 
"perfect," "noble." 
PELA'IAH 
(whom Jehovah dis- 
tinguishes). 1. A de- 
scendant of David. 1 
Chr. 3 : 24. 

2. A Levite who : 
assisted Ezra in ex- 
pounding the Law, 
Neh. 8 : 7, and sealed 
the covenant with Ne- 
hemiah, Neh. 10 : 10 ; 
called Biatas in 1 Esd. 
9 : 48. 

PELAL I'AH 
judges), a priest in 
the return from the 
11 : 12. 

PELATIAH (whom Jehovah de- 
livers). 1. The grandson of Zerubbabel 
1 Chr. 3:21. 



2. A Simeonite captain on an expedi- 
tion to Mount Seir. 1 Chr. 4 : 42. 

3. One of the heads of the people, who 
sealed the covenant with Nehemiah. 
Men. 10 : 22. 

4. One of the five-and-twenty men who 
withstood the prophet Ezekiel and coun- 
selled the people of Israel wickedly, but 
was suddenly struck dead while the 




(whom Jehovah 
Jerusalem after 
Captivity. Neh. 



The Pelican. 

prophet was uttering his prediction. 
Eze. 11 : 1-13. 

PE'LEG (division), a son of Eber and 
brother of Joktan, in whose time— that 
is, in the age immediately succeeding 
the Deluge— the family of Eber was 
divided, the elder branch, which de- 
667 



PEL 



PEN 



scended from Peleg, remaining in Meso- 
potamia, while the younger branch, 
descending from Joktan, emigrated to 
Southern Arabia. Gen. 10 : 25 ; 11 : 16 ; 

1 Chr. 1 : 25. 
PELET (deliverance). 

1. A son of Jahdai, descend- 
ant of Judah. 1 Chr. 2:47. 

2. One of the Benjamites 
who joined David at Zik- 
lag. 1 Chr. 12 : 3. 

PELETH {swiftness). 
1. A Reubenite whose son 
On joined Dathan and 
Abiram in their rebellion. 
Num. 16 : 1. 

2. A son of Jonathan, 
and a descendant of Ju- 
dah. 1 Chr. 2 : 33. 

PELETHITES. 2 Sam. 8 : 18. 
See Cherethites. 

PEL/ICAN (Heb. the voviiter), a 
voracious water-bird, unclean by the 
Levitical law, Lev. 11 : 18. of singular 
construction and habits, resembling the 
goose, though nearly twice as large. Its 
bill is 15 inches long. The female has 
a large pouch or bag capable of contain- 
ing 2 or 3 gallons of water, and food 
enough for six common men. Out of 
this pouch she feeds herself and her 
young, and from this habit and the red 
nail at the end of her bill came the 
notion that she fed her offspring on her 
own blood. The pelican was formerly 
more abundant than now in the Levant, 
but Dr. Thomson has seen it at Lake 
Huleh and the Sea of Galilee. Having 
gorged itself with fish, this bird flies 
miles into the wilderness, where it sits 

pla 
days, with its bill 
a picture of melancholy." Ps. 102 
The margin correctly reads " pelican" 
for "cormorant" in Isa. 34 : 11 ; Zeph. 

2 : 14. (See cut. p. 667.) 
PEI/ONITE, a designation ap- 
plied in 1 Chr. 11 : 27, 36 to Helez and 
Ahijah, two of David's mighty men, of 
whom the former is called the Paltite in 
2 Sam. 23 : 26. 

PEN. The instruments with which 
the characters were formed in the writing 
of the ancients varied with the materials 
upon which the letters were to be traced. 
Upon hard substances, such as stone or 
metallic plates, a (/rover of steel was 
used, the same which Job calls "an iron 
668 



pen." It is possible that an instru- 
ment pointed with diamond, such as 
glaziers now use, was not unknown, as 
" the sin of Judah is written with a pen 
of iron, and with the point of a diamond : 




in some lonely place " for hours, or even 
resting on its breast, 



Pens and Writing-Materials. 
it is graven upon the table of their 
heart, and upon the horns of your altars." 
Jer. 17 : 1. Upon tablets of wax a me- 
tallic pen or stylus was employed, having 
one end pointed to trace the letters, the 
other broad and flat to erase any errone- 
ous marks by smoothing the wax. 

Upon paper, linen, cotton, skins, and 
parchments, it was in very early times 
common to paint the letters with a hah*- 
pencil brought to a fine point. The reed 
])en was introduced afterward, and at 
first used without being split at the 
point. The reed pen is used by the 
modern Turks, Syrians, Persians, Abys- 
sinians, Arabs, and other Orientals, as 
their languages could not be written 
Avithout difficulty with pens made from 
quills. A particular kind of knife is 
used to split the reed. Jer. 36 : 23. 

PENFEL, or PENU'EL (face of 
God), a place between the Jabbok and 
Succoth where Jacob had his mysterious 
wrestling with the Angel. Gen. 32 : 24-32. 
The usual, and probably the original, 
form was " Penuel," and this is the form 
in the Samaritan Pentateuch. Five 
hundred years later, when pursuing the 
Midianites, Gideon found a city and 
tower at Penuel, and slew the men of 
the city. Jud. 8 : 17, 18. Jeroboam went 
from Shechem and built Penuel. 1 Kgs. 
12 : 25. Its site has long been counted 
as unknown, for the region in which it 
was situated has been only slightly ex- 
plored. Dr. Merrill, however, identifies 
Penuel with a point on the Zerka (Jab- 
bok )■, about 4 miles east of Canaan's ford 
and at Tubtil edh Vhakab. See Jabbok. 



PEN 



PEN 



PENIN'NAH (coral), one of the two I 
wives of Elkanah, the father of Samuel. 

1 Sam. 1 : 2. 

PENKNIFE. Jer. 36 : 23. See 
Knife. 

PENNY. This word, so translated 
in our English Version for the Greek 
denarius, is equivalent to about sixteen 
cents or eight pence, and was a regular 
day's wages. The "penny" shown to 
Christ bore the likeness and name of 
Cassar (Tiberius), who had then been 
emperor for seventeen or eighteen years. 
Matt. 22 : 19, 21. Denarius ought to . 
have been retained or Anglicized into 
denar, with a marginal note giving its 
precise value. See Money. 

PENTATEUCH, THE, is the 
collective name for the first five books 
of the 0. T., the books of Moses. The 
name is of Greek origin, meaning " five 
volumes," and was probably introduced 
by the Alexandrian translators of the 0. ] 
T. As also the names of the separate 
books — Genesis, Exodus, etc. — are of 
Greek origin, referring to the contents 
of the books, and as, in the Jewish man- | 
uscripts, these books form only one roll 
or volume, it has been conjectured that 
the division itself is due to the Greek ! 
translators. In Scripture the Penta- 
teuch is called "a book of the law of 
the Lord given by the hand of Moses," : 

2 Chr. 34 : 14; "the book of the law of 
the Lord," 2 Chr. 17 : 9 ; " the book of the 
law," 2 Kgs. 22:8; "the book of the 
covenant," 2 Chr. 34 : 30 ; 2 Kgs. 23 : 2, I 
21 ; " the law of Moses," Ezr. 7 : 6 ; "the 
book of the law of Moses," Xeh. 8 : 1 ; i 
"the book of Moses." Ezr. 6 : 18 ; Neh. | 
13 : 1 ; 2 Chr. 25 : 4 : 35 : 12 ; or simply I 
" the law," Matt. 12 : 5 ; Luke 10 : 26 ; 
John 8 : 5, 17. Among the Jews the 
several books are designated by their 
initial letters — Bereshith ("in the begin- 
ning"), Shemoth ("names"), etc.; among j 
the Christians, with reference to their ! 
subject-matter — Genesis giving the prim- 
itive history, as a preparation for the the- 
ocracy, from the Creation to the death 
of Jacob ; Exodus, the foundation of the 
theocracy, by the legislation from Mount 
Sinai; Leviticus, the inner organization 
of the theocracy by the ceremonial laws 
on the Levitical worship : Numbers, the 
actual establishment of the theocracy by 
the march through the wilderness and 
the conquest of Canaan ; and Deuteron- 



omy, the final and comprehensive re- 
capitulation of Mosaic legislation. The 
whole is one compact and complete 
representation of the Hebrew theocracy, 
the first and the last books having a 
more universal character, the three inter- 
mediate ones a more specifically Jewish 
character, Exodus giving the prophetic, 
Leviticus the priestly, and Numbers the 
kingly, aspect of the theocracy. 

With respect to the authorship of this 
work, various circumstances have during 
the last two centuries caused some 
doubt whether it can legitimately be 
ascribed to Moses. Moses is always 
spoken of in the third person, and in 
the last passages of Deuteronomy his 
death and burial are related. Xames 
of places occur, though we know that 
they did not come into use until after 
the conquest of Canaan — such as "Dan," 
Gen. 14 : 14; Deut. 34 : 1 : comp. Josh. 
19 : 47, and " Hebron." Gen. 13 : 18; 
23 : 2 ; comp. Josh. 14 : 15 ; Jud. 1 : 10. 
The names of the Lord, "Jehovah" and 
" Elohim," alternate in such a way as 
to indicate a double authorship, and al- 
leged differences in style and language 
and repetitions seem to point the same 
way. On these grounds a school of 
modern critical scholars contends that 
the Pentateuch, at least in its present 
shape, was not written by Moses, or by 
any single author, but is a compilation 
of much later date and from very differ- 
ent sources. 

However ingenious many of the ar- 
guments against the Mosaic authorship 
may be. the collected evidence in its favor 
is nevertheless overwhelming. The unity 
of the composition, as set forth above, is 
so strong that no attempt at breaking it 
has ever succeeded, and the book itself, 
directly and indirectly, bears testimony 
to its essential Mosaic origin. In Deut. 
31 : 9-12, 24-26 we are told that Moses 
wrote "this law," and when he was done 
with it he placed it in the hands of the 
Levites, to be kept in the ark of the 
covenant and to be read to the people 
every seventh year on the feast of the 
tabernacles. "This law" may mean 
Deuteronomy alone, and not the whole 
Pentateuch; but other passages refer in 
exactly the same manner to other parts 
of the work. He wrote, by divine com- 
mand, the book of the covenant and the 
ten commandments, Ex. 24 : 3-7 ; 17 : 
669 



PEN 



PEO 



14, and also the camping-stations of the 
Israelites in the wilderness. Num. 33 : 
2 ff. The presumption is that he wrote 
the rest, unless there are convincing 
arguments to the contrary (as in the 
account of his death at the close of Deu- 
teronomy, which is evidently added by a 
later hand). The Mosaic authorship of 
the great body of the Pentateuch is sus- 
tained by uninterrupted and unanimous 
tradition of the Jewish Synagogue and 
the Christian Church, and by the internal 
evidence of the work itself. Moses was, 
of all men, best qualified to write it. 
He had the best preparation, he knew 
all about the events in which he figured 
so prominently. The book contains so 
many and so close references to Egypt 
— the land, the people, and the civiliza- 
tion — that its author must not only have 
lived for a long time in Egypt, but also 
have received the benefit of a thorough 
Egyptian education and partaken in 
Egyptian life from a superior position ; 
see, for instance, the references to irriga- 
tion, Deut. 11 : 10 ; to war, Deut. 20 : 5 ; 
to mining, Deut. 8:9; to criminal pun- 
ishment, Deut. 25 : 2, etc. Next, the 
narrative of the passage through the 
desert gives so correct and so fresh a 
description of the event that it could 
never have been made by any one who 
had not taken part in that long trial, 
and hardly by any other than by him 
who was the leader. The language, 
also, and the theology (especially the 
eschatology) of the Pentateuch are ar- 
chaic, and antedate the compositions 
of the Davidic, and still more of the 
post-Exilian, period. There is no man 
in the whole subsequent history of 
Israel, as far as we know, who could 
at all account for the peculiarities of 
the Pentateuch near so well as the great 
lawgiver, who is the central figure of the 
book. Ezra, for instance, to whom some 
ultra-critics assign the authorship, never 
was in Egypt nor in the wilderness, and 
lived in the reproductive period of re- 
construction or restoration of the theoc- 
racy founded by Jehovah through Moses 
centuries before. Thus from various 
sides we are led to feel not only that 
Moses has written the Pentateuch, but 
also that he was the only one who could 
have written it; and the objections have 
so much the less power, as a Mosaic 
authorship by no means excludes either 
670 



the use of earlier documents or the addi- 
tion of later notes. 

For further details see the special 
articles on the separate books : Genesis, 
Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deu- 
teronomy. 

PEN'TECOST (from a Greek word 
signifying fiftieth) is the name by which 
the N. T. denotes the second great festival 
of the Jews, called by them " the feast of 
weeks " or " the day of first-fruits." It 
was celebrated on the fiftieth clay (hence 
the name) after the Passover, reckoning 
from the second day of the Passover (the 
16th of Nisan), Lev. 23 : 11, 15, to the 
morrow after the end of the seventh 
week. Lev. 23 : 15, 16 ; Deut. 16 : 9. It 
was originally a simple thanksgiving for 
the harvest, which in Palestine fell in 
the weeks between the Passover and the 
Pentecost. The festival was kept only 
for one day, and the principal rite con- 
sisted in the offering of two loaves made 
of the finest flour of the last crop's 
wheat. 

Later on, however, after the destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem and the dispersion of 
the Jewish nation, the feast assumed an 
historical character. It was made out 
from Ex. 19 that the giving of the Law 
on Mount Sinai took place on the 
fiftieth day after the deliverance from 
Egypt, and in course of time, and among 
Jews living in other climes with another 
harvest- season, this became the principal 
signification of the festival. 

In the Christian Church, Pentecost is 
celebrated seven weeks after Easter, in 
commemoration of the outpouring of the 
Holy Spirit on the disciples, as the birth- 
day of the Christian Church. Acts 2 : 
1-14. 

PENU'EL (face of God). 1. A Ju- 
dite. 1 Chr. 4 : 4. 

2. A chief Benjamite. 1 Chr. 8 : 25, 
28 

PENU'EL. See Peniel. 

PE'OR (deft), the mountain-peak 
to which Balak brought Balaam to curse 
Israel. Num. 23 : 28. The camp of 
Israel was at this time in the Jordan 
valley, near the Dead Sea. Beth-peor 
was "over against" the camp. Deut. 3 : 
29 ; 34 : 6. Peor is described as "facing 
Jeshimon," and this is also said of Pis- 
gah. The Rev. J. A. Paine proposed to 
identify Pisgah with Jebel Siaghah in 
the Abarim range opposite Jericho. Of 



PER 



PER 



the three summits of Siaghah he sug- 
gested the first or western as one station 
of Balaam, Num. 22 : 41, and the second 
summit as the top of Peor, but his 
theory is disputed by Dr. Merrill and 
others. Balaam was first at " the top 
of Pisgah" and then upon "the top of 
Peor," Num. 23 : 14, 28, another peak 
evidently not far from Pisgah. From 
this he exclaimed, " How goodly are thy 
tents, Jacob !" See Pisgah. 

PER'AZIM (breaches), a mountain 
upon which divine vengeance would be 
manifested. Isa. 28 : 21. It is not else- 
where mentioned in Scripture, but has 
been regarded as identical with Baal- 
perazim of 2 Sam. 5 : 20 and 1 Chr. 14 : 
8-17, where David won his victory over 
the Philistines. The latter place was in 
the valley of Bephaim. See Baal-per- 

AZIM. 

PERES. Dan. 5 : 28. See Mene. 

PE'RESH {dung), son of Machir, 
and descendant of Manasseh. 1 Chr. 7 : 
16. 

PEREZ (a rent). See Pharez. 

PEREZ-UZ ZA, or UZ'ZAH 
(breaking of Uzzah), a place called also 
Nachon and Chidon. 2 Sam. 6:6-8; 1 
Chr. 13 : 9-11 ; 15 : 13. It was near Jeru- 
salem, and there Uzzah died for his pre- 
sumptuous rashness in attempting to 
steady the ark of God. 

PERFECTION. That which is 
entire and complete in all its parts, 
without defect or blemish, is per- 
fect. Thus even the most insignificant 
thing can be perfect — perfect in its 
kind ; and, although perfection can 
never raise a thing above its kind, it 
nevertheless confers on it the highest 
value which it ever can reach. When 
Christ says, " Be ye therefore perfect, 
even as your Father which is in heaven 
is perfect," Matt. 5 : 48, the meaning is 
not that we should be perfect as God,but 
simply that we should realize all the possi- 
bilities which are involved in our nature 
and conditions as his children — that is, 
we should be entire in our faith and 
without blemish in our love. 

PERFUME. Ex. 30 : 35. The 
use of perfumery to give an agreeable 
odor to the person and apparel is, and 
ever has been, widely prevalent in East- 
ern countries. In the passage cited, how- ] 
ever, the composition which is called a 
perfume was to be used in the tabernacle 



service. The composition of it is pre- 
scribed with great particularity, and the 
making or using it for any other purpose 
was forbidden under severe penalties. It 
is of little importance what the ingredi- 
ents were, or what was specially denoted 
in the manner of using it. It had its 
value as a test of obedience, and may 
have had some significancy to the view 
which we cannot appreciate. The "art 
of the apothecary," after or according to 
which the compound was to be made, 
probably consisted quite as much in the 
preparation of perfumes as in the sale 
of drugs and medicines. See Incense. 

PER'GA (extremity, or place of nup- 
tials), a city of Pamphylia, a province of 
Asia Minor, and situated on the river 
Cestrus, about 7i miles from the sea. It 
was the oi'iginal capital of the province. 
The inhabitants were Greeks, and had a 
temple, a stadium, theatres, and a far- 
famed temple of Diana, standing on a 
high eminence. Coins of Perga have 
been found bearing the image of this 
celebrated goddess. Paul and Barna- 
bas, with Mark, landed at Perga in the 
spring, when the roads to Pisidia would 
be cleared of snow. Paul preached in 
the city, and Mark here forsook him 
and returned to Jerusalem. Acts 13 : 
13; 14:25. There are extensive ruins 
at the place, which is now called Eski 
Kalessi by the Turks. 

PER'GAMOS (place of nuptials), 
a celebrated city of Mysia, about 3 miles 
north of the river Caicus and 20 miles 
from the sea. It was noted for its wealth, 
which had its origin, it is said, from the 
time that 9000 talents were entrusted by 
Lysimachus, a successor of Alexander, 
to the keeping of Philataerus, who (b. c. 
283) appropriated the money, declared 
himself independent, and founded a 
successful dynasty, which lasted for 
over four centuries, when the treasure 
was bequeathed to the Bomans. The 
city was celebrated for (1) literary 
character; (2) idolatry. It had avast 
library of 200,000 volumes (rolls), rival- 
ling that at Alexandria, but Antony pre- 
sented this library to Cleopatra, when 
it was removed to Egypt, and, with the 
Alexandrine Library, destroyed by Ca- 
liph Omar. At this city also the art of 
preparing skins for writing was greatly 
improved, and our word "parchment" 
is derived from the Latin charta per- 
671 



PER 



PER 



gamena, or "paper of Pergatuos." The 
city had, in a grove near by, a cluster 
of famous temples dedicated to Zeus, 
Minerva, Apollo, Venus, Bacchus, and 
iEsculapius. One of the seven churches 
of Asia was at Pergamos, " where Satan's 
seat is." Rev. 1 : 11 ; 2 : 12-17. The term 
"Satan's seat" some regard as referring 
to the worship of ^Esculapius, whose 
common emblem was the serpent. Oth- 
ers think it denotes the particular wick- 
edness of the various idolatries and the 
trials which had come upon the church, 
one faithful member, Antipas, having al- 
ready suffered martyrdom. The city is 
now called Bergama, and has a popula- 
tion of from 20,000 to 30,000, of which 
about 2000 are Christians, having sev- 
eral churches. The rest of the inhab- 
itants are Turks and Mohammedans. 
There are ruins of fine churches and 
temples, indicating the former grandeur 
of the city, but the modern houses are 
small and mean. 

PERI'DA. See Peruda. 

PER'IZZITES {villagers). The 
Canaanites apparently lived in the cities 
of Palestine, while the Perizzites lived 
in the open country ; accordingly, the 
two together made up the inhabitants 
of the country, and were scattered over 
the land, from which they were, how- 
ever, in great measure expelled during 
the Conquest, Gen. 13 : 7 ; 34 : 30 ; Josh. 

17 : 15 ; Jud. 3:5; 1 Kgs. 9 : 20 ; 2 Chr. 
8:7; Ezr. 9 : 1. 

PERSECUTION is the applica- 
tion of coercive means in matters of 
conscience, or the infliction of pains and 
penalties for conscience' sake. Under 
the Mosaic dispensation, which considers 
God as the King of the Hebrew nation, 
the enforcement of religious views was a 
part of the criminal law. To worship 
another god was treason, and was pun- 
ished as such. Deut. 13. Foreigners who 
dwelt in Palestine were not compelled 
to embrace Judaism, but they would not 
obtain full citizens' rights unless fulfill- 
ing this condition, Ex. 12 : 48, and for 
open idolatry they were punished. Lev. 

18 : 26; 20 : 1-5. 

Under the Christian dispensation, 
which considers God as the Father of 
all men, persecution becomes itself a 
crime, which, however, does not encroach 
on the right of the Christian Church to 
exclude any member for heretical doc- 
43 



trine or scandalous conduct. 1 Cor. 5 : 
3-5, 13. 

Persecution in the Christian Church 
has indeed been defended by reference 
to the Mosaic Law, but it is manifestly 
contrary to both the spirit and action of 
Christ and the apostles, who had rather 
suffer than inflict punishment, and who 
trusted to the power of the truth, and not 
to carnal weapons, for the universal suc- 
cess of their religion. Thus Jesus said, 
" My kingdom is not of this world." John 
18:36. And Paul affirms, "The weapons 
of our warfare are not carnal, but mighty 
through God to the pulling down of 
strongholds." 2 Cor. 10 : 4. 

PERSEP'OLIS, a celebrated city, 
and the capital of Persia. It is not 
mentioned in the canonical books of the 
Bible, but is noticed in the Apocrypha. 
2 Mace. 9:2. It was probably founded 
by Darius Hystaspes, and became a resi- 
dence of Persian monarchs until the 
time of Alexander the Great, who 
wantonly burned the city. It partially 
recovered, and was again attacked by 
Antiochus Epiphanes, who attempted to 
plunder it. The city was situated near 
the plains of Mergusht, where extensive 
and magnificent ruins still exist, and are 
called Chehl-Minar, or "forty pillars." 

PER SIA (Heb. Pharas, pure, or 
tigers f), a country in Central Asia. The 
term is generally applied in Scripture to 
the entire Persian empire, but in Eze. 
38 : 5 it appears to designate Persia 
proper. The latter country was bounded 
by Media on the north, Carmania on the 
east, Susiana on the west, and the Persian 
Gulf on the south. The Persian empire, 
however, extended from the Indus on the 
east to Thrace on the west, and from the 
Black and Caspian Seas on the north 
to the Indian Ocean, the Persian Gulf, 
and the Red Sea on the south. It in- 
cluded all Western Asia and portions 
of Europe and Africa. Persia proper 
was in general an unproductive country, 
low and sandy on the gulf, hilly and 
mountainous inland. The interior was 
a great plateau, having an average ele- 
vation of 4000 feet above the sea, broken 
by mountains and valleys and inter- 
spersed with fruitful plains. 

History. — Persia was settled originally 

by Aryan tribes from the east, probably 

about b. c. 880. They were brave and 

enterprising, and divided into ten castes 

673 



PER 



PET 



or tribes, of which the Pasargadae were 
the nobles. Their language was closely 
allied to the Sanscrit, and in their re- 
ligion they were dualists, believing in 
one supreme god and in one great power 
of evil. These good and evil beings 
were regarded as co-eternal and co- 
equal. The founder of the Persian 
'dynasty was Achaemes, and it was 
tributary to the Medes for a time, un- 
til a revolt under Cyrus about B. c. 588. 
Their sway was then rapidly extended 
over Asia Minor, and in b. c. 539 over 
Babylon, where the Persians came into 
contact with the captive Jews, Cyrus 
issuing a decree permitting these cap- 
tives to return to their own land. 2 Chr. 
36 : 20-23; Ezr. 1 : 8. Cyrus died in 
b. c. 529, and his tomb is still pointed 
out near the ancient capital, now known 
as Murghab. A later king, called Ar- 
taxerxes in Scripture, forbade the re- 
building of the temple, but Darius 
Hystaspes authorized the work to go 
on. Ezr. 4 : 5-24; 6 : 7-12. Xerxes, 
who was probably the Ahasuerus of the 
book of Esther, succeeded him, and was 
defeated by the Greeks, assassinated, and 
succeeded by his son Artaxerxes Longi- 
manus, who was friendly to the Jews. 
Ezr. 7 : 11-28 ; Neh. 2 : 1-9. Only one 
of his successors is noticed in Scripture, 
Darius the Persian. Neh. 12 : 22. After 
lasting about two hundred years the 
Persian empire was overthrown by Alex- 
ander the Great, B. c. 330, and followed 
by the Macedonian, the third great 
world-empire. Dan. 8 : 3-7. 

Present Condition. — Persia now has an 
area of about 500.000 square miles and 
a population of about 10,000,000. Its 
principal seaport-town is Bushire, a 
city of" 30,000 inhabitants having con- 
siderable trade with England. The chief 
ruler is called the Shah. The province 
of Shiraz is properly the ancient king- 
dom of Persia before Cyrus. Within it 
are the ruins of Persepolis, the palace of 
Darius, which was burned by Alexander 
the Great when in a drunken frolic, fire- 
temples, inscriptions, altars, and various 
mementoes of the old Persian faith, which 
is still held by the Parsees. Christian 
missions have been established among 
the Nestorians in Persia by the Amer- 
ican Congregational, and the American 
Presbyterian Board of Missions, which 
have met with encouraging success. 
674 



PER'SIANS, inhabitants of Persia. 
Dan. 6 : 28. See Persia. 

PER'SIS (o Persian woman), a 
Christian woman in Rome to whom 
Paul sends his salutation. Rom. 16 : 12. 

PERU'DA (kernel), a servant of 
Solomon whose descendants returned 
with Zerubbabel, Ezr. 2:55; called 
Perida in Neh. 7 : 57. 

PES'TLLENCE expresses all sorts 
of distempers and calamities. Jer. 21 : 
6. The Hebrew word, which properly 
signifies the "plague," is applied to all 
epidemical and contagious diseases. 

Pestilences are still very common in 
Asia and Africa. It is supposed to have 
been by a species of pestilence that the 
first-born of Egvpt were cut off. Ps. 78 : 
50, 51. 

A pestilent fellow is one who is mis- 
chievous and disposed to corrupt and 
ruin a multitude. Acts 24 : 5. See 
Plague. 

PETER (stone, or rock; Syriac 
Cephas ; Greek Petros), one of the 
twelve apostles, one of the three fa- 
vorite disciples (with John and James), 
and the most active of all in word and 
deed (except Paul, who did not belong 
to the twelve). His original name was 
"Simon" or "Simeon." He was a son 
of Jonas (John, according to the read- 
ing of the best manuscripts), a brother 
of Andrew, probably a native of Beth- 
saida in Galilee. He was a fisherman 
by trade, and resided at Capernaum 
with his wife and mother-in-law, who 
was healed by Christ of a fever. See 
John 1 : 42 : 2i : 15 : Matt. 16 : 18 : Luke 
5 : 3-10 ; Matt. 8 : 14, 15 ; Mark 1 : 29-31 ; 
Luke 4 : 38. When he forsook all to 
follow Christ he must have made a 
considerable sacrifice. His new name 
"Peter" ("rock-man") was given him 
when he was called to the apostleship, 
John 1 : 42, and was solemnly confirmed 
when he, in the name of all the other 
apostles, made that remarkable confes- 
sion of the divinity of our Lord which 
is the fundamental creed of Christendom 
and the immovable foundation of the 
Christian Church. Matt. 16 : 18. The 
name " Peter " or " Cephas " was a 
prophecy of the prominent position 
which he, as the confessor of Christ, 
would occupy in the primitive age of 
the Church. He laid the foundation of 
the Church among the Jews on the day 



PET 



PET 



of Pentecost, Acts 2, and, after a special 
revelation, among the Gentiles also, in 
the conversion of Cornelius. Acts 10. 
He appears throughout in the Gospels 
and the first part of the Acts as the head 
and mouthpiece of the twelve. He had 
an ardent nature, a sanguine, impulsive, 
hopeful temperament, was frank, open, 
fresh, enthusiastic, and energetic, and 
born to take the lead, but apt to over- 
rate his strength and liable to change 
and inconsistency. He was the first to 
confess and the first to deny his Lord 
and Saviour, yet he repented bitterly, 
and had no rest and peace till the Lord 
forgave him. He had a great deal of 
genuine human nature, but divine grace 
did its full work, and overruled even 
his faults for his advancement in hu- 
mility and meekness, which shine out 
so beautifully from his Epistles. 

The labors of Peter are recorded in the 
Acts. Chs. 1 to 12 and ch. 15. He was 
the leading apostle from the day of Pen- 
tecost to the Council of Jerusalem, in 
A. D. 50. After that time his where- 
abouts are involved in obscurity. Paul 
mentions him as being at Antioch, about 
A. D. 52, and censures him for inconsist- 
ency of conduct, which he showed at 
that time toward the Gentile converts, 
from fear of offending the Judaizing 
party. The alienation of the two apos- 
tles was merely temporary. We must 
admire the meekness and humility with 
which Peter bore the sharp rebuke of 
his younger colleague, and with which 
he alluded afterward to the Epistles of 
his " beloved brother Paul/' 2 Pet. 3:15, 
as much as the boldness and fearlessness 
with which Paul stood up for principle 
and the rights and liberty of the Gentile 
Christians. Paul mentions him again, 
A.i). 57, 1 Cor. 9 : 5, as engaged, in 
company with his wife, in missionary 
journeys and labors, perhaps among the 
dispersed Jews in Asia Minor, to whom 
he addressed his Epistles. 1 Pet. 1 : 1. 
This allusion to Peter's wife is important 
as proving that he did not give up the 
family ties when he entered upon his 
spiritual calling. Clement of Alexan- 
dria expressly states that Peter and Philip 
had children, and that both took about 
with them their wives, who aided them 
in ministering to women at their own 
homes. It is a singular fact that he 
whom Roman Catholics hold to be the 



i first pope should have been and remain- 
ed a married man and thus protested 
against clerical celibacy. 

According to the unanimous testimony 
of Christian antiquity, Peter suffered 




Portraits of Peter and Paul. (From a Gilded 
Glass Cup found in the Catacombs of Rome.) 

martyrdom in Rome under Nero, but the 
length of his residence in Rome and the 
year of his martyrdom are uncertain. 
When Paul arrived at Rome, a. d. 61, 
and during his imprisonment, A. d. 61-63, 
no mention is made of Peter. It is 

I therefore improbable that he reached 
Rome before the close of 63. The report 

J of a twenty or twenty-five years' resi- 
dence of Peter in Rome rests on a chron- 
ological miscalculation of Eusebius and*. 
Jerome, who assume that he went to 
Rome A. d. 42, immediately after his de- 
liverance from prison (Acts 12 : 17, "he 
went into another place"), and is en- 
tirely irreconcilable with the silence of 
Scripture, and we may say even with the 
mere fact of Paul's Epistle to the Romans, 
written in 58 ; for Paul says not a word 
of previous labors of Peter in that city, 
and never built on other men's foun- 
dation. Peter's martyrdom may have 
taken place either in A. D. 64, during the 
terrible Neronian persecution after the 
great conflagration, or in 67. He is said 
to have been crucified, and thus he fol- 
lowed his Lord literally in the mode of 
his death. Comp. John 21 : 18, 19. 
Origen adds, however, that Peter, deem- 
ing himself unworthy to be, in the mode 
of his death, conformed to his Master, 
was at his own request crucified with 
his head downward. 

675 



PET 



PHA 



The Epistles of Peter belong to the 
last years of his life, and are addressed 
to churches in Asia Minor, chiefly planted 
by Paul and his companions. They con- 
tain precious consolations and exhor- 
tations, and confirm the harmony of his 
doctrine with that of the apostle of the 
Gentiles. 1 Pet. 5:12; 2 Pet. 3 : 15. 
They breathe a sweet, gentle, lovely, 
humble spirit, thoroughly mastered and 
softened by divine grace, and are full of 
joy and hope in view of the threatening 
persecutions. . 

The First Epistle is dated fromBabylon, 
1 Pet. 5 : 13 ; but commentators differ. 
Some refer it to the famous Babylon in 
Asia, which after its destruction was 
still inhabited by a Jewish colony, and 
remained for several centuries a chief 
seat of rabbinical learning ; others refer 
it to Babylon in Egypt, now called Old 
Cairo; still others understand it mys- 
tically of heathen Rome, in which sense 
" Babylon " is certainly used in the Apoc- 
alypse of John. The last view is favored 
by the terms co-elect (" elected together 
with you") and Marcus my son, which 
occur in the same verse, and which 
scarcely bear a literal interpretation 
(''Peter's wife and son"), but probably 
mean the Christian Church and Mark 
the evangelist, who was his spiritual son. 
In this case the passage would be the 
first, and the only scriptural, proof for 
Peter's presence in Rome. If the letter 
was written during or after the terrible 
persecution of 64, he might have had 
good reason to call Rome by the name 
of Babylon, the ancient enemy of the 
people of God. Mark was a companion 
and interpreter of Peter in his mission- 
ary labors. The Epistle was transmitted 
by Silvanus, 1 Pet. 5 : 12, a disciple and 
fellow-laborer of Paul, and a connecting 
link between him and Peter, well qual- 
ified to assure the Jewish converts in 
the churches of Asia Minor of the har- 
mony of the two great apostles in all the 
essential doctrines of salvation. 

The Second Epistle is a valedictory of 
Peter, written shortly before his martyr- 
dom, with warnings against Antinomian 
heresies, which began to disturb the har- 
mony and purity of the Church. The 
external testimonies in favor of the 
Second Epistle are not so numerous as 
those in favor of the First, nor was it as 
much used. But the author expressly 
676 



designates himself as an eye-witness of 
the transfiguration of Christ on the 
mount, 2 Pet. 1 : 16-18, and bears am- 
ple evidence of apostolic depth and unc- 
tion. It attests some of the most im- 
portant facts in our Lord's ministry ; it 
confirms the unity of apostolic teaching; 
it adds the doctrine of the final destruc- 
tion of the material universe to make 
room for a new heaven and a new earth 
" wherein dwelleth righteousness ; " and 
it appropriately closes with the exhor- 
tation to " grow in grace and in the 
knowledge of our Lord and Saviour 
Jesus Christ. To him be glory both now 
and for ever." 

PETHAHI'AH (ivhom God sets 
free). 1. The head of the nineteenth 
course of the priests in the reign of 
David. 1 Chr. 24 : 16. 

2. A Levite who had married a foreign 
woman in the time of Ezra, Ezr. 10 : 23, 
and probably the same who conducted 
the solemn service of the fast. Neh. 
9:5. 

3. A descendant of Judah who held an 
office at the Persian court. Neh. 11 : 24. 

PE'THOR (soothsayer ?), the native 
place of Balaam, situated " upon the 
river," probably the Euphrates, as it 
was in Mesopotamia. Num. 22 : 5 ; 
Deut. 23 : 4. Pethor has been sup- 
posed to be identical with Balis, on 
the Euphrates, where Benjamin of 
Tudela states there is the "tower of 
Balaam, son of Beor." Some scholars 
have recently proposed, however, to 
locate the country of Balaam in Syria, 
but this view lacks sufficient support. 
See Padax-aram. 

PETHUEL (vision of God), or 
perhaps METHU'EL (peace of God), 
the father of the prophet Joel. Joel 1 : 1. 

PE'TRA. Isa. 16 : 1. See Sela. 

PEULTHAI (wages of Jehovah),. 
a Levite porter, the eighth son of Obed- 
edom. IChr. 26 : 5. 

PHA/EEC, same as Peleg, the son 
of Eber. Luke 3 : 35. 

PHAL'LU (distinguished). Gen. 46 : 
9. See Pallu. 

PHAL'TI (deliverance of Jehovah), 
called PHAI/TIEL, 2 Sam. 3 : 15, the 
man to whom Saul gave Michal, the wife 
of David. 1 Sam. 25 : 44. 

PHAI/TIEL. See above. 

PHANU'EL (face of God), father 
of the prophetess Anna. Luke 2 : 36. 



PHA 



PHA 



PHARAOH, an Egyptian word 
applied by the Egyptians themselves to 
their kings as a generic name or title, 
and adopted into Hebrew, where it was 
used either alone or with the addition 
" king of Egypt," or, as in two cases, 
followed by a proper name — Pharaoh- 
nechoh and Pharaoh-hophra. The word 
was formerly derived from the Egyptian 
article Pi or Ph and the word Ra, de- 
noting " the sun," as the Egyptian king 
was considered the representative on 
earth of the sun- god, or from the 
Coptic ouro, " king." Modern Egypt- 
ologists (De Rouge, Brugsch, and Ebers) 
define its meaning as "the great house," 
and its application would thus be equiv- 
alent to our "the sublime porte." On 
account of the great uncertainty which 
still surrounds Egyptian chronology, it 
has proved very difficult to identify the 
different Pharaohs mentioned in the 
Bible, but, in many points, the investi- 
gations of Egyptologists and biblical 
scholars have reached pretty certain 
conclusions. Ten Pharaohs are men- 
tioned in the 0. T. 

1. The Pharaoh of the time of Abra- 
ham. Gen. 12 : 15. He is probably 
identical with Salatis, the head of the 
fifteenth dynasty, one of the Shepherd- 
kings (Hyksos), foreigners of the Semitic 
race, who conquered Egypt and, having 
become Egyptianized, ruled it for several 
centuries. The date of Abraham's visit 
to Egypt is most probably fixed at about 
B. c. 2080. 

2. The Pharaoh of Joseph, Gen. 41, 
was the last, or the last but one, of the 
fifteenth dynasty : probably identical 
with Apophis, who reigned at least 26 
years, b. c 1876-1850. 

3. The Pharaoh of the Oppression — 
u the new king over Egypt who knew 
not Joseph," Ex. 1 : 8, and under whose 
reign Moses was born — is now by most 
Egyptologists identified with Barneses 
II., the third sovereign of the nineteenth 
dynasty (the Sesostris of the Greeks), 
the most prominent of the Pharaohs, a 
conqueror of many lands, the master- 
builder of Egypt, whose statues and 
temples in ruins are found all over the 
Nile valley from Zoan (Tanis) to Kar- 
nak. His mummied body was taken from 
the tomb in 18S1 and unwrapped in the 
Boulak museum. That this Pharaoh 
was Aahmes I. (the Amosis of Josephus), 



' the first sovereign of the eighteenth 
dynasty, is now- pretty generally aban- 
doned. See Egypt. 

4. The Pharaoh of the Exodus, Ex. 
5 : 1, before whom Moses wrought his 
miracles, and who perished with his 
army in the pursuit of the Israelites, 
was Menephtha, the thirteenth son of 
Barneses II., who began to rule b. c. 
1325. His reign was inglorious and 
marked a period of decline. He did 
not even finish his father's tomb. On a 
monument of Tanis mention is made 
of the fact that he lost a son, and Dr. 
Brugsch connects this with the death 

j of the first-born, the last of the plagues. 

5. The Pharaoh whose daughter, 
Bithiah, was given in marriage to 

j Mered. a descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 
4 : 18. 

6. The Pharaoh who gave the sister 
of his queen in marriage to Hadad, an 
Edomite of royal blood, who escaped the 

i massacre of Joab and fled to Egypt. 1 
1 Kgs. 11 : 18-20. 

7. The Pharaoh whose daughter Solo- 
mon married and brought "into the city 
of David, until he had made an end of 
building his own house, and the house 

\ o£ the Lord," 1 Kgs. 3 : 1, consequently 

before the eleventh year of his reign, in 

which year the temple was finished. 1 

j Kgs. 6 : 37, 38. This Pharaoh after- 

i ward made an expedition into Pales- 

I tine, took Gerar, slew the Canaanites 

who dwelt in the city, and gave it to 

his daughter, Solomon's wife. 1 Kgs. 

9 : 16. 

8. The Pharaoh in whom King Heze- 
kiah put his confidence in his war with 
Sennacherib, 2 Kgs. 18 : 21, probably 
identical with Sethos or Zet. 

9. Pharaoh-nechoh, also called simply 
Necho, was the fifth or sixth ruler of the 
Saite dynasty, and reigned from b. c. 610 
to 594. He made an expedition against 
Assyria, but was encountered by Josiah, 
king of Judah, who sided with Assyria, 
but was defeated and killed at Megiddo. 
2 Chr. 35 : 20-24; 2 Kgs. 23 : 29, 30. 
The Jews then raised Jehoahaz, the 
younger son of Josiah, to the throne, 
but he was deposed by Necho, who gave 
the sceptre to Jehoiakim, the elder son 
of Josiah. Necho's army was afterward 
defeated at Carchemish by Nebuchad- 
nezzar, and he lost all his Asiatic pos- 
sessions. 2 Kgs. 24 : 7. See Necho. 

677 



PHA 



PHA 



10. Pharaoh-hophra, the Apries of 
secular historians, was the second suc- 
cessor of Necho, and entered Palestine, 
probably in B. c. 590, in order to relieve 
Jerusalem, which was besieged by Nebu- 
chadnezzar. Jer. 37 : 5-8 ; Eze. 17 : 11-1 3 ; 
comp. 2 Kgs. 25 : 1-4. The campaign 
was of no avail. Jerusalem fell, and 
Nebuchadnezzar made a successful in- 
vasion into Egypt. Pharaoh-hophra 
was afterward deposed by his own sub- 
jects, and, though he was at first treated 
kindly by his successor, Amosis, he was 
finally strangled. In their prophecies 
Jeremiah and Ezekiel give a very 
striking picture of this king, his arro- 
gance and conceit, which corresponds 
closely with that given by Herodotus. 

PHARAOH'S DAUGHTER. 
Three Egyptian princesses are mentioned 
in the Bible. 

1. Moses' preserver. Ex. 2 : 10. 

2. Bithiah, the wife of Mered, an 
Israelite. 1 Chr. 4 : 18. 

3. A wife of Solomon. 1 Kgs. 3 : 1. 
PHA'RES. Matt. 1:3; Luke 3 : 33. 

See Pharez. 

PHAREZ (a breach), a son of 
Judah, and twin-brother of Zarah, Gen. 
38 : 29 ; 46 : 12, the ancestor of a great 
family called the Pharzites, Num. 26 : 
20 ; Ruth 4 : 12, 18 ; 1 Chr. 2:4; 4:1; 
9:4; called Perez in Neh. 11 : 4, 6, and 
Phares in Matt. 1:3; Luke 3 : 33. 

PHARISEES, THE (from a 
Hebrew word meaning separated), form- 
ed one of the most conspicuous and 
powerful sects or parties among the 
Jews in the time of our Lord.' The 
name does not occur before the N. T. 
period, and the origin of the sect is 
somewhat obscure. It is probable, how- 
ever, that the Pharisees were simply a 
continuation or development of the As- 
sideans (" the pious ") in the time of the 
Maccabees. 1 Mace. 2 : 42 ; 7:13; 2 
Mace. 14 : 6. Under the foreign rule, 
and more especially under the Syrian 
government, which left no means unem- 
ployed — even resorting to violence — in 
order to effect an amalgamation of the 
different nationalities under its sway, it 
was natural that there should rise among 
the Jews a party which opposed this 
influence and labored to preserve the 
national integrity. The Pharisees were 
this party, and much of their influence 
with the people was no doubt due to 
678 



their political position. On the acces- 
sion of Herod, 6000 Pharisees refused to 
take the oath of allegiance, but were " put 
down with a strong hand ;" and, again, 
it was the Pharisees who originated and 
organized that desperate resistance to 
the Romans which finally led to the 
dispersion of the whole nation. In a 
constitution, however, like that of the 
Hebrew theocracy, a political party must 
always be a religious sect at the same 
time, and with the Pharisees their 
political position was a simple conse- 
quence of their religious standpoint. As 
they were national in politics, they were 
orthodox in religion ; and in opposition 
to the two other sects, the Sadducees and 
the Essenes, they stood among the people 
as the true expounders of the Law. In 
the time of our Lord, however, their 
orthodoxy had degenerated into mere 
formalism. 

The principal points of difference be- 
tween the Pharisees and the Sadducees 
were the doctrine of the immortality of 
the soul and a future reward or punish- 
ment; the doctrine of a divine Provi- 
dence acting side by side with the free 
will of man ; and the doctrine of an oral 
tradition descending from Moses and 
involving the same authority as the 
written Law, — all of which doctrines the 
Pharisees accepted, while the Sadducees 
rejected them. It was, however, more 
especially the last-mentioned doctrine 
which gave the Pharisees their peculiar 
character, and which caused our Lord to 
denounce them so often and so severely. 
Teaching that God had given to Moses, 
on Mount Sinai, an oral explanation 
with respect to the proper application 
of the written Law, and commanded him 
to transmit this explanation by word of 
mouth, the Pharisees ended by placing 
the oral explanation above the written 
commandment, the tradition above the 
Law. Entangled in the minute and 
subtle application of the Law, they 
missed its spirit; and though to the very 
last there were found noble characters 
among them, such as Nicodemus, Joseph 
of Arimathea, Gamaliel, and others, 
self-conceit, arrogance, and hypocrisy 
became the general characteristics of the 
sect. They were exceedingly particular 
in refraining from anything which had 
not been duly tithed, but they forgot to 
pay that tithe which is most necessary 






PHA 



PHI 



of all, and which consists in meekness 
and mercy. Matt. 23 : 23 ; Luke 18 : 12. 
They were exceedingly particular in 
avoiding anything which the Law de- 
clared unclean, but they forgot to acquire 
that cleanness which is the most import- 
ant of all, and which consists in the 
purity of the heart. Matt. 15 : 11. And 
while they themselves degenerated into 
empty formalists, they troubled the con- 
science of the people by the absurd im- 
portance they ascribed to the most futile 
questions, such as what material the 
wick of the Sabbath-lamp was to be 
made of, whether or not it was permitted 
to eat an egg laid on a Sabbath-day, 
etc. Hence we understand how they 
could at the same time be the true 
bearers of Judaism in politics and in 
religion, and yet be punished by our 
Lord by the severest denunciations. 

PHAROSH. Ezr.8:3. SeePAROSH. 

PHARPAR {swift), a river of 
Damascus named by Naaman. 2 Kgs. 5 : 
12. It is about 8 miles from Damascus, 
and is the modern Aioaj, while the 
Abana is the modern Barada. The 
Pharpar, or Aioaj, rises high up on the 
eastern side of Hermon, near the moun- 
tain-village of Beit Jann. There are 
several other small streams, which unite 
near Sasa, and the river flows eastward 
in a serpentine course through a deep 
glen and thickets of poplars and willows, 
and through green meadows rendered 
fertile by its waters. It empties into a 
lake or marsh called Bahret Hijaneh, 
about 4 miles south of the lake into which 
the Barada falls, and about 16 miles 
south of Damascus. In spring and 
summer these so-called "meadow-lakes" 
are of considerable size, but in autumn 
and winter they are mere morasses. 
The Awaj flows across the plain of 
Damascus, but its waters are diminished 
by canals constructed to irrigate the 
fields and gardens almost up to the walls 
of the city. Its length is from 30 to 40 
miles, and it is a much smaller stream 
than the Barada, for it is described as a 
little and lively stream, often dry in the 
lower part of its course, while the Barada 
is perennial and is a copious stream in 
the hottest season. The traveller from 
Banias to Damascus now crosses a deep 
ravine east of Hermon, through which 
runs the Nahr Barbar, a name in which 
the ancient Pharpar survives, according 



to Baedeker, but it no longer falls into 
the el- Awaj. 

PHARZITES, a family descend- 
ing from Pharez, and belonging to the 
tribe of Judah. Num. 26 : 20. 

PHASEAH. See Paseah. 

PHASE'LIS, a town on the border 
of Lycia and Pamphylia, where the 
Jews settled. It was at one time a place 
of considerable importance, but later 
became a resort of pirates. It is now 
called Tehrova. It is mentioned only in 
the Apocryphal book of Maccabees. 
1 Mace. 15 : 23. 

PHE'BE {shining). See Phckbe. 

PHENICE, or PHENICE. 1. 
Another and more accurate form for Phoe- 
nicia. Acts 11 : 19; 15:3. See Phoenicia. 

2. A town and harbor, more properly 
Phoenix (from the Greek word for the 
palm tree, which was indigenous to 
Crete). The town was on the south-west 
coast of the island of Crete. It had a 
safe winter harbor, into which the cap- 
tain of the ship upon which Paul was a 
prisoner attempted to sail after leaving 
Fair Havens. He was caught in the 
storm, however, and his ship was wrecked 
on the island of Melita. Acts 27 : 8, 12. 
Phoenix or Phenice has been identified 
with the harbor of Lutro, about 35 miles 
west-north-west from Cape Matala. It 
has lately been shown that this place 
has an admirable harbor with a good 
depth of water, and sheltered from the 
winter winds. 

PHI-BESETH. See Pi-beseth. 

PHI'CHOL (according to some, 
strong ; according to others, mouth of 
all), chief of the army of Abimelech, 
king of the Philistines of Gerar in the 
times of Abraham, Gen. 21 : 22, and of 
Isaac. Gen. 26 : 26. 

PHI LAD EL PHI A {brotherly 
love), a city on the borders of Lydia and 
Phrygia, about 25 miles south-east of 
Sardis. It was built by Attalus Phila- 
delphus, king of Pergamos, who died 
B. c. 138. It then came into the hands 
of the Romans; was destroyed by an 
earthquake A. D. 17 ; was restored, and 
continued a place of importance to the 
Byzantine age ; was taken by the Turks 
in a. D. 1392. Philadelphia is mentioned 
in the N. T. as the seat of one of the 
seven churches. Rev. 1:11; 3 : 7-13. 
The church at this place was highly 
commended, and it is noticeable that the 
679 



PHI 



PHI 



city has survived all the vicissitudes of 
earthquakes and wars until the present 
day. Its bishops were at the councils 
of Nicaea, Laodicea, and Constantinople; 
and when Tamerlane destroyed the seats 
of the other Christian churches and mas- 
sacred the Christians, Philadelphia 
escaped, and was an asylum for some 
of the Christians of Sardis. Even the 
sceptical Gibbon speaks of its preserva- 
tion as remarkable. A solitary pillar is 
still one of the most conspicuous features 
of the town, and the modern name is 
Alah Shehr, "beautiful city," a fine site 
about one thousand feet above the sea. 
The modern city, situated upon four or 
five flat summits at the foot of Mount 
Tmolus, contains about 3000 houses and 
10,000 inhabitants, mostly Turks. The 
dwellings are mean and badly built, and 
the streets filthy. The ruins include a 
wall and about 25 churches. In one 
place there are four large marble pillars 
which may have once supported the dome 
of a church. Tradition points out an old 
mosque in which the primitive Chris- 
tians addressed in the Apocalypse are 
said to have worshipped. Earthquakes 
have frequently overthrown the city and 
rendered even its walls unsafe. 

PHLLE'MON> a native of Laodicea 
and a resident of Colossee, was a man 
of means and influence, the head of a 
large household and of a Christian con- 
gregation in his own house. He had been 
converted to Christianity through Paul, 
probably during the apostle's stay at 
Ephesus, A. D. 54-57, and appears, from 
the letter addressed to him by Paul, to 
have been a large-hearted and sympa- 
thetic character. 

The Epistle op Paul to Philemon 
was written at the same period as those 
to the Ephesians and Colossians — that 
is, toward the close of the apostle's first 
captivity in Rome, A. D. 62 or 63. Ones- 
imus, a slave of Philemon's, had com- 
mitted some crime — theft, it would seem 
— and fled from the house from fear of 
punishment. Arrived at Rome, he met 
with Paul, and was converted to Chris- 
tianity ; and when he was ready to 
return penitently to his former master, 
the apostle furnished him with a letter 
bespeaking for him a good reception as 
a brother and freeman in Christ. 

About the genuineness of the letter 
there can be no doubt, and, though short 
680 



and occasioned by a private affair, it is a 
" gem of Christian tenderness," and an 
invaluable testimony to the character of 
the apostle as a perfect Christian gentle- 
man. 

PHILE'TUS (amiable), one whom 
Paul associates with Hymeneus as an 
errorist. 2 Tim. 2 : 17. " They appear 
to have been persons who believed the 
Scriptures of the 0. T., but misinter- 
preted them, allegorizing away the doc- 
trine of the resurrection, resolving it aL 
into figure and metaphor. The deliver- 
ing over unto Satan seems to have been 
a form of excommunication declaring the 
person reduced to the state of a heathen, 
and in the apostolic age it was accom- 
panied with supernatural or miraculous 
effects upon the bodies of the persons so 
delivered." — AVaterland: Importance of 
Doctrine of Holy Trinity. 

PHIL'IP {lover of horses). 1. The 
apostle, a native of Bethsaida, and 
known to the Lord before called to follow 
him. He is always mentioned as the fifth 
among the twelve, Matt. 10 : 3 ; Mark 3 : 
18; Luke 6: 14: John 1 : 43-46 ; Acts 1 : 
13, but the Gospels contain only a few no- 
tices of him. According to tradition, he 
preached in Phrygia and died at Hier- 
apolis. 

2. The evangelist, one of the seven 
persons appointed to the office of deacon 
in the primitive church in Jerusalem, 
Acts 6 : 3-5, and who preached the gospel 
with great success in Samaria. Acts 8 : 
6-8. While there he received a divine 
intimation to go southward from Samaria 
to the road leading from Jerusalem to 
Gaza. In the course of his journey he 
found a distinguished Ethiopian trav- 
eller on his way home from Jerusalem 
— probably either a Jew or a proselyte 
to the Jewish religion — who had been 
to the city to celebrate some feast. He 
was an officer of high rank in the court 
of Candace, queen of Ethiopia, and as 
he was sitting in his chariot in the 
leisurely pursuit of his journey he read 
aloud a portion of the Jewish Scriptures. 
At this time Philip saw him, and was 
divinely admonished to approach him. 
Without hesitation he obeyed the sugges- 
tion, and ran to overtake the chariot. 
He overheard the traveller reading Isa. 
53 : 7, 8, and immediately inquired of him 
if he understood the force and scope of 
the passage. The traveller meekly ac- 



PHI 



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knowledged his need of instruction, and 
invited Philip to take a seat with him in 
the chariot. The latter then explained 
the great subject of redemption, to which 
the passage so naturally led; and the 
result was that the traveller became a 
convert to the faith of the gospel and 
was baptized. Philip was next found at 
Azotus, about 40 miles from Gaza, and 
afterward settled, it is supposed, in 
Caasarea. Acts 21 : 8. He had four 
daughters, who were endued with gifts 
of prophecy. Acts 21 : 9. 

3. The tetrarch. Luke 3 : 1. See 
Herod. 

4. The husband of Herodias. Matt. 
14 : 3. See Herod. 

5. The foster-brother of Antiochus 
Epiphanes, who appointed him regent 
of Syria and guardian of his son, An- 
tiochus V. 1 Mace. 6 : 14, 15, 55. He 
is probably identical with that Philip 
who was made governor of Jerusalem 
in B.C. 170. 2 Mace. 5 : 22; 6 : 11. 

6. King of Macedonia, B.C. 359-336, 
father of Alexander the Great. 1 Mace. 
1:1; 5:1. 

7. Another king of Macedonia, b. c. 
220-179, defeated by the Romans. 1 
M!acc 8 * 5 

PHILIP'PI (see Philip), the chief 
city of the eastern division of Macedo- 
nia, situated near the borders of Thrace 
and 8 miles north-west of Neapolis, 
which was its seaport. It lay between 
two mountain-ranges, and a paved Ro- 
man road led over the steep range Sym- 
bolum from Neapolis to Philippi, over 
which Paul went. 

History. — The place was at first called 
Crenides, or " fountains," from its numer- 
ous springs. It also at one time bore the 
name of Datum. Philip, the father of 
Alexander the Great, took it from the 
Thracians, garrisoned it as a frontier- 
town, and gave it his name. It is made 
famous by the noted battle of Philippi, 
fought, B. c. 42, between Octavius and 
Antony on the one side, and Brutus and 
Cassius on the other. In honor of this 
victory Augustus made Philippi a "col- 
ony." These colonies were miniature 
Romes established on foreign soil. The 
Roman law was administered, and the 
Roman language was used even among 
natives who spoke Greek. 

Scripture References. — Philippi was 
the first place in Europe to receive the 



gospel. Paul and Silas preached there ; 
Lydia became a convert : the apostles 
cast out the "spirit of divination" from 
a damsel ; were thrown into prison and 
miraculously delivered; the jailer was 
converted. Acts 16. Afterward, Paul 
revisited Philippi, and perhaps remain- 
ed for a considerable time. Acts 20 : 
1-6. The Christians of that city on 
four occasions sent contributions for 
his support, and he wrote to them the 
Epistle to the Philippians. Ignatius 
visited the city, A. d. 107, on his way 
to Rome, where he suffered martyrdom, 
and Polycarp sent the church at Phil- 
ippi all the letters of Ignatius which 
Sardis had received, thus keeping up 
their sympathy with the suffering Chris- 
tians. 

Present Apjoearance. — The ruins of the 
citadel are still seen on the summit of a 
rounded hill. The circuit of the walls 
which enclosed the hill and a part of the 
plain can be traced. Next to the theatre 
is a temple of Silvanus, and various tab- 
lets show the list of donors, the members 
of the sacred college, etc. Four massive 
pillars mark the site of the forum, where 
the apostles were publicly scourged. 

About 10 furlongs to the west of Phil- 
ippi is a small river called the Gangas or 
Gangites, now the Bournabachi, which is 
probably the place where the Jews had 
their place of prayer. 

PHILIPPIANS, EPISTLE 
TO. is the eleventh in the order of the 
books of the N. T., and was addressed 
by Paul to the Christians at Philippi, 
with whom he appears to have enter- 
tained particularly friendly relations. 
They had kindly ministered to his ne- 
cessities by sending Epaphroditus to 
him with a present of money ; and when 
Epaphroditus returned to Philippi, Paul 
acknowledged the kindness shown to 
him in grateful and affecting terms, and 
took occasion to warn the church in 
Philippi against certain Judaizing teach- 
ers. The second chapter contains one of 
the most important passages on the doc- 
trine of the person of Christ and his 
states of humiliation and exaltation. 
The Epistle was probably written about 
62, when Paul was a prisoner at Rome. 
About its genuineness there can be no 
reasonable doubt. 

The following is the analysis of the 
Epistle given by Dr. Braune in Lange's 
681 



PHI 



PHI 



Commentary : I. Address and salutation. 
1 : 1, 2. II. Situation and labors of the 
apostle at Rome. 1 : 3-26. III. The 
Lord's example and pattern for the 
observance of the church. 1 : 27-2 : 18. 
IV. Paul's assistants and colaborers. 
2 : 19-30. V. "Warning against Juda- 
istic false teachers and wicked deceiv- 
ers, in contrast with the apostle. 3 : 
1-4 : 1. VI. Final exhortation to co- 
operation between himself and the 
Philippian church. 4:2-20. VII. Sal- 
utation and benediction. 4 : 21-23. 

PHILIS'TIA {land of sojourners), 
in Ps. 60 : 8; 87 : 4; 108 : 9, the only 
places where the word " Philistia " oc- 
curs, is the same Hebrew word elsewhere 
translated " Palestine." " Palestine " 
originally meant only the district in- 
habited by the " Philistines." In Ps. 
83 : 7 the word is rendered " Philistines." 
Josephus calls these people " Palestines." 

Situation and Extent. — Philistia, or the 
" land of the Philistines," included the 
coast-plain on the south-west of Pales- 
tine, from Joppa on the north to the 
valley of Gerar on the south, a distance 
of about 40 miles, and from the Medi- 
terranean on the west to the Judasan hills. 
Its breadth at the northern end was 10 
miles, and at the southern about 20. It 
appears to have extended as far inland 
as Beersheba. Gen. 21 : 33, 34; 26 : 1, 
14-18 ; Ex. 23 : 31 ; Josh. 13 : 2, 3. 
Warren limited it, somewhat more close- 
ly, to the plain reaching 32 miles from 
Ekron to Gaza, with a breadth of from 
9 to 16 miles. It is bounded on the 
north by the plain of Sharon, east by the 
hill-country, south by " the south coun- 
try," and west by the Mediterranean. 

Physical Features. — Along the whole 
sea-board are white sandy dunes. Behind 
these is the broad undulating plain, 
from 50 to 3^0 feet above the sea-level, 
with a deep rich soil. To the east of 
this plain is found a series of low spurs 
and undulating ground culminating in 
bogs' backs, running nearly north and 
south, and rising in places 1200 feet 
above the ocean ; to the east of these is 
a steep descent of about 500 feet to the 
valleys, and east of these the hill-country 
of Judah begins. From the deep and 
narrow ravines of the hill-country rapid 
torrents roll during the rainy season. 
On coming into the plain the water forms 
marshes and pools, and quietly sinks 
682 



away, most of the water reaching the 
ocean underground. The sand from the 
shore is constantly encroaching upon the 
fertile land. This whole great maritime 
plain was called in the Hebrew the She- 
phelah, signifying properly ''low coun- 
try," and sometimes so rendered in the 
English version, 2 Chr. 26:10; 28:18, 
as likewise the " low plains," 1 Chr. 27 : 
28 ; 2 Chr. 9 : 27 ; the " plain," Jer. 17: 
26; the "valley." Josh. 11 : 16; Jud. 
1:9. 

History. — The origin of the Philistines 
has been a matter of much discussion. 
That the Hebrews regarded the Philis- 
tines as a branch of the Caphtorim is 
clearly stated in Jer. 47 : 4; Am. 9:7; 
Deut. 2 : 23. In the last text, " the Caph- 
torims which came forth out of Caphtor " 
are said to have destroyed "the Avim 
which dwelt in Hazerim " — i. e., in the 
villages — "even unto Azzah " (Gaza). 
These could certainly have been no other 
than the Philistines. The Hebrew words 
in Gen. 10 : 14 which are translated 
"out of whom" — i.e., the Casluhim — 
"came Philistim " appear to mean, not 
that the Philistines were descended from 
the Casluhim, but that they came out of 
or passed through their country. The 
purport of the two passages seems there- 
fore to be that the Philistines (or Caph- 
torim) who took possession of the Holy 
Land entered it on the south-west by 
way of the land of the Casluhim (Egypt), 
having, as is probable, come thither 
from Crete. But although the balance 
of authority places the Caphtorim in 
Crete, the evidence is by no means con- 
clusive. The Vulgate in several places 
identifies them with the Cappadocians, 
and some modern critics identify them 
with the Cyprians. Baedeker (Hand- 
book) says: "Their original home, the 
land of Caphtor or Kaftor {Kaft) being 
the same word as Oypt in Egypt), must 
have been in the Delta of the Nile, and 
not in Crete, as was once supposed." 

It would seem that the Philistines who 
were settled in the land in the time of 
Abraham, whose capital was Gerar and 
whose kins: was called Abimelech, Gen. 
21: 34; 26: 14, did not possess Gaza 
or either of the five Philistine cities that 
became powerful in later times. In Gen. 
10: 19, Gaza is named as the frontier- 
town of the Canaanites in the direction 
of Gerar, and from Deut. g: 23 it ap- 



PHI 



PHI 



pears that the Avims held it till they I 
were driven out by the Caphtorim. This j 
seems to indicate a second immigration I 
of Philistines, probably direct from 
Crete or Cyprus, that may have taken 
place but little before the time of Moses. 
Abraham found them in possession of 
the "'south country," but they seem then 
to have treated with him as an equal in 
power. He made a treaty with their chief, 
Abimelech, at Beersheba, and this treaty 
was renewed in the days of Isaac. Gen. 
21 : 32, 33 ; 26 : 12-23. 

But at the Exodus the Philistines seem 
to have been such a mighty and warlike 
people that it was thought best for the 
Israelites to avoid their land, lest "the 
people repent when they see war, and 
they return to Egypt." Ex. 13 : 17. 

Thenceforward, during the whole pe- 
riod of 0. T. history, the Israelites and 
the Philistines were frequently brought 
in contact. The Philistines are men- 
tioned three hundred and ten times in 
the 0. T. from Genesis to Zechariah, but 
the limits of this article will allow of 
only the briefest outline of the leading 
events. 




Philistine, (From an Egyptian Painting.) 

The land of the Philistines was within 
the limits of the land promised to Israel, 
Num. 34 : 5, 6; Eze. 13 : 17; 23 : 31, 
and it was assigned to Judah and Dan, 



Josh. 15 : 45-47 ; 19 : 41-45, but no at- 
tempt to conquer it was made under 
Joshua's leadership. They had a league 
of their five chief towns, Gaza, Ashdod, 
Ashkelon, Gath, and Ekron, under the 
direction of the five lords or kings. 

After Joshua's death Gaza, Ashkelon, 
and Ekron were taken, Jud. 1:18, but 
not permanently held, by Israel. The 
Philistines gained the ascendency and 
long held it, although occasionally 
shaken off for a brief period, as by 
Shamgar, Jud. 3 : 31 ; 10 : 7 ; and 
Samson. Jud. 13 to 16. Even Samson, 
who broke up the subjection of forty 
years, did not succeed in permanently 
delivering his people from the Philistine 
yoke. Under Eli the Israelites again 
resisted, but were defeated at Aphek, 
30,000 slain, and the ark captured. 
1 Sam. 4 : 1-11. Under Samuel's leader- 
ship success crowned the arms of Israel. 
1 Sam. 7 : 11-14. When Saul became 
king he continued the contest against 
the ancient foe, and Jonathan and his 
armor-bearer began the fight which ter- 
minated in the slaughter of the Philis- 
tines at Michmash. 1 Sam. 13 and 14. 
David killed Goliath later, and the 
Philistines were pursued to the gates of 
Gath and Ekron with great slaughter 
(30,000 killed and 60,000 wounded, ac- 
cording to Josephus). 1 Sam. 17. 

David, after inflicting many defeats 
upon the Philistines, sought refuge 
among them from the malignitv of Saul. 

1 Sam. 19 : 8; 23 : 1-5; 27 : 1-7; 29; 
Ps. 56, title. Saul and his sons were 
slain at Gilboa by the Philistines. 1 Sam. 
31; 1 Chr. 10 : 1. When David became 
king the Philistines attacked him. He 
defeated them at Baal-perazim and 
Rephaim. During Solomon's reign the 
Philistines were subjects, 1 Kgs. 2 : 39, 
40; 4 : 21, 24, and fie fortified Gezer 
and some other border-towns. After 
the division of Israel the Philistines en- 
gaged in hostilities at various times 
with both kingdoms. 1 Kgs. 16 : 15; 

2 Chr. 21 : 16, 17. Jehoshaphat, Uzziah, 
and Hezekiah defeated them. 2 Chr. 17 : 
11; 26 : 6; 2 Kgs. 18 : 8. As Philistia 
was on the great route between Egypt 
and Assyria, it was often involved in the 
great wars between those powers. Ash- 
dod was taken by Sargon, king of Assyria, 
after a siege of three years, Isa. 20 : 1, 
and to Sennacherib most of the towns 

683 



PHI 



PHI 



became subject. Isa. 36. Pharaoh took 
Gaza. Jer. 47 : 1. 

Before the Jewish Captivity the king- 
dom of the Philistines had disappeared, 
and a few of their towns only retained 
some importance. Upon the return from 
captivity some of the Jews married 
Philistine women, " wives of Ashdod." 
Neh. 13 : 23. After the time of Alex- 
ander the power of the Philistines was 
entirely gone. Later the country shared 
in the reverses and desolations of the 
Syrian and Egyptian, Maccabaean, and 
Jewish and Roman wars. 

Customs, Religion, etc. — According to 
all accounts, the Philistines far surpassed 
the Hebrews in culture, and in war- 
chariots and cavalry they were superior 
to the Israelites. 1 Sam. 13 : 5. 

The heavy-armed soldiers wore a round 
copper helmet, a coat-of-mail, brazen 
greaves. Their weapons were a javelin 
and long lance, and each had an attend- 
ant to bear his shield and weapons, like 
the Greeks in the Homeric poems. The 
light-armed soldiers were ai*chers. The 
Philistines had fortified encampments, 
surrounded their towns with lofty walls, 
and kept the territories they had con- 
quered in subjection by means of garri- 
sons. They were a commercial as well 
as a warlike people, and not only 
competed with the Phoenicians by sea, 
but endeavored to keep in their own 
hands the inland and caravan traffic. 
Their chief god was Dagon, Jud. 16:23; 
1 Sam. 5 : 1-5, who, as well as the god- 
dess Derketo, had the form of a fish. 
Baalzebub, 2 Kgs. 1:2, 3, 6, 16, the 
fly-god of Ekron, was famed for his 
oracles. On their various campaigns 
they took their idols with them. 2 Sam. 
5 : 21 ; 1 Chr. 14 : 12. Their seers or 
prophets seem to have formed a distinct 
profession. 

Present Condition. — It is a remarkable 
fact that the principal towns of Philistia, 
Gaza, Ashkelon, Joppa, Ashdod, Lachish, 
and Gath, have never once disappeared 
from history, but exist at the present 
day under the names of Gazzeh, Askah'm, 
Yafa, Esdud, Umm Lakis, and Beit 
Jibrin — that is, Beth - geborim, "the 
house of the giants." Many other of 
the modern names also preserve the 
memory of the old Philistine history 
and worship. Low mounds at intervals 
show the sites of former cities, Four 
684 



and a half miles from Gaza a colossal 
marble statue has recently been discov- 
ered (1879). The total height of the 
figure is 15 feet. The hair hangs in 
long ringlets down upon the shoulders, 
and the beard is long, indicating a man 
of venerable age. The right arm is bro- 
ken in half, while the left arm is crossed 
over the breast to the right shoulder, 
the hand being hidden by the drapery 
of a cloth covering the shoulders. There 
is no inscription on the figure or the 
pedestal, which is a huge block carved 
in one piece with the figure. The statue 
was found in a recumbent position, bur- 
ied in the sand, on the top of a hill near 
the sea. It had evidently been removed 
from its original site, which is unknown. 
Its estimated weight is 12,000 pounds. 
Lieut. Conder thinks it is the statue of 
Marnas (the Cretan Jupiter), the god 
of Gaza, which once stood in the princi- 
pal temple of Gaza, but which had been 
buried, perhaps at the time of the de- 
struction of the temple, by Porphyrius, 
A. d. 406. See Palestine Exploration 
Fund's Quarterly Statement for January, 
1880. 

The inhabitants are a race distinct 
from the rest of the inhabitants of 
Palestine, and it has been suggested 
that the fellahin, or peasantry, are of 
Canaanite origin, though no doubt a 
mixed race as now constituted. 

For the present condition of the land 
of the Philistines, see Ashdod, Ashkelon, 
Ekron, Gath, Gaza, Gerar, Gibbethon, 
Jabneel, Metheg-amma, Palestine. 

PHILIS TIM, PHILISTINE. 
See above. 

PHILOL'OGUS(feanierf), a Chris- 
tian in Rome to whom Paul sends a 
salutation. Rom. 16 : 15. 

PHILOS'OPHY. During his visit 
to Athens, Paul was encountered by cer- 
tain philosophers of the Epicureans and 
of the Stoics, Acts 17 : 18, the two 
great moi*al schools of Greek philosophy. 
This is the only instance related in the 
N. T. of an encounter between Chris- 
tianity and Western speculation. But 
Eastern speculation, in many ways and 
under many forms, tried from the earliest 
times to penetrate into the mysteries 
of Christianity, and in the philosophy 
against which Paul warned the Colos- 
sians, Col. 2 : 8 et seq., we recognize not 
I only an outgrowth of Eastern specula- 



PHI 



PHti2 



tion, but the prototype of that phantastic 
mysticism which afterward played so 
conspicuous a part in the history of the 
Eastern Church under the name of Gnos- 
ticism. Comp. 1 Tim. 6 : 20. 

PHINEHAS (brazen mouth). 1. A 
son of Eleazar, and grandson of Aaron, 
Ex. 6 : 25; 1 Chr. 6:4, 50 filled the 
office of high priest of the Jews for 
nearly twenty years. His zeal and 
promptitude in punishing the sin of 
Zimri turned away the anger of the 
Lord against the nation, and was re- 
warded by the promise to his family of 
perpetual succession in the Jewish priest- 
hood. Num. 25 : 6-15. This promise 
was fulfilled ; for except the interval 
from Eli to Zadok, the priesthood con- 
tinued in the family of Phinehas until 
the destruction of the temple and the 
captivity of the nation. 

2. A son of Eli, and noted for his 
wickedness. 1 Sam. 1:3; 2 : 34; 4:4, 
11,17, 19; 14: 3. 

3. A Levite in the time of Ezra. Ezr. 
8: 33. 

PHLE'GON {flame), a Christian 
in Rome to whom Paul sent salutation. 
Rom. 16 : 14. 

PHGE'BE, a distinguished member 
of the church at Cenchraea, a city of 
Corinth. Rom. 16 : 1. She is called a 
"servant of the church" (see Deacon- 
ess) ; and the strong commendation of 
the apostle shows her to have been 
prominent in works of faith and labors 
of love. 

PHCEN1CE. See Phenice. 

PHCENI'CIA, a country north of 
Palestine, so named by the Greeks, either 
from the abundance of palm trees or from 
Phoenix, the brother of Cadmus. It was 
a narrow strip of country between the 
Lebanon mountains and the Mediter- 
ranean Sea. It varied in extent at 
different periods, sometimes extending 
about 30 miles from the " Ladder of 
Tyre " to the Nalir Auly, 2 miles north 
of Sidon, and sometimes about 120 miles 
north of the " Ladder of Tyre." Along 
the shore it was sandy, but behind this 
sand-belt was fertile land, and upon the 
slopes of the mountain good pasture and 
excellent timber. Promonotories jut out 
into the sea, making good harbors and 
sites for towns, as at Tyre, Sidon, and 
Beirut. The country is well watered, its 
principal rivers being the Leontes, Bos- 



trenus, Lycus, or "dog river," Adonis, 
and Eleutherus. Its principal towns are 
Arvad, Tripoli, Beirut, Sidon, and Tyre. 

Phoenicia was included in the Land of 
Promise, but it was not occupied by the 
Israelites. Josh. 13 : 4-6 ; Jud. 1 : 31, 32. 
David and Solomon traded with its king, 
receiving timber from its territory, and 
employing its sailors, laborers, and skilled 
workmen. 2 Sam. 5 : 11 ; 1 Kgs. 5 : 9, 17, 18. 
Ahab married a princess of this country, 
and there Elijah found a refuge. 1 Kgs. 
16 : 31 ; 17 : 9 ; Luke 4 : 26. Jesus alsp 
visited this country — the only time he 
passed the borders of Palestine. Matt. 
15 : 21 ; Mark 7 : 26. Paul visited Tyre, 
Sidon, and Ptolemais. Acts 21 : 2, 3, 7 ; 
27:3. 

The name " Phoenicia" does not occur 
in the 0. T. ; in the N. T. it appears 
once as " Phoenicia " and twice as 
"Phenice." Acts 21:2; 11:19; 15:3. 
There are numerous prophecies in the 
0. T., however, concerning the overthrow 
of cities in this country, which have been 
signally fulfilled. See Tyre and Sidon. 

Present Condition. — Phoenicia is now 
a land of ruins, the whole shore from the 
" Ladder of Tyre " northward, according 
to Porter, being strewn with them. 
" Heaps of hewn stones and quantities 
of marble tesserae lay in my path, while 
broken shafts and mounds of rubbish 
were seen to the right and left, here 
crowning a cliff, there washed by the 
waves. One thing I specially noticed : 
from the time I left Achzib till I reached 
the fountains [of Tyre] I did not see a 
human being ; a mournful and solitary 
silence reigns along Phoenicia's coast." 
— Giant Cities, p. 277. Stanley writes 
in a similar strain : " There is one point 
of view in which this whole coast is 
specially remarkable. 'A mournful and 
solitary silence now prevails along the 
shore which once resounded with the 
world's debate.' This sentence, with 
which Gibbon solemnly closes his chapter 
on the Crusades, well sums up the general 
impression still left by the six days' ride 
from Beirut to Ascalon ; and it is no 
matter of surprise that in this impression 
travellers have felt a response to the 
strains in which Isaiah and Ezekiel 
foretold the desolation of Tyre and Sidon. 
In one sense, and that the highest, this 
feeling is just. The Phoenician power 
which the prophets denounced has en- 
685 



PHCE 



PHB 



tirely perished." — Sinai and Palestine, 
p. 266. 

PHOENICIANS. At the very 
dawn of history the Phoenicians appear 
to occupy one of the most prominent 
places among the nations of the earth. 
They were closely related to, if not 
identical with, the Canaanites, Gen. 10 : 
15, and of the whole group of Semitic 
languages their language was nearest 
allied to the Hebrew ; indeed, the few 
remnants of the Phoenician tongue — 
names of persons and places, inscriptions 
on coins and monuments, etc. — which 
are still extant can be interpreted only 
by means of Hebrew. The nation, though 
cultured in literature and art, was de- 
based by its religion. The worship of 
Baal was made corrupt and revolting 
in the extreme. While the burning of 
children to this god may have originated 
in the idea that sin required some blood- 
expiation, the form of the sacrifice was 
so cruel, and many features of the wor- 
ship were so shameless, that they tended 
to destroy all virtue in the people, and 
the nation died of immoral rottenness. 
Passion and licentiousness were deified 
in connection with the worship of Astarte, 
the Phoenician Venus. 2 Kgs. 23 : 7 ; Deut. 
23 : 17. 18; 1 Kgs. 14:24; 15:12; 22: 
46 ; Hos. 4 : 14. Their religion was a kind 
of Nature-worship, centering in the idea 
of generation, and most of their gods, 
such as Baal, Ashtaroth, etc., seem to have 
had a double signification — one allegor- 
ical and lofty, and another literal and 
sensuous. Their occupation was com- 
merce. They maintained commercial 
stations on the shores of the Red Sea 
and all along the coasts of the Mediter- 
ranean. They worked the silver-mines 
of Spain and the lead-mines of Cornwall, 
and their sailors brought amber from 
the Baltic and tin from Britain. Through 
their commerce they became the bearers 
of civilization, and from them both the 
Greeks and the Romans learnt the use 
of letters and of coins, of the compass 
and of astronomy in navigation, of glass, 
purple, etc. 

Between the Jews and the Phoenicians 
friendly relations seem to have been 
established very early. Palestine was 
the granary of the Phoenician cities, and, 
indeed, all its surplus products — wheat, 
honey, oil, balm, etc. — were exported 
from Tyre and Sidon, Eze. 27 : 17, as the 
636 



Jews had no ports themselves. Under 
King David these friendly relations 
grew into an alliance, and the conquest 
of Edom and the establishment by the 
Jews of a harbor at Ezion-geber, on the 
Red Sea, did not cause any disturbance. 
Phoenician mechanics worked at the 
erection of the temple in Jerusalem be- 
side Jewish, and Phoenician vessels sailed 
together with Jewish from the port of 
Ezron-geber for Ophir and other places. 
1 Kgs. 10 : 11, 22 ; 9 : 26-28 ; 1 Chr. 14 : 
1 ; 2 Chr. 8 : 18 ; 9 : 10. After the seces- 
sion of the ten tribes the Phoenicians 
sided with the kingdom of Israel and 
broke the old covenant with Judah, Joel 
3:4-8; Am. 1 : 9, 10 ; Isa. 23 ; Eze. 28 ; 
they even went so far as to sell the Jews 
to the Edomites as slaves. The influ- 
ence, however, of the Phoenician idolatry 
on the Israelites was very baneful, though 
it would seem that the Phoenicians them- 
selves were not so very anxious to make 
proselytes ; at least, they did not inter- 
fere when Elijah slew four hundred and 
fifty prophets of Baal at the brook of 
Kishon. 1 Kgs. 18:40. 

PHRYGIA (dry, barren), a district 
of Asia Minoi-, whose limits varied so 
much at different times that no exact 
boundaries can be given. Its settlement 
was very early. Phrygian traditions 
and those of the Egyptians make them 
the most ancient race of men in the 
world. Profane writers say that the 
Phrygians migrated from Macedonia 
long before the Trojan war. Phrygia is 
mentioned in Homer's Iliad. It then 
appears to have included a large part of 
Central Asia Minor. Later it was divided 
into Phrygia Major on the south, and 
Phrygia Minor on the west. It was of 
a very irregular and undefined shape ,- 
and when Galatia was a part of it, 
Phrygia touched, so it was said, upon 
every other province in Asia Minor. 
The Romans divided it into three dis- 
tricts. Part of it belonged to the prov- 
ince of Asia and part to Cilicia, and 
in N. T. times it was not a regularly- 
defined Roman province, but an ancient 
country, apportioned to other provinces, 
but mostly included in the province of 
Asia. Within its limits were the cities 
of Laodicaea, Hierapolis, Colossse, and 
Antioch of Pisidia. 

Phrygia is mentioned three times in 
the book of the Acts. People from there 



PHU 



PHY 



were present at Pentecost, Acts 2 : 10, 
and the apostle Paul twice traversed the 
country. Acts 16 : 6 ; 18 : 23. Some con- 
verts were made, and we find Paul 
" strengthening all the disciples." Acts 
18 : 23. At ihe Council of Nice, a. d. 
325, the Phrygian churches were repre- 
sented by eight bishops, and still more 
attended the Council of Constantinople, 
A. d. 381. 

PHU'RAH {hough), the armor- 
bearer of Gideon, who accompanied 
him into the camp of the Midianites. 
Jud. 7 : 10, 11. 

PHUT, Gen. 10 : 6, ou PUT, Nah. 
3 : 9 (probably a bow), the name of the 
third son of Ham and of the country 
occupied by his descendants. 

PHUT* (erected, or a bow?), Gen. 
10:6; more properly, PUT. 1 Chr. 
1 : 8. Phut was a son of Ham, and pro- 
genitor of an African people of the same 
name, though sometimes the name is 
rendered " Libya" or " Libvans." Jer. 
46 : 9 ; Eze. 27 : 10 ; 30 : 5 : 38 : 5 : Nah. 
3 : 9. These people probably occupied 
Libya, in North Africa, to the west of 
Lydia, or Ludim, near the Mediterranean 
coast. This is the land of the Moors in 
modern times. 

Mr. Poole would identify Phut with 
Nubia, south of Egypt. The Egyptian 
monuments mention a people called 
" Pet," whose emblem was a bow un- 
strung, and who dwelt between Egypt 
and Ethiopia. Phut may be Pet, or 
To-Pet, and therefore modern Nubia, as 
To-mem-Pet of the monuments answered 
to the island of Meroe. 

PHU'VAH (mouth), a son of Issa- 
char, Gen. 46 : 13: called Pua in Num. 
26 : 23, and Puah in 1 Chr. 7 : 1. 
_ PHYGEL'LUS (fugitive), a Chris- 
tian of Pronconsular Asia who "turned 
away " from Paul. Nothing more is 
known of him than his name and this 
circumstance. 2 Tim. 1 : 15. 

PHYLACTERIES (preservation, 
or safeguard, with reference either to the 
preserving of the words of the Law in 
the memory or to the preservation of the 
person from danger, as by the amulets 
or charms of modern superstition). The 
practice of using phylacteries was found- 
ed on a literal interpretation of Ex. 13 : 
9, 10; Deut. 6:8; 11 : 18, where God 
commands the Hebrews to bear the Law 
in their hearts and in their heads, and it 



is still continued in our days. There are 
two kinds of phylacteries — one to be 
worn on the forehead, between the eye- 
brows, and another to be worn on the 
left arm. The former was called a 
" frontlet," and was composed of four 
pieces of parchment, on the first of which 
was written Ex. 12 : 2-10 ; on the second, 
Ex. 13 : 11-21 : on the third, Deut. 6 : 
4-9 ; and on the fourth, Deut. 11 : 18-21. 
These pieces of parchment, thus inscrib- 
ed, were inclosed in a piece of tough 
skin, making a square, on one side of 
which was placed the Hebrew letter shin, 
W, and this box was tied to the forehead 
with a thong or riband. Some wore them 
both evening and morning, and others 
only at morning prayer. 




The Phylactery. 

The other kind of phylacteries con- 
sisted of two rolls of parchment, written 
in square letters, with an ink made on 
purpose, and with much care. They 
were rolled up to a point, enclosed in a 
sort of case of black calfskin, and then 
put upon a square bit of the same 
leather, whence hung a thong of the 
same, about a finger in breadth and 
about two feet long. These rolls were 
placed near the elbow of the left arm, 
and after one end of the thong had been 
made into a little knot in the form of 
the Hebrew letter yod, t, it was wound 
about the arm in a spiral line, which 
ended at the top of the middle finger. 

PHYSICIAN. It was natural 
that the Jews should have learned some- 
thing about medicine in Egypt, where, 
at the time of their stay in the country, 
687 



PIB 



PIL 



this art was cultivated with great zeal. 
It also appears from several passages in 
the books of Moses that at his time there 
were not only midwives, but also sur- 
geons and physicians, among the Jews. 
Thus it was ordained, Ex. 21 : 19, that 
he who hurt another should not only pay 
for the loss of time, but also "cause him 
to be thoroughly healed." At a later 
period surgeons and physicians became 
quite numerous. 2 Chr. 16 : 12 j Jer. 8 : 
22 : Mark 5:26. A special physician 
was appointed at the temple, and every 
parish had its surgeon and physician. 
The art, however, never reached any 
high degree of perfection in Palestine, 
because the people were prevented from 
acquiring sufficient anatomical know- 
ledge by their great aversion to contact 
with dead bodies; and to the last we 
find them employing amulets, charms, 
invocations, etc., as remedies. Some 
medical knowledge was demanded of 
the priests, who exercised a kind of 
sanitary superintendence ; also the 
prophets gave medical advice. 2 Kgs. 
4:18; 20 : 7. But generally medicine 
was cultivated as a separate profession. 
Luke was a physician. Col. 4 : 14. 

PI-BE'SETH, or PIB'- 
ESETH, a city of Lower Egypt, 
named from the goddess Bubastis. The 
hieroglyphic name is " Pe-Bast," " the 
house of Bast," the Egyptian Artemis, 
the goddess of fire, the calf-headed 
goddess, also shown with a lion's head. 
The name appears in Scripture only as 
one of the cities of Egypt which Ezekiel 
foretold would be destroyed. Eze. 30 : 17. 
From this it would seem to have been a 
city of great importance. The name 
appears occasionally in Egyptian annals. 
An earthquake is mentioned on Mane- 
tho's list which took place there about 
B. c. 2470. Herodotus speaks of the 
temple of the goddess Bubastis, whom 
he identifies with the Greek Artemis, as 
the most beautiful he had ever seen. It 
was built of the finest red granite, in the 
midst of a sacred enclosure 600 feet 
square. 

Ruins still bearing the name of Fel 
Besta mark the site of the ancient city, 
which was situated on the eastern or 
Pelusiac branch of the Delta, some 20 
miles from the Nile and 40 miles north- 
east of Memphis. Remains of the an- 
cient houses of brick and of a fortress 
688 



are found. The temple is entirely ruined, 
but the names of several of the sover- 
eigns have been traced out, including 
those of Rameses II. and Shishak. The 
city was taken by the Persians, b. c. 352, 
and the walls were overthrown. It con- 
tinued to exist, however, as a consider- 
able city under the Roman empire. 

PICT'URE. See Paint. 

PIECE OF GOLD— e.g., 2 Kgs. 
5 : 5 — should be " shekels of gold," as 
there was no coined money in Pales- 
tine before the Persian period. 

PIECE OF MONEY. See Money. 

PIECE OF SII/VER. In the 
O. T. the word " pieces," in every pas- 
sage but one, is inserted in the A. V., 
the phrase being " a thousand," or the 
like, " of silver," and may be interpreted 
"shekels," as the shekel was the common 
weight for money. See Money. 

In the N. T. "piece of silver" is the 
translation of " drachma," Luke 15 : 8, 
and of a coin of uncertain value, prob- 
ably shekel. Matt. 26 : 15. 

PI'ETY occurs only once in our 
version, 1 Tim. 5 : 4, where it denotes 
the reverence which children owe their 
parents. 

PIG EON. See Dove. 

PIHAHI'ROTH {mouth, or en- 
trance of caverns, or place of reservoirs), 
the last place where the Israelites en- 
camped before crossing the Red Sea. 
Ex. 14 : 2, 9; Num. 33 : 7, 8. Robinson 
identifies it with AjrM, 12 miles from 
Suez, now a watering-place for caravans, 
"and is approved by Lepsius. In a curi- 
ous papyrus deciphered by Chabas it is 
said that Pehir (which seems to be the 
same as Pihahiroth) was the place from 
which King Rameses was supplied with 
garlands of beautiful flowers. Stanley 
says that there is now no appearance 
of verdure there. 

PPL ATE, John 19 : 1, or FOR- 
TIUS PILATE, Matt. 26 : 2, was 
appointed procurator of Judaea, A. D. 
2'6. The proper residence of the pro- 
curator was Caesarea, but it was custom- 
ary for him to go to Jerusalem at the 
great festivals for the purpose of secur- 
ing order and safety in the city, and thus 
it happened that Pilate was present in 
Jerusalem during the Passover when our 
Lord suffered death. The chief duty of 
the procurator respected the revenues, 
but in a minor territory, such as Ju- 



PIL 



PIN 



dsea, which was dependent on a larger 
contiguous province (Syria), the procu- 
rator was the head of the whole ad- 
ministration, and held the highest mili- 
tary and judicial authority: and thus 
Pilate became the judge of our Lord. 

The administration of Pilate was ex- 
tremely offensive to the Jews, and more 
than once he drove them to the very 
verge of insurrection. He seems to have 
nourished a special contempt for them 
and taken pleasure in showing it, but 
when, by cruelty and perfidy, he had 
brought them into a rage, he generally 
became frightened and yielded. Having 
transferred the military headquarters 
from Caesarea to Jerusalem, he sent the 
standards with the images of the em- 
peror into the city. As soon as this 
became known the Jews rushed in great 
multitudes down to Caesarea, and de- 
manded to have the standards removed, 
because, as idols, they defiled the Holy 
City. Pilate permitted the multitude to 
be surrounded by soldiers, and told them 
to disperse quietly or else they would be 
massacred. But when the Jews declared 
that they would die rather than tolerate 
the images of the emperor within the 
walls of Jerusalem, Pilate was frightened 
and yielded. 

The principal feature in the character 
of Pilate was weakness, and it became 
piteously apparent during the trial of 
our Lord. When Jesus was arraigned 
before him he was not only anxious to 
avoid trying him, but he once and again, 
in the most solemn and impressive man- 
ner, even in presence of his malicious 
and bloodthirsty persecutors, declared 
his conviction of his perfect innocence. 
He even remonstrated with them on the 
iniquity and unreasonableness of their 
conduct, and would fain throw upon 
them the whole responsibility of the 
deed they were about to perpetrate. 
Nevertheless, as soon as he saw that 
the acquittal of Jesus might be so con- 
strued as to arouse the suspicion of the 
emperor, he renounced his own conviction 
and delivered up the innocent Saviour 
to the hands of the enraged multitude 
to be crucified. 

In 36 the governor of Syria raised some 
severe accusations against Pilate, who 
went to Rome to defend himself before 
the emperor. He did not succeed, how- 
ever, and was banished to Vienne, in 
44 



Gaul, and there, or, according to another 
tradition, on the mountain near Lake 
Lucerne which bears his name, he 
committed suicide shortly after. The 
Fathers speak often about an official 
report of the trial and condemnation 
of our Lord sent by Pilate to Tiberius, 
but the Acta Pilati now extant are 
spurious. 

PIL'DASH {flame of fire), a son 
of Nahor, Abraham's brother. Gen. 
22 : 22. 

PIL'EHA, one of the chiefs who 
signed the covenant with Nehemiah. 
Neh. 10 : 24. 

PII/LAR. This word is often used 
metaphorically in the Bible, thus a pil- 
lar of fire, cloud, smoke, etc., denoting a 
fire, a cloud, or a mass of smoke in the 
form of a pillar. Ex. 13 : 21 ; Jud. 20 : 
40. Besides, in architecture, where it 
was employed both as support and orna- 
ment, it was common to erect a pillar as 
a monument of some distinguished per- 
son or event. Gen. 28:18; 35:20; 
Josh. 24 : 26. 

" The plain of the pillar," Jud. 9 : 6, 
properly the " oak of the pillar," a tree 
near Sheehem under which Abimelech 
was crowned. 

PIL'LAROFCLOUD. SeeCxoun. 

PILLAR OF SALT. See Salt. 

PILL'ED. Gen. 30: 37. "Peeled." 

PIL'LOW, a cushion for the head. 
Mark 4 : 38. Jacob used a stone for his 
pillow, Gen. 28 : 11, 18; in Eze. 13 : 18, 
20 pillows are spoken of as an appli- 
ance of luxury. 

PIL'TAI (whom Jehovah delivers), a 
priest. Neh. 12 : 17. 

PINE. Isa. 41 : 19 ; 60 : 13. This 
is mentioned as a tree of Lebanon. The 
root of the original word denotes "curv- 
ature" or "duration," neither of which 
meanings suits the pine. Tristram sug- 
gests the elm, a species of which grows 
upon Lebanon, and Gesenius the oak, 
but the proper translation is very doubt- 
ful. Another word is rendered "pine 
branches " in Neh. 8 : 15, where the Oil 
Tree (to which refer) is undoubtedly 
meant. (See cut, p. 690.) 

PIN'NACLE. The word translated 
"pinnacle," Matt. 4:5; Luke 4:9, 
signifies, not a summit, but a wing ; and 
the part of the temple to which our 
Lord was taken by Satan was probably 
the elevation over the roof of Solomon's 
689 



PIN 



PIS 



porch, to which there was a passage by 
stairs, and which overlooked the valley 
on the east, and had beneath a perpen- 
dicular depth of 600 or 700 feet, for at 
this part of the valley a wall had been 




The Eastern Pine. 

carried up to a level with the ground on 
which the temple stood (some historians 
say 750 feet). 

PFNON (darkness), one of the dukes 
of Edom. Gen. 36 : 41 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 52. 
His tribe was settled, according to later 
traditions, at Punon, one of the stations 
of the Israelites in the wilderness. 

PINS. See Nail, Weaving. 

PIPE, or FLUTE, similar to the 
present instrument, was the principal 
perforated wind instrument among the 
Hebrews, as the harp was the principal 
string instrument. It was made of 
different materials, reed, copper, bronze, 
etc., and was played on all occasions — the 
procession, 1 Kgs. 1 : 40, the banquet, 
Isa. 5 : 12, the wedding, the funeral. 
Matt. 9 : 23. Thus, in times of joy 
and in times of sorrow, in the religious 
festivals and in private life, the pipe, 
the simplest, and probably the oldest, 
690 



musical instrument, was heard. See 
Music and Musical Instruments. 

PFRAM(perhapsy?ee£ as the wild ass), 
king of Jarmuth, one of the Amorite chiefs 
in the time of Joshua. Josh. 10 : 3. 

PIRATHON [prince- 
ly), a place in Ephraim, the 
home and burial-place of 
Abdon, one of the judges of 
Israel. Jud 12 : 15. One of 
David's mighty men was a 
Pirathonite. 1 Chr. 27:14; 
11 : 31 ; 2 Sam. 23 : 30. 
Robinson proposed Ferata, 
6 miles from Shechein ; the 
Pal. Memoirs suggest Ferbn, 
a hamlet on the edge of a 
plain, 10 miles west of Sa- 
maria, as its site. 

PIRATHONITE, 
THE. 1. One of the 
judges of Israel, Abdon 
ben-Hillel. Jud. 12 : 13, 15. 
2. A captain in David's 
army, and one of the king's 
guard. 1 Chr. 27 : 14; 2 
Sam. 23 : 30 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 
31. 

PIS'GAH {Mil, or the 
height), the summit from 
which Moses, before his 
death, gained his view of 
the Promised Land. It was 
in Moab, one of the moun- 
tains of Abarim, and the 
top of Nebo. It Avas in 
the territory afterward assigned to Reu- 
ben, and thus was north of the Arnon. 
Num. 21 : 20 ; Deut. 3 : 27 ; 4 : 49 ; 34 : 1 ; 
Josh. 13 : 20. Pisgah had cultivated 
land. Balaak brought Balaam "into the 
field of Zophim, to the top of Pisgah," 
and there " built seven altars." Num. 
23 : 14. 

Situation. — While the general position 
of Pisgah is clearly given in the Scrip- 
tures, the precise location has been 
sharply disputed, and is yet unsettled. 
So able a writer as Dean Stanley says : 
" In the long line of those Eastern 
mountains which so constantly meet 
the view of the traveller in all the 
western parts of Palestine, the eye 
vainly strives to discern any point 
emerging from this horizontal plat- 
form which may be fixed as the top 
of Nebo. Nothing but a fuller descrip- 
tion than has ever yet been given of 



PIS 



Pig 



these regions can determine the spot 
where the great lawgiver and leader of 
his people looked down upon their em- 
battled ranks, and over the ' land which 
he was to see with his eyes, but was not 
to go in thither.'" — Sinai and Palestine, 
p. 294. 

Some scholars have questioned whether 
"pisgah" is a proper name. It occurs 
eight times in Scripture : four times with 
Ashdoth. In Deut. 4 : 4, 9 the English 
version reads " springs of Pisgah." The 
Septuagint renders " Pisgah " and "Ash- 
doth-pisgah " as a proper name only four 
times; the Jewish Targums render it 
"hill." The English version regards it 
as a proper name, and it has a promi- 
nent place in Christian literature. 

The great interest which Nebo and 
Pisgah possess, as the scene of the last 
days of Israel's lawgiver, has led recent 
travellers carefully to explore the region 
in order to discover the location of these 
historic peaks. Robinson long ago sug- 
gested that the name Nebd might repre- 
sent the ancient Nebo. In 1863, De 
Saulcy, when about an hour's ride from 
Hesban on his way to Ma'in, found a 
peak which the Arabs called Jehel Nebd. 
This he regarded as the long-lost Nebo, 
and says he was proud to recover the 
famous mount so long searched for with- 
out success. Among other explorers who 
have visited the region are Tristram in 
1864, and again in 1872 • Due de Luynes, 
1864; Captain Warren, 1867; and the 
expeditions of the American Exploration 
Society in 1873 and 1877. 

In 1875 the American Society issued 
an extended statement on the identifica- 
tion of Pisgah by the Rev. J. A. Paine. 
He thinks De Saulcy mistook the height 
of Nebi 'Abdullah for Jebel Nebd; he 
likewise rejects the description of Tris- 
tram as inaccurate, and infers that Due 
de Luynes may have " suppressed the 
real name, Jebel Nebd, and endeavored 
to substitute a term of his own, Jebel 
Musd, as the Arabic name of the moun- 
tain," though he holds "that the mem- 
bers of Due de Luynes' party were the 
first to ascend Mount Nebo with a con- 
sciousness that they were standing on 
the summit supposed to be made sacred 
by the death of the great lawgiver." Mr. 
Paine claims to have discovered that the 
name Jebel Siayhah is applied by the 
Arabs to the extreme western headland 



or peak near Jebel Nebd ; and after noti- 
cing the extent of the view and the grand- 
eur of the scenery declares : " Two con- 
clusions are irresistible — namely : the 
highest portion of the range is Nebo : the 
extreme headland of the range is Pis- 
gah." He urges in favor «f this identi- 
fication of Pisgah with Jebel Siayhah: 
(1) the similarity in the names; (2) the 
position of Siaghah, " the only headland 
overlooking the circuit of the Jordan — - 
the place above all others to be selected 
for the sake of a remarkable view ;" 
Mr. Paine says : " Two-thirds of the 
Dead Sea stretches out an azure sheet 
to the southward, and beyond it the 
Negeb Moses saw." Deut. 34 : 1-4. 

His theory of the site of Pisgah is 
sharply questioned by Wolcott, Tris- 
tram, Warren, and others, chiefly on the 
ground that it fails to meet the require- 
ments of the biblical narrative, and that 
Siayhah is not the modern equivalent of 
Pisgah. Merrill, as the results of a 
later exploration, says :"Mr. Paine makes 
the lowest and most western of his five 
flat summits to be the Pisgah of Moses. 
The most prominent summit directly 
south of 'Ayun Musa is called by Due 
de Luynes Jebel Musa, and is covered 
with ruins." Mr. Paine's theory places 
Pisgah a quarter of a mile south-west of 
this ruin summit, while Due de Luynes 
regards a higher peak in the opposite 
direction as Pisgah. Merrill favors this 
"highest point and most commanding 
outlook" as the probable point to which 
Moses ascended. (See East of the Jor- 
dan, pp. 242-250.) The biblical state- 
ment seems to designate the summit of 
Nebo, Deut. 34 : 1 ; and if Nebo is Jebel 
Nebd, as many explorers now hold, then 
Pisgah should be its most prominent 
peak. The Due de Luynes gives the 
following graphic description of the 
view from this mount : 

" Observing that a second height of 
this mountain seemed more elevated and 
to give a perspective of greater extent 
over the Dead Sea and the Holy Land, 
we proceed thither. In spite of the hazy 
state of the horizon, we ascertained that 
from this elevation one discerned the 
north and the north-west shore of the 
Dead Sea from the mouth of the Jordan 
as far as nearly to Jebel Esdoum and to 
Jebel Safda, the whole mountain-chain 
from Hebron to the Quarantania Mount, 
691 



PIS 



PIT 



all the land from the mountain of Hes- i 
ban, of Jebel Osha, and of es-Salt, even 
into the Ghor, to the mountains of 
Nablus, of Jenin, and of Nazareth, 
Mount Tabor, a part of its plain, and 
even Banias, as our guides assured us; 
only they said that one could not see 
the snow of Hermon, even in the purest 
atmosphere. The perspective of that 
elevated spot was without limits, and 
its effect of the utmost majesty. It is un- 
derstood that tradition [Scripture] causes 
Moses to be conducted to this place by 
Jehovah, in order to show him all the 
Promised Land. The view from this 
second height does not reach as far as 
the place where Segor is admitted to be, 
the refuge of Lot, whether situated at 
Wddy es-Safleh, or supposed to lie in 
Wddy Eddrda. . . . We were, then, on 
the summit of Pisgah, among the heights 
of Mount Nebo, and in the chain called 
Abarim : we were beholding the same 
spectacle that Jehovah spread before 
Moses, after having prohibited him from 
crossing the Jordan." — Voyage d' Ex- 
ploration d la Mer Morte (1866-67), pp. 
150-152. 

PISID / IA (pitchy), a district of Asia 
Minor. The boundaries varied at dif- 
ferent times. It lay to the north of 
Pamphylia and to the south of Phrygia, 
and was during the republic contained 
in the province of Cilicia. 

The ranges of the Taurus Mountains 
extended through it, and the mountains 
are cut by deep defiles, through which 
dash rapid torrents. The inhabitants 
also were rough highlanders, famous for 
their warlike character, and long main- 
taining their independence. They were 
also notorious robbers, and in this region 
Paul may have been " in perils of waters, 
in perils of robbers." 2 Cor. 11 : 26. 

Paul twice visited Pisidia, passing 
directly north from Perga to Antioch, 
Acts 13 : 14, and again returning through 
Pisidia to Pamphylia. Acts 14 : 21-24. 
See Antioch. 

PI'S ON (the full-flowing, Gesenius, 
or the free-flowing, Fiirst), one of the 
four " heads " into which the stream that 
watered Eden was parted. Gen. 2 : 11. 
There have been numberless conjectural 
identifications of the Pison, which of 
course will depend for their likelihood 
upon the location of Eden, which see. 
If Eden was in Armenia, near the sources 
692 



of the Euphrates and Tigris, then the 
ancient Pison may be the modern 
Phasis. 

The Rev. L. W. Bacon sums up these 
views by stating that " for the river of 
Havilah, the Pison, some like (for the 
sound of the name doubtless) the Pha- 
sis ; others (because it is so great and 
beautiful), the Halys ; and others, the 
Cyrus, flowing into the Araxes." The 
above writer would identify the Pison 
with the Jorak or Acampi's, that rises in 
the same mountain with the Araxes and 
the Euphrates, and bounds Colchis on 
the west. 

If, on the other hand, Eden was near 
the mouth of the Euphrates, some would 
identify the Pison with the river Jaab, 
which empties into the Tigris near 
Kurnah. — Newman's Babylon, p. 68. 
Among other streams which have been 
suggested as identical with the Pison 
are the Indus, the Ganges, the Hyphasis, 
the Nile, etc. Dr. Tayler Lewis sug- 
gests the northern shore of the Arabian 
Sea. — Lange's Genesis, p. 219. See 
Havilah. 

PIS'PAH (expansion), an Asherite 
chief. 1 Chr. 7 : 38. 

PIT. This term is used to render 
several Hebrew words. It denotes a 
cistern or a reservoir, which the Eastern 
people are in the habit of preparing in 
those regions where there are few or no 
springs for the purpose of preserving 
rain-water for travellers and cattle. 
These cisterns and trenches are often 
without water, there being no supply 
for them except from the rain. It was 
into such a dry cistern that Joseph 
was cast. In old decayed cisterns the 
water leaks out or becomes slimy", and 
such a pit becomes the image of drear- 
iness and misery. Jer. 2:13; Ps. 40 : 2 ; 
Zech. 9 : 11. 

Next, the word is used for the grave 
and as an image of the realm of death, 
Ps. 28 : 1 ; 30 : 3, 9 ; 88 : 4, and finally 
it is employed as the name of the game- 
trap. Eze. 19 : 8. The pit here spoken 
of is used at this day in all wild coun- 
tries. A deep hole in the earth is covered 
very slightly with boughs or shrubs, 
upon which is placed a living lamb, 
which by its cries allures the lion or 
wolf; and when the beast makes a sud- 
den spring upon his prey, he is caught 
in the pit below. This affords a sig- 



PIT 



PLA 



nificant figure of the devices of crafty 
men and devils. Ps. 119 : 85 ; Prov. 26 : 
27 ; Eze. 19 : 4. 

PITCH. This word is used in the 
Bible for asphalt or bitumen, a light, 
inflammable, and nearly black mineral 
which in its soft form is called slime. 
Gen. 14 : 10. In this latter state it was 
formerly obtained in pits near the Dead 
Sea (hence called the " Lake of Asphal- 
tites "). On exposure this pitch becomes 
dry and hard like mortar, for which it 
was often used, especially in stone-work. 
It was also employed for coating the 
outside of vessels and for making water- 
tight the papyrus boats of Egypt. Gen. 
11 : 3 ; 6:14; Ex. 2 : 3. There is refer- 
ence to its inflammable nature in Isa. 
34 : 9. The ancients obtained pitch in 
various localities of the Old World. At 
the present time fragments of asphalt 
occasionally rise from the bottom of the 
Dead Sea, having been dislodged by 
earthquakes and other causes, and are 
washed ashore. 

PITCH'ER. The custom of draw- 
ing water in pitchers still prevails in the 
East, an earthen vessel with two handles 
or in modern times a skin-bottle being 
used for the purpose; and the letting 
down of the pitcher upon the hand, 
Gen. 24 : 18, justifies the inference that 
it was carried upon the head or left 
shoulder and balanced with the right 
hand, and when presented was rested 
on the left hand. 

PI'THOM (house, or temple, of Turn, 
who was the Sun-god of Heliopolis), a 
"treasure city," or depot of provisions, 
built by the Israelites in Goshen. Ex. 
1 : 11. It was probably not far from the 
" Bitter Lakes " of Suez and near the 
canal. Some critics identify it with the 
Patumos of Herodotus and the Thoum of 
the Antonine Itinerary, between Heliopo- 
lis and Pelusium, 50 Roman miles from 
the former and 48 miles from the latter. 
M. Naville identifies Pithom with Pa- 
Tum, "setting sun, "and with Tel el-Mask- 
htita, where he made excavations in 18S3, 
and found remarkable ruins, brick grain- 
chambers, and similar evidences of a 
"store city." The conclusions of M. 
Naville have been disputed, but Poole, 
Sayce, and other Egyptologists accept 
his "find" as settling the question of 
Pithom. According to this view, Ra- 
meses II. was its founder. 



PI'THON (probably harmless), a 
son of Micah, a descendant of Saul. 1 
Chr. 8:35; 9 : 41. 

PLAGUE, an eminently contagious 
and destructive disease, a virulent typhus 
accompanied by loathsome eruptions, 
prevalent in the East from the earliest 
ages, and still ravaging Egypt even in 
modern times. Ex. 11 : 1. Besides in 
this its specific sense, the sacred writers 
also employ the word to express any 
terrific and desolating disease, Lev. 13 : 
3 ; 1 Kgs. 8 : 37, or any severe calamity 
or scourge, Mark 5 : 29, 34 ; Luke 7 : 21, 
or as a general term for the judgment 
of God. Ex. 9 : 14. The judgments of 
God on Pharaoh are called plagues. In 
the A. V. " plague " is the translation of 
seven words. 

PLAGUES OF EGYPT. When 
the Lord had ordered Moses to lead the 
people of Israel out of Goshen and con- 
duct them to Canaan, and Pharaoh, 
hardening his heart, opposed the com- 
mand of the Lord and would not let the 
people go, ten fearful plagues fell upon 
the land of Egypt. 

1. The waters of the Nile changed into 
blood-; the fishes died, and no man could 
drink of the river. But the magicians 
imitated the miracle, and Pharaoh hard- 
ened his heart. Ex. 7 : 14-25. 

2. Then folio well the plague of the 
frogs ; but this too was imitated by the 
magicians, and Pharaoh hardened his 
heart still more. Ex. 8 : 1-15. 

3. With the third plague, however — 
that of lice — the magicians gave in, and 
acknowledged, " This is the finger of 
God." Ex. 8 : 16-19. 

4. The fourth plague sent swarms of 
flies out over the country, and the people 
were devoured by their venomous bite. 
Ps. 78 : 45. Pharaoh now relented and 
declared himself willing to yield, but on 
the removal of the plague he again hard- 
ened his heart. Ex. 8 : 20-32. 

5. A very grievous murrain attacked 
the horses, asses, camels, oxen, and sheep 
of Egypt, while those of the children of 
Israel were free. Ex. 9 : 1-7. 

6. Boils broke out upon man and beast, 
even upon the magicians themselves. 
Ex. 9 : 8-12. 

7. Then a frightful thunderstorm, with 
hail, passed over the land of Egypt, de- 
stroying the growing crops, breaking 
trees, overthrowing buildings every- 

693 



PLA 



PLO 



where, but sparing Goshen. Alarmed, 
Pharaoh promised to yield, but on the 
withdrawal of the plague he again hard- 
ened his heart. Ex. 9 : 13-35. 

8. Locusts followed, and ate up what 
the hail -storm had left ; but Pharaoh 
sent Moses and Aaron away from his 
presence, and heeded not the warning. 
Ex. 10 : 1-20. 

9. A thick darkness fell for three days 
upon the land. For three days no man 
was able to rise. But in Goshen there 
was light. Then Pharaoh was seized by 
despair, and he threatened Moses with 
death if he ever saw his face again. Ex. 
10 : 21-28. 

10. Finally, the first-born of the Egyp- 
tians were smitten at midnight; "and 
Pharaoh rose up in the night, he, and 
all his servants, and all the Egyptians ; 
and there was a great cry in Egypt, for 
there was not a house where there was 
not one dead." Ex. 12 : 29, 30. Pharaoh 
now yielded, and allowed the children 
of Israel to leave Egypt. 

These ten plagues were doubtless 
spread over a long time, and probably 
they followed, as much as possible, the 
order of the seasons ; for some of them 
were not only distinctively Egyptian, 
but really only an aggravation of yearly 
maladies. Canon Cook, in the Bible t 
Commentary, distributes them thus: The 
first was toward the end of June, when 
the Nile begins to overflow. The second 
came three months later, at the time of 
the greatest inundation, in September,and 
was an attack on a native worship. The 
third was early in October, and the fourth 
after the subsidence of the inundation. 
The fifth was in December or January; 
the sixth, shortly after; the seventh, at 
the time when hailstorms occur now in 
Egypt, from the middle of February to 
early March. The eighth was when the 
leaves are green, toward the middle of 
March. The ninth was peculiarly Egyp- 
tian, and was the immediate precursor of 
the tenth. During this time the Israel- 
ites had frequent opportunities to gather, 
and thus were prepared for their exodus. 

It is interesting to know that the so- 
called ten persecutions of the Christian 
Church are thus numbered in remem- 
brance of the ten plagues. The num- 
ber, in reality, is either greater or less — 
greater if all be counted, less if only the 
important persecutions be enumerated, 
694 



PLAIN. This word is often used 
alone, leaving the particular plain in- 
tended to be inferred from the connec- 
tion ; as, for instance, in Deut. 1:1; 
2:8; or in Gen. 13 : 12 ; 2 Kgs. 25 : 4, 
etc., where the plain of Jordan is obvi- 
ously intended. In other passages the 
name of the plain is added, such as 
Esdraelon, Sharon, etc., which see. 

PLAIT'ING, braiding the hair. 1 
Pet. 3 : 3. The business of dressing the 
hair is mentioned by Jewish writers as 
an art by itself, practised by women. 
The hair was folded up in curls, tied up 
in knots, and put into the form of horns 
and towers, made by their crisping-pins 
with their cauls and round tires, etc. 
Isa. 3 : 18-22. 

PLANETS. 2 Kgs. 23 : 5. See 
Stars. 

PLAS'TER was used by the ancient 
Hebrews as a wall-covering. Lev. 14 : 42, 
48 ; Dan. 5:5. It is also mentioned as 
forming a coat over the stones on which 
the Law was to be engrossed. Deut. 27 : 
2,4. 

PLAT'TED, woven together. Matt. 
27 : 29. 

PLEDGE, that which is given as 
security for the performance of a con- 
tract. The Jewish law contained many 
wise and benevolent provisions on this 
subject, Ex. 22 : 25, 26; Deut. 24 : 6, 
10, 12, 17, and anything like oppression 
in respect to pledges was severely rep- 
robated. Job 22 : 6; 24 : 3-7. The 
hand-mill could not be taken as a pledge, 
and the garment, if taken* should be 
rendered back before sunset. The cred- 
itor was not allowed to enter the'house 
of the debtor in order to take the pledge, 
but was compelled to wait before the 
door until it was brought to him. 

PLE'IADES, a cluster of stars, 
placed by modern astronomers in the 
neck or near the shoulder of the constel- 
lation Taurus. They appear about the 
middle of April, and hence are associated 
with the return of spring, the season of 
sweet influences. Job 9:9; 38 : 31 ; 
Am. 5 : 8. 

PLOUGH. There can be no doubt 
that the ancient Hebrew plough was 
substantially like that still used in Syria, 
so unchangeable are the customs of the 
East. It was very light and simple, 
perhaps merely a crotched stick, having 
a wooden share shod with one of those 



PLU 



POE 



triangular or heart-shaped points of iron 
which the inhabitants of the Palestine 
towns still do a great business in sharp- 
ening. 1 Sam. 13 : 20. A single upright 
held by one hand, Luke 9 : 62, while the 
goad was carried in the other, guided 
this primitive instrument, which turned 
the earth equally on both sides. The 
coulter .is not now used in Oriental 
ploughing, and probably never was, so 
that in the above passage of First Sam- 
uel some other implement must be in- 
tended. 




Eastern Plough. 

The slight scratching which consti- 
tutes Eastern ploughing never requires 
more than one pair of cattle, and often 
a single cow or ass or camel was doubt- 
less used, as now. In ignorance or dis- 
regard of Deut. 22 : 10 the modern 
Syrians often use the ox and ass un- 
equally yoked. Sometimes several teams 
work together and move in succession 
across the field, as did Elisha and his 
servants. 1 Kgs. 19 : 19. The writer 
has seen eleven yoke thus ploughing in 
the same Jordan valley. 

Land was probably, as now, often 
broken up before the rainy season, that 
it might be rendered absorbent. Steep 
places were tilled with mattocks. Isa. 
7 : 25. Fields were frequently ploughed 
twice. It seems to be, more than for- 
merly, the practice in Palestine to drop 
the seed in the furrow just before a 
plough which covers it. 

Ploughing is mentioned as early as the 
time of Job. It is also spoken of in Gen. 
45 : 6, for "earing" (akin to "arable") 
properly means "ploughing." 1 Sam. 8 : 
12. The prophecies of Isa. 2 : 4 and 
Joel 3:10 are not here to be overlooked. 

PLUMB'-LINE, Am. 7 : 7, 8, 
PLUM'MET, Isa. 28:17, a line 
by which a plummet or leaden weight 
hangs, and by the application of which the 
exact perpendicular may be ascertained. 



POCH'ERETH (snaring), one of 
Solomon's servants, whose children re- 
turned with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 57 ; 
Neh. 7 : 59. 

POETRY, HEBREW. The 
Jews were an imaginative people. "With 
them poetry and music, closely connected, 
accompanied domestic and social life in 
all its more prominent scenes, such as the 
wedding, the harvest, and other feasts. 
Am. 6:5; Ps. 4:7. Victory in battle was 
celebrated by song ; see, for instance, the 
song of Moses, Ex. 15, and the song 
of Deborah. Jud. 5. The death of a 
beloved person was deplored in songs ; 
see, for instance, the maidens' song over 
Jephthah's daughter, Jud. 11 : 40, and 
David's song at the death of Saul and 
Jonathan, 2 Sam. 1 : 18, and afterward 
at the death of Abner. 2 Sam. 3 : 33. 
It is therefore quite natural that so large 
a part of the 0. T. — more than one-third 
— consists of poetry, but these Poetical 
Books — Job, the Psalms, the Proverbs, 
Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Solomon, 
to which may be further added, besides 
numerous poetic fragments in the his- 
torical books, such as Gen. 4:23; Ex. 
32 : 18 ; Num. 21 : 17, the Lamentations 
of Jeremiah and the Prophets (with the 
exception of Daniel), as most of these 
writings, though not strictly poetry, 
oscillate between poetry and prose — 
were in the Jewish canon included 

j among the Hagiographa, or Holy Writ- 
ings. 

In Hebrew poetry two forms, the lyric- 
al and the didactic, predominate. To 
the didactic the poetic portions of the 
prophetic writings belong. There is no 
epic and no dramatic poetry, strictly so 
called, in the Bible. The book of Job and 
the Canticles are sometimes called He- 
brew dramas, and have undoubtedly a 
dramatic drapery, but the former is chief- 

j ly didactic, the latter lyrical. The Psalms 
are, without any qualification, the highest 
specimens of sacred poetry which man- 
kind possesses; and in spite of the very 
strong marks of nationality they bear, 
both in style and in imagery, they have 
become, nearly to the whole world, the 
most striking and most complete expres- 
sion of that which moves deepest in the 
human soul. They owe this pre-emi- 
nence to their spiritual character. The 
Hebrew poetry is now passionate and 
pathetic, as in the Psalms and the Proph- 
695 



POI 



POM 



ets ; now contemplative and didactic, as j 
in the Proverbs and Ecclesiastes. But in 
both cases the pervading spiritual cha- 
racter is religious. 

The relation between man and God, 
his Creator and his Judge — that is, his 
Father — is, directly or indirectly, the 
sole theme of all Hebrew lyrics, and 
in the treatment of this theme, its aw- 
fulness and its consolation, man has 
not failed to feel the inspiration from 
above. 

The power of Hebrew poetry to strike 
the imagination and move the heart — 
its poetical essence — has always been 
recognized ; but its poetical form was 
for a long time overlooked, and is hardly 
yet fully understood. Hebrew lyrics 
have a division into verses and strophes, 
and employ occasionally alliterations 
and rhymes, but they have no regular 
metrical system, the verses containing 
an unequal number of syllables and the 
strophes an unequal number of verses. 
They were destined to be sung, and 
consequently adapted simply to some 
melody. The principal element of their 
poetical form is therefore their rhythm, 
and, again, this rhythm depends much 
more on the ideas than on the words. Its 
principal feature is the so-called paral- 
lelism — a correspondence between two 
or more sentences of similar or opposite 
meaning by which the idea receives its 
full and harmonious expression. The 
correspondence may be one of harmony 
or of contrast or of progressive thought, 
and accordingly it is called synonymous 
or antithetic or synthetic parallelism. 
Synonymous parallelism expresses the 
same idea in different but equivalent 
words, as in the following examples : 

" What is man that thou art mindful of 

him? 
And the son of man that thou visitest 

him ?"— Ps. 8 : 4. 

" The heavens declare the glory of God : 
And the firmament showeth his handi- 
work."— Ps. 19 : 1, 2. 

Antithetic' parallelism expresses the 
idea through a contrast, as in the fol- 
lowing examples : 

" Evil-doers shall be cut off: 
But those that wait upon the Lord, they 
shall inherit the earth."— Ps. 37 : 9. 

" A soft answer turneth away wrath ; 
But grievous words stir up anger." 

Prov. 15 : 1. 
696 



Synthetic parallelism expresses the 
idea through a progress or gradation of 
thoughts, as in the following example : 
"The law of Jehovah is perfect, converting 

the soul. 
The testimony of Jehovah is sure, making 

wise the simple. 
The statutes of Jehovah are right, rejoicing 

the heart. 
The commandment of Jehovah is pure, en- 
lightening the eyes. 
The fear of Jehovah is clean, enduring for 

ever. 
The judgments of Jehovah are truth, they 

are righteous altogether. 
More to be desired are (hey than gold, yea, 

than much fine gold."— Ps. 19 : 7. 
POFSON. This word is in our 
translation the rendering of two different 
Hebrew words, of which the one, derived 
from a root signifying "heat," is applied 
to animal poisons, Deut. 32 : 24, 33; Ps. 
58 : 4: while the other, though its deri- 
vation is somewhat doubtful, seems to 
have been applied to vegetable poisons. 
The latter is sometimes translated with 
"gall" or "water of gall." Jer. 8 : 14; 

9 • 15. 

POLL, POLLED. When used as 
a noun, "poll" means a head, Num. 3 : 
47 ; and when used as a verb, it means 
to cut the hair from the head. 2 Sam. 
14 : 26. 

POL'LUX. See Castor. 

POLYGAMY. See Marriage. 

POMEG RAN'A T E (pronounce 
pum-gran'nate). This word designates 
a large bush (Punica granatum) of the 
myrtle family, and its fruit. Our English 
name comes from the Latin, which means 
" grained apple," referring to the beauti- 
ful pink pips or grains which fill the 
interior. The pomegranate has been 
cultivated from early times in Syria, 
Num. 13 : 23 ; Deut. 8 : 8, and the warmer 
regions of the East. It rarely exceeds 

10 feet in height, and has small lance- 
shaped, glossy leaves, of a reddish-green 
when young, but becoming pea-green 
and remaining alive through the winter. 
The flowers are of a brilliant scarlet or 
orange, and in August or September the 
fruit ripens. This is of the size of an 
orange, flattened at the ends like an 
apple, is of a beautiful brown-red color, 
Cant. 4:3; 6:7, has a hard rind, and is 
filled with pulp of a highly-grateful 
flavor. The abundant juice was made 
into wine, Cant. 8 : 2, and used for a 
cooling drink. Some cultivated trees 



POM 



PON 



bear sweet fruit and some sour, while the 
wild pomegranates yield only a small and 
worthless apple. 

Rimmon, the Hebrew word for this 
fruit, gave name, in whole or in part, to 
several places in Palestine, near which 
the pomegranate was doubtless abundant. 




The Pomegranate. 

The bush of this kind under which Saul 
tarried must have been of unusual size. 
1 Sam. 14 : 2. 

" The graceful shape of the pomegran- 
ate was selected as one of the ornaments 
on the skirt of the high priest's blue 
robe and ephod, alternating with the 
golden bells, Ex. 28 : 33, 34; 39 : 24-26, 
and hence was adopted as one of the 
favorite devices in the decoration of 
Solomon's temple, being carved on the 
capitals of the pillars. 1 Kgs. 7 : 18, etc. 
Whether the design was taken from the 
fruit or the flower, it would form a 
graceful ornament. We have frequently 
noticed the pomegranate sculptured on 
fragments of columns among the ruins 
of Oriental temples. 

" The Syrian deity Rimmon has been 
supposed by some to have been a per- 
sonification of the pomegranate, as the 
emblem of the fructifying principle of 
nature, the fruit being sacred to Venus, 
who was worshipped under this title. 
Hadad-rimmon is mentioned in Zech. 
12 : 11, Hadad being the Sun-god of the 
Syrians; and when combined with the 
symbol of the pomegranate, he stands 
for the Sun-god, who ripened the fruits, 
and then, dying with the departing 
summer, is mourned 'with the mourning 
of Hadad-rimmon.' " — Tristram. 

POM'MELS, convex projections on 
the capitals of pillars. 2 Chr. 4 : 12, 13. 



In 1 Kgs. 7 : 41 the same ornament is 
called " bowls." 

PONDS. The ponds of Egypt were 
sheets of water along the Nile, left by 
its inundations. Ex. 7 : 19; 8:5. 

PON'TUS (the sea), the north-east- 
ern province of Asia Minor, bordering on 
the Euxine Sea. Under the 
Romans the name comprised 
the whole district from the 
river Halys on the west, sep- 
arating it from Bithynia, to 
Colchis and Armenia on the 
east: it was separated on the 
south from Cappadocia by 
lofty mountain s. It was 
originally considered a part 
of Cappadocia, and called 
" Cappadocia on the Sea." 
Pontus rose into power un- 
der Mithridates, who was 
defeated by Pompey, b. c. 
66, after a long struggle, 
and was brought under the 
Roman yoke. The western portion of 
the empire of Mithridates was united 
partly with Bithynia and partly with 
Galatia, but for a long period the re- 
gion properly called Pontus remained 
under the government of independent 
chieftains. It was really made a prov- 
ince under Nero before Paul's death. 
Polemo II., who married Bernice, great- 
granddaughter of Herod the Great and 
sister of Herod Agrippa, Acts 25 : 13, 
was its last king. This marriage of a 
Jewess with the king must have had an 
influence upon the Jewish population of 
Pontus, of whom some representatives 
were in Jerusalem on the day of Pente- 
cost. Acts 2 : 9. Aquila, a Jew born 
in Pontus, Acts 18 : 2, was a very use- 
ful helper of Paul, and Peter addressed 
his First Epistle '' to the strangers 
scattered throughout Pontus." 1 Pet. 
1 : 1. It formed part of the later Greek 
empire; became the seat of a new Chris- 
tian empire founded by Alexius Com- 
nenus in the thirteenth century ; was 
conquered by the Turks in A. D. 1461, 
and remained under their dominion. 
It corresponds nearly with the modern 
province of Trebizond, which came into 
some prominence during the Russo- 
Turkish war in 1877-78. The coun- 
try contains valuable mineral deposits, 
extensive forests, and some fertile 
districts. 

697 



POO 



POT 



POOLS. See Bethesda, Silo am, 
Solomon's Pools, Jerusalem. 
POOLS OF SOLOMON. Eccl. 

2 : 6. See Solomon. 

POOLS OF WATER. Eccl. 2 : 
6. See Cisterns, Water. 

POOR. By ordaining that land 
could be sold only for a term of years, 
but should return to its original owner 
at the jubilee, Lev. 25 : 23-28, the Mo- 
saic Law found an effective check to 
pauperism. But also in other ways it 
took great care of the poor. All kinds 
of offering and sacrifice were accommo- 
dated to their condition. Lev. 5 : 7, 11 ; 
12 : 8. The gleanings of fields and vine- 
yards and the harvest of the seventh 
year and part of the third tithe belong- 
ed to them. Lev. 19 : 10 ; 25 : 25-41. 
Judges were charged to do them justice, 
but not unjustly to favor them for their 
poverty. Ex. 23 : 6 ; Lev. 19 : 15 ; Ps. 
82 : 4. God claimed to be the special 
protector of them. Prov. 14 : 31. 

In the N. T. the word "poor" is used 
figuratively to denote those who are 
humble of heart, Matt. 5:3; but also 
literally, as when Jesus said " The poor 
have the gospel preached to them," Matt. 
11 : 5, and touchingly declared, " Ye have 
the poor always with you; but me ye 
have not always." Matt. 26 : 11. 

POPLAR (white). The storax 
(see Stacte), being ordinarily only a 
bush, does not meet the conditions of 
Hos. 4 : 13. Four or more species of 
poplar are found in the Holy Land, and 
this fact, with the white appearance of 
some kinds — e. g., Populus alba — war- 
rants us in preferring the A. V. Gen. 
30 : 37. 

POR'ATHA (favored by fate), one 
of the ten sons of Ham an whom the Jews 
slew in Shushan. Esth. 9 : 8. 

PORCH. Jud. 3 : 23. See Dwell- 
ings. 

PORCH, SOLOMON'S. John 
10 : 23. See Temple. 

POR'CIUS FES'TUS. Acts 24 : 
27. See Festus. 

PORTERS, such as attend the 
gate of a city or house to open and shut 
it. 2 Sam. 18 : 26; 2 Kgs. 7 : 10. The 
temple had 4000 of them. 1 Chr. 23 : 5. 
They were classified, and had leaders or 
directors. 1 Chr. 26 : 1-19; 2 Chr. 8 : 
14. Besides keeping guard at the tem- 
ple, they had also charge of the freewill 
698 



offerings and of the treasure-chambers of 
their respective wards. 2 Chr. 31 : 14. 

POR'TION. Among the Egyp- 
tians, Greeks, and Hebrews of ancient 
times the portion of food intended for 
every guest was set before him separate- 
ly. When it was intended to confer spe- 
cial honor upon any one a portion much 
greater than common was given to him. 
Gen. 43 : 34. A " worthy portion," 1 Sam. 
1 : 5, means, literally, a " double portion." 

POSSESSED WITH A DEV- 
IL. See Devil. 

POST (the Hebrew word means 
a runner), a messenger or bearer of 
tidings, especially of royal despatches. 
Esth. 3 : 13, 15 ; 8 : 14; Jer. 51 : 31. 
That they were employed in very early 
times is proved by Job's comparison. 9 : 
25. To convey intelligence quickly, the 
Persian kings placed sentinels at proper 
distances, who, by crying to one another, 
gave notices of public occurrences. This 
method being impracticable for secret in- 
telligence, Cyrus established posts that 
rode night and day. Persians and Ko- 
mans impressed men and beasts into this 
public service, and to this fact our Lord 
alludes. Matt. 5 : 41. The regularity 
and swiftness of the Koman posts were 
admirable. 

POT. See Pottery. 

POTIPHAR [belonging to the sun), 
a distinguished officer in Pharaoh's court, 
who elevated- Joseph to a place of trust 
and committed to him the charge of the 
household. Gen. 37 : 36. 

POTI-PHE'RAH, a priest or 
prince of On, and father-in-law of Jo- 
seph. Gen. 41 : 45. The marriage of 
Joseph to Asenath and her conversion 
to faith in the one God form the sub- 
ject of an old romance which exists in 
a Latin, Greek, and Syriac version. It 
is chiefly made up of Jewish legends, 
but belongs, nevertheless, to the Chris- 
tian era. The title is The Life and 
Confession of Asenath, Daughter of Pen- 
tephres [Potipherah] of Heliopolis, a 
narrative [of what happened] when 
the beautiful Joseph took her to wife. 
The story is thus summarized (Schaff, 
Through Bible Lands, pp. 57, 58) : Ase- 
nath was a proud beauty, living in great 
splendor with seven attendants, and dis- 
daining all lovers except Pharaoh's old- 
est son, who loved her, but was forbid- 
den, by his father to marry her. When 



POT 



PK.E 



she saw Joseph from her window as he 
entered Heliopolis to collect corn in the 
first year of plenty, she was captivated 
by his beauty, ran down, hailed him as 
" My lord, blessed of the most high God," 
and at her father's bidding went forward 
to kiss him. Joseph refused to kiss an 
idolatrous woman, but, seeing her tears, 
he laid his hand upon her head and 
prayed God to convert her to the true 
faith, and then departed. She threw 
her idols out of the window, repented 
seven days, saw an angel of comfort, and 
was married to Joseph by Pharaoh with 
great pomp. 

POTTAGE. Gen. 25: 29. At this 
day, in many parts of the East, lentiles 
are boiled or stewed like beans with oil 
and garlic, and make a dish of a choco- 
late color, which is eaten as pottage. 
Other ingredients were used, as in 
soups of modern times. 2 Kgs. 4 : 39. 

POTTER'S FIELD, THE. 
Matt. 27 : 7. See Aceldama. 

POTTERY. The potters art was 
one of the first kinds of manufacture in 



:r=T3^ 




Egyptian Potter and Pottery. 
which man became proficient. The 
Israelites worked at the trade while 
in Egypt, Ps. 81 : 6 : they used earthen- 
ware during their passage through the 
wilderness ; and from the earliest time 
of their settlement in Canaan the trade 
was established among them. In Jeru- 
salem there was a royal establishment 



of potters, 1 Chr. 4 : 23, from which it 
has been conjectured that the potter's 
field received its name. 

The method employed by the Israelites 
and often hinted at by the prophets 
seems to have been exactly the same as 
that employed by the Egyptians, such 
as we find it minutely illustrated by 
Egyptian wall-paintings. The clay was 
trodden by the feet into a uniform paste, 
Isa, 41 : 25 ; Wisd. 15 : 7, and a sufficient 
mass was then placed by the potter on 
the wooden disc of the wheel. The 
wheel was turned by the hand or worked 
by a treadle, Isa, 45 : 9 : Jer. 18:3, but 
generally by an attendant, and not by 
the potter himself. When finished the 
vessel was coated with glaze and burnt 
in a furnace. Such vessels were used, 
however, not only for culinary purposes, 
but also as a means of preservation ; 
from Jer. 32 : 14 it appears that deeds 
were kept in them. 

POUND. See Measures. In 1 Kgs. 
10 : 17 ; Ezra 2 : 69 : Neh. 7 : 71, 72 it is the 
translation of the Hebrew maneh ; in the 
N. T. of mina, Luke 19 : 13, etc., and also 
of litra, John 12 : 3 : the first and last 
words refer to quantity .the second to value 
as money. See Appendix, pp. 938, 939. 

PR^ETO'RIUM. The headquar- 
ters of the Roman governors ; in Scrip- 
ture three such places are mentioned. 

1. At Jerusalem. Mark 15 : 16. The 
same Greek word is rendered " common 
hall" and, margin, "governor's house," 
Matt. 27 : 27 : "hall of judgment" and 
"judgment-hall." John 18 : 28, 33 ; 19 : 9. 
It occupied a vast rectangular space and 
contained barracks for the soldiers by 
whom Jerusalem was kept in subjection. 
This prsetorium communicated with the 
temple, which was situated on the east- 
ern hill, by a causeway crossing the Tyro- 
pceon valley. It was in this prsetorium 
that Jesus was tried before Pilate. Some, 
however, would identify the prastoriurn 
with the fortress Antonia, at the north- 
west corner of the temple-area. See 
Lange on Matt. 27 : 27. 

2. At Caesarea, Acts 23 : 35 ; translated 
" Herod's judgment-hall." This was the 
gorgeous palace in which Herod the Great 
resided during his latter days. It prob- 
ably stood on the commanding eminence 
near the middle of the city. There Paul 
was kept a prisoner for tvvo years. 

3. At Rome, Phil. 1 : 13 ; translated 



PEA 



PEA 



" palace," and in the margin " Caesar's 
court." This has been interpreted — (1) 
As in the A. V., " the palace " — i. e. the 
palace of the Caesars, on the Mount 
Palatine, which was garrisoned by a 
body-guard of soldiers called Praetorians. 
(2) As the general camp of the Praeto- 
rian guard, situated just without the 
city walls, before reaching the fourth 
milestone. It was established by the 
emperor Tiberius. 

PRAISE. In the ordinary Scripture 
use of the term, it denotes an act of 
worship, and is often used synonymously 
with thanksgiving. It is called forth by 
the contemplation of the character and 
attributes of God, however they are dis- 
played; and it implies a grateful sense and 
acknowledgment of past mercies. Ex- 
pressions of praise abound in the Psalms 
of David, in almost every variety of force 
and beauty. Ps. 33 : 1 ; 138 : 1 ; 106 : 2. 

PRAY, PRAYER, the most es- 
sential act of pi'ivate devotion and pub- 
lic worship in all ages and nations. It is 
rooted and grounded in man's moral 
and religious constitution, enjoined by 
God, and commended by the highest 
examples. It is speaking to God and 
offering to him our petitions for mercies 
needed, and our thanks for mercies ob- 
tained. It embraces invocation, sup- 
plication, intercession, and thanks. 1 
Tim. 2:1. It may be either mental or 
vocal, private or public, in the closet or 
in the family or in the house of God. 
We are commanded to pray for others 
as well as for ourselves, Jas. 5 : 16; for 
kings and all that are in authority, 1 
Tim. 2:2; for kindred, friends, and 
even for our enemies, persecutors, and 
slanderers. Matt. 5 : 44. God is the 
only object of prayer and worship. 
Matt. 4:10; Deut. 6 : 13 ; 10 : 20. We 
may pray for all things needful to our 
body and soul, for our daily bread as 
well as for all spiritual mercies. Prayer 
should be offered to God the Father, in 
the name of the Son, through the Holy 
Spirit. But inasmuch as Christ and the 
Holy Spirit are strictly divine in essence 
and character, they may also be directly 
addressed in prayer. Comp. Acts 7 : 59, 
60 ; 1 Cor. 1:2; Phil. 2 : 9. To pray 
in the name of Christ means to pray 
in harmony with his Spirit, trusting in 
his all-prevailing mediation, with hu- 
mility and resignation to the holy will 
700 



of God. Such prayers will always be 
heard in God's own best way and time 
(which, however, often differs from our 
own short-sighted views), and will always 
have a wholesome effect upon the soul of 
him who pravs. Comp. Matt. 6:6; 7 : 
7-12 ; 21 : 22 ; John 16 : 23, 24, 26 ; 
Jas. 5 : 15. The Holy Spirit enables 
us to pray aright. Rom. 8 : 26. 

All the great saints of God were fervent 
and mighty in prayer — Abraham, Gen 
20 : 17; Jacob, Gen. 32:26-31; Moses 
Num. 11:2; Deut. 9:19, 20; Joshua 
Josh. 10:12; Samuel, 1 Sam. 12 : 18 
David (all his Psalms); Elijah, 1 Kgs 
17 : 1 ; 18 : 42, 45 ; Jas. 5 : 17, 18 : Elisha 
2 Kgs. 4 : 33, 34 ; Hezekiah, 2 Kgs. 19 
15-20; 20 : 2-6; Daniel, Dan. 6 : 10 
Hannah, 1 Sam. 1 : 12; Anna, Luke 2 
37; the apostles. Acts 1 : 14, 24; 2 : 42 
4:31; 6:4; 8 : 15 ; 12 : 8, 12; 16:25 
26 ; 20 : 36 ; 21 : 5 ; Rom. 1:9; 12 : 12 ; 
1 Thess. 5 : 17. Our Saviour himself 
often withdrew into a solitary place to 
pray, Mark 1:35; Luke 5 : 16 : Matt. 
14 : 23 ; 26 : 39, and taught his disciples 
how to pray. Matt. 6 : 9-13 ; Luke 11 : 2-4. 

The posture of the body in prayer is 
immaterial. Prayer may be offered on 
the knees or standing or prostrate, with 
eyes closed or lifted up to heaven, with 
hands folded, clasped, or stretched out. 
The main-thing is the reverential frame 
of mind, which will naturally express 
itself in one form or other, according to 
the state of feeling and the customs of 
the age and country. The length of 
prayer is likewise unessential. God 
looks to the heart. Better few words 
and much devotion than many words 
and little devotion. See Matt. 6 : 7. 
The prayer of the publican in the 
temple, Luke 18 : 13, and the petition 
of the penitent thief, Luke 23 : 42, were 
very short and very effective. 

The objections to prayer proceed from 
atheistic and fatalistic theories. Prayer 
implies the existence of God and the 
responsibility of man, and has no mean- 
ing for those who deny either. It is 
more natural that God, who is infinitely 
merciful, should answer the prayer of 
his children than that earthly parents 
should grant the requests of their chil- 
dren. See Matt. 7 : 11. Yet our prayers 
were foreseen by him, like all other 
free acts, and included in his eternal 
plan. " In spite of all objections, men 



PEA 



PEA 



pray on as by universal instinct. The 
reply to the objections is that we pray 
to a living, loving Person, near at hand, 




Egyptian. 
Postures in Prayer. 

knowing our thoughts, able to control all 
things — One who has declared himself a 
hearer of prayer, and who has made it a 
condition on which it seems good to him 
to put forth his power. The essence of 
belief in prayer is that the divine mind is 
accessible to supplication, and that the 
divine will is capable of being moved. 
Prayer depends on God's will, but does 
not determine it. Man applies, God com- 
plies ; man asks, God grants. 

" Prayer has a subjective value. It is 
necessary to individual piety, produces 
solemnity, enlightens and quickens the 
conscience, teaches dependence, gives 



true views of God, and produces such 
a change in us as renders it consistent 
for him to change his course toward us. 
In the family, prayer intensifies and ex- 
acts devotion, secures domestic order, 
strengthens parental government, and 
promotes religion. And objectively the 
Bible and Christian history abound in 
examples of answered prayer. 

" The main arguments for forms of 
prayer are that they have been of almost 
universal use ; that they guide the wor- 
shippers without forcing them to depend 
on the moods of the leader ; where they 
are used, all know what is to be said 
and done ; they secure provision for 
unlearned ministers ; secure dignity, de- 
cency, harmony, and guard against exces- 
sive show, arbitrary freedom, improper, 
absurd, extravagant, confused, and im- 
pious utterance, and against weariness 
and inattention ; they unite the hearts 
and tongues of all worshippers, so that 
they do not worship by proxy ; they 
unite different ages of the Church and 
preserve true doctrine and discipline. 

"Extemporaneous (though not rash 
and unstudied) prayer is claimed to be 
more particular than general forms can 
be. It secures freedom, fervor, spon- 
taneity, and adaptation to the circum- 
stances; it is less formal and monoto- 
nous ; suits itself to changes in language 
and opinions." 

PRAYER, HOURS OF. Prayer 
is no more confined to a particular hour 
than to a particular place. Comp. John 
4 : 24. We may pray anywhere and at 
all times, and should pray without ceas- 
ing. 1 Thess. 5 : 17. Kevertheless, it is 
good to observe special hours of prayer. 
The Jews prayed at 9 a. m., 12 m., and 3 
p. m. To these were added the beginning 
and end of nisht and the time of meals. 
Ps. 55 : 17 ; Dan. 6:10; Luke 18 : 1 ; 
Acts 3:1; 10 : 3, 9, 30. 

PRAYERS OF CHRIST. There 
are several prayers of Jesus recorded in 
the N. T. : the model prayer for his 
disciples, Matt. 6 : 9, 13 ; Luke 11 : 2-4 ; 
brief thanksgivings, Matt. 11 : 25, 26 ; 
John 6:11; 11 : 41, 42 ; the petition in 
Gethsemane. Matt. 26 : 39 ; comp. the 
similar petition, John 17 : 1, 2 ; and the 
exclamations on the cross, " Father, for- 
give them," " Eli, Eli," " Father, into thy 
hands." The Lord's Prayer, so called, 
is intended for his disciples, who need 
701 



PEE 



pm 



often to pray for the forgiveness of their 
sins. See Lord's Prayer. 

The most important prayer of our 
Lord is the one recorded by John. Ch. 
17. It is called the sacerdotal or high- 
priestly prayer because in it he inter- 
cedes for his people and enters upon his 
function as the High Priest in offering 
his own spotless life as a perfect sacri- 
fice for the sins of the whole world. It 
is divided into three parts : first, he 
prays for himself, for his glorification, 
vs. 1-5 ; then for the preservation of his 
disciples, vs. 6-19 ; finally, for all be- 
lievers of future times, for their unity 
and perfection in the kingdom of glory. 
The connecting idea of the three parts 
is the redeeming work of God as ac- 
complished by Christ, cai-ried on by the 
apostles, and to be completed in the 
kingdom -of glory. " This sacerdotal 
prayer, spoken in the stillness of the 
night under the starry heavens, before 
the wondering disciples, in view of the 
approaching consummation of his work, 
for himself, his apostles, and his Church 
to the end of time, is peculiai*ly his own, 
the inspiration of his grand mission, 
and could be uttered only by Christ, 
and even by Christ only once in the 
world's history, as the atonement could 
occur but once; but its effect vibrates 
through all ages. It is not so much the 
petition of an infei-ior or dependent sup- 
pliant as the communion of an equal 
and a solemn declaration of his will 
concerning those whom he came to 
save. While praying to the Father, he 
teaches the apostles. He prays as the 
mighty Intercessor and Mediator, stand- 
ing between earth and heaven, looking 
backward and forward, and comprehend- 
ing all his present and future disciples 
in one holy and perfect fellowship with 
himself and the eternal Father. The 
words are as clear and calm as a mirror, 
but the sentiments are as deep and glow- 
ing as God's fathomless love to men, and 
all efforts to exhaust them are in vain." 
—Schaff. 

PREACHING. The word is not 
used in the Bible in its present technical 
sense, but means proclamation by pub- 
lic authority, as a herald or crier. But 
ere the Bible closed the institution of 
preaching sprang up, and hence in the 
Epistles the Greek word approximates 
to our meaning. In the ancient Hebrew 
702 



state there was no preaching, but after 
the Exile some instruction in the Law 
was given to the people, Neh. 8, and our 
Lord improved the opportunities afford- 
ed him by the synagogue discourses to 
set forth the kingdom. See Synagogue. 
Since the full establishment of the Chris- 
tian Church preaching has been regarded 
as a sacred profession, and has, for the 
most part, been confined to an appointed 
and speciallv trained order of men. 

PREPARATION, or PREP- 
ARA'TION-DAY, is the term for 
Friday, because on that day preparation 
was made and meals cooked for the Sab- 
bath. It might be rendered "fore-Sab- 
bath " (comp. the Greek in Mark 15 : 42) 
or " Sabbath - eve " (comp. the German 
Sonnabend for "Saturday"). Matt. 27: 
62; Mark 15 : 42 ; Luke 23 : 54; John 
19 : 14, 31, 42. 

The "preparation of the Passover," in 
John 19 : 14, means the Paschal Friday, 
or the Friday occurring during the week 
of the Passover (as in vers. 31 and 42). 
On that Friday (the 15th of Nisan) 
Christ was crucified. 

PRESENTS played in old time 
and in Eastern countries a much larger 
part in social life than now, though in 
many Eastern countries at this day even 
the common people, in their familiar 
visits, take a flower or an orange, or 
some other token of respect, to the per- 
son visited. Gen. 32 : 13. See Gift. 
PRESSES, Isa. 16:10, or PRESS'- 
FATS, Hag. 2 : 16, were vessels or cis- 
terns placed in the side of a hill, into 
which the juice of grapes flowed when 
it was pressed out by treading them with 
the feet or by pressing them with a ma- 
chine. Prov. 3:10; Matt. 21 : 33. Such 
are now used in Persia. The upper ves- 
sel, being 8 feet square and 4 deep, 
is used to press out the juice, which 
runs into another cistern below. For 
an illustration of the process, see Wine. 

PREVENT', in the A. V., never 
means, as at present, " to hinder," but 
"to go before," " to anticipate." 1 Thess. 
4: 15. 

PRICKS, or GOADS, long, sharp- 
pointed sticks, which were used to drive 
cattle, etc., by pricking them. The ex- 
pression in Acts 9 : 5 is a proverb, and 
originated in this — that restive oxen of- 
ten push themselves or kick back against 
the goads, and thus wound themselves 



PEI 



PHI 



the more deeply. Hence the proverb is 
used to denote the folly and madness of 
resisting lawful authority. A great num- 
ber of heathen writers use the proverb 
familiarly, and always to signify the ab- 
surdity of such rebellion. 

PRIEST (contracted from presbyter, 
"elder") is the general name for minis- 
ters of religion in all ages and countries. 
In the sacred Scriptures it denotes one 
who offers sacrifice. Previous to the 
Mosaic dispensation the offering of sac- 
rifices pertained to private individuals. 
Fathers were the priests of their own 
families, though perhaps a more general 
priestly office existed, such as that exer- 
cised by Melchizedek. The patriarchs, 
Noah, Abraham, etc, themselves offic- 
iated as priests of their households, 
Gen. 8 : 20 ; 12 : 8, and it seems that 
the priestly dignity descended in the 
family by birthright to the first-born. As, 
at the first institution of the Passover, 
the head of each family was ordered 
to kill the paschal- lamb it is probable 
that the household priesthood still pre- 
vailed at that time. But when the dis- 
pensation by Moses was given, a partic- 
ular order of men was appointed to that 
special service, Ex. 28, with very solemn 
and imposing ceremonies ; and from that 
time the offering of sacrifices was chief- 
ly restricted to those who were duly in- 
vested with the priestly office. 2 Chr. 26 : 
18. 

All the male descendants of Aaron 
were priests by birthright, and the first- 
born, in regular succession, inducted into 
the office of high priest. Certain blem- 
ishes, however, specified in Lev. 21 : 16- 
24, disqualified a man, not for the order, 
but for performing the functions of the 
office ; and after having been consecra- 
ted and entering on the duties of his of- 
fice, his life lay under a stricter rule than 
that of the Levite or the layman. As 
the priesthood was confined to the fam- 
ily of Aaron, the number of priests was 
at first very small, Josh. 3:6; 6:4, but 
in the time of David it had greatly in- 
creased ,• 3700 priests joined him at He- 
bron. 1 Chr. 12 : 27. He divided them 
into twenty-four courses — sixteen of the 
family of Eleazar, and eight of the fam- 
ily of Ithamar ; and, as these courses 
officiated in regular succession, chang- 
ing every Sabbath. 2 Chr. 23 : 8, each 
course would be in attendance at the 



sanctuary at least twice a year. During 
the period of the Captivity this division 
into courses seems to have fallen into 
some confusion. Among the 4289 priests 
who accompanied Zerubbabel, only four 
courses were represented, Ezr. 2 : 36-39 : 
Neh. 7 : 39-42, and courses are afterward 
mentioned which cannot be identified 
with any of the original ones. 




The chief duty of the priests was to 
prepare and offer the daily, weekly, and 
monthly sacrifices, and such as were 
brought by individuals at the great an- 
nual festivals or at especial occasions. 
But generally they conducted the public 
service, officiated at purifications, took 
care of the holy vessels, of the sacred 
fire and the golden lamp, of all the fur- 
niture of the sanctuary. In war they 
sounded the holy trumpets and carried 
the ark of the covenant. In peace they 
703 



PRI 



PRI 



Courses of Priests. (From Ayre's Treasury of Bible Knowledge.) 



In David's reign. 1 


In List in Ezr. 2; 


In Nehemiah's time. 


In Zerubbabel's time. 


1 Chr. 24. 


Neh. 7. 


Neh. 10. 


Neh. 12. 


1. Jehoiarib. 1 Chr. 






Joiarib. 


9: 10; Neh. 11:10. 








2. Jedaiah 


Children of Jedaiah. 




Jedaiah. 


3. Harim. 


Children of Harim. 


Harim. 


Rehum (Harim, 15). 


4. Seoriin. 








5. Malchijah. 


Children of Pashur. 
1 Chr. 9 : 12. 


Malchijah. 


... 


6. Mijamin. 




Mijamin. 


Miamin (Miniamin, 

17). 
Meremoth. 


7. Hakkoz. 




Meremoth, son of 






Hakkoz. Neh. 3:4. 




8. Abijah. 




Abijah. 


Abijah. 


9. Jeshuah. 


House of Jeshua (?). 
Ezr. 2 : 36 ; Neh. 7 : 
39. 






10. Shecaniah. 




Shebaniah. 


Shechaniah (Shebani- 
ah, 14). 


11. Eliashib. 








12. Jakini. 








13. Huppah. 








14. Jeshebeab. 








15. Bilgah. 




Bilgai. 


Bilgah. 


16. Imraer. 


Children of Immer. 


Amariah. 


Amariah. 


17. Hezir. 








18. Aphses. 








19. Pethabiab. 








20. Jehezekel. 








21. Jachin. Neh. 11 : 








10; 1 Chr. 9:10. 








22. Gamul. 








23. Delaiah. 








24. Maaziah. 




Maaziah. 


Maadiah (Moadiah, 

17). 



Post-Exiliajt Courses, which cannot be identified with original ones. 




Neh. 10. 


Neh. 12. 


Neh. 11; 1 
Chr. 9. 


Neh. 10. 


Neh. 12. 


Neh. 11 ; 
Chr. 9. 


1 


Seraiah. 


Seraiah. 


Seraiah (?). 


Ginnethon. 


Ginnetho. 






Azariah. 


Ezra. 


Azariah. 


Baruch. 








Jeremiah. 


Jeremiah. 




Meshullam. 








Pashur. 






Shemaiah. 


Shemaiah. 






Hattush. 


Hattush. 






Sallu. 






Mallueh. 


Mallueh. 






Amok. 






Obadiah. 


Iddo. 


Adaiah (?). 




Hilkiah. 






Daniel. 








Jedaiah (2). 




1 



ministered as judges at the trial of jeal- 
ousy, at the estimation of the redemp- 
tion-money for a vow, etc. They kept 
a kind of superintendence over the lep- 
ers, and, finally, they expounded the 
Law to the people. It appears, how- 
ever, from 2 Chr. 17 : 7-10 ; 19 : 8-10 ; 
Eze. 44 : 24, etc. that the priests often 
704 



neglected the judicial and teaching 
functions of their office. 

The consecration of a priest took 
place with great solemnity. The cere- 
monies, which were minutely prescribed 
by Moses, Ex. 29 : 1-37 ; Lev. 8, 9, last- 
ed for seven days, and consisted in sac- 
rifices, washings, the putting on of the 



PRI 



PRO 



holy garments, the sprinkling of blood 
and anointing with oil. The garments 
of the priest consisted of a white linen 
tunic, reaching from the neck to the 
ankles, with tight sleeves, and held to- 
gether around the waist with a linen 
girdle embroidered with blue, purple, 
and scarlet. On the head he wore a 
kind of tiara, formed by the foldings 
of a linen cloth, and of a round, turban- 
like shape. His feet were probably naked. 
After entering on the duties of his office 
he was not allowed to mourn or defile 
himself at the death of any, with the 
exception of his nearest relatives, or to 
practice those cuttings and shavings 
which were common among the people, 
or to marry a divorced woman, etc. ; as 
his office was to approach the Lord on 
behalf of the people, his duty was to 
remain pure within and clean without. 
For the maintenance of the priests 
thirteen cities with pasture-grounds, sit- 
uated in the tribes of Judah, Simeon, and 
Benjamin, were set aside when the peo- 
ple settled in Canaan. Josh. 21 : 13-19. 
To these were added one-tenth of the 
tithes paid to the Levites, Num. 18 : 26- 
28 ; a special tithe every third year, Deut. 
14 : 28: 26 : 12; the redemption-money 
paid for the first-born of man and beast, 
Num. 18 : 14-19, and for men or things 
specially dedicated to the Lord, Lev. 27 : 
the first-fruits of corn, wine, and oil; Ex. 
23 : 19 ; Lev. 2 : 14; Deut. 26 : 1-10 ; a 
part of the spoil taken in war. Num. 31 : 
25-47 ; and finally, when they were of- 
ficiating, the shew-bread and the flesh 
of the burnt-offerings, peace-offerings, 
and ti-espass-offerings. Num. 18: 8-14: 
Lev. 6 : 26-29 ; 7 : 6-10. These provis- 
ions, large though they seem to be, were 
nevertheless by no means sufficient to 
maintain the priestly order with that 
independence and dignity which was 
not cnly becoming, but necessary. On 
the contrary, under the kings many 
priests fell into abject poverty. 1 Sam. 
2 : 36. 

PRINCE. Besides in its ordinary 
sense, the word is used in the A. V. of 
(1) Local governors or magistrates, 1 
Kgs. 20 : 14; (2) Satraps, Dan. 6:1; 
(3) Guardian angels. Dan. 6 : 1. 
_ PRINCIPALITY, in the expres- 
sion " principalities and powers," Eph. 
1:21; 3:6; Col. 1 : 16; 2 : 10, etc., 
denotes an order of angels. 
45 



PRINTED, in Job 19 : 23, should 
be rendered " inscribed." 

PRIS'CA {ancient), 2 Tim. 4 : 19, or 
PRISCII/LA, Acts 18 : 2, 18, 26; 

Rom. 16 : 3 : 1 Cor. 16 : 19, was the 
wife of Aquila, and partook with him 
not only in the exercise of hospitality 
in their house, but also in his labors for 
the Christian Church. 

PRIS'ON. As, according to the 
Mosaic Law, trial followed immediately 
after apprehension, and imprisonment 
was not used as a punishment, we hear 
very little of prisons among the Hebrews 
until the times of the kings. During 




- An Ancient Inner Prison. 

the passage through the wilderness two 
persons were put "in ward," Lev. 24 : 
12; Num. 15 : 34, and from Gen. 37 : 24 
and Jer. 38 : 6-11 it appears that the 
dry well or pit was used as a place of 
confinement or detention. Under the 
kings the prison formed a part of the 
palace, 1 Kgs. 22 : 26 ; 2 Chr. 16 : 10 ; 
Jer. 32 : 2, and the same was the case 
under the Herods. Luke 3 : 20 ; Acts 12 : 
4. The Romans used the tower of An- 
tonia, in Jerusalem, and the praetorium, 
in Csesarea, as prisons. Acts 23 : 10, 35. 
Also the sacerdotal authorities had a 
prison in Jerusalem. Acts 5 : 18-23 : 8 : 
3; 26 : 10. 

PROCH'ORUS (leader of the cho- 
rus), one of the seven deacons. Acts 
6:5. 

PROCONSUL, and PROC- 
URATOR. See Deputy and Gov- 
ernor. 

PROM'ISE, in opposition to 
" threatening," signifies generally ar 
705 



PRO 



PRO 



assurance of the bestowal of some good 
or the removal of some evil, but refers 
more especially to the spiritual gifts of 
(.rod — the Messiah, the Holy Spirit, and 
the Christian Church. Thus those who 
have received these gifts are called 
"children of the promise." Rom. 9 : 8. 

PROPER, in Heb. 11 : 23, "a 
proper child," means " handsome." 

PROPHET (from a Greek word 
signifying speaker, utter er). The term 
is used in a wider sense, signifying 
simply " interpreter," in close corre- 
spondence with its etymology, and thus 
it is applied to every one who has re- 
ceived a communication from God which 
he utters or interprets. Abraham is 
called a prophet, Gen. 20 : 7, in this 
sense of the word, and in the same man- 
ner Aaron is called the prophet of Moses. 
Ex. 7:1. As a communication from 
God is most likely, however, to refer to 
the future it becomes naturally a pre- 
diction in the mouth of the interpreter, 
and this element of prediction, added to 
that of interpretation, gives a more 
special sense to the term, "prophet" 
signifying a man who is authorized by 
God to reveal something with respect to 
the future. 

The prophets of the 0. T., at once 
interpreters and predicters, formed a 
special institution in the Hebrew the- 
ocracy, an independent link of the great 
providential scheme which made the. 
children of Israel, the chosen people 
among whom the Messiah was to be 
born, a transition between the old and 
the new dispensations. Resting on 
Moses, they pointed toward Christ; 
preaching the Law, they promised the 
Gospel. Scattered prophecies occur even 
before Moses, but it was not until the 
time of Samuel that the prophets became 
a regular order in the Hebrew theocracy, 
like the priests, and afterward the kings. 
During the period of the Judges the 
priesthood seems to have become some- 
what degenerate, and its influence on 
the people was lowered. Under these 
circumstances, Samuel undertook to cre- 
ate or develop a new moral power in the 
nation by the organization of the pro- 
phetical institution, and so successful 
was he in this undertaking that in Holy 
Scripture he is ranked beside Moses as 
one of the pillars of the people. Jer. 15 : 
I; Ps. 97 : 6; Acts 3 : 24. Schools or 
706 



colleges — in fact, the first theological 
seminaries — were established first at 
Ramah, 1 Sam. 19 : 19; afterward at 
Bethel, 2 Kgs. 2 : 3, Jericho, 2 Kgs. 
2 : 5, Gilgal, 2 Kgs. 4 : 38, and in other 
places. 2 Kgs. 6 : 1. Under the leader- 
ship of some elderly prophet, who was 
called their "father" or "master," 1 
Sam. 10 : 12; 2 Kgs. 2 : 3, promising 
young men were gathered into these 
schools and instructed in the interpre- 
tation of the Law, in music, and in 
poetry. The connection between proph- 
ecy and poetry and music was old, Ex. 
15 : 20 : Jud. 4:4; 5:1, and continued 
to the last. 1 Sam. 10 : 5 ; 2 Kgs. 3:15; 

1 Chr. 25 : 6. Having gone through 
the school and completed his instruc- 
tion, the prophet entered on his office 
as an instructor of the people, leading 
all the while a stern and austere life. 

2 Kgs. 4 : 9, 38 ; 1 Kgs. 19 : 8 ; Matt. 

3 : 4. 

Although the prophets formed a regu- 
lar order like that of the kings or the 
priests, there was, nevertheless, no un- 
interrupted succession of prophets. They 
arose only when specially called by God. 
What they learnt in these schools was 
only a preparation to make them fitter 
instruments in the hands of God; the 
principal constituent of their office was 
the divine authorization, given them in 
the form of inspiration. But this the 
prophetic gift was quite independent 
of the prophetic education ; Amos was 
not educated as a prophet when the 
divine word came to him. Am. 7 : 14. 
The question of the psychological 
connection between the divine inspi- 
ration and the mind of the prophet in 
its natural state has been much debated, 
but is in reality inapproachable, because 
one part of the combination — the divine 
inspiration — cannot be made the subject 
of research. From the prophetic writ- 
ings, however, the manner in which the 
divine inspiration took hold of the hu- 
man mind and used it as its instrument 
is very apparent. Sometimes it is 
through dreams, Dan. 2 ; sometimes 
through visions, Isa. 6; Eze. 1; some- 
times through direct communication. 
1 Kgs. 13 : 20-22 ; 1 Sam. 3. Of these 
various methods, that of the vision is 
the most common, and, indeed, the writ- 
ings of the prophets have the general 
character of visions, as if a curtain had 



PEG 



PRO 



been removed from before the eyes of 
the prophet, and he had been allowed to 
see and scan the plans of God in all his 
dealings with his creatures. Thus en- 
dowed, the prophet was in truth within 
the pale of revealed religion what the 
oracle attempted to be within the pale 
of natural religion. But while the 
oracle, resulting from the natural ex- 
altation of the human mind, never 
reached beyond an obscure and uncertain 
conjecture, the prophet, inspired by God, 
told the certain truths. The prophets 
saw the future rather in space than in 
time, and as a picture of events very 
close together, though they may have 
been very far apart. They described the 
future as a common observer would de- 
scribe the stars, grouping them as they 
appear to his eye. Thus Isaiah, chs. 10 
and 11, connects the deliverance of the 
Jews from the yoke of the Assyrians 
with the deliverance by the Messiah ; 
Zechariah (ch. 9) connects the triumphs 
of Alexander with the coming of the 
Messiah,, although the events were three 
hundred years apart; Joel, ch. 2:28, 
connects the effusion of the Spirit on the 
day of Pentecost and the* last day ; and 



so does Peter. Acts 2. Our Lord's great 
eschatological discourse, Matt. 24 and 25, 
is a familiar instance of the same fact. 

Sent by Jehovah to reveal and enforce 
his will, to reform or revise the theocratic 
constitution, and to prepare the way for 
Christ, 2 Kgs. 17 : 13 j Jer. 25 : 4, the 
prophet stood as a mighty power among 
the people, guiding and rebuking them 
and their rulers. He was the true leader 
of the people, not only in religious, but 
also in political and social, movements. 
He kept the theocracy alive, saved it from 
stagnation and degeneracy, and led it to- 
ward its final completion in Christ. 

Besides the prophetical utterances 
scattered through the historical and 
poetical books, sixteen of the Hebrew 
prophets have left us writings which 
now form parts of the canon. Two of 
the greatest prophets, Elijah and Elisha, 
have left no special books, but their acts 
are recorded in the Kings. In all, the 
Jews reckoned forty-eight prophets and 
five prophetesses. The canonical proph- 
ets cover a period of over four hundred 
years, from about B. c. 850 to 420, and 
fall, according to their chronological 
order, into three groups, as follows : 



I. PROPHETS BEFORE THE BABYLONISH CAPTIVITY. 



Prophet. 

Jonah. 
Joel. 
Amos. 
Hosea. 
Isaiah. 
Micah. 
|Nahum. 
Zephaniah. 

Jeremiah. 

Habbakuk. 


Probable Dates. 


Kings of Judah. 


Kings of Israel. 


Bet. 856 and 784. 
About 850. 
Bet. 810 and 785. 
Bet. 790 and 725. 
Bet. 763 and 697. 
Bet. 758 and 697. 
Bet. 720 and 698. 
Bet. 620 and 609. 

Bet. 628 and 588. 

Bet. 612 and 598. 


Uzziah. 
Uzziah. 

Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, Hezekiah. 
Jotham, Ahaz, Hezekiah. 
Latter part of Hezekiah. 
Beginning of Josiah"s reign. 

JJosiah, Jehoiakin, Jeconiah, and 

I Zedekiah. 
Jehoiakin. 


Jeroboam II. 

Jeroboam II. 
Jeroboam II. 


II. I 


>ROPHETS DURING THE BABYLONISH CAPT 


IVITY. 


Prophet. 

Daniel. 

Obadiah.* 

Ezekiel. 


Probable Dates. 


Kings of Judah. 


Kings of Israel. 


Bet. 606 and 534. 
Bet. 588 and 583. 
Bet. 595 and 573, 


Taken captive in 4th year of Jehoiakin. 


III. PR( 


)PHETS AFTER THE RETURN FROM THE CI 


^PTIVITY. 


Prophet. 


Probable Dates. 


Kings of Judah. 


Kings of Israel. 


Haggai. 

Zechariah. 

Malachi. 


Bet. 520 and 518. 
Bet. 520 and 518. 
Bet. 436 and 420. 


Nehcmiah, governor. 





* Other writers make Obadiah the earliest among the prophets, 



707 



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PROPHETESS signifies not only 
the wife of a prophet. Isa. 8 : 3, but also 
a woman that has the gift of prophecy. 
Ex. 15 : 20. Among these were Miriam, 
the sister of Aaron and Moses, Ex. 15 : 
20; Deborah, who sang with Barak, 
Jud. 5:1; Hannah, the mother of 
Samuel, 1 Sam. 2:1; Anna, who was in 
the temple, Luke 2 : 36 ; the four daugh- 
ters of Philip the Evangelist. Acts 21 : 9. 

PROPI TIA'TION denotes the 
action of a person who in some appointed 
way averts the wrath aroused by some 
offence, and brings about a reconcilia- 
tion. Thus, Christ is the "propitiation 
for our sins." Rom. 3:25; 1 John 2:2; 
4:10. The same Greek word is used by 
the Septuagint to denote " sin-offering," 
Eze. 44 : 27 and 45 : 19; " atonement," 
Num. 5:8; the "mercy-seat," Heb. 9 : 
5 ; and the covering of the ark of the 
covenant. Lev. 16:14. 

PROSELYTE, Matt. 23 : 15, a 
name given by the Jews to such as were 
converted from heathenism to the Jewish 
faith. According to the Mosaic Law, 
foreigners who resided in Palestine were 
entitled to kind treatment, Deut. 10 : 18, 
19, and the protection of the cities of 
refuge, Num. 35 : 15, on the condition 
that they kept the Sabbath, Ex. 20 : 10, 
and abstained from blasphemy and idol- 
atry. Lev. 20 : 2 ; 24 : 16. They might 
even partake in the celebration of the 
day of atonement, Lev. 26 : 29, the feast 
of weeks, Deut. 16 : 11, and that of 
tabernacles ; but the Passover they could 
not eat without having been circumcised, 
Ex. 12 : 48 ; Num. 9 : 14— that is, with- 
out having adopted the Jewish ritual 
together with the Jewish faith, and be- 
come Jews. Later on, especially after 
the Captivity, when Jews were living in 
all countries, it could not fail that the 
heathens, especially the women, should 
feel attracted by this higher type of 
religion, and the Jews themselves were 
very eager to make converts. In Da- 
mascus almost all the women were con- 
verted to the Jewish faith. 

There were two classes of proselytes. 
1. Full proselytes, called "proselytes of 
righteousness," who were circumcised 
and in full communion with the syna- 
gogue. They were usually more fanatical 
than the native Jews. Comp. Matt. 23 : 
15. 2. Half proselytes, called "pros- 
elytes of the gate" (from Ex. 20:10, 
708 



" Thy stranger that is within thy gate"), 
who embraced the monotheism and Mes- 
sianic hopes of the Jews without sub- 
mitting to circumcision and conforming 
to the Jewish ritual. The latter class 
are called in the N. T. religious, devout, 
God-fearing persons. Acts 13 : 43, 50 ; 
16:14: 17:4,17; 18:7. They were 
among the first converts, and formed 
generally the nucleus of Paul's congre- 
gations. To these half proselytes be- 
longed Cornelius, Lydia, Timothy, Titus. 

PROVERBS are sayings embody- 
ing some rule of conduct or some ob- 
servation from life in a striking and 
catching form. In modern times collec- 
tions of such proverbs have been made 
in almost every country, and these 
collections have attracted much atten- 
tion, because they generally give very 
striking pictures of the character of a 
nation, its wisdom and its follies, its 
passions and its humors. 

PROVERBS OF SOLOMON, 
the name of one of the poetical books of 
the O. T. ; so called from the contents 
and the chief author. 

1. Contents. — The Proverbs are a col- 
lection of wis* maxims woven into a 
didactic poem, and making up a popular 
system of ethics. They are a guide of 
practical wisdom, the moral philosophy 
of the Hebrews. We have a similar 
collection in the book of Jesus Sirach in 
the Apocrypha. The following are the 
principal parts : 

(a) The praise of Wisdom, chs. 1-9, 
a connected series of proverbs. Brief 
introduction. 1 : 1-6. The fundamental 
thought that all true wisdom comes from 
above and has its beginning in the fear 
of God. v. 7. Then short discourses on 
various topics of i-eligion and morality, 
rewards of those who seek wisdom, ad- 
monitions to seek it, warning against 
the allurements of the strange woman, 
ch. 7; Wisdom's appeal to men, her 
claims, her relation to Jehovah, ch. 8, 
and her invitation to her feasts. Ch. 9. 

(b) The proverbs of Solomon, chs. 
10-22 : 1 6, a collection of various maxims 
of an ethical and practical nature. 

(c) A connected series with precepts 
on justice and prudence. Ch. 22 : 17- 
24 : 22. 

(d) Unconnected proverbs of various 
wise men. Ch. 24:23-34. 

(e) Another collection of Proverbs of 



PKO 



PRO 



Solomon, which the men of Hezekiah, 
king of Judah, copied out. Chs. 25-29 

(/) "The words of Agur, the son of 
Jakeh." Ch. 30 : 1-33. Ancient inter- 
preters take "Agur" to be a symbolic 
name of Solomon, like " Koheleth ;' but 
then he would not be called the son of 
Jakeh. Probably the real name of some 
Hebrew sage. 

((/) " The words of Lemuel the king, 
the prophecy that his mother taught 
him." Ch. 31 : 1-9. " Lemuel " is per- 
haps a symbolical name for Solomon — 
i. e., he who is turned to God. 

(h) An alphabetical poem in praise 
of a virtuous woman. Ch. 31 : 10-31. A 
real gem. 

2. Poetic Form. — The poetic structure 
of the Proverbs is that of Hebrew paral- 
lelism in its various forms. They con- 
sist of single, double, triple, or more 
couplets, the members corresponding to 
each other in sense and diction, either 
synonymously or antithetically. De- 
litzsch calls them two-liners, four-liners, 
six-liners, eight-liners. The first sec- 
tion, chs. 10-22 : 16, contains exclusively 
two-liners. Besides these, there are a 
few three-liners, five-liners, and seven- 
liners, where the odd line is either a 
repetition of or a reason for the idea 
expressed in the first lines. A few 
specimens will make this clear. 

(a) Single synonymous couplets : 

''My son, forget not my law: 

And let thv heart" keep my command- 
ments.— "—Ch. 3 : 1. 

" Whom Jehovah loveth he correcteth : 
Even as a father the son in whom he 
delighteth."— Ch. 3:12. 

"Blessed the man who finds wisdom: 

And the man who obtains understand- 
ing."— Ch. 3 : 13. 

(b) Single antithetic couplets : 

"A wise son maketh a glad father: 

But a foolish son is the grief of his 
mother."— Ch. 10 : 1. 



" Hatred stirreth up strifes: 
But love covereth all sins." 

Ch. 10:12. 

" The wages of the righteous is life : 
The gain of the wicked is sin." 

Ch. 10 : 16. 

3. Author. — No doubt Solomon is the 
chief, but not the sole, author. He bears 



the same relation to the Proverbs as 
David does to the Psalms. He struck 
the keynote of proverbial poetry and 
philosophy, as David did of Hebrew 
psalmody. He was very famous as a 
composer of proverbs. 1 Kgs. 4 : 29-34. 
Yet many of his "three thousand prov- 
erbs " were lost, and, on the other hand, 
! the Proverbs of our canon contain vari- 
' ous collections of a later date. The 
compilation was probably made at the 
time of Hezekiah. Ch. 25 : 1. 

4. Value. — The Proverbs contain a 
vast amount of wholesome lessons for all 
times. They have furnished the richest 
contributions to the proverbial diction- 
aries of all Christian nations. 

The proverbs of the Bible are far 
j superior to those of any other collection 
of the kind, such as the Sayings of the 
j Seven Wise Men of Greece, the Aurea 
( Carmina, attributed to Pythagoras, the 
< Remains of the Poetse Gnomici, the collec- 
I tion of Arabic proverbs. They bear the 
! stamp of divine wisdom and inspiration. 
I They abound in polished and sparkling 
\ gems. They contain the practical wis- 
dom ichohna) of Israel. They trace 
wisdom to its true source, the fear of 
Jehovah. Ch. 1 : 7. Nothing can be 
finer than the description of Wisdom in 
; the eighth chapter, where she is per- 
sonified as the eternal companion and 
delight of God, and commended beyond 
all earthly treasures, ch. 8 : 11-21, 34, 
35: 

"Wisdom is better than rubies, 

And no precious things compare with 
her. 

"I, Wisdom, dwell with prudence, 

And find out knowledge of wise counsels. 

" The fear of Jehovah is to hate evil ; 
Pride, haughtiness, and an evil way, 
And a perverse mouth, do I hate. 

; " Counsel is mine, and reflection ; 

I am understanding; I have strength. 

| "By me kings reign, 

And princes decree justice ; 
By me princes rule, 

And nobles, even all the judges of the 
earth. 

" I love them that love me ; 

And they that seek me early shall find 
me. 

Riches and honor are with me. 

Yea, enduring riches and righteousness, 
709 



PKO 



PSA 



"My fruit is better than gold, yea than re- 
fined gold; 
And my increase than choice silver. 

"I walk in the way of righteousness, 

In the midst of the path of rectitude ; 

To ensure abundance to those that love me, 
And to fill their storehouse. . . . 

"Blessed is the man that heareth me, 
Watching daily at my gates, 
"Waiting at the posts of my doors ! 

For whosoever findeth me findetn life; 
And shall obtain favor from Jehovah." 

The description of the model Hebrew 
woman in her domestic and social rela- 
tions, ch. 31 : 10-31 (in the acrostic 
form), has no parallel for truthfulness 
and beauty in all ancient literature, and 
forms the appropriate close of this book 
of practical wisdom ; for from the family, 
of which woman is the presiding genius, 
spring private and public virtue and na- 
tional prosperity. 

PROVINCE is used in the sense 
of "tribe" in 1 Kgs. 20 : 14, 15, 17. 

PROVOKE', literally, to "call 
forth;" hence, "to challenge," "incite." 
In this sense used in the A. V. of 1 
Chr. 21 : 1; Rom. 10 : 19; 11 : 11, 14; 
2 Cor. 9:2: Heb. 10 : 24. 

PSALMS, THE BOOK OF. 
A psalm, from a Greek word signifying 
" to strike the lyre," " to play," " to sing," 
is a lyric poem of religious character and 
aim — a song in praise of God. The 
collection, or rather series of collections, 
of Hebrew Psalms is called in the He- 
brew Bible " Praises," or " Book of 
Praises," praise of God being the pre- 
dominant character even of the Psalms 
of repentance and sorrow; in the Septu- 
agint, " Psalms " or " Psalter," a stringed 
instrument on which the accompaniment 
was played ; and in the N. T., " Psalms " 
or " The Book of Psalms." In our canon 
it occupies the principal place among 
the poetical books, preceded by Job and 
followed by the Solomonic writings. 
This collection of one hundred and fifty 
Psalms forms the first hymn-book for 
public worship, and is even to this day 
in more general use among all churches 
as a manual of private devotion and 
public worship than any Christian hymn- 
book. This fact is the best vindica- 
tion of the Psalms against faultfinding 
writers. 

Division of the Psalms. — In the He- 
brew Bible the Psalms are divided into 
710 



five distinct collections or books. The 
close of each is indicated by a doxology 
and a double " Amen," which were 
added, not by the authors, but by the 
collectors for liturgical purposes. Book 
I. contains forty-one Psalms, of which 
thirty-seven are of David and four 
anonymous — viz., 1, 2, 10, and 33. 
Book II. contains thirty-one Psalms — 
from 42 to 72 — by different authors : 
seven by the sons of Korah, one by 
Asaph, nineteen by David, three anony- 
mous, and one by Solomon or for Solomon, 
after which the note is appended, " The 
prayers of David, the son of Jesse, are 
ended." Ps. 72 : 20. Book III. contains 
seventeen Psalms — from 73 to 89 : eleven 
by Asaph, four by the sons of Korah, one 
by David (86), and one by Ethan the 
Ezrahite (89). Book IV. contains seven- 
teen Psalms — from 90 to 106 : one by 
Moses (90), two by David (101 and 
103), the rest anonymous. Book V. 
contains forty-four Psalms — from 107 
to 150 : fifteen of David, one of Solomon, 
and the rest anonymous, including the 
fifteen Songs of Degrees, or pilgrim 
songs (120-134), and closing with the 
Hallelujah Psalms (146-150). 

This division is traced back to the 
time of Nehemiah, as in 1 Chr. 16 : 35, 
36 there is a free quotation from the 
concluding doxology of the fourth book. 
Ps. 106 : 47, 48. It is marked in the 
Septuagint, and mentioned but rejected 
by some of the Fathers, as opposed to 
the authority of the apostle, who speaks 
of the "Book of Psalms." Acts 1: 20. 
The principle has been variously stated 
as an analogy to the five Books of 
Moses, as a chronological order, as an 
arrangement by authors, by contents, 
for liturgical purposes, etc. It seems, 
however, that the grouping of the Psalms 
was not controlled by any one principle 
exclusively, though, on the other hand, 
the division shows too much method to 
be considered arbitrary or accidental. 
The collectors probably so arranged the 
Psalms as to combine historical, dogmat- 
ic, and liturgical order with convenience 
for public use — much in the same manner 
as many Christian hymn-books combine 
the order of subjects with that of the 
festivals of the church-year, sacrificing 
merely logical consistency to practical 
convenience. Minor collections were 
I made at different times — such as the 



PSA 



PSA 



Korahite selection, the " Pilgrim Songs," 
Songs of Degrees, the Hallelujah Psalms 
— and were afterward incorporated in 
the larger divisions. A few Psalms are 
repeated with some variations in different 
books — viz., 14 and 53 ; the latter part 
of 40 and 70 ; 57, 60, and 108— which 
proves that the five books were originally 
separate collections. The time of the 
final completion of the collection cannot 
be positively fixed ; the last two collec- 
tions must have been made after the 
Captivity, as is shown by the style and 
subject of isome of the Psalms included 
in them. The whole collection was prob- 
ably completed at the time of Ezra. At 
all events, the present Psalter is a 
gradual work, and reflects the piety of 
several generations — from the golden 
age of the theocracy to the return from 
exile. 

The Inscriptions. — All the Psalms, 
with the exception of thirty-four, which 
in the Talmud are called " Orphan 
Psalms," have titles Or superscriptions 
which in the Hebrew text are numbered 
as verse 1, while in the English Version 
they are more properly separated from 
the text and printed in small type as 
headings. Some also regard the phrase 
"Hallelujah, Praise ye the Lord!" at 
the beginning of several Psalms as a 
title, and thus reduce the number of 
Psalms without titles to twenty-four. 
The origin of these titles is unknown. 
They were probably added by the col- 
lectors of the several books, and resemble 
in this respect the headings of the 
Gospels and the subscriptions at the 
close of the Epistles in the N. T. They 
are, however, of great antiquity, and 
often of much value for the interpreta- 
tion. They are found in all the Hebrew 
manuscripts, and embody the popular 
traditions concerning the authorship, 
historical occasion, musical character, 
etc., prior to the Greek ti-anslation. In 
some instances their meaning has been 
lost, and the Septuagint does not even 
attempt a translation ; but, so far as we 
are able to interpret them, they give us 
valuable information about the authors 
— David, Asaph, the sons of Korah, etc.; 
the particular kind of poem ; the musical 
and liturgical character; the particular 
instrument used for accompaniment ; 
the historical and personal occasion, etc. 
Notices of the last kind, however, occur 



only in the Psalms of David, and refer 
mostly to events in his life. Many of 
them are copied, word for word, from 
the historical books. Comp. Ps. 52 with 
1 Sam. 22 : 9 : Ps. 54 with 1 Sam. 23 : 
19; Ps. 56 with 1 Sam. 21 : 11-15. Much 
dispute has been occasioned by the term 
" Selah," which is not found in the in- 
scriptions, but in the body of the Psalms ; 
but most probably it gives simply a 
musical direction. 

Character of the Psalms. — It is a re- 
markable fact that the Psalms, written 
by pious Jews centuries before Christ, 
have been used in the Christian Church 
down to this day for the highest jmrposes 
of devotion, and that they answer this 
object now as well as ever, among 
Greeks, Latins, and Protestants of all 
names. Some denominations in Scot- 
land and the United States to this day 
use them almost exclusively in public 
worship. We can ask for no stronger 
proof of the inspiration of the Psalms. 
They spring from the deep fountains of 
the human heart in its intercourse with 
God. They express the general religious 
feelings of thanks and praise, of repent- 
ance," grief, despondency, hope, and joy ; 
and they do this in such a manner as to 
find an echo in every pious soul in every 
age and in every clime. It is true we 
cannot always feel the full force of every 
Psalm, and often we would like to know 
more of the particular situation out of 
which it has grown, in order that we 
may understand all its details. The 
Psalms are poems, and, like other poems, 
they require a corresponding state of 
feeling in order to open up their whole 
inner meaning. Some Psalms can only 
be appreciated in seasons of peculiar 
trial and distress ; others only in times 
of persecution from without: still others 
only on occasions of festive joy and 
exaltation. But the more varied our 
religious experience is, the more we 
wonder at the fertility and applicability 
of the Psalms to all conditions of life. 
Hence no books of the Bible, except the 
Gospels, have taken such a hold upon 
the heart of Christendom as have the 
Psalms. For centuries they were the 
only hymn-book and prayer-book of the 
Jewish and Christian Churches. They 
have suggested many of the noblest 
Christian hymns. They are to this day 
indispensable feeders «f public and 
711 



PSA 



PTO 



private devotion in all parts of the 
world, and will continue to be to the 
end of time. There is something exceed- 
ingly elevating and comforting in the 
idea that our religious feelings have 
moved the saints of God in all ages — 
that Moses and David and Asaph gave 
utterance to our own spiritual experi- 
ences. 

Authors of the Psalms. — The composi- 
tion of the Psalms embraces a period of 
nearly a thousand years, from Moses to | 
the return from the Captivity or the time 
of Ezra, but most of them belong to the 
reigns of David and Solomon. About 
two-thirds of them are ascribed in the 
titles to specific authors, as follows : (1) 
To David, eighty — viz., 1-41 (including j 

1 and 2, which are anonymous), 51-71, 
101-103, 108-110, 122, 124, 131-133, 
138-145. He is the largest contributor 
and the master-singer of Israel ; hence 
the whole collection is frequently called 
" The Psalms of David." The general j 
characteristics of these eighty Psalms 
are simplicity, freshness, vigor, and a 
rare combination of childlike tenderness 
with heroic faith ; and, viewed as a 
whole, they present a picture of a man 
severely struggling, through internal 
and external obstacles, toward the city 
of God. (2) To Asaph, twelve Psalms — 
73-83 and 50. Asaph, of the tribe of 
Levi, was one of David's musicians and 
leader of the choir, 1 Chr. 15:17,19; 

2 Chr. 29 : 30, and his Psalms have a 
more didactic character. (3) To the 
sons of Korah, a family of poetical 
priests of the age of David, 1 Chr. 6:16; 
9 : 19 ; 26 : 1, 2 ; 2 Chr. 20 : 19, fourteen 
Psalms, corresponding to the fourteen 
classes of singers of that family — viz., 
42-49, 84, 85, 87, 88. Seven of them 
belong to the age of David and Solomon. 
But, properly speaking, only eleven 
Psalms belong to the sons of Korah. 
Psalms 42 and 43 are reckoned as one, 
and 88 and 89 bear also the names of 
Heman and Ethan. These Psalms are 
generally distinguished by poetic vivacity 
and bold flight of imagination. (4) To 
Solomon, two : 72 and 127. (5) To Moses 
one: 90. 

Classification of the Psalms according to 

their Contents. 
I. Psalms of Adoration and Praise: 
Ps. 8, 19,' 24, 33, 34, 36, 96, 100, 103, 
712 



107, 121, and the Hallelujah Psalms, 
146-150. 

II. Psalms of Thanksgiving for mercies : 
To individuals, Ps. 9, 18, 22, 30. 

To the people of Israel, Ps. 46, 48, 
65, 98. 

III. Penitential Psalms : 

Ps. 6, 25, 32, 38, 51, 102, 130, 143. 

IV. Pilgrim Psalms for festive journeys 
to Jerusalem ("Songs of Degrees" 
— ?'. e., steps, ascension) : 

Ps. 120-134. 

V. Historical Psalms, recording God's 

merciful and righteous dealing with 

his people in time past; 
Ps. 78, 105, 106. 
YI. Prophetic and Messianic Psalms, 

based upon the promise to David 

and his house (2 Sam. 7 : 12-16) : 
Ps. 2, 8, 16, 22, 40, 45, 68, 69, 72, 

97, 110, 118. 

VII. Didactic Psalms : 

(a) On the character and fate of the 
righteous and the wicked : Ps. 1, 5, 
7, 9-12, 14, 15, 17, 24, 25. 

(b) On the excellency of God's law: 
Ps. 19, 119. 

(c) On the vanity of human life: Ps. 
39, 49, 90. 

(d) On the duty of rulers : Ps. 82. 101. 

VIII. Imprecatory Psalms, mostly by 
David : 

Ps. 35, 52, 58, 59, 69, 109, 137. 

PSAI/TERY was a stringed in- 
strument with ten strings, like a harp, 
but its shape is much disputed. See 
Harp, Musical Instruments. 

PTOLEM.ETS, or PTOL- 
EMY, is the common name of the 
Egyptian kings of the Greek dynasty. 

1. Ptolemy I. Soter, b. c. 323-285, 
the founder of the dynasty; probably 
an illegitimate son of Philip ; served as 
a general in the army of Alexander : 
seized Egypt in 323, and maintained 
himself there against Perdiccas, 321, 
Demetrius, 312, and Antigonus, 301. 
When invading Syria, in 320, he swept 
down upon Jerusalem on a Sabbath-day, 
occupied the city, and carried away a 
number of Jews as prisoners to Egypt. 
But he treated them well, and founded 
a flourishing Jewish colony in his king- 
dom. It is commonly supposed he is 
meant, in Dan. 11 : 5, by " the king of 
the south." 

2. Ptolemy II. Philadelphus, b. c. 



PTO 



PUD 



285-247, son of the preceding; reigned 
in peace after the marriage of his daugh- 
ter, Berenice, with Antiochus II. of Syria, 
Dan. 11 : 6 ; founded the great library 
and museum in Alexandria ; attracted 
to that city such men as the poet The- 
ocritus, the geometer Euclid, the astron- 
omer Aratus, etc. : is said to have given 
the first impulse to the Septuagint trans- 
lation of the 0. T. ; and was prominent 
in bringing about that amalgamation of 
East and West, of Jewish wisdom and 
Greek philosophy, which left so deep 
traces in the history of both Judaism 
and Christianity. 

3. Ptolemy III. Euergetes, b. c. 247- 
222, son of the preceding ; invaded Syria 
to avenge the repudiation and murder of 
his sister; conquered the country as far 
north as Antioch and as far east as Bab- 
ylon ; offered sacrifices in the temple of 
Jerusalem, according to the custom of the 
Law ; and brought back to Egypt the 
gods and their molten images, which 
Cambyses had carried to Babylon. Dan. 
11 : 7-9. 

4. Ptolemy IV. Phtlopator, b. c. 
222-205, son of the preceding : defeated 
the army of Antiochus the Great at 
Raphia, near Gaza, 215, Dan. 11 : 10— 
12; offered sacrifices of thanksgiving in 
the temple of Jerusalem ; but when he 
attempted to penetrate into the sanctu- 
ary, he was suddenly struck by paraly- 
sis. 

5. Ptolemy V. Epiphastes, b. c. 205- 
181, son of the preceding ; was only five 
years old when his father died. During 
his minorityAntiochus the Great conquer- 
ed Coele-Syria, Phoenicia, and Judaea, and 
a great number of Jews who remained 
true to the Ptolemaean dynasty fled to 
Egypt, where the high priest, Onias, 
founded the temple at Leontopolis. By 
the mediation of the Romans, Ptolemy 
and Antiochus were afterward reconciled, 
but the Egyptian power was now rapidly 
decreasing. Dan. 11 : 13-17. 

6. Ptolemy VI. Philometor, b. c. 
181-146, son of the preceding; was a 
mere infant when his father died. Up 
to her death, in 173, his mother, Cleopatra, 
reigned in his stead, and she kept peace 
with Syria. But, in 171, Antiochus Epiph- 
anes sought and found an occasion to 
attack Egypt, defeated Ptolemy VI., and 
carried him away a prisoner. Again it 
was the interference of the Romans which 



saved Egypt, 168; but the power of the 
country was now really broken, and it 
gradually glided into the position of a 
Roman province. Dan. 11 : 25-30. Un- 
der the reign of Ptolemy VI. the Jewish 
temple at Leontopolis was completed; 
and thus there existed a Judaism inde- 
pendent of Jerusalem and in intimate 
contact with the classical civilization. 

PTOLEMA'IS (from one of the 
Ptolemies of Egypt), the city called 
Accho in Jewish annals, and Ptolemais 
under Macedonian and Roman rule. It 
is often mentioned in the Apocrypha. 1 
Mace. 5 : 15, 22, 55 ; 2 Mace. 13: 24, 25, 
etc. Paul, on returning from his third 
missionai-y-tour, visited Ptolemais, and 
abode there one day. Acts 21 : 7. The 
place is now called. Akka, or St. Jean 
oV 'Acre, the name given to it by the 
Knights of St. John, who settled there 
soon after the conquest of Jerusalem by 
Saladin. a. d. 1187. See Accho. 
PUA. See Phuvah. 
PU'AH (mouth). 1. Of the tribe 
of Issachar, who judged Israel after 
Abimelech. Jud. 10 : 1. 

2. One of the two midwives whom Pha- 
raoh ordered to kill all Hebrew male chil- 
dren at their birth. Ex. 1 : 15-21. 

PUB'LICAN, an inferior collector 
of the Roman tribute. Matt. 18 : 17. 
The principal farmers of this revenue 
were men of great credit and influence, 
but the under-farmers, or publicans, 
were remarkable for their rapacity and 
extortion, and were accounted as oppres- 
sive thieves and pickpockets. Hence it 
is even said that the Jews would not 
allow them to enter the temple or the 
synagogues, to partake of the public 
prayers or offices of judicature, or to 
! give testimony in a court of justice. 
There were many publicans in Judaea 
in the time of our Saviour. Zacchaaus 
was probably one of the principal re- 
' ceivers, since he is called " chief among 
| the publicans," Luke 19 : 2 ; but Mat- 
thew was only an inferior publican. 
: Luke 5 : 27. The Jews reproached 
: Jesus with being a "friend of publi- 
■ cans and sinners " and eating with them. 
Luke 7 : 34. 

PUB'LIUS, the governor of Melita, 
' who received St. Paul when he was 
shipwrecked off that place. Acts 28 ■ 



7, 8. 



PU'DENS, a Christian in Rome 
713 



PUH 



PUN 



who sent a salutation to Timothy 
through St. Paul. 2 Tim. 4 : 21. 

PU'HITES, the name of a family 
descending from Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 53. 

PUL {lord!), the first king of Assyria, 
who invaded Canaan, and by a present 
of 1000 talents of silver (equivalent to 
nearly $2,000,000 in our day) was pre- 
vailed on by Menahem to withdraw his 
troops and recognize the title of that 
wicked usurper. 2 Kgs. 15 : 19. This 
is the first mention of Assyria in the 
sacred history after the days of Nimrod, 
and Pul was the first-mentioned Assyrian 
invader of Judsea. 

PUL, a region mentioned in Isa. 66 : 
19. The name is the same as that of Pal, 
a king of Assyria, which signifies "ele- 
phant " or " lord." The country is named 
with Tarshish, Lud, Tubal, Javan, and 
" the isles afar off." Bochart, Hender- 
son, Michaelis, and others suppose it to 
be the island of Philae and the surround- 
ing regions. Porter, Grove, Poole, and 
other authorities make it some distant 
province of Africa. It is identified by 
the Septuagint with Phut, which is join- 
ed with Lud in Eze. 27 : 10 ; 30 : 5, and 
perhaps therefore denotes Libya. See 
Phut. 

PUL/PIT, in Neh. 8 : 4, was a plat- 
form set up in the open air for the ac- 
commodation of Ezra. 

PUL.SE (seeds). Our English word 
means peas, beans, lentiles, and the pro- 
duce of similar podded plants, but in 
Dan. 1 : 12, 16 the Hebrew probably 
denotes vegetable food in general, and 
in 2 Sam. 17 : 28 parched peas, which 
are still a favorite food in the East. 

PUNISHMENT. The principle 
of punishment prevalent in all modern 
criminal codes is simply to protect soci- 
ety against crime. In the penal enact- 
ments of the Mosaic Law this principle 
is present, but only as a modification or 
qualification of the supreme principle 
of the Law — to do justice. Both capi- 
tal and secondary punishments were in- 
flicted chiefly from a regard to what jus- 
tice demanded, but in cases which lay 
absolutely outside the pale of human 
justice, and had no connection with so- 
ciety beyond the bad example set, the 
offender was " cut off" from the people 
and left to the direct handling of God. 

1. Capital punishment was executed 
in various ways — by stoning, Ex. 17 : 
714 



4 ; Luke 20:6; John 10 : 31 ; Acts 14 : 
5; hanging, Num. 25 : 4; 2 Sam. 21 : 6, 
9 ; burning, Gen. 38 : 24 ; Lev. 21 : 9 ; 
shooting, Ex. 19 : 1 3 ; sword. 1 Kgs. 2:25; 
19 : 1 ; 2 Chr. 21 : 4 ; strangling (though 
mentioned only by the rabbins) ; drown- 
ing, comp. Matt. 18 : 6 ; Mark 9 : 42 ; 
sawing asunder, 2 Sam. 12 : 31 ; pound- 
ing in a mortar (though hardly a legal 
punishment), Prov. 27 : 22 : 2 Mace. 6 : 
28 : precipitation, 2 Mace. 6 : 10; Luke 
4:29; and Crucifixion, which see. Of 
these, stoning was the most common form 
of execution. It was inflicted not only 
for murder, but also for striking or revil- 
ing a parent, Ex. 21 : 15 ; for blasphemy, 
Lev. 24 : 14, 16, 23 ; adultery, Lev. 20 : 
10 ; Deut. 22 : 22 ; rape, Deut. 22 : 25 ; 
idolatry, Lev. 20 : 2 ; Deut. 13 : 6, 10, 
15,17; false witness in capital cases, 
Deut. 19 : 16, 19; but a verdict of ston- 
ing could only be given on the testimony 
of two witnesses, and these were requir- 
ed to cast the first stones, directly on the 
chest of the offender. Deut. 13 : 9; 17 : 
7. Several of the other forms of execu- 
tion, such as hanging and burning, 
were seldom used except after death by 
stoning had taken place. 

2. Secondary punishments were regu- 
lated chiefly after the idea of retaliation 
— " breach for breach, eye for eye, tooth 
for tooth." Ex. 21 : 23-25; Deut. 19 : 
18-21. But there was on this point a 
remarkable difference between the Mo- 
saic Law and the old Frankish or Anglo- 
Saxon or Scandinavian laws. Accord- 
ing to the Mosaic Law, the retaliation 
was never given into the hands of the 
offended, but took effect only after judi- 
cial procedui*e. In some cases retaliation 
was simple i-estitution with a fine added ; 
thus, he who stole a sheep was to restore 
four sheep, and he who stole an ox five 
oxen. Ex. 22 : 1. In other cases it meant 
compensation for loss of time or power, 
Ex. 21 : 18-36; Lev. 24 : 18-21 ; Deut. 
19 : 21, or even for loss caused by acci- 
dent. Ex. 22 : 6. When restitution or 
compensation could not take place — as, 
for instance, in the case of slander — 
whipping, and even scourging, were 
employed. But the Law forbade to give 
more than forty stripes, Deut. 25 : 3, and 
the Jews took great care not to give more 
than thirty-nine, the punishment being 
inflicted by means of a whip with three 
thongs, and thirteen strokes being dealt. 



pirn 



PUT 



Imprisonment was not prescribed by tbe 
Law, but was known in the times of the 
kings. 2 Chr. 16 : 10 ; Jer. 37 : 15. 

3. Finally, the Pentateuch mentions 
some thirty-five cases in which the pen- 
alty incurred is that of being " cut off 
from the people," but the exact meaning 
of this expression is disputed. Some 
commentators hold that it means death, 
while others, and among them the rab- 
binical writers, explain it as a kind of 
excommunication. It probably stood in 
some connection with the punishment of 
banishment, which consisted in confine- 
ment to a certain locality or exclusion 
from the presence of the king. 2 Sam. 
14: 24; 1 Kgs. 2 : 26, 36, 37. 

PUNITES, THE, the descendants 
of Pua, or Phuvah, the son of Issachar. 
Num. 26 : 23. 

PU'NON (darkness), one of the sta- 
tions of the Israelites, Num. 33 : 42, 43, 
between Zalmonah and Oboth. Accord- 
ing to Jerome it is identical with Phenon, 
celebrated for its copper-mines, in which 
convicts were sentenced to labor, between 
Petra and Zoar. Palmer suggests its 
identity with 'Anezeh, one of the three 
stations, on the Barb el-Hajj. — Desert 
of the Exodus, p. 430. 

PURIFICATIONS formed a very 
conspicuous feature among the ritual 
observances of the Jews, and were per- 
formed in various ways, though gener- 
ally by means of water. Besides their 
spiritual meaning, referring to the pur- 
ity of the heart, they had often also a 
sanitary purpose. After the Captivity, 
however, they were carried into ex- 
tremes, especially by the Pharisees. 
Mark 7 : 3, 4. 

PU'RIM (lots), a Jewish festival in- 
stituted to commemorate the preserva- 
tion of the Jewish people, by means of 
Mordecai and Esther, from the massacre 
ordered by Hainan, Esth. 9 : 20-32, re- 
ceived its name from the circumstance 
that Haman sought to ascertain by lots 
the day on which to execute the massa- 
cre. The festival was celebrated on the 
fourteenth and fifteenth of the month 
Adar (March). The book of Esther was 
then read aloud in the synagogue, and 
whenever the name of Haman occurred 
the whole congregation answered, " Let 
his name be blotted out." After the 
service on the fifteenth, the festival gen- 
erally ended with great merry-making. 



Purim is not mentioned in the N. T., 
unless it be the feast spoken of in John 
5:1. 

PURPLE. The purple dye so fa- 
mous among the Orientals of ancient 
days was produced from a species of 
shellfish peculiar to the Mediterranean 
Sea. It was highly esteemed also among 
the Hebrews. The hangings of the tem- 
ple and some of the priests' garments 
were of this color. Ex. 25 : 4 ; 35 : 6 ; 
39 : 29 ; 2 Chron. 3 : 14, also the robes 
of royalty and distinction were of pur- 
ple. Judg. 8 : 26,: Esth. 8 : 15. It would 
seem, however, that the Hebrews used 
the term "purple" with considerable 
latitude, applying it in general to every 
color into the composition of which red 
entered. 

PURSE, a sort of girdle, such as is 
often found at the present day in East- 
ern countries. One part of the girdle, 
sufficient to encompass the body, was 
sewed double and fastened with a 
buckle. The other was wound around 
above or below the first fold, and tucked 
under. The first fold had an opening, 
closed with a leathern cover and strap, 
through which the contents of the purse 
were passed. Matt. 10 : 9 ; Mark 6 : 8. 

PUT. 1 Chr. 1:8; Nah. 3:9; else- 
where Phut, Phud, Libya, which see. 

PUTE'OIil (sulphurous wells or 
springs), a seaport of Campania, in It- 
aly, situated upon the northern shore of 
a small bay running northward from the 
Bay of Naples, and now called Pozzuoli 
Bay. The town was originally confined 
to a rocky promontory, but afterward 
extended to a considerable distance east- 
ward and northwai-d. Puteoli was the 
great port of Rome, and through it 
passed the immense exports and imports 
of the imperial city. Especially was it 
the port for the Alexandrian corn-ships, 
which were allowed the peculiar privi- 
lege of entering the bay with all their 
sails set. Its ancient Greek name was 
Dicaearchia. It was a favorite water- 
ing-place of the Romans, its hot springs 
being considered efficacious for the cure 
of various diseases. Puteoli is connect- 
ed with many historical personages. 
Scipio sailed hence to Spain; Cicero 
had a villa near the city ; here Nero 
planned the murder of his mother; Ves- 
pasian gave to this city peculiar privi- 
leges ; and here Hadrian was buried. 
715 



PUT 



PYT 



The Castor and Pollux landed the apos- 
tle Paul there, Acts 28 : 13, 14, and he 
tarried in the place, where there were 
Christians, for a week before setting 
out for Rome, 141 miles distant. The 
modern name of Puteoli is Puzzuuli. 
There are considerable remains of an- 
cient structures, including an aqueduct, 
reservoirs, baths, and a building called 



the temple of Serapis. Thirteen arches 
can still be counted of the twenry-five 
which originally supported the great 
pier, thrown out for protection against 
the waves and for convenience in land- 
ing passengers and merchandise. 

PU'TIEL {afflicted of God), the fa- 
ther-in-law of Eleazar, the son of Aaron. 
Ex. 6 : 25. 




The Addax or Pygarg 

PYGARG. Deut. 14 : 5. This is 
believed to have been some species of 
antelope, perhaps the addax (Antilope 
addax). 

PYR'RHUS, father of Sopater of 
Berea, mentioned in Acts 20 : 4; a gen- 
uine name, found in the best Greek texts, 
though not in the A. V. The father was 
716 



doubtless a Berean as well as the son, 
but whether he was a Christian cannot 
be determined. 

PYTHON, occurring Acts 16 : 16, 
margin, was a surname of Apollo, the 
• god of divination in the Greek mythol- 
ogy, and hence applied to all oracular 
and divinatory spirits. See Divination. 



QUA 



QUA 



Q. 



QUAILS. Ex. 16 : 13; Num. 11 : 
31. After much criticism of this trans- 
lation, the verdict of etymology, zoology, 
history, and of most of the important an- 
cient versions, is strongly in favor of the 
above rendering. At the season when 
the Israelites gathered them, quails 
still migrate from Africa northward in 
immense numbers. Such facts as that 
160,000 were taken in one season on the 
small island of Capri, near Naples, and 
100,000 in a single day near Nettuno, at- 
test their present abundance on the coasts 
of the Mediterranean, and travellers tell 
us that they still cross Arabia in clouds. 

All the conditions of the above pas- 
sage in Numbers are met by the habits 
of these birds. Following up the Red 
Sea, they would naturally cross the nar- 
row gulfs which enclose the Sinaitic 




Quail. (Coturnix vulgaris.) 

peninsula, and, being weak of wing and 
according to their custom flying before 
the wind and at night, they would come 
"from the sea" exhausted, and be eas- 
ily taken by hand, as they are still often 
caught under similar circumstances. In 
their flight quails skim along the ground, 
which seems to be the meaning of the 
expression, " two cubits high." Prudent- 



ly making provision for the future, the 
Israelites would spread out their flesh 
to dry, as Herodotus tells us the Egyp- 
tians were accustomed to do. It is be- 
lieved that the " homers " in Num. 11 : 32 
does not denote the measure of that name, 
but rather " a heap," which is sometimes 
the meaning of the Hebrew word. It is 
evident that in the feeding of the mul- 
titudes of Israel for more than a month 
with these birds there was a miraculous 
employment of the provisions of Na- 
ture. 

The quail {Coturnix vulgaris) abounds 
through almost the entire Old World. It 
resembles the bird called by the same 
name in New England (Ortyx Virgivi- 
avus), but its note is like peek-whit-whit 
rapidly repeated. 

QUARANTA'NA, a mountain 
about 7 miles north-west of Jericho, 
which tradition points out as the 
scene of the temptation of Christ. 
It rises abruptly from the plain to 
the height of 1200 to 1500 feet, re- 
sembling a perpendicular wall of 
rock. Upon its sides are numer- 
ous grottos and caverns, where 
hermits once dwelt in numbers, 
and which were also the retreat 
of robbers. On the top of the 
mountain are ruins of a chapel. 
The mountain is not named in the 
Bible. 

QUARRIES, THE. The 
Hebrew word thus translated in 
Judg. 3 : 19, 26 is elsewhere ren- 
dered by " graven" or " carved 
image." 

QUAR'TUS (fourth), a Chris- 
tian who lived at Corinth and sent, 
through Paul, his salutations to the 
Christians in Eome. Rom. 16 : 23. 
QUATER'NION. When Peter is 
said to have been delivered to four qua- 
ternions of soldiers, and to have passed 
through a first and second watch, Acts 
12 : 4, 1 0, it is to be understood that he was 
guarded by four men at a time — viz. .two 
in the prison with him, and two before 
the doors — and that they were relieved 
I everv three hours, or at each success- 
717 



QUE 



QUO 




Bound between two Soldiers. (From an old Roman 
Drawing.) 

ive watch of the night, by four others, 
making in all sixteen men. 

QUEEN is the rendering of three 
different Hebrew words, of which the 
first is applied to a queen-regnant — as, 
for instance, the queen of Sheba, 1 Kgs. 
10 : 1, and Athaliah, who usurped the 
throne of Judah, 2 Kgs. 11 ; the second 
to a queen-consort — that is, to the wives 
of first rank in the royal harem, as dis- 
tinguished from the concubines, Esth. 1 : 

9 ; 7:1; Cant. 6:8; and the third to a 
queen-mother — as, for instance, Bath- 
sheba, 1 Kgs. 2 : 19 ; Maachah, 1 Kgs. 
15 : 13; 2 Chr. 15 : 16 ; Jezebel. 2 Kgs. 

10 : 13. It was a natural result of the 
practice of polygamy that the queen- 
consort never attained that dignity which 
in our times such a position confers, while 
the queen-mother came to occupy one 
of the most dignified and powerful po- 
sitions in the state. The following is a 
list of queen-mothers through the suc- 
cessive reigns of the monarchs of the 
kingdom of Judah: 

Kings. Queen-moiliers. 

Solomon Bathsheba. 

Rehoboani Naainah. 

Abijah. ) 
Asa. / " 

Jehoshaphat Azubah. 

Jehoram Not mentioned. 

Ahaziah Athaliah. 

Joash Zibiah. 

Amaziah Jehoaddan. 

Uzziah Jecoliab. 

Jotham Jerusha. 

Ahaz Not mentioned. 

Hezekiah Abi or Abijah. 

Manasseh Hephzihah. 

Anion Meshullemeth. 

Josiah Jedidah. 

Jehoahaz Hamutal. 

Jehoiakim Zebudah. 

Jehoiachin Nehushta. 

Zedekiah Hamutal. 

718 



.Maachah or Michaiah. 



QUEEN OF HEAVEN, the 

title of the goddess of the Moon among 
the Assyrians, from whom her wor- 
ship spread into Asia Minor. To the 
Shemites she was generally known 
under the names of Astarte, Ash- 
taroth, etc. Cakes having the image 
of the moon stamped on them are sup- 
posed to have been presented in sacri- 
fice as a part of her worship. Jer. 7 : 
18; 44 : 17, 18, 19, 25. 

QUICK/SANDS are referred to 
in Acts 27 : 17, and were known as 
the Greater Syrtis and the Lesser 
Syrtis, two sandy gulfs on the north- 
ern coast of Africa. The Greater Syrtis 
was near Cyrene, and is the "quick- 
sands " probably intended in the nar- 
rative of Paul's voyage. 

QUIRINIUS. See Cyrenitjs. 
QUIT is used in 1 Sam. 4 : 9 and 1 
Cor. 16 : 13 in the sense of "acquit." • 
QUIVER, the box or case for ar- 
rows. Gen. 27 : 3. The word is often 
used figuratively. Isa. 49 : 2 ; Lam. 3 : 
13. In Jer. 5 : 16 the slaughter and des- 
olation which should be brought upon 




Egyptian Quivers with Bows. 

the Israelites by the invasion of the 
Chaldaeans is expressed by the calling 
their quivers " an open sepulchre," or 
their arrows certain death. See Armor. 
QUOTATIONS from the 0. T. in 
the N. T. are very numerous, but vary 
both with respect to the method of quot- 
ing and with respect to the application 
of the words quoted. The Greek trans- 
lation, the Septuagint, is generally used, 



QUO 



QUO 



and how widely diffused and how closely 
followed this version was among the Jews 
of the time of our Lord may be seen 
from the circumstances that, in cases in 
which no fault of meaning is involved, 
even its incorrectnesses are retained in 
the quotations such as Matt. 15 : 9 ; Luke 
4:18; Acts 13 : 41 ; 15 : 7-10 ; Rom. 15 : 
Id, etc.; in Heb. 1 : 6 is found a quota- 
tion from Deut. 32 : 43 which is an inter- 
polation of the Septuagint. In cases, 
however, in which the errors of the ver- 
sion involve a discrepancy of meaning, 
the N. T. writers invariably correct the 
Septuagint by the Hebrew, such as Matt. 
21 : 5 ; 1 Cor. 3 : 19, etc. Often the quo- 
tations are directly from the Hebrew 
without any reference to the Septuagint, 
such as Matt. 4 : 15, 16; John 19 : 37; 
.1 Cor. 15 : 54. In Mark 12 : 30; Luke 
10 : 27 ; Rom. 12 : 19, the Septuagint 
and the Hebrew are combined. Besides 
these direct quotations, the books of the 
N. T. are crowded with allusions to and 
suggestions from the 0. T., both con- 
scious, with appropriate adjustment, and 
unconscious. To this difference in the 
method of quoting corresponds a differ- 
ent method of application. When the 
N. T. writer ascribes something prophet- 
ical or typical to the passage quoted, he 
generally introduces it with the word 
" fulfil," such as Matt. 2 : 15, 18. 23, etc., 
and the application is authoritative. But 
in other cases the application may be 
considered optional, referring to the 
generally prophetical and typical cha- 
racter of the 0. T. in its relation to the 
N. T., and a natural result of the force 



i with which the O. T. book had impressed 
the minds of the X. T. writers. 

The precise relation of the N. T. quo- 
tations to the Hebrew Scriptures and to 
the Greek Septuagint is not yet suffi- 
ciently cleared up, but has been much 
investigated of late. Mr. D. C. Turpie, 

| in his book, The Old Testament in the 
Neva (Lond., 1868), establishes the fol- 

I lowing result : 

Passages in which the Septuagint version 
is correctly accepted 53 

Passages in which the Septuagint version 

is correctly altered 10 

! Passages in which the Septuagint version 

is incorrectly accepted 37 

| Passages in which the Septuagint version 
is incorrectly altered 76 

Passages in which the Hebrew, the Sep- 
tuagint, and the New Testament all 
differ 99 

Many of the differences are, however, 
exceedingly minute, and "correct" and 
" incorrect " merely mean accurate agree- 
ment or disagreement with the original 
Hebrew. Prof. Bb'hl of Vienna, in his 
books Forschungen nach einer Volksbibel 
zur Zeit Jesu (Wien, 1873) and Die Alt- 
testamentlichen Citate im N. T. (Wien, 
1878), maintains that the X. T. writers 
quoted directly and correctly from a 
current Aramaic version, which has in- 
deed perished, but which was in Christ's 
day read and memorized by all classes 
among the Jews as the people's Bible. 
Hence the N. T. quotations are incor- 
rect in the same way and to the same 
degree as are the quotations from the 
present A. V. 

719 



BAA 



BAB 



R 



RA'AMAH (trembling), a commer- 
cial country which traded with Tyre. 
Eze. 27 : 22. This land furnished spices, 
gems, and gold, and was probably named 
after a son of Cush, whose descendants 
are believed to have settled upon the 
south-western shore of the Persian Gulf. 
The Septuagint renders Raamah by 
Regma, a place mentioned by Ptolemy 
in the territory of the Nariti, an Arabian 
tribe settled in the above locality. 

RAAMI'AH (whom Jehovah makes 
tremble), Neh. 7:7, OR REELAI'AH 
\id.), Ezr. 2 : 2, one of the chiefs who 
returned from Babylon with Zerubbabel. 

RAAM'SES. Ex. 1:11. See Rabi- 
eses. 

RAB'BAH (greatness). 1. The 
chief city and capital of the Ammonites. 
Jos. 13 : 25. Its full name is " Rabbath 
of the children of Ammon." Deut. 3 : 11. 
It is also called " Rabbath of the Ammon- 
ites." Eze. 21 : 20. Greek and Roman 
writers call it " Philadelphia," a name 
given by Ptolemy Philadelphus, by 
whom it was rebuilt. Its modern name 
is Amman. Rabbath was situated in the 
valley of the upper Jabbok and between 
two mountains, about 22 miles east of 
the Jordan, 14 miles noi-th-east of 
Heshbon, and 19 miles south-east of Es 

Suit. 

History. — Rabbah is first mentioned 
as the place of the " bed," or sarcophagus, 
of Og, king of Bashan. Deut. 3 : 11. 
Joab besieged it, and, by order of David, 
Uriah was here slain. 2 Sain. 11 : 1-17. 
Joab took the " city of waters " — that is, 
probably, the lower city, through which 
the stream flowed — while the citadel held 
out until David came with reinforce- 
ments. 2 Sam. 12 : 26-31 ; 1 Chr. 20 : 
1-3. Afterward, when David fled from 
Jerusalem to Mahanaim, a citizen of 
Rabbah gave him provisions. 2 Sam. 
17 : 27-29. At a later period the Am- 
monites regained their independence, 
but the overthrow of Rabbah was pre- 
dicted. Jer. 49 : 23 ; Eze. 21 : 20 ; 25 : 5 ; 
Am. 1 : 14. Under the Ptolemies it 
continued to be a city of importance, 
having a garrison for repelling the at- 
720 



tacks of Bedouins, and it supplied water 
for travellers across the desert. In N. T. 
times Rabbah was one of the cities of 
Decapolis, under the name of " Philadel- 
phia," and it continued as an important 
town until the fourth century, being the 
seat of a Christian bishopric; it was finally 
overthrown by the Saracens. Earth- 
quakes have contributed to its ruin. 

Present Appearance. — The ruins of 
Rabbah are among the most imposing 
on the east side of the Jordan. Among 
them are those of a theatre — the largest 
known in Syria — capable of holding 6000 
spectators, a smaller theatre, or odeum, 
baths, a beautiful Grecian temple, large 
basilicas, or Greek churches, a vast pub- 
lic building with arches still standing, 
and the citadel on a hill; the remarkable 
ruins are strewn over a space of several 
acres. Most of them, however, belong 
to the Gr;ieco-Roman period. A paved 
Roman street is quite perfect, the wheel- 
ruts being distinctly visible. Eight Cor- 
inthian columns of the theatre remain. 
The coins of the city bear the image of 
Astarte and the word " Heracleion," 
from " Hercules," the idol which followed 
Moloch. Immense flocks and herds of 
the Arabs come to Rabbah for water and 
for shelter from the noonday heat, giving 
to the place the appearance and odor of 
a farm-yard, strikingly fulfilling the 
prophecy, " I will make Rabbah a stable 
for camels, and the Ammonites a couch- 
ing-place for flocks." Eze. 25 : 4, 5. 

2. A town of Judah in the hill-country, 
noticed with Kirjath-jearim. Jos. 15 : 
60. Conder suggests that it may be 
identified with the present ruin Rabba, 
in the hills near Beit Jibn'n. 

RAB'BATH-AMMON. Deut. 
3:11. See Rabbah. 

RABBATH-MO'AB. See Ar. 

RAB'BI, a title of dignity, literally 
signifying " my master." It was given 
by the Jews to distinguish teachers of 
their Law, and frequently applied to our 
Lord by the disciples and the people. 
Matt. 23 : 7, 8 ; 26 : 25, 49 ; Mark 9:5; 
11 : 21 ; 14 : 45 ; John 1 : 38, 49 ; 3 : 2, 
26, etc. The usual Greek word in the 



RAB 



RAC 



Gospels as the title of Christ is "teacher." 
Matt. 8 : 19: 9 : 11, etc. The Jews 
distinguished between Rab, "'master/' 
Rabbi, "my master," and Rabboni, "my 
great master." The last was the most 
honorable title of all. 

RAB'BITH (multitude), a town of 
Issachar, apparently in the southern lim- 
it of the tribe. Jos. 19 : 20. Drake would 
identify it with Arrabeh, but Conder 
locates it at the present village Raba, 
on the watershed south of Gilboa. 

RABBONI. John 20 : 16. See 
Rabbi. 

RAB'-MAG (perhaps the master of 
the magi) signified an officer of great 
power and dignity at the Babylonian 
court. Jer. 39 : 3, 13. 

RAB'SARIS (chief eunuch), the 



title of a high Assyrian or Babylonian 
officer. 2 Kgs. 18 : 17 : Jer. 39 : 3, 13. 

RAB'SHAKEH seems to be the 
name, not of a person, but of an officer — 
the chief butler or cupbearer — who was 
sent with Rab-saris, the chief of the 
eunuchs, and Tartan, messengers of the 
king of Assyria, to Hezekiah, summon- 
ing him, in the most indecent and blas- 
phemous manner, to surrender his capi- 
tal. 2 Kgs. 18 : 17-37. 

RA'CA (worthless), a term of con- 
tempt. Matt. 5 : 22. 

RACE. Heb. 12 : 1. See Games. 

RA'CHAB, the Greek form of "Ra- 
hab." Matt. 1 : 5. 

RA'CHAL (traffic), a place in Judah 
to which David sent some of his spoils. 
1 Sam. 30 : 29. Its site is unknown. 




Tomb of Rachel, near Bethlehem. (After a Photograph.) 



RA'CHEL. (a ewe), the daughter of 
Laban, the wife of the patriarch Jacob, 
and the mother of Joseph and Benjamin. 
Her history is given in Gen. 29-35. The 
incidents of her life — her beauty, the 
passion with which she was loved, etc. — 
are of a charming impressiveness, but 
46 



her character — her theft of Laban'fidols, 
her shrewdness in concealing the fact 
— does not command our respect. She 
died after giving birth to Benjamin, and 
on her grave, near the road from Beth- 
lehem to Jerusalem, Jacob set up a 
pillar. Gen. 35 : 19. At the time of 
721 



KAC 



ftAt 



Samuel and Saul the pillar was still 
standing. 1 Sam. 10 : 2. At present a 
small white mosque, erected by the Mo- 
hammedans, indicates the place. Jere- 
miah, 31 : 15-17, represents Rachel as 
weeping in her grave when her children 
pass by on their way to Babylon, and 
Matthew, 2 : 17, 18, applies this to the 
massacre of the innocents. 

RACHEL'S TOMB. Gen. 35 : 
19, 20. The traditional site of the tomb 
of Rachel is on the road from Jerusalem 
to Bethlehem, about half a mile from the 
latter place. An insignificant building 
with a dome in the Muslim style marks 
the spot. The building has been repeat- 
edly restored, and is not older than the 
fifteenth century. The tomb is revered 
by Muslims, Christians, and Jews and 
visited by pilgrims. (See cut, p. 721.) 

RAD'DAI {treading down), a brother 
of David, the fifth son of Jesse. 1 Chr. 

2 : 14. 

RA'GAU, the same person as Reu, 
one of the ancestors of our Lord. Luke 

3 : 35 ; Gen. 11 : 20, 21. 
RAGU'EL {friend of God), the 

father of Hobab, Num. 10 : 29 ; called 
Reuel in Ex. 2 : 18. 

RA'HAB, a woman of Jei-icho who 
kept a public-house, and, as most sup- 
pose, was of depraved character. She 
had heard of the Israelites and of the 
favor of God toward them, Josh. 2 : 8- 
11 ; and when the two spies sent out by 
Joshua came to Jericho to explore the 
land of promise, she concealed them from 
the officers who were sent in search of 
them, and at a convenient time let them 
down by a cord upon the outside of the 
city wall, to which her house joined. It 
was agreed between her and the spies 
that she should take a scarlet thread and 
fasten it in the window or aperture 
through which they had escaped, and 
when the city was destroyed her house 
and all that were in it should be protected. 
Josh. 2 : 1 7-23. When the city was taken 
and burnt, Rahab and her family were 
preserved, Josh. 6 : 17-25, and it is sup- 
posed she married into a noble family 
of the tribe of Judah. She is called 
Rachab, Matt. 1 : 5, and her faith is 
commended among the worthies in Heb. 
11 :31. 

RA'HAB (violence), a symbolical 
term for Egypt. Isa. 51 : 9, 1 0. 1 5. It may 
also apply to its king. Eze. 29 : 3 : 32 : 2. 
722 



In Job 26 : 12 the same word is trans- 
lated " the proud," and there is a similar 
reference in Isa. 30 : 7, translated 
" strength," but rendered by Gesenius 
" violence." 

RAIN. The force of the various 
allusions to this subject cannot be ap- 
prehended without some knowledge of 
the natural conditions of Palestine. 
Rain falls very frequently during what 
we call the cold months, from November 
to April. Sometimes it rains powerfully 
for several days, with thunder and light- 
ning and a strong wind. In the summer 
season, from May to October, the earth 
is parched, verdure is destroyed, and 
vegetation languishes. The first rain 
after the summer drought usually falls 
in October, and is called the former or 
autumnal rain, because it precedes seed- 
time and prepares the earth for cultiva- 
tion. The latter rain falls in April, just 
before harvest, and perfects the fruits of 
the earth. Deut. 11 : 14 ; Hos. 6:3; Joel 
2 : 23. Storms after this time were re- 
garded by the Jews as unseasonable, and 
even miraculous. Prov. 26 : 1 ; 1 Sam. 
12 : 16-19. The average present rain- 
fall at Jerusalem is 61.6 inches, which is 
greater than that of almost any part of 
the United States. See Palestixe. 

RAIN'BOW, a seven-colored semi- 
circle produced by the reflection of the 
sun's rays from the drops of falling 
water, and appearing in its greatest 
brilliancy when the spectator is placed 
between the shining sun on the one side 
[ and a raining cloud on the other. It 
I may be formed in waterfalls, fountains, 
I etc., but when formed in the atmosphere 
J it always shows that the rain has passed 
I away. The same laws by which this 
'• effect is produced were probably in 
j operation before the Deluge. The rain- 
bow, which had hitherto been a beautiful 
object in the heavens, was appointed as 
a sign of the covenant that the earth 
should not be again destroyed by a 
flood. The meaning of the covenant 
would be in substance, "As surely as 
i that bow is the result of established laws 
j which must continue as long as the sun 
and atmosphere endure, so surely shall 
| the world be preserved from destruction 
by a deluge." Gen. 9 : 12-17. 

RAI'SIIVS, or grapes dried in 
bunches, are mentioned 1 Sam. 25 : 18; 
30 : 12; 2 Sam. 16 : 1 ; 1 Chr. 12 : 40. 



RAK 



HAM 



RA'KEM (flower-gardening), a de- 
scendant of Manasseh. 1 Chr. 7 : 16. 

RAKKATH (shore), a fortified city 
of Naphtali. Josh. 19 : 35. According 
to the Rabbins, it stood where Tiberias 
afterward stood, but there seems little 
authority for this statement, and no 
trace of that name has been found in 
the neighborhood. See Tiberias. 

RAK'KON (thinness), a city of Dan, 
probably not far from Joppa. Josh. 19 : 
46. Conder claims to have recovered 
the site of Rakkon at Tell er-Rakkeit, 
on the shore north of Joppa. It is a 
high point covered by an accumulation 
of blown sand, and situated near the 
mouth of the turbid river Aujeh, or 
" yellow water." 

RAM (high, exalted). 1. A descend- 
ant of Judah, and son of Hezron, 1 Chr. 
2:9, 10; called Aram in Matt. 1 : 3, 
4 ; Luke 3 : 33. 

2. A descendant of Judah, and son 
of Jerahmeel. 1 Chr. 2 : 25, 27. 

3. One to whose kindred Eliphaz be- 
longed, Job 32:2; identified by some 
with Aram. Gen. 22 : 21. 

RA'MA,a Greek form of "Ramah." 
Matt. 2 : 18. 

RAMAH (high place), the name of 
several towns in Palestine. 

1. A city of Benjamin near to Gibeah, 
and occupied once by Saul. Josh. 18 : 25 ; 
Jud. 19 : 13 ; 1 Sam. 22 : 6. It was on 
a site naturally strong ; was fortified by 
Baasha, but the king of Judah stopped 
the work through the co-operation of the 
Syrians. 1 Kgs. 15 : 17-22 ; 2 Chr. 16 : 
1-6. At the capture of Jerusalem by 
Nebuchadnezzar the captives were 
placed under guard at Ramah ; among 
them was the prophet Jeremiah. Jer. 
39:8-12; 40:1. It was here his 
prophecy was fulfilled, "A voice was 
heard in Ramah, lamentation and 
bitter weeping." Jer. 31 : 15. This 
prophecy was again illustrated and 
fulfilled by the slaughter of the inno- 
cents at Bethlehem when Jesus was 
born. Matt. 2 : 17, 18. Ramah was re- 
occupied after the Captivity. Ezr. 2 : 
26 ; Neh. 7 : 30. The town has been 
identified with er-Ram, about 5 miles 
north of Jerusalem, where broken 
columns, many large hewn stones in 
the houses, and other ancient remains 
are to be found. The village is a small 
and miserable one, having only about 



fifteen families, but the view from it is 
very extensive. 

2. The birthplace, home, and burial- 
place of the prophet Samuel, the word 

; being a contraction of " Rainathaim- 
| zophim." 1 Sam. 1:1; 2 : 11 ; 7 : 17 ; 
8:4: 15 : 34; 16: 13; 19: 18; 25: lj 
I 28. Stanley says that the position of 
I this Ramah is the most complicated and 
| disputed problem of sacred topography. 
The place was on an eminence south of 
Gibeah, the birthplace of Saul, and is 
also said to be " of Mount Ephraim," a 
district, however, without defined boun- 
daries. 1 Sam. 1 : 1, 19. The following 
sites for Ramah have been proposed: 
(1) Neby-Samicil. 4 miles north-west of 
Jerusalem, where it is placed by the 
common tradition of Muslims, Jews, 
and Christians, and Grove is inclined 
to favor it; (2) Er-Ram, which is the 
same as Ramah, No. 1; (3) Ramleh, 2 
miles south-west of Lydda ; (4) Ramah, a 
short distance above Bethlehem ; (5) the 
" Frank mountain," 3 miles south-east 
| of Bethlehem, a site favored by Ge- 
I senius; (6) Ramet el-Khalil, a group of 
| ruins a little north of Hebron, favored 
by Walcottand Van de Velde; (7) Rama, 
a village 3£ miles west of Sanur, favored 
by Schwarze; (8) Ram-allah, 5 miles 
north of Neby-Samwil, favored by Ewald; 
(9) Seba, 6 miles west of Jerusalem, pro- 
posed by Robinson. In the seventeenth 
century Neby Samwil was pointed out as 
| the site of Ramathaim-zophim, which 
| would connect it with this Ramah, but 
in the fourteenth century Ramathaim- 
zophim was shown at Ramleh. 

3. A place on the border of Asher, 
probably not far from Tyre. Josh. 19 : 
29. Robinson places this Ramah at the 
modern village Rameh, about 13 miles 
south-east of Tyre, which the Pal. Me- 
moirs call Rdmia, and accept it as the 
site of Ramah. 

4. A fortified place of Naphtali. Josh. 
19 : 36. It may be identical with the 
modern village of Rameh, 10 miles 
north-west of the Sea of Galilee and 

[ on the road to Akka. 

5. A name for Ramoth-Gilead, which 
J see. 2 Kgs. 8 : 28, 29. 

6. A place mentioned in Neh. 11 : 33 
as reinhabi'ted by Benjamites after their 
return from exile. 

RAMATHA'IM-ZO'PHIM 
(double height of the watchers), the full 
723 



£AM 



HAP 



name for Ramah, No. 2, which see. 1 
Sam. 1:1. 

RA'MATHITE, a native of Ra- 
mah. 1 Chr. 27 : 27. 

RAMATH-LEHI (hill of Lehi), 
the place where Samson slew a thousand 
Philistines with a jaw-bone. Jud. 15 : 17. 
Probably ' Ayun Kara. See Lehi. 

RAMATH-MIZ'PEH {height of 
the watch-toicer), a frontier-town in Gad. 
Jos. 13 : 26. Dr. Merrill identifies it 
with Kidat er Rubad, a ruin on Wady 
'Ajliln, about 10 miles east of the Jordan 
and between the two seas. 

RA'MATH OF THE SOUTH, 
a place in the southern border of Simeon. 
Josh. 19 : 8 ; 1 Sam. 30 : 27. In the latter 
passage it is called " South Rainoth" to 
distinguish it from Ramoth beyond Jor- 
dan. It has been identified with Jebel 
Barabir, a hill 45 miles south-west of 
Beer-sheba, and also with Kurmul, 20 
miles south-east of Beer-sheba; and 
lastly, with Tell el-Lekiyeh, near Beer- 
sheba. 

RAM, BATTERING. Eze.4:2; 
21 : 22. See Battering-ram. 

RAME'SES (son of the sun), a prov- 
ince and city in Egypt ; called also 
RAAMSES. Gen. 47: 11; Ex. 12: 37; 
Num. 33 : 3, 5. It was without doubt 
identical with Goshen as a district. If 
a city, Rameses was in the valley which 
extends from the Pelusiac branch of the 
Nile to the Red Sea or the Bitter Lakes 
of Suez, and was probably the capital 
of Goshen. See Gen. 45 : 10. Its precise 
location has not been determined. It 
has been proposed to identify it with — 
(1) Letopolis, now Baboul, a few miles 
south of On; (2) with On; (3) with 
Heroopolis, about 20 miles north-west 
of the Bitter Lakes ; (4) at Zoan, or 
the modern San, a theory maintained 
by Dr. Brugsch; (5) with a ruin near 
Abbasah. 

RAMI'AH (Jehovah exalted), one 
who had married a foreign wife. Ezr. 
10:25. 

RAMOTH (heights), one who had 
married a foreign wife. Ezr. 10 : 29. 

RAMOTH. 1 Sam. 30 : 27. See 
Remeth. 

RA'MOTH-GII/EAD (height of 
Gilead), a city of the Amorites, and 
afterward a chief city of Gad, east of 
the Jordan, and given to the Levites, 
and also made a city of refuge. Deut. 4 : 
724 



43 ; Josh. 20 : 8. It was also called 
Ramah. 2 Kgs. 8 : 29 ; 2 Chr. 22 : fi. It 
was the headquarters of one of Solomon's 
commissariat-officers. 1 Kgs. 4 : 13. It 
came into possession of the Syrians, and 
Ahab and- Jehoshaphat formed an alli- 
ance to recover it, but Ahab was mortally 
wounded. 1 Kgs. 22 : 2-36 ; 2 Chr. 18. 
Later, Joram was wounded at the same 
place, and the city was taken. Jehu was 
in command, and anointed king of Israel 
by order of Elisha. 2 Kgs. 8 : 28; 2 Chr. 

22 : 5, 6. Ramoth-gilead has been 
identified by many travellers with Es- 
Salt, though this has been questioned. 
Es-Salt is situated about 25 miles east 
of the Jordan, and 13 miles south of the 
Jabbok. It is now the most important 
and populous place in that district, and 
is the capital of Belka and the residence 
of a Turkish governor of the third rank. 
The place lies 2740 feet above the level 
of the sea, has a healthy climate, and 
a large population, given chiefly to agri- 
culture, among which are 300 to 400 Arab 
families and a few nominal Christians. 
There are some ruins of the Roman 
period, and a castle on the top of a hill. 
The hills around it bear many traces of 
ancient rock-tombs. Three miles to the 
north-west is Jebel Jilad, 3650 feet in 
height, and said to be the highest emi- 
nence in Gilead. Dr. Merrill, however, 
identifies Ramoth Gilead with Gerosh, 
about 25 miles north-east of Es Salt. 

RAMS' HORNS. See Trumpet. 
RANGES, 2 Kgs. 11 : 8, 15 ; 2 Chr. 

23 : 14. means "ranks of soldiers." 
RAN'SOM, the price paid to pur- 
chase the freedom of a captive or slave. 
Matt. 20 : 28 ; Mark 10 : 45 ; 1 Cor. 6 : 19, 
20 ; 1 Tim. 2 : 6. Under the Levitical law, 
an offering was required of every Israelite 
over twenty years of age at the time the 
census was taken. This offering is called 
a ransom or atonement-money. Ex. 30 : 
12-16. It amounted to half a shekel, or 
about twenty-five cents. It was to be 
made upon penalty of the plague; and 
every person, rich or poo;-, was required 
to give that sum, and neither more nor 
less. 1 Pet. 1:18, 19. 

RAPHA (tall). 1. A descendant 
of Benjamin. 1 Chr. 8 : 2. 

2. A descendant of Saul. 1 Chr. 8 : 37. 

RAPHAEL (the divine healer) is, 
according to Jewish tradition, one of 
the four angels who stand around the 



BAP 



EEA 



throne of God (Michael, Uriel, Gabriel, 
Raphael). The name is not in the Bible. 

RA'PHU {healed), father of the 
Benjamite spy. Num. 13 : 9. 

RA'VEN (black). Cant. 5 : 11. 
Under this term are evidently included 
the various birds of the crow family, 
some eight or more species of which are 
found in Palestine. 

The raven, like most of its congeners, 
feeds principally on carrion. It resembles 
our crow in size, shape, and color, and 



is ceremonially unclean. Lev. 11 : 15. 
When about to feed upon a dead body, 
it is said to seize first upon the eyes. 
Hence the allusion, Prov. 30 : 17, im- 
plying the exposure of the body in the 
open field, than which nothing was re- 
garded as more disgraceful. See Burial. 
Ravens live in desolate regions, Isa. 
34 : 11, and it is only by restless flight 
over large areas that they are able to 
obtain even an uncertain living. Job 
38 : 41 ; Ps. 147 : 9 ; Luke 12 : 24. But 




Raven. (Corvus Corax. After Houghton.) 



they do not, as has been believed, turn 
their young from the nest before they 
are able to supply themselves with food. 

Whether the raven sent out of the ark 
by Noah ever returned to him is not 
agreed : according to the literal reading 
of the Hebrew, also of the Samaritan 
text, and the Chaldee, it did; but a 
different opinion is supported by the 
LXX., the Syriac, the Latin, and most 
of the Fathers. Gen. 8 : 7. 

There is no reason for questioning the 
simple statements of 1 Kgs. 17 : 4-7 con- 
cerning the miraculous feeding of Elijah 
at the brook Cherith by these birds. 

RA'ZOR. The usage of shaving the 
head after completing a vow must have 



established the barber's trade quite early 
among the Hebrews. The instruments 
used were exactly the same as in our 
days — the razor, the scissors, the basin, 
,and the mirror. Razors are mentioned 
in Num. 6:5; Jud. 13 : 5; 16 : 17; 1 
Sam. 1:11; Eze. 5 : 1, and figuratively 
in Ps. 52 : 2 ; Isa. 7 : 20. See Hair. 

REAI'A (whom Jehovah cares for), 
a descendant of Reuben, and son of 
Micah. 1 Chr. 5 : 5. The name is iden- 
tical with — 

REAI'AH. 1. A descendant of 
Judah through his son Shobal. 1 Chr. 
4:2. 

2. One whose children returned with 
Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 47 : Neh. 7 : 50. 
726 



REA 



EED 



REAP'ING. See Agriculture. 

RE'BA (the fourth), one of the five 
Midianite kings whom the Israelites 
slew. Num. 31 : 8 ; Josh. 13 : 21. 

REBECCA. Rom.9:10. See Re- 

BEKAH. 

REBEK'AH (a cord with a noose, 
enchaining), the daughter of Bethuel, 
sister of Laban, and wife of Isaac. The 
circumstances of her marriage with Isaac 
constitute one of the most charming and 
beautiful passages of the sacred history. 
Gen. 24. After she had been married 
twenty years without children, she be- 
came the mother of Jacob and Esau. 
AVhen they grew up Jacob became the 
favorite of his mother, and this undue 
partiality was the source of much mis- 
chief. She persuaded him to obtain his 
father's blessing by practising a deceit, 
and he had to flee for fear of his brother's 
revenge. She died before Isaac, and was 
buried in Abraham's tomb. Gen. 49 : 31. 

RECEIPT OF CUS'TOM. 
Matt. 9 : 9. See Publican. 

RE'CHAB (horseman). 1. The 
father or ancestor of Jehonadab. 2 Kgs. 
10 : 15, 23 ; 1 Chr. 2 : 55 ; Jer. 35 : 6-19. 

2. One of the captains who conspired 
to murder Ish-bosheth. 2 Sam. 4 : 2. 

3. One who assisted in repairing the 
walls of Jerusalem. Neh. 3 : 14. 

RE'CHABITES, THE, were a 
tribe of Kenites or Midianites, 1 Chr. 
2 : 55, descended from Jonadab, or Jeho- 
nadab, the son or descendant of Rechab, 
2«Kgs. 10 : 15, from whom they derive 
their name. They were worshippers of 
the true God, practised circumcision, and 
stood within the covenant of Abraham, 
but they were not reckoned as children 
of Israel, and perhaps they did not feel 
themselves bound by the Mosaic Law 
and ritual. The introduction of the 
worship of Baal by Jezebel and Ahab 
was a horror to them. 

Jonadab appears to have been very 
zealous for the pure worship of God, and 
was associated with Jehu in the destruc- 
tion of the idolatrous house of Ahab. 
He established a rule for his posterity 
that they should possess neither land 
nor houses, but should live in tents, and 
should drink no wine or strong drink. 
In obedience to this rule, the Rechab- 
ites continued a separate but peaceable 
people, living in tents and removing 
from place to place as circumstances re- 
726 



quired. When Judsea was first invaded 
by Nebuchadnezzar they fled to Jerusa- 
lem for safety, where it pleased God, 
through the prophet Jeremiah, to exhibit 
them to the wicked inhabitants of Jeru- 
salem as an example of constancy in 
their obedience to the mandates of an 
earthly father. Jer. 35 : 2-19. 

Some highly -interesting facts are 
known respecting the present condition 
of the Rechabites. They still dwell in 
the mountainous tropical country to the 
north-east of Medina. They are called 
Beni Khaibr, " sons of Heber," and 
their land is called Khaibr. They have 
no intercourse with their brethren, the 
Jews, who are dispersed over Asia, and 
are esteemed as "false brethren " because 
they observe not the Law. 

RECHAH (utmost part), a place, 
apparentlv in Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 12. 

RECONCILE, Eph. 2 : 16, 
RECONCILIATION. Heb. 2 : 17. 
These terms imply the restoration of 
man to the favor and grace of God 
through the atonement made by Jesus 
Christ. Reconciliation is a change of 
relation of two parties from enmity to 
peace. It is twofold — man-ward and 
God-ward. God is reconciled to man 
by the satisfaction of his justice through 
the atoning sacrifice of Christ ; man 
is reconciled to God as his loving 
Father, as exhibited in the sacrifice 
of his Son, which removes distrust and 
creates gratitude and love. Both sides 
are combined in 2 Cor. 5 : 18-20 : comp. 
Rom. 5 : 11, where the English Version 
renders the Greek word by " atonement" 
(which is etymologically correct, but 
not according to modern theological 
usage). 

RECORD'ER, the annalist of the 
king, and also his councillor, and an 
officer who stood thus very high in the 
kingdom, as is manifest from the 
commissions entrusted to him, such 
as representing the king and super- 
intending temple-repairs. Compare 2 
Sam. 8:16; 20 : 24 ; 1 Kgs. 4 : 3 ; 2 
Kgs. 18 : 18, 37; 2 Chr. 34: 8. 

RED HEIF'ER. See Offering. 

RED SEA, a long, narrow arm of 
the ocean separating Asia from Africa. 
It was called by the Hebrews " the sea," 
Ex. 14 : 2, 9, 1*6, 21, 28 : 15 : 1, 4, 8, 10, 
19 ; Josh. 24 : 6, 7, etc. ; the " Egyptian 
Sea," Isa. 11 : 15, but especially the " Sea 



KED 



EED 



of Suph," apparently so named from the 
wool-like weeds growing in it. Ex. 10 : 
19 ; 13 : 18 ; 15 : 4, 22 ; 23 : 31 ; Num. 
15 : 25; 21 : 4, etc. The Greeks applied 
" Eruthra Thalassa" or "Red Sea" to 
it in common with the Persian Gulf and 
the Indian Ocean ; in the N. T. it is ap- 
plied to the western gulf, now known as 
the "Red Sea." Acts 7 : 36 ; Heb. 11 : 29. 
This name is derived, perhaps, from the 
red coral or zoophytes in the sea, or, as 
some conjecture, from Edom, which sig- 
nifies " red." The Egyptians called it 
the "Sea of Punt" or Arabia, and the 
Arabs " Bahr el Hejaz," or "El-bahr el- 
Ahmar." See Map of Sinai, at the end 
of this volume. 

Physical Features. — The Red Sea con- 
sists of a long, narrow arm of the Indian 
Ocean, projecting north-west inland a 
distance of 1450 miles. It is connected 
with the ocean by the narrow strait of 
Bab-el-Mandeb, only 18 miles wide. The 
sea, at its greatest breadth, is 221 miles; 
toward its northern end it gradually 
contracts, and then divides into two 
arms — the Gulf of Akabah on the east, 
and the Gulf of Suez on the west, the 
latter extending to within 70 miles of 
the Mediterranean. Between these two 
arms is the Sinaitic peninsula. The Red 
Sea covers an area of about 180,000 
square miles, and is at some places 
1000 fathoms deep, but its average 
depth is from 400 to 600 fathoms. The 
shores are flanked by a network of 
submerged coral-reefs and islands ex- 
tending a long way from the coast 
and rendering the navigation of the 
sea perilous, especially in its narrower 
parts. The western of the two arms, 
now called the Gulf of Suez, is 150 
miles long, and about 20 miles in 
average breadth. An ancient canal 
once connected the Nile with this arm 
of the Red Sea. It was built, as some 
suppose, by the Pharaohs, and is cer- 
tainly known to have been in use for 
navigation in the fourteenth century 
before Christ. It was about 62 Roman 
miles in length, 54 feet wide, and about 
7 feet deep. It has been recently utilized 
in the construction of a modern canal. 
A greater ship-canal, opened in 1869, 
now connects the Mediterranean Sea 
with the Red Sea at Suez. The eastern 
arm, called the Gulf of Akabah, is 105 
miles long and about 15 miles wide. 



No rivers fall into the Red Sea, but a 
large number of rain-torrents run into 
it. The water is a blue color, remark- 
ably clear, and changing to green near 
the shoals or reefs. Notwithstanding 
assertions to the contrary, the sea has 
been shown to be subject to the tides, 
the difference between high and low tide 
being from 3 to 7 feet. The north 
wind prevails in summer in the northern 
part of the sea; the south-east wind in 
winter, especially in the southern part 
of the sea ; but the north-west is most 
prevalent in this part of it in winter. 

The coasts of the Red Sea are chiefly 
barren rock or sand, and therefore gen- 
erally destitute of inhabitants. A short 
distance inland the mountains are from 
4000 to 7600 feet high. There are only 
two or three towns of consequence in 
the entire 1400 miles of its African side. 
Suez, a town of 14,000 inhabitants, 
Kb'ser, the harbor of Upper Egypt, with 
1200, Sanakim, a seaport of Soudan, 
with 10,000, and Masau'a, a port of 
Abyssinia, with 5000, are the only towns 
of any size on the African shore. There 
are few also on the Arabian side, the 
most important being Jedda, where the 
Muslims point out a stone structure 
called "Eve's Tomb," a building of 
comparatively recent times. The mother- 
of-pearl shells were once very abundant, 
but have diminished of late, from the 
eagerness of fishermen in prosecuting 
their trade. Many curiously-colored 
shells are also gathered and sold as 
curiosities to travellers — among them 
the murex, the "porcelain shell," the 
pink war dam — and black, purple, and 
white coral is very abundant. 

One of the most important questions in 
regard to the physical features of the Red 
Sea is the extent of its northern extrem- 
ity. Formerly it was maintained that 
the land at the head of the Gulf of Suez 
had gradually risen and the sea retired. 
How much farther north it extended 
in historic times was not definitely 
determined, but it was estimated at 
not less than 50 miles, which would 
narrow the land at the isthmus to about 
20 or 25 miles in width. The repeated 
explorations of the isthmus seemed 
to show that in the times of Moses 
the sea included the " Lake of the 
Crocodile" and the more southern of the 
" Bitter Lakes," as then the northern 
727 



RED 



RED 



end of the Red Sea, but this is now 
sharply disputed. 

Scripture References. — The grand event 
associated with the Red Sea is the pas- 
sage of the Israelites and the overthrow 
of the Egyptians. Ex. 14, 15. This 
miraculous event is frequently referred 
to in the Scriptures. Num. 33 : 8 : Deut. 
11 : 4; Josh. 2:10: Judg. 11 : 16 : 2 Sam. 
22 : 16 ; Neh. 9 : 9-1 1 : Ps. 66 : 6 : Isa. 10 : 
26 ; Acts 7 : 36 ; 1 Cor. 10 : 1, 2 ; Heb. 11 : 
29, etc. The place of the crossing has been 
a matter of much controversy. It should 
be remarked, as preliminary to this dis- 
cussion, that the head of the gulf is 
probably at least 50 miles farther south 
than it was at the time of the Exodus. 
If the Red Sea then included the Bitter 
Lakes of Suez and the Birket et-Timsah 
("Lake of the Crocodile"), the cross- 
ing may have been farther north than 
would now appear possible. Thus the 
predictions of Isaiah, 11 : 15 : 19 : 5, 
" The Lord shall utterly destroy the 
tongue of the Egyptian Sea," " The 
waters shall fail from the sea," are 
fulfilled. 

Stanley says that the place of passage 
has been extended by Arab tradition 
down the whole Gulf of Suez. 

The following are the principal theories 
respecting the place of crossing of the 
Red Sea: 

1. The modern theory of Schleiden, 
revived by Brugsch, that the Israelites 
did not cross the Red Sea, but the Ser- 
bonian bog. This conflicts with the 
plain narrative of Scripture, which says 
they crossed the Red Sea. And it also 
requires that Rameses be transferred to 
Zoan, about 40 miles farther north than 
Brugsch had positively fixed it from the 
inscriptions, in his earlier works. 

2. The tradition of the peninsular 
Arabs, which places the crossing south 
of Jebel Atakdh. But the physical 
features of the country are against this 
place, for the mountains shut down to the 
sea, leaving only a foot-path impractica- 
ble for such a host to pass, and this moun- 
tain extends for about 12 miles. 

3. M. de Lesseps puts the passage be- 
tween the Crocodile Lake and the Bitter 
Lakes, while M. Ritt finds it along the 
dike at Ghaloof. If the Red Sea extended 
to these points, its depth and breadth 
then have not been proved sufficient to 
meet the scriptural conditions. 

728 



4. Others, as Niebuhr, Laborde, Well- 
sted, Robinson, Hengstenberg, Tischen- 
dorf, Ewald. Kurtz, Keil, Schatf, Bartlett, 
place the crossing in the neighborhood of 
Suez. This general locality seems to meet 
the requirements of the narrative. Rob- 
inson made a thorough investigation, 
and concluded that the place of passage 
was near the small arm of the sea which 
runs up from Suez. A strong north-east 
wind, acting upon the ebb-tide, would 
drive out the water from the shallower 
part, while the deeper portions would 
still remain covered, thus constituting 
a wall (or defence) to the Israelites on 
the right hand and on the left. Others 
insist upon the likelihood of the cross- 
ing from Wddy Taiodrik, farther south, 
since it is argued that a sea at least 
12 miles broad would have been needed 
to overwhelm the whole army of the 
Egyptians. 

But so many have been the changes 
of this region in the lapse of ages that 
it will not probably be possible to de- 
cide with certainty upon the exact spot. 
Either of the two points last suggested, 
in Robinson's opinion, " satisfies the con- 
ditions of the case: in either the deliver- 
ance of the Israelites was equally great 
and the arm of Jehovah alike gloriously 
revealed." 

After crossing, the Israelites marched 
down and encamped on the east side of 
the Red Sea (Gulf of Suez). Num. 33 : 
10. From the way of the Red Sea came 
locusts, Ex. 10 : 12-19, and the quails 
which supplied them with food came 
from the same source. Num. 11 : 31. 
They journeyed by the way of the Red 
Sea (the eastern arm or Gulf of Akabah) 
to compass Edom. Num. 21 : 4. In the 
prosperous reign of Solomon he "made 
a navy of ships" at Ezion-geber and 
Elath, which were ports at the head of 
the Gulf of Akabah. 1 Kgs. 9 : 26 ; 10 : 
22: 2 Chr. 8 : 17. 18. 

RED SEA, PASSAGE OF. 
See Exonrs, Route of. and Red Sea. 

REDEE3I', REDEEMER, 
REDEMPTION. In the O. T. these 
terms are specially applied to the repur- 
chase of an estate, a field, which had come 
into some stranger's possession. Ac- 
cording to the Mosaic Law, the original 
owner of such an estate or his descend- 
ants, or even his nearest kinsmen, still 
retained a right of proprietorship, which 



EEE 



EEG 



they could enforce after ransoming the 
estate — that is, by paying back the sum 
for which it had been sold. Hence arose 
a number of metaphorical applications 
of the terms referring to this relation 
between God and his people, the chil- 
dren of Israel, whom he redeemed from 
the bondage of Egypt. Ex. 6:6; Isa. 
43 : 1 ; 44 : 22 : 48 : 20. 

In the N. T. the terms generally refer 
to the repurchase of the freedom of a 
person. To purchase a person's liberty 
for him is to redeem him, and the price 
paid is called the ransom. Sinners are in 
bondage to sin, but Christ, having given 
his blood or his life as a ransom for them, 
redeems them, and is therefore called their 
Redeemer. Matt. 20 : 28; 1 Pet. 1 : 18. 
This ransom has an infinite value, being 
the work of the God-man, and is sufficient 
to redeem all men from captivity; but it 
is efficient and available only for the re- 
demption of such as accept and appro- 
priate it by a living faith in Christ Jesus, 
and walk not after the flesh, but after the 
Spirit, 

REED, used generically for various 
tall plants of the grass or sedge order. 
See Bulrush, Flag, Rush. Eishpoles, 
canes, and rods, Matt. 27 : 29, are formed 
of it. These plants flourish in marshes 
or in the vicinity of water-courses : hence 
the allusion, Job 40 : 21. It is often used 
by the sacred writers to illustrate weak- 
ness and fragilitv. 2 Kgs. 18 : 21 ; Isa. 
36 : 6 : 42 : 3 ; Eze. 29 : 6 ; Matt. 12 : 
20. 

Reeds were also used to make pens of 
(see Pen), and also as measuring-rods. 
Eze. 40 : 5. See Measures. From their 
height and slender shape, plants of this j 
kind are moved by the slightest breath ; 
of wind, 1 Kgs. 14 : 15, and hence noth- 
ing could be more unimportant in itself j 
than such a motion, and nothing more | 
strikingly illustrative of fickleness and j 
instability. Comp. Matt. 11 : 7 and Eph. I 
4: 14. 

The true reed of Egypt and Palestine J 
{Arunclo donax) has a slender jointed 
stalk like bamboo, about 12 feetin height, \ 
with a fine large brush of bloom at the 
top. This flexible stalk often lies pros- 
trate before the wind, ready to rise again 
at the first lull. About the perennial 
waters of the Holy Land there are often 
dense canebrakes of this plant, in the 
midst of which wild beasts find their 



lairs. With one or more hollow tubes 
of reed, musical instruments are con- 
structed by the youth of the country, 
and it is likely that David first learned 
to plav on a similar primitive reed-organ. 

REED, MEASURING. Eze. 40 : 
5. See Measures. 

REELA'IAH (whom Jehovah makes 
tremble), one who returned with Zerub- 
babel, Ezr. 2:2: identical with Raamiah, 
in Neh. 7 : 7. 

REFIN'ER. This word is often 
used figuratively by the sacred writers. 
Its peculiar force in the passage Mai. 
3 : 3 will be seen when it is remembered 
that refiners of silver sit with their eyes 
steadily fixed on the furnace that they 
may watch the process, and that the pro- 
cess is complete and perfected only when 
the refiner sees his own image in the 
melted mass. Similar passages occur. 
Isa. 1:25: Zech. 13 : 9 ; Jer. 6 : 29, etc. 

REFUGE, CITIES OF. Num. 
35. See City. 

RE' GEM {friend), a descendant of 
Judah, and son of Jahdai. 1 Chr. 2 : 47. 

RE'GEM-ME'UECII {friend of 
the king), one of the persons who were 
sent by' those in captivity to make in- 
quiries at the temple. Zech. 7 : 2. 

REGENERATION. This term 
occurs only in Matt. 19 : 28 and Tit. 3 : 
5. As used by Matthew, it refers to the 
renovation or consummation of all things 
at Christ's second advent, when there 
shall be "new heavens and a new earth." 
" The washing of regeneration," in the 
latter passage, signifies the new birth 
from above or from the Holy Spirit, 
who makes us new creatures in Christ 
Jesus. Other words conveying precisely 
the same idea are of frequent occurrence. 
Our Saviour says to Nicodemus, " Ex- 
cept a man be born again" (or rather, 
"from above," "from God"), "he cannot 
see the kingdom of God." John 3 : 3. 
Christians are described as born of God, 
John 1 : 12, 13 ; 1 John 2 : 29 ; 5 : 1, 4. 
They are also represented as begotten 
of God or by the word of God. Jas. 1 : 
18; 1 Pet. 1:3, 23. And the same thing, 
in substance, is presented under the idea 
of a new creation, 2 Cor. 5:17; a re-, 
newing of the mind, Rom. 12 : 2 ; a re- 
neAving of the Holy Ghost, Tit. 3 : 5 ; a 
resurrection from the dead, Eph. 2:6; 
a being quickened, etc. Eph. 2 : 1, 5. 
Regeneration, then, may be regarded as 
729 



KEH 



REH 



the communication of spiritual life to a 
soul previously dead in trespasses and 
sins by the almighty energy of the Holy 
Spirit, making use of the word of truth 
as an instrument ; in consequence of 
which divine operation, the soul begins 
to apprehend spiritual things in a new 
light, to believe them in a new manner, 
to love them with an affection not before 
felt, and to act henceforth from new mo- 
tives and for new ends. 

REHABI'AH (whom Jehovah en- 
larges), a descendant of Moses. 1 Chr. 
23 : 17. 

RE'HOB [street, broad place). 1. 
The father of Hadadezer, king of Zobah. 
2 Sam. 8 : 3, 12. 

2. A Levite who sealed the covenant 
with Nehemiah. Neh. 10 : 11. 

RE'HOB (broad place), the name 
of three towns. 

1. The extreme place reached by the 
spies. Num. 13 : 21. It is named also 
Beth-rehob. 2 Sam. 10 : 6, 8. Accord- 
ing to Robinson, it was near Tell el- 
Kady, at the castle of Hunin, in the 
mountains west of the marsh of the 
Huleh, and in the upper Jordan valley. 
Thomson suggests that it was at Banias. 

2. A place in Asher. Josh. 19 : 28. It 
was probably near to Sidon. 

3. Another town of Asher, given to 
the Gershonite Levites. Josh. 19 : 30 ; 
21 : 31. 

REHOBO'AM (enlarger of thepeo- 
ple), a son of Solomon by the Ammonite 
princess Naamah, 1 Kgs. 14 : 21 ; ascend- 
ed the throne after the death of his fa- 
ther, at the age of forty-one, and reigned 
seventeen years, b. c. 975-957. It ap- 
pears that the taxes which Solomon had 
laid on the people had become an oner- 
ous burden ; and when Rehoboam went 
down to Shechem to be anointed and 
crowned, the representatives of the ten 
tribes met him with a unanimous de- 
mand for relief in the taxation. It is 
also probable that this proceeding of the 
ten tribes was influenced by the strong 
jealousy which reigned between Eph- 
raim and Judah. The accession of Da- 
vid to the throne, and the transference 
of the ark and the royal residence to 
Jerusalem, had given the tribes of Ju- 
dah and Benjamin a decided promi- 
nence, and Ephraim felt very sore. The 
situation was critical, and Rehoboam 
showed himself utterly incapable of 
730 



managing it. Following the advice of 
his younger courtiers, he gave a most 
insolent answer, the effect of which 
was that the ten tribes revolted, leaving 
Judah and Benjamin alone in their al- 
legiance to him. He at once proposed 
to employ force for the purpose of re- 
ducing the rebels, but was admonished 




Kehoboam. (From Sculptures at Karnak.) 
The inscription has been read, " Kingdom of 
Judah." 

by the prophet Shemaiah to forbear. 1 
Kgs. 12 : 24. Continual wars, however, 
prevailed between the two parties, and 
a still greater calamity soon fell on the 
head of the unhappy king. Allured by 
the enormous riches which Solomon had 
accumulated in Jerusalem, and prob- 
ably also instigated by Jeroboam, the 
Egyptian king Shishak, the founder of 
the twenty-second dynasty, invaded Ju- 
dah. Jerusalem was taken, and Reho- 
boam had to buy an ignominious peace 
by surrendering all the royal treasures. 
This victory of Shishak is found com- 
memorated by artistic representations 
on the side of the great temple of Kar- 
nak. 

REHO'BOTH (wide places), a 
name for three places. 

1. A well belonging to Isaac, and the 
third dug by him. Gen. 26 : 22. It has 
lately been identified, 16 miles south of 
Beersheba, at the head of the great Wddy 
Refah, and is now known as er-Ruheibeh. 
Near some stone ruins is an ancient well, 
the troughs and other masonry which still 



EEH 



EEN 



remain being of immense proportions, 
and apparently of very great antiquity. 
One of the troughs is round and the other 
circular, and cut in solid blocks 6 feet by 
5 feet and 5 feet high. Palmer states that 
the appearance of the masonry, which is 
more massive and antique than any other 
in the neighborhood, renders it probable 
that it is the well which Isaac dug. 
Though Robinson could not find it, 
Stewart and Rowlands each found it, as 
an ancient well and 12 feet in circumfer- 
ence ; but it was so built over and filled 
with rubbish that neither Palmer nor 
Drake could at first discover it. 

2. " Rehoboth by the river," mentioned 
as the home of Saul or Shaul, an early 
king of the Edomites. Gen. 36 : 37; 1 
Chr. 1:48. The "river" is supposed 
to be the Euphrates. The name is 
represented by Rahabah, attached to two 
places on the Euphrates, one 28 miles 
below the junction of the Khabour and 
3 miles from the western hank; the 
other lower down, on the eastern side. 
The former is perhaps the true site of 
ancient Rehoboth. 

3. The "city Rehoboth," one of the 
four founded by Asher or Nimrod. Gen. 
10 : 11, 12. The text has been variously 
explained. Some regard it as denoting, 
not a separate city, but the " streets of 
the city" — that is, of Nineveh; others 
prefer to regard it as a distinct city. 
Rawlinson would identify it with Sele- 
miyah, near Kalah, which has extensive 
ruins. 

RE'HUM {compassionate). 1. One 
who returned with Zerubbabel, Ezr. 2:2; 
called Nehum in Neh. 7 : 7. 

2. The chancellor who wrote to Arta- 
xerxes in order to prevent the rebuilding 
of the walls and temple of Jerusalem. 
Ezr. 4 : 8, 9, 17, 23. 

3. A Levite who assisted in repairing 
the wall of Jerusalem. Neh. 3 : 17. 

4. One who signed the covenant with 
Nehemiah. Neh. 10 : 25. 

5. A priest who returned with Zerub- 
babel, Neh. 12 : 3 ; called Harim in v. 
15. 

RE'I {friendly), one who remained 
true to David when Adonijah rebelled. 
1 R>s. 1 : 8. 

REINS. The reins or kidneys were 
considered by the Hebrews to be the 
seat of certain affections and emotions 
which we attribute to the heart. Hence 



a number of peculiarly Hebrew expres- 
sions. Ps. 7:9; 16:7; Jer. 17:10; 20: 
12. 

RE'KEM {variegation, flower-gar- 
den). 1. One of the Midianite kings 
who were slain by the Israelites. Num. 
31 : 8 ; Josh. 13 : 21. 

2. A descendant of Judah, and son of 
Hebron. 1 Chr. 2 : 43. 

RE'KEM {flower-gardening), a city 
of Benjamin. Josh. 18 : 27. Its site is 
unknown. 

REMALIAH {whom Jehovah 
adores), father of Pekah. 2 Kgs. 15 : 25, 
27, 30, 32. 37 : 16 : 1, 5 ; 2 Chr. 28 : 6 ; 
Isa. 7 : 1, 4, 5, 9 ; 8:6. 

REMETH {height), a town of Issa- 
char, Josh. 19 : 21 ; possibly the same 
with Ramoth, 1 Chr, 6 : 73, and the 
Jarmuth of Josh. 21 : 29, where it is 
named as a Levitical city. The Pal. Me- 
moirs suggest Er Rdmeh, a conspicuous 
village on a hill, 5 miles north-west of Sa- 
maria, as its site. The village is of mode- 
rate size, with olives below near the plain. 

REM'MON {pomegranate), a city 
of Simeon. Josh. 19 : 7. See Rimmon, 
No. 1. 

REM'MON-METH OAR, a 
landmark of Zebulun. Josh. 19 : 13. 
"Methoar" is not a part of the proper 
name, and the clause should read, 
" Remmon which reaches to Neah." See 
Rimmon, No. 2. 

REMPHAN, occurring only in 
Acts 7 : 43, which is a quotation from 
Am. 5 : 26, where the corresponding 
word in the Hebrew is " Chiun." It is 
probable, therefore, that they are in- 
terchangeable names for a god wor- 
shipped secretly by the Israelites in 
Egypt and in the wilderness, answer- 
ing, probably, to Saturn or Moloch, the 
star-god. Some refer this worship to 
the time of Amos. 

REND. To rend the garments, or 
"tare" them, 2 Sam. 13 : 31, was from 
the earliest period a sign of grief or 
penitence. Jacob and David did it on 
various occasions, and so did Joshua, 
Josh. 7 : 6, and Hezekiah. 2 Kgs. 19 : 1. 
The high priest was forbidden to rend 
his clothes, Lev. 10 : 6 ; 21 : 10, prob- 
ably meaning his sacred garments. Per- 
haps those referred to in Matt. 26 : 65 
were such as were ordinarily worn, or 
merely judicial and not pontifical gar- 
ments. Sometimes " rending " denoted 
731 



EEP 



KEP 



anger or indignation mingled with 
sorrow. 
REPENT', REPENTANCE. 

The Greek word so translated means 
literally " to perceive afterward," hence 
"to change one's mind." In the Bible 
it designates the turning from sin to 
God, or conversion. It is the beginning 
of the preaching of John the Baptist and 
of Christ. Matt. 3 : 2 ; 4 : 17 ; Mark 1 : 15. 
It implies, 1. A knowledge of sin and 
guilt: 2. A deep sorrow for it; and 3. A 
determination to break with it and to 
begin a new life of obedience and holi- 
ness. This is " repentance unto life." 
Acts 11: 18; 26 : 20. 

Dr. A. A. Hodge thus distinguishes 
between repentance and conversion : 
" 1. Conversion is the more general 
term, and is used to include the first 
exercises of faith, as well as all those 
experiences of love of holiness and 
hatred of sin, etc., which are consequent 
upon it. Repentance is more specific, 
and expresses that hatred and renuncia- 
tion of sin and that turning unto God 
which accompanies faith as its conse- 
quent. 2. Conversion is generally used 
to designate onl_v the first actings of the 
new nature at the commencement of a 
religious life, or at most the first steps 
of a return to God after a notable back- 
sliding, Luke 22 : 32, while repentance 
is applied to that constant bearing of the 
cross which is one main characteristic 
of the believer's life on earth. Ps. 19 : 
12, 13 ; Luke 9 : 23 ; Gal. 6 : 14 : 5 : 24." 
— Outlines of Theology, enlarged ed., p. 
489. 

God is said to repent. Gen. 6:6: Jon. 
3 : 9, 10. This, however, is merely 
attributing to God human ideas. He 
cannot truly repent, since he never does 
wrong and is unerring wisdom. But 
God's actions, looked at from earth, may 
appear to indicate a change of purpose. 

The "repentance" of Judas, Matt. 
27 : 3, shows that one may sorrow over 
sin and its terrible consequences without 
thereby gaining spiritual life. This is 
the sorrow which leads to despair. 

RE'PHAEL {whom God heals), a 
Levite poster. 1 Chr. 26 : 7. 

RE'PHAH {riches), a descendant 
of Ephraim. 1 Chr. 7:25. 

REPHAI'AH {whom Jehovah 
healed). 1. A descendant of David. 1 
Chr. 3:21. 
732 



2. A Simeonite chieftain in the reign 
of Hezekiah. 1 Chr. 4:42. 

3. A descendant of Issachar. 1 Chr. 
7:2. 

4. A descendant of Saul, 1 Chr. 9 : 43 ; 
called Rapha in 1 Chr. 8 : 37. 

5. The son of Hur, and ruler of the 
half part of Jerusalem. Neh. 3 : 9. 

REPH'AIitI {giants), the name of a 
race of giants who lived east of the Jor- 
dan. Chedorlaomer defeated them. Gen* 
14 : 5. Their land was promised to Abra- 
ham's seed. 15 : 20. At some time before 
Israel's coming they were driven out of 
their possessions, Deut. 2 : 10 ( Heb.), and 
lived in the West of Palestine, where 
they had possessions. Josh. 15 : 8. See 

REPHAIM, VAI/LEY OF. It 

is first mentioned in Josh. 15 : S ; 18 : 16, 
and there translated " the valley of the 
giants." It was one of the landmarks 
of the land of Judah : named after the 
Rephaim, or " giants," who at an early 
period were found on both sides of the 
Jordan. Comp. Gen. 14:5; Deut. 3: 
11-13; Josh. 13 : 12; 17 : 15. David 
twice defeated the Philistines in this 
valley. 2 Sam. 5 : 17-25 ; 23 : 13 ; 1 Chr. 
11 : 15, 16; 14 : 9-16. The valley was 
noted for its fertility. Isa. 17 : 5. Its 
position as a boundary of Judah would 
indicate it to have been south of the 
valley of Hinnom. On the road to Beth- 
lehem there is a cultivated plain about 
a mile long, bordered on both sides by 
hills, and gradually sloping into a deep 
valley at the south-west, called Wddy el- 

Werd, or " the valley of roses." This 
plain is called Beka'a by the Arabs, and 
since the sixteenth century an attempt 
has been made to identify it with the 
valley of Rephaim. Tobler proposed to 
identify Rephaim with the Wddy der 

Yasin, to the west-north-west of Jeru- 
salem, but this would contradict the 
account of Josephus, and the other 
location is quite generally accepted. 

REPH'IDIM {rests, refreshments), 
the last station of the Israelites before 
reaching Sinai, and where Moses smote 
the rock and the Amalekites were de- 
feated. Ex. 17 : 1, 8-16. The location 
of this station and of the battle-field has 
been a difficult problem in biblical geog- 
raphy. The members of the British 
Ordnance party, after a thorough scien- 
tific survey of the whole region, con- 



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eluded that the battle of Rephidim must 
have been fought in one of two places. 

1. In the Wddy Feiran. — This place 
was approved as the site of Rephidim 
by all of the party except the Rev. F. 
W. Holland, and this has been the pre- 
valent view ever since the fifth century. 
Feiran is rather a broad valley, and 
would furnish a practicable route for a 
large body like the Israelites, going from 
the wilderness of Sin into the mountain- 
region, where they received the Law. 
The Amalekites would regard themselves 
as threatened by such a company, and 
would attempt' to defend their country. 
The Feiran would be a strong military 
position. In this deep valley they might 
defend themselves from invasion, secure 
from the danger of a flank attack. Pal- 
mer discovered an Arab tradition point- 
ing to the rock from which Moses 
brought the water, Ex. 17 : 1, 8, at a 
place called Hesy el-Khattatin. Bedouins 
say of this rock, which is found a few 
miles before the fertile part of the valley 
commences, "Our lord Moses smote it, 
and water miraculously flowed from the 
stone." Nearly opposite Wddy Aleyat, 
which comes into Feiran from the south, 
is a mountain, Jebel Tahunah, which the 
British party consider to be the hill on 
which Moses sat and surveyed the battle, 
while Aaron and Hur held up his hands. 
There are churches and chapels on this 
hill, which mark it as a very sacred 
spot in the eyes of the old inhabitants 
of Paran, and Antoninus Martyr, in 
the seventh century, mentions a chapel 
built there in honor of Moses. This spot 
is 25 miles from Sinai (Jebel Musa), 
which would be more than a day's 
journey; but Palmer thinks there was 
a break in the march, Ex. 19 : 2, and 
that the operations of "pitching in the 
wilderness" and "encamping before the 
mount" were separate and distinct. 
Rephidim has been located in Feiran by 
Stanley, Ritter, Stewart, Lepsius, and 
others. See Sinai. 

2. In Wddy es-Sheikh. — This is an 
easterly continuation of Wady Feiran, 
and is the site advocated for the battle 
of Rephidim by Rev. F. W. Holland. It 
includes the pass of el- Watiyeh, a narrow 
defile 300 yards long and from 40 to 60 
yards wide, having a level bed, but en- 
closed on either side by perpendicular 
rocks. A conspicuous hill on the north 



side of the defile is observed, at the foot 
of which the Arabs point out a rock that 
they call "the seat of the prophet 
Moses." This is about 12 miles from 
Sinai (Jebel Musa), and hence within a 
day's journey. Ex. 19 : 2 ; Num. 33 : 15. 
; Robinson, Keil, Delitzsch, Porter, and 
others locate Rephidim in some part of 
'• this vallev es-Sheikh. 

RE'SEN (bridle), a noted Assyrian 
city between Nineveh and Calah. Gen. 
10 : 12. Rawlinson, who places Calah 
at Nimrud and Nineveh immediatel}- 
opposite Mosul, would locate Resen be- 
tween the two, near the village of Sela- 
1 miyeh, about 3 miles north of Nimrud, 
where are Assyrian ruins. Fergusson 
! identifies Calah with Kalah Sherghat, 
! and Resen with Nimrud. Some have 
conjectured that the four cities of Gen. 
10 : 12 were all afterward combined 
under the one name "Nineveh," and 
that "the great city" referred to this 
united whole. Instances of such con- 
solidation have been numerous enough 
1 to render this theory plausible. 

RESHEPH (flame, lightning), a 
descendant of Ephraim. 1 Chr. 7 : 25. 

RESTITUTION, an act of justice 

by which a wrong done is repaired, and 

that which has been unjustly taken from 

a person restored to him. The Mosaic 

j Law demanded that, in case of theft, the 

: restitution should be fourfold, and. in 

I cases of carelessness the amount was 

graduated according to guiltiness. Ex. 

! 22:1-15. 

RESURRECTION. The resur- 
rection of the dead, both of the just and 
! unjust, is a fundamental doctrine of the 
! Christian faith, and is most fully set 
j forth by St. Paul. 1 Cor. 15. It is in- 
; separable from the doctrine of the 
I immortality of the soul, and gives it its 
necessary completion. If the dead rise 
! not, then is not Christ raised; and if 
! Christ is not raised, then is our faith 
| vain : we are yet in our sins. 

No truth is more clearly and forcibly 
i presented in the Scriptures, and no fact 
j is better and more decisively proved in 
history, than is the resui-rection of Jesus 
Christ. 1. It was prophesied. Ps. 16 : 
\ 10, 11 ; Acts 2 : 25-32. 2. Christ him- 
self repeatedly and distinctly foretold 
; it. Matt. 16 : 21 : 20 : 19. 3. The pre- 
cautions of his enemies to prevent it, 
the failure of all these precautions, and 
733 



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the measures taken to disprove the event, 
prove it. 4. The abundant, decided, and 
consistent testimony of witnesses who 
could not be deceived, and who had no 
inducement to deceive others, and all 
this in the face of every danger. 5. The 
change which took place in the minds 
and conduct of the apostles between the 
crucifixion and the first Pentecost, and 
which would be wholly inexplicable if 
the resurrection had not taken place. 
6. The supernatural evidences arising 
from the fulfilment of the promise that 
the Holy Spirit should be poured out on 
them all attest th<? same truth. 7. The 
Christian Church could never have been 
founded without the fact of Christ's 
resurrection, and is a constant living 
proof of it. 

Thus the resurrection of Christ from 
the dead is clearly proved ; and, being 
proved, it ratifies and confirms in the 
fullest manner the truth and divinity of 
his character and mission, shows the 
efficacy of his atonement, is an evidence, 
earnest, and example of the resurrection 
of his people, John 14 : 19, and imports 
that all judgment is committed into his 
hand. Acts 17 : 30, 31. 

Among the Jews, at the time of our 
Lord, the Sadducees altogether rejected 
the doctrine of the immortality of the 
soul and the resurrection of the dead, 
but the Pharisees and the great mass 
of the people had accepted it ; and 
traces of this doctrine, more or less 
vague, we find not only among the peo- 
ple of the covenant, but also among 
the heathen, and from the very earliest 
times. Indeed, so deep-rooted is the 
natural conviction of the human mind 
on this point that no nation, people, or 
tribe have ever yet been found who do 
not, in some form, recognize the doc- 
trine of a state of existence after the 
death of the body; and this conviction 
is satisfactorily met only by the simple 
and sublime doctrine of our holy relig- 
ion, which brings life and immortality 
to light. 

REU (friend), a patriarch in the line 
of Abraham's ancestors. Gen. 11 : 18-21 ; 
1 Chr. 1 : 25. 

REU'BEN (beJiold a son!) was the 
eldest son of Jacob and Leah. Gen. 29 : 
32. He lost the privileges of birthright 
in consequence of a grievous sin. Gen. 
35 : 22 ; 49 : 3, 4. In spite of his im- 
734 



pulsiveness, however, he was kind of 
heart, as shows his relation to the con- 
spiracy against Joseph. Gen. 37 : 18-30 ; 
42 : 37. It was said of Reuben by his 
father Jacob, " Unstable as water," Gen. 
49 : 4, and Deborah and Sisera sang in 
reproach of Reuben, Jud. 5 : 15, 16; the 
tribe, at times, showed military prowess 
and extended its boundaries. 1 Chr. 5 : 
1-10, 18-22. At the first census in the 
wilderness his descendants, the Reuben- 
ites. or the tribe of Reuben, numbered 
46,500, Num. 1 : 20, 21, but at the sec- 
ond census they had decreased to 43,730. 
The Reubenites soon became wealthy 
herdsmen, but they were averse to war, 
Jud. 5 : 15, 16, and were the first who 
were carried away into captivity. 

REU'BEN, TERRITORY OF. 
The region allotted to this tribe in the 
Promised Land lay on the east side of 
the Jordan and the Salt Sea. It ex- 
tended from the river Arnon on the 
south, beyond the Wddi/ Heshban on 
the north, reaching to the possessions 
of the tribe of Gad, and from the Jor- 
dan valley it stretched eastward indefi- 
nitely to the desert. The allotment is 
described in Josh. 13 : 15-21 ; comp. 
Num. 32 : 37, 38. This region had been 
held by the Moabites, who were driven 
out by Sihon, king of the Amorites, and 
he in turn was dispossessed by the Is- 
raelites. Num. 21 : 24; Deut. 3 : 16, 17; 
Josh. 13 : 15-28. This district consist- 
ed of three parts — the low l-egion along 
the sea and the river, the mountains, and 
beyond them, to the east, an extensive 
rolling plateau known as the Belkah, 
well watered and abounding with forest 
and pasture-land well adapted for herds- 
men. It included the fertile plains of 
Medeba, fourteen important towns, be- 
sides the "cities of the plain," and the 
entire kingdom of the Amorites. It was 
excellent for grazing, having fine pasture- 
land. Among its prominent towns were 
Medeba, Heshbon, Dibon, Baal-meon, 
Beth-peor, Bezer, Jahazah, and Kede- 
moth. A notice of these cities will be 
found under their respective titles. 

The people of this territory were aid- 
ed in conquering it by the entire body 
of the Israelites, and they in turn aided 
their brethren in conquering Western 
Palestine when they returned to their 
own country, erecting a stone memorial, 
in connection with other tribes east 



HEU 



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of the Jordan, to note the common in- 
heritance. Josh. 22 : 10-34. For an 
account of the tribal history, see pre- 
vious article. Their territory has only 
been partially explored, but the finding 
of the " Moabite Stone" at Dibon, and 
the many ruins with which the surface 
of the whole region is strewn, give prom- 
ise of rich results when carefully and sci- 
entifically explored. 

REITBENITES, descendants of 
Reuben. Num. 26 : 7 ; Josh. 1 : 12 and 
elsewhere. 

REUEL {friend of God). 1. One 
of the sons of Esau by his wife Bashe- 
math. Gen. 36 : 4, 10, 13, 17; 1 Chr. 1 : 
35, 37. 

2. Ex. 2 : 18. See Jethro. 

3. Num. 2 : 14. See Deuel. 

4. A Benjamite chief. 1 Chr. 9 : 8. 
REU'MAH {exalted), the concubine 

of Nahor, Abraham's brother. Gen. 22 : 
24. 

REVELATION. God has re- 
vealed himself in the works of creation, 
Ps. 19 : 2; comp. Rom. 1 : 19, 20; Acts 
14:17; 17:26-28; in the conscience 
of man, Rom. 2 : 14, 15; comp. John 
1:9; 8:9; and in the history of nations 
and of the world. Acts 14 : 17; comp. 
John 1 : 5, 10. But this triple revela- 
tion, though a most precious guidance 
intellectually and morally, never leav- 
ing man wholly without testimony of 
God, is, nevertheless, only an indirect 
revelation, requiring the interpretation 
of human reason and liable to its mis- 
takes. The full revelation of God is 
found only in his holy word, Ps. 119 : 
105 ; comp. Ps. 19 : 8, 9, and in the per- 
son of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, 
2 Pet. 1 : 19 ; 2 Tim. 3 : 15-17 ; Heb. 1 : 1, 
2:4: 12, 13, a direct revelation breaking 
miraculously through nature and his- 
tory, and laying hold miraculously in 
the conscience of man on a new life. 
This revelation is the foundation of our 
religion, which is therefore of divine 
origin and authority. All religions 
claim to be founded on revelation, but 
only the Jewish religion of the old cov- 
enant and the Christian religion are 
really revealed by God. All heathen 
religions are religions of Nature, the 
outgrowth of the human mind groping 
in the dark after the unknown God. 

REVELATION OF ST. JOHN. 
1. Contents. — This is the last and the 



most mysterious book of the Bible. It 
is the divine seal of the whole. It is 
for the N. T. what Daniel is for the O. 
T. It gathers up all the former proph- 
ecies and extends them to the remotest 
future. It represents the Church in 
conflict with the great secular powers. 
It unrolls a sublime panorama of Christ's 
victorious march through the world's 
history, till the appearance of the new 
heaven and the new earth, when the 
aim of creation and redemption shall 
be fully realized. The theme is the di- 
vine promise " I come quickly," with the 
corresponding human praj'er, "Even so, 
come, Lord Jesus." It gives us the as- 
surance that the Lord is coming in every 
great event, and overrules all things for 
his glory and the ultimate triumph of 
his kingdom. 

2. Character and A im. — The beginning 
and the end of Revelation are as clear 
and dazzling as the sunlight, but the 
middle is dark and mysterious as mid- 
night, yet with the stars and the full 
moon shining from the firmament. The 
book reminds one of the chiaroscuro of 
the great painters, and of a mantle of 
the richest black broidered all over with 
brilliant jewels. The epistles to the seven 
churches, chs. 1-3, the description of the 
heavenly Jerusalem, chs. 20, 21, and the 
interspersed lyric anthems and doxolo- 
gies, 4 : ] 1 ; 5 : 12-14 ; 7 : 12 ; 14 : 13, etc., 
are as sublime, inspiring, beautiful, and 
familiar as are any portions of the Scrip- 
tures. They are sufficient to prove the 
divine inspiration of the whole. But 
the bulk of the book is full of puzzling 
enigmas which will not be satisfactorily 
solved before the millennium. In the 
light of fulfilment we shall understand 
this prophetic panorama of Church his-, 
tory, but not before. Nevertheless, the 
Revelation answers an important prac- 
tical purpose, just as the prophecies of 
the O. T. (notwithstanding their obscu- 
rities, which gave rise to all sorts of 
conflicting interpretations), did to the 
Jews, before Christ's first coming, man- 
na in the wilderness and a light shining 
in darkness. The history of exegesis 
shows that the situation of the Church 
materially influenced the interpretation 
and application of this wonderful book, 
and that it is in every age of the 
Church, especially in periods of perse- 
cution, a book of hope and comfort to 
735 



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all who are waiting for the coming of 
our blessed Lord. 

3. Authorship.— The ecclesiastical tra- 
dition (Papias, Justin Martyr, Melito of 
Sardes, Irenaeus, Tertullian, Clement of 

^Alexandria, Origen) ascribes the Reve- 
lation to John the beloved disciple. 
This is confirmed by the testimony of 
the book itself. 1:4, 9 ; 21 : 2 ; 22 : 8. 
It is true he does not call himself an 
apostle, but simply a servant of Christ, 
but he appears as the superintendent of 
the churches in Asia Minor, banished, 
for the testimony of Jesus, to Patmos, 
and entrusted with the most important 
visions of the future ; all of which is only 
applicable to John the apostle, and not 
to some obscure "Presbyter John." It 
is true there are internal difficulties, espe- 
cially the discrepancy between the style 
of the Apocalypse — which is strongly 
Hebraistic — and the style of the fourth 
Gospel, which is purer Greek. But we 
must remember the difference of the 
subject, the intimate connection of the 
Apocalypse with the Hebrew prophecies 
of Daniel and Ezekiel, and the fact that 
John was "in the spirit" when the Rev- 
elation was dictated to him. Moreover, 
there are, on the other hand, some strik- 
ing resemblances between the style of 
the Apocalypse and that of the Johan- 
nean writings — e. g., the name " Word " 
[Logon), as applied to Christ. 

4. Place and Time of Composition. — 
The visions were received on the island 
of Patmos, in the iEgean Sea, about 24 
miles west of the coast of Asia Minor. 
See Patmos. The time of composition 
was, according to the testimony of Ire- 
naeus (about 170), Eusebius and Jerome, 
the end of the reign of Domitian, about 
a. d. 95, who banished several Chris- 
tians to inhospitable climes. This date 
answers the character of the book, which 
treats of the last things as if intended for 
the conclusion of the N. T., but strong 
internal evidence has led some modern 
scholars to the conclusion that it must 
be assigned to a much earlier date — viz. 
to the year 68 or 69 A. n., before the 
destruction of Jerusalem (a. d. 70), but 
they differ as to the particular emperor 
under whom it was written, whether it 
was Nero (the supposed Antichrist) or 
Galba or Vespasianus, and they regard 
the book simply as a prophetic descrip- 
tion of the approaching downfall of an- 

736 



cient Judaism (Jerusalem) and heathen- 
ism (Rome), and the succeeding reign 
of Christianity on earth as the true mil- 
lennium. John, no doubt, like all the 
Jewish prophets, took his starting-point 
from his age and surroundings, but his 
vision extended to the most distant fu- 
ture of the new'heavens and the new earth. 

REVENGE' is the most primitive 
mode in which crime is dealt with in 
society, and the whole tendency and 
spirit of the Mosaic Law goes to dis- 
courage and check it. This law per- 
mitted a man to execute punishment 
upon the slayer of any of his relatives, 
but for the purpose of restraining the 
blood-feuds common in the East at that 
day. In the N. T. the feeling of re- 
venge is strongly condemned. Matt. 
5 : 39. 

REVENUE. In its first days, up 
to the time of the kings, the Hebrew 
commonwealth knew of no public reve- 
nues. Imposts were made for religious 
purposes, but all public works, properly 
speaking, such as fortifications, or even 
the erection of the tabernacle, were made 
by free-will contributions. With the 
kings came the revenues. The revenues 
of Saul and David seem, however, to 
have consisted principally in war-spoils 
and presents, but Solomon introduced a 
regular system of taxation, which was 
continued under Persian and Roman 
rule. Ezr. 4:13. 

RE'ZEPH (stone heated for baking), 
a city which Sennacherib boasted to the 
Jews that he had subdued. 2 Kgs. 19 : 
12; Isa. 37 : 12. Its site is perhaps at 
Rasapha, a day's march west of the Eu- 
phrates, on the road from Raca to Hums. 

REZI'A (delight), a chieftain of 
Asher. 1 Chr. 7 : 39. 

WE' Zl~S (stable, firm). 1. King of Da- 
mascus ; allied himself with Pekah and 
defeated Ahaz, but was himself defeated 
by Tiglath-pileser II., his capital de- 
stroyed, and his people carried away 
into captivity. 2 Kgs. 15 : 37 ; 16 : 5-9 ; 
Isa. 7:1-8; 8:6; 9 : 11. 

2. One whose descendants returned 
with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 48; Neb., 7 : 
50. 

REZON (prince), son of Eliadah, 
revolted from Hadadezer, and, having 
enlisted a company of adventurers and 
made several incursions into the coun- 
try around Damascus, finally succeeded 



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in obtaining the crown, and became a 
sore vexation to Israel in the days of 
David and Solomon. 1 Kgs. 11 : 23. 

RHE'GIUM (breach), a city on the 
coast near the south-western end of 
Italy, and opposite Messina, on the 
north-eastern point of Sicily, from which 
it is separated by a strait 6 miles wide. 
The emperor Caligula proposed to make 
a port there for the Alexandrian corn- 
ships, but died before completing it. 
Paul was detained at this place for a 
day when on his voyage to Rome. Acts 
28 : 13. It is now called Rheggio, and 
is a flourishing commercial town and the 
capital of Calabria, having about 10,000 
inhabitants. 

RHE'SA (head), a name occurring 
in the genealogy of Jesus in Luke 3 : 27 ; 
probably not a proper name, but only a 
title. 

RHO'DA (rose, rose tree), a maid in 
the house of Mary, mother of John Mark. 
Acts 12 : 12-15. 

RHODES (a rose), a noted island 
in the Mediterranean, 13 miles from the 
coa^t of Asia Minor. It is 46 miles long, 
18 miles wide, and has an area of about 
420 square miles. The island is fertile, 
and carries on an extensive commerce. 
The city of Rhodes, at the western end 
of the island, was celebrated in the clas- 
sic age. It was founded about B. c. 400 
by the Dorians, and was very prosper- 
ous in the reign of Alexander. Jews 
were among its inhabitants during the 
Maccabaean period. Paul visited it on 
his return from his third missionary 
journey. Acts 21 : 1. He might have 
there seen fragments of the greatest of 
the Seven Wonders of the world — the 
famous Colossus of Rhodes. This was 
made of brass, and was 105 feet high. 
It stood at the right of the port as vessels 
entered, and not astride the channel, as 
so generally represented in pictures. It 
was erected B.C. 290, and overthrown by 
an earthquake b. c. 224. The city had 
also a beautiful temple of Apollo, built 
by Herod the Great. In the Middle ! 
Ages the city was held by the Knights j 
of St. John ; it was captured by the 
Turks in 1522, and is now under their j 
rule. The modern city is a place of j 
considerable trade, and the island has a ' 
population of about 30,000, of which j 
21.000 are Turks. 

RI'BAI {for whom Jehovah pleads), I 
47 



the father of Ittai the Benjamite. 2 Sam. 
23 : 29; 1 Chr. 11 : 31. 

RIB'LAH (fertility), an ancient city 
in the north-eastern frontier of Canaan. 
Num. 34 : 10, 11. Some regard it as 
being the same as Diblath, Eze. 6 : 14, 
but Conder places Diblath at the mod- 
ern ruin of Dili, while Riblah is 
identified with the modern town on the 
east bank of the Orontes 35 miles norih- 
east of Baalbek. The ancient town was 
upon the great road from Palestine to 
Babylon, and was a convenient military 
headquarters for the Babylonian kings 
and others invading the country. Here 
the Egyptian king Pharaoh-nechoh put 
Jehoahaz in chains and made Eliakim 
king, and here Nebuchadnezzar brought 
Zedekiah, murdered his sons before his 
eyes, then put out his eyes and bound 
him in chains to be carried to Babylon. 
2 Kgs. 23 : 29-35 ; 25 : 1-7 ; Jer. 39 : 
5-7. Riblah is now a mean and poor 
village in the midst of a plain of 
great feitility, and its position shows 
that it commanded the roads to Nineveh, 
Babylon, Phoenicia, and Palestine, mak- 
ing it of great strategic importance. 
About 10 miles west of Riblah is the 
great fountain of the Orontes. still called 
el-Ain, or "the fountain," which is sup- 
posed to be indicated by " on the east 
side of Ain." Num. 34 : 11. Grove 
thinks the Riblah which marked the 
boundary of the Promised Land could 
not have been as far north as Riblah in 
the land of Hamath, and he would look 
for the former near the Sea of Galilee, 
in the vicinity of Banias. No such 
place has been found in that region, 
and most authorities agree that there 
was but one Riblah, and hence that it 
was on the Oonles. as stated above. 

RIDDLE. The Orientals have 
always been fond of such exercises of 
ingenuity as were requisite to answer 
riddles. Hence it was quite in the order 
of things that Samson should propose 
one. See Samson's riddle. Jud. 14 : 
12-19. EzekieFs riddle, 17:2, was 
rather an allegorv. 

RIGHTEOUSNESS, Isa. 45: 23, 
is an essential attribute of the divine 
nature, and as it is frequently used is 
nearly allied to, if not the same with, 
justice, holiness, and faithfulness. Ps. 
119 : 1 42 ; Isa. 46 : 1 3 ; 51 : 5, 6, 8 ; 56 : 
1. The " righteousness which is of 
737 



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KIN 



faith," Rom. 10 : 6, is the righteousness 
which is obtained by the grace of God 
through faith in Jesus Christ. Rom. 3 : 
21-26; 10:4, 10; 2 Cor. 5:21; Gal. 
2 : 21. The word is also used to denote 
the perfect obedience of the Son of God. 
Rom. 5 : 18. ''Righteousness" is very 
c>mmonly used for uprightness and just 
dealing between man and man, as in Isa. 
60 : 1 7, and for holiness of life, as in Dan. 
4:27: Lnkelrfi : Rom. 14: 17; Eph. 5 : 9. 

RIGHT HAND. Ps. 21:8. The 
right hand is the symbol of power and 
strength, whence the effects of the divine 
omnipotence are often ascribed to the 
"right hand of the Most High." Ex. 
15 : 6; Ps. 77 : 10. The right hand com- 
monly denotes the south, as the left hand 
denotes the north. Gen. 14 : 15. It is 
said to have been the custom among the 
Jews to swear by the right hand, and 
that this is implied in Isa. 62 : 8. It was 
certainly common to swear by the hand. 
Gen. 14 : 22 ; Deut. 32 : 40. To give the 
right hand was a mark of friendship. 
Gal. 2 : 9. Hence the force of the ex- 
pression, Ps. 144 : 8 : " Their right hand 
is a right hand of falsehood." The right 
hand being a most useful member of the 
body, especially to laboring-men, to cut 
it off implies the greatest sacrifice. 
Matt. 5 : 30. To be seated at the right 
hand is a token of peculiar honor, I Kgs. 
2 : 19 ; and when the expression is used 
respecting Christ, Acts 7 : 55, it implies 
his unequalled dignity and exaltation. 

RIM'MOX {pomegranate). 1. The 
name of an idol worshipped in Damas- 
cus. 2 Kgs. 5:18. Naaman, who was 
in the habit of attending the king in his 
idolatrous services in the temple of Rim- 
mon, seems to have been perplexed about 
a question of duty as to continuing this 
practice. See Naaman. 

2. A Benjamite, father of the two men 
who slew Ish-bosheth. 2 Sam. 4 : 2, 5, 9. 

ROl'MON (pomegranate), a name 
of not less than three places. 

1. A town in Judah, afterward given 
to Simeon. Josh. 15 : 21, 32 ; 19:7; 1 
Chr. 4:32; Neh. 11:29; Zech. 14:10. 
Some have identified this with the ruin 
Umm er-R&m&min 13 miles south-west 
of Hebron, and nearly the same distance 
north-east of Beer-sheba. On the top of 
the hill are foundations of important 
buildings, and also rock-cut cisterns. 
Two miles south are two other hills, 
738 



containing ruins and a fine spring with 
a reservoir. 

2. A Levitical city in Zebulun. 1 Chr. 
6 : 77. It is also called Remmon-meth- 
oar. Josh. 19 : 13. It is identified with 
the present village liumiuaneh, about 6 
miles north of Nazareth. 

3. A rock whither the 600 surviving 
Benjamites retreated after the slaughter 

i of their tribe. Jud. 20 : 45, 47; 21 : 13. 
Its site is at the modern village H amnion, 
about 10 or 15 miles north of Jerusalem, 
on a limestone hill visible in all direc- 
tions, having rugged sides difficult of 
ascent and deep valleys around it. The 
houses cling to the sides as huge steps. 
The view from the top of the hill is ex- 
tensive. 

RIM'MON-PA'REZ (pomegran- 
ate of the breach), an encampment of the 
Israelites in the wilderness. Num. 33 : 
19, 20. The phrase probably refers to 
some special breaking forth of the wrath 
of God, as at Korah's rebellion. Re- 
land suggests that it ma_y be found at 
Jebel Ikhrimm, 75 miles south-south- 
west of Beer-sheba. 




Rings and Signets. 
1, 2. Assyrian Rings in the Rriti^h Museum. 3, i. 
Forcelain Rings. 5. 6, 7. Egyptian Kings, with im- 
pressions from them. 

RINGS were used for ornaments and 



KIN 



HOD 



&s seals. When used for ornament, they 
Were worn not only on the fingers and 
in the ears, but also around the wrists 
and ankles and in the nostrils. Isa. 3 : 
20, 21 ; Luke 15 : 22 ; Jas. 2:2. As a 
seal the ring became a token of authority, 
and the giving of a ring the sign of im- 
parting authority. Gen. 41 : 42 ; Esth. 
3 : 10, 12; Dan. 6 : 17. See Clothes. 

RIN'JVAH {shout), a descendant of 
Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 20. 

RI'PHATH (a crusher), a son of 
Gomer. Gen. 10 : 3. His descendants 
have by some been identified with the 
Ripheans, the old name of the Paphla- 
gonians ; by others they have been located 
in the Rhiepean Mountains, north of the 
Caspian Sea. 

RIS'SAH (a ruin, a worm), a, station 
of Israel. Num. 33 : 21, 22. It has been 
identified with the Roman Rasa, 30 
miles from Elath, near the hill now 
named Ras el-Kaa, or "head of the 
plain," north-west of Ezion-geber. Wil- 
ton would place it &t'Ain el-Jughamileh, 
125 miles south-south-west of Beer- 
sheba; Reland locates it at el-Kusaby, 
55 miles south-west of Beer-sheba. 

RITH'MAH (broom), a station of 
Israel, Num. 33 : 18, 19, named from 
retem or rethem, "the broom," a species 
of low bush growing in the wilderness. 
Some regard it as being the same a? 
" Kadesh " of Num. 13 : 26 ; Rowlands 
suggests that it is at Sahel er-Retmah, 
west of 'Ain Kadesh, which he makes 
Kadesh. 

RIVER OF EGYPT. This 
phrase is found five times in the English 
Bible, and is the translation of two 
Hebrew terms. 

1. Nahar Mizraim, rendered "river" 
in Gen. 15 : 18, and usually denoting a 
perennial stream; hence it perhaps re- 
fers to the Nile, and to the Pelusiac 
branch of the Nile, as the eastern limit 
of the territory promised to Abraham, 
but which his posterity never occupied, 
possibly because of its desert character. 

2. Nahal Mizraim. Num. 34 : 5: Josh. 
15 : 3, 4, 47 ; 1 Kgs. 8:65; 2 Kgs. 24 : 7. 
This phrase does not denote a perennial 
stream, but usually a torrent bed, either 
partially or totally dry in summer, and 
having a running stream only in the 
rainy season. Nahal, therefore, exactly 
corresponds with the Arabic word wddy, 
for which we have no English equivalent. 



Hence " Nahal Mizraim," or "torrent of 
Egypt," is generally used in Scripture 
to designate the old boundary between 
Palestine and Egypt, and is identified 
with the modern Wddy el-Arish, which 
drains the great central basin of the 
desert, between the passes oiJebel et-Tih 
and Sinai. The various toddies of this 
region unite in one, but without forming 
a perennial stream, and the torrent-bed 
reaches the Mediterranean about 40 miles 
south-west of Gaza, and nearly midway 
between the Red Sea and the eastern 
branch of the Nile. 

RIZ'PAH, a concubine of Saul who 
watched day and night for many months 
(probably from March to October) over 
the bodies of her two sons, who had been 
put to a violent death by the Gibeonites. 
2 Sam. 21 : 10, 11. 

ROAD means " raid " in 1 Sam. 27 : 
10. Our " road " is, in the A. V., always 
"path" or " way." 

ROBBERS OF CHURCHES. 
See Churches. Robbers of. 

ROBBERY is one of the chronic 
troubles in Palestine, where the Bedouin 
of to-day are robbers. The 0. T. reveals 
a similar state of things during the pe- 
riod of the Judges, when might was 
right. Some of the inhabitants were 
" liers in wait," who robbed "all that 
came along that way." Jud. 9 : 25. 
Hosea and Micah, by a few touches, 
paint a sad picture of pillage and rob- 
bery in the northern kingdom in their 
day. The Romans did not improve 
matters, but rather made them worse; 
and incidental notices in the N. T. 
prove the insecurity of person and 
property in Palestine in the first cen- 
tury. Luke 10 : 30; John 18 : 40 ; Acts 
5 : *36. 37 ; 21 : 38 ; 2 Cor. 11 : 26. The 
"thieves" between whom our Lord was 
crucified were highway robbers. Matt. 
27 : 38. 

One of the usual camping-places, a 
day's journey north of Jerusalem, is 
called the " Fountain of the Robbers." 

ROBE. 1 Sam. 24 : 4. See Mantle. 

ROB'OAM, the Greek form of 
" Rehoboam." Matt. 1 : 7. 

ROD means a shoot or branch of a 
tree, and in this sense it is applied figu- 
ratively to Christ, Isa. 11 : 1, and to the 
tribes of Israel as springing from one 
root. Ps. 74 : 2 ; Jer. 10 : 16. Meaning 
also a staff, it is used as a symbolical 
739 



HOD 



ROM 



expression for that which supports and 
strengthens, Ps. 23 : 4; Isa. 3:1; Eze. 
29 : b* ; for power and authority, Ps. 2 : 
9 ; 110 : 2 ; 125 : 3 ; Jer. 48 : 17 ; Eze. 
19:14; 1 Cor. 4:21; Rev. 2 : 27 ; and 
for the afflictions with which God disci- 
plines his people. Job 9 : 34; comp. Heb. 
12 : 6, 7. The phrase "passing under 
the rod," Eze. 20 : 37, originated from 
the manner in which the Jews used to 
select the tenth of their sheep. Lev. 27 : 
32. The lambs were separated from the 
and enclosed in a sheepcote with 



only one narrow way out; the dams were 
at the entrance. On opening the gate 
the lambs hastened to join their dams, 
and a man placed at the entrance 
touched every tenth lamb with a rod 
dipped in ochre, and so marked it with 
his rod, saying, " Let this be holy in the 
name of the tenth." 

ROD'ANIM occurs in some copies, 

1 Chr. 1 : 7, instead of " Dodanim." 
ROE, ROE'RUCK (beauty), an 

animal especially fleet of foot, 2 Sam. 

2 : 18 ; 1 Chr. 12 : 8, and elegant in form. 




M, 



Roe, or Gazelle. (Gazella Dorcas. After Wood.) 



Cant. 2 : 9, 17 ; 8:14. The gazelle ( Gn- 
zella dorcas) satisfies these and all other 
requirements, and is still very abundant 
in Palestine and adjacent regions. The 
Jews might use the roe as food, Deut. 
12 : 15, 22 ; it was hunted, Isa. 13 : 14; 
"it is amiable, affectionate, and loving, 
by universal testimony," Prov. 5:19; 
and it has ever been admired for its 
beauty, which is the meaning of its He- 
brew name. " Tabitha " or " Dorcas " 
means " a gazelle." Acts 9: 36. 

RO'GEL [a fuller) occurs in the 
margin to 1 Kgs. 1 : 9 instead of " En- 
rage'." 

ROGE'LIM, a town of Gilead, 
the home of Barzillai. 2 Sam. 17 : 27; 
19 : 31. 

740 



ROH'GAH (outcry), an Asherite 
chieftain. 1 Chr. 7 : 34. 

ROLL.. Jer. 36 : 2. See Books. 

ROLLS, HOUSE OF. See House. 

ROMAN CITIZENSHIP. See 
Citizenship. 

ROMAN E M PIRE. The empire 
of Rome arose from the republic, or 
commonwealth, and succeeded the Mace- 
donian empire, which was founded by 
Philip and Alexander, in extending its 
sway over the greater part of the then 
known world. The references to the 
Roman dominion in the Bible chiefly 
allude to the empire in its earlier his- 
torv. including the reigns of Augustus, 
Tibe-ius, Claudius, and Nero. 

The extent and power of the empire 



ROM 



ROM 



during this period were greater than at 
any earlier, and possibly than at any 
later, time. It reached to the Atlantic 
on the west, the Euphrates on the east, 
the African desert, the Nile cataracts, 
and the Arabian deserts on the south, 
the Rhine, the Danube, and the Black 
Sea on the north. It also conquered 
Great Britain, leaving Germania on the 
north and Parthia on the east as semi- 
independent powers. Gibbon estimates 
the population of the empire in the reign 
of the emperor Claudius at 120,000,000. 
When a country was conquered by Rome 
it became a subject province, governed 
by officers appointed by the authorities 
at Rome. Occasionally, however, the 
local rulers were left in possession of 
their territory, subject to the Roman 
power. Augustus divided the provinces 
into two classes — 1. Imperial; 2. Sena- 
torial. He retained in his own hand 
provinces requiring a large military 
force, giving the more peaceful prov- 
inces to the control of the Roman sen- 
ate.' Among the provinces of the impe- 
rial class were Gaul, Lusitania, Syria, 
Phoenicia, Cilicia, Cyprus, and Egypt. 
Among the senatorial provinces were 
Africa, Numidia, Asia, Achaia and Epi- 
rus, Dalmatia, Macedonia, Sicily, Crete 
and Cyrene, Bithynia and Pontus, Sar- 
dinia and Boeotia. Many changes, how- 
ever, were made in these provinces at 
various periods ; as, for example, Cyprus 
and Gallia ceased to be imperial and 
became senatorial provinces, while Dal- 
matia ceased to be a senatorial and be- 
came an imperial province. These divis- 
ions of the country are referred to by 
the N. T. writers, who speak of the rulers 
of senatorial provinces as anthvpatoi, or 
"proconsuls;" the ruler of an imperial 
province is styled h eg en> on. or " governor." 
Cyrenius is called " governor of Syria," 
Luke 2:2; Pilate, Felix, and Festus are 
spoken of as "governors" — that is, pro- 
curators — of Judaea. Matt. 27 : 2 ; Acts 
23:24; 24:27. Three Roman emperors 
are named in Scripture, Augustus, Ti- 
berius, and Claudius. Luke 2:1; 3:1; 
Acts 11 : 28 ; 18 : 2. The emperor Nero 
is also alluded to as " Augustus " and 
"Caesar." Acts 25 : 10, 11, 21, 25, 26; 
Phil. 4 : 22. When Christ was born at 
Bethlehem, a general peace prevailed 
throughout the Roman dominions. The 
changes effected by that power largely 



contributed toward giving increased 
facilities for the spread of Christianity. 
Piracy and robbery had been suppressed, 
military roads constructed, efficient gov- 
ernments capable of executing the laws 
instituted, commerce had increased, the 
Latin language had spread in the West, 
as the Greek had already done in the 
East, and the condition of the people in 
all the civilized countries offered facilities 
never before known for the spread of a 
new religion. Under the preaching of 
the apostles, Christianity was made 
known in most of the Roman provinces 
of Asia Minor, in the south-eastern 
provinces of Europe, and as far west as 
Rome, and possibly even to Spain. It 
was likewise proclaimed in Africa, and 
eastward as far as Babylon. Thus the 
gospel was preached in apostolic days 
throughout the entire extent of the 
Roman empire. See Rome. 

ROMANS, EPISTLE OF 
PAUL TO THE, is the sixth in 
order of the books of the N. T. It was 
written at Corinth, a. d. 58, just as Paul 
was leaving that city for Jerusalem, 
and transmitted through Phoebe. Rom. 
15:25;comp. Acts 20:2,3,16; Rom. 
16 : 1, 23; 1 Cor. 1 : 14; 2 Tim. 4:20. 

It is the most important and most 
systematic of all the apostolic Epistles. 
It is the fullest exposition of the great 
truth that the gospel is a power of 
universal salvation on the sole condition 
of faith. In Rome, the mistress of the 
world, he proclaimed the gospel as the 
power of God, which alone can save; in 
Corinth, the city of philosophy and art, as 
the wisdom of God, which is wiser than all 
the wisdom of men. Ch.l: 16,17 containi 
the theme. Chs. 1 : 1 8 to 3 : 20 is the nega- 
tive part, showing the need of salvation 
or the general depravity of both Jews 
and Gentiles. Ch. 3 : 20 to the close of 
ch. 8 presents the positive part, and ex- 
hibits the saving grace of God in Christ, 
by which the believer is justified, sancti- 
fied, and glorified. Chs. 9-11 treat of the 
historical progress of Christianity from 
Jews to Gentiles, the rejection of the 
Jews in consequence of their unbelief, 
and their ultimate repentance and ac- 
ceptance after the fulness of the Gentiles 
has come in. The last five chapters 
contain practical exhortations of the 
greatest spiritual power and unction. 
The Epistle to the Romans is the bul- 
741 



ROM 



ROM 



wark of the evangelical doctrine of 
justification by faith. 

The origin of the Roman congregation 
is involved in obscurity. Its first mem- 
bers may have been converted on the 
day of Pentecost, since Jews from Rome 
were among the witnesses of the pente- 
costal miracle in Jerusalem. Acts 2 : 10. 
At all events, it was already a large and 
flourishing congregation when Paul 
wrote his Epistle. He had not been 
there, but intended to visit the metrop- 
olis of the world, and wrote this letter 
to prepare the way for his coming. He 
did visit Rome afterward, but as a 
prisoner of Jesus Christ, and sealed his 
testimony with his blood. 

The genuineness of the Epistle to the 
Romans is beyond all reasonable doubt. 
No man could have written it but Paul, 
and he could have written it only by 
inspiration. Luther called it "the chief 
part of the X. T. and the purest Gospel ;" 
Coleridge, " the most profound work in 
existence ;" Meyer, "the grandest, bold- 
est, and most complete composition of 
Paul." The Reformation of the sixteenth 
century was inspired by the Epistles to 
the Romans and Galatians. 

RO^IAMII-E'ZER (/ have ex- 
alted his help), son of Heinan and head 
of the twentv-fourth course of singers in 
the reign ofDavid. 1 Chr. 25 : 4, 31. 

ROllE, the celebrated city and capi- 
tal of the Roman republic and empire, 
and once the proud mistress of the world. 
It is situated on the river Tiber, about 
15 miles from its mouth. The ancient 
city was built upon seven hills. It was 
founded about 751 years before the 
Christian era; legendary history ascribes 
its founding to Romulus. The principal 
interest to the Bible-reader in the history 
of Rome relates to the X. T. period. 

Rome, in the N. T. times, was 
the capital of the empire in its greatest 
prosperity, and the residence of its em- 
perors. Among its inhabitants were 
many Jews. Acts 28 : 17. They had 
received the liberty of worship and 
other privileges from Caesar, and lived 
in the district across the Tiber, near 
the Porta Portese. At the time of 
Paul's visit the city had outgrown 
the old Servian wall, and consisted of 
an extensive and irregular mass of 
buildings unprotected by any outer city 
wall. This was a period between two 
742 



noted epochs in its history — the restora- 
tion by Augustus and that effected by 
Nero. It was the boast of Augustus 
that he found a city of brick and left 
one of marble. The streets are de- 
scribed as being at that time generally 
narrow and crooked, flanked by crowded 
lodging-houses of great height — so great 
that Augustus made a law limiting them 

i to 70 feet. Gibbon estimates the popu- 
lation of the city at this time as nearly 

! 1,200,000, of which probably one-half 

I were slaves, and the larger part of the 
remainder were paupers supported in 
idleness by an unwise system of public 
gratuities. Paul was kept at Rome two 
whole years, dwelling in his own hired 

; house with a soldier who had charge of 

! him. Acts 28 : 16, 30. In accordance 
with the usual Roman custom of treat- 
ing prisoners, he appears to have been 
bound to the soldier with a chain. Acts 
28 : 20; Eph. 6 : 20; Phil. 1 : 16. To 

: those coming to visit him he preached 

t the gospel, no one forbidding him. Acts 
28 : 30, 31. An old legend declares that 
the Mamertine prison was the place where 
Paul and Peter were confined together 
as fellow-prisoners, though there is no 
historic proof of this supposition. This 
prison still exists under the church of St. 
Giuseppe; while a chapel on the Ostian 

i road is pointed out by tradition as the 

; place where the two parted when on their 
way to martyrdom. Some historians deny 

| that Peter ever visited Rome, and it is 
quite certain, from the silence of the X. T., 
that he could not have been there till the 
latter part of his life, but tradition unani- 

; mously affirms that he suffered martyrdom 
in Rome under Xero. It is the prevailing 

; opinion that Paul was acquitted on his 

! appeal to Caasar, but that he was after 
a tune again imprisoned at Rome. Sev- 

i eral of his Epistles are believed to have 
been written from this city, as those to 

\ the Colossians, Ephesians, Philippians, 
Philemon, and the Second Epistle to 
Timothy, the latter shortly before his 
death. 2 Tim. 4: 6. On Paul's approach 
to Rome he was met by brethren, who 
came out on the Appian Way as far as 
the little town of Appii Forum. Acts 28 : 
15. In his letter to the Philippians he 
also refers to the "palace" or Caesar's 
court. Phil. 1:13. This probably does 
not refer to the imperial palace, but to 

! the residence of the Praetorian guards 



ROM 



ROM 



or to a miltary barrack attached to the 
imperial house. There were Christians 
also belonging to the imperial household, 
even during the reign of the cruel Nero. 
Phil. 4 : 22. 

Gardens, Colosseum, and Catacombs. 
— There are many traditions connect- 
ing various other localities in Rome with 
the visit and residence of Paul, but most 
of them have very little real historical 
support. Among the sites which may 
unquestionably be connected with the 
Roman Christians at or near the apos- 
tolic age are : 

1. The Gardens of Nero, in theVatican, 
near St. Peter's. Within these, in the 
Neronian persecution, A. o. 64, after the 
great conflagration, Christians, wrapped 
in skins of beasts, were torn by dogs, or, 
clothed in inflammable stuffs, were burnt 
as torches during the midnight games; 
others were crucified. 

2. The Colosseum. — In this vast theatre 
games of various sorts and gladiatorial 
shows were held, and within its arena 
many Christians, during the ages of 
persecution, fought with wild beasts, 
and many were slain for their faith. 

3. The Calacom 6s.— These are vast 
subterranean galleries (whether orig- 
inally sand-pits or excavations is un- 
certain). Their usual height is from 8 
to 10 feet and their width from 4 to 6 
feet, and they extend for miles, especi- 
ally in the region of the Appian and 
Nomentane Ways. The Catacombs were 
early used by the Christians as places 
of refuge, worship, and burial. More 
than four thousand inscriptions have 
been found in these subterranean pas- 
sages, which are considered as belong- 
ing to the period between the reign of 
Tiberius and that of the emperor Con- 
stantine. Among the oldest of the in- 
scriptions in the Catacombs is one dated 
A. D. 71. The names of twenty-four 
Christians at Rome are given in the salu- 
tations contained in the Epistle to the 
Romans. The house of Clement of Rome, 
where the early Christians probably met 
for worship, has recently been discovered 
beneath the church of St. Clement. 

Rome, as a persecuting power, is re- 
ferred to by the "seven heads" and 
" seven mountains" in Rev. 17 : 9, and 
described under the name of " Babylon " 
elsewhere in the same book. Rev. 14 : 8; 
16: 19; 17:5; 18:2,21. 
744 



Post-Biblical History. — The Chris- 
tian church at Rome, which appears to 
have been founded before the visit of the 
apostle, probably by Roman Jews who 
had heard the gospel iu Jerusalem on 
the day of Pentecost, Acts 2 : 10, was 
strengthened by Paul, and the metro- 
politan character of the city gave the 
church a position of importance and 
gradually increasing power, until it be- 
came the seat of a metropolitan bishopric, 
and then of the papal see. The earli- 
est religious centres under Christianity 
were, Ephesus, Antioch, Alexandria, 
and Rome. Each of these gradually 
claimed superior powers in the Church, 
and their decrees were accepted as law. 
Soon the bishop at Rome, from his posi- 
tion in the capital of the world, and from 
an assumption tliat he was the spiritual 
successor of Peter, claimed supreme 
power in the Church, and, after long 
regarding themselves as his equals in 
rank and authority, the patriarchs of 
Antioch, Alexandria, and Constantinople 
were led to acknowledge the claim of 
the Roman bishop to a primacy of 
honor, but not to a supremacy of juris- 
diction (about a. D. 451-604). Since the 
ninth century the great schism divided 
Christendom into the Roman Catholic 
Church and the Greek Church, inde- 
pendent of the papal power of Rome. 
The popes ruled Europe with vary- 
ing degrees of power and ability un- 
til the Reformation broke out, in the 
sixteenth century, since which era the 
papal power has gradually declined at 
Rome. The French army entered Italy 
in 1796, and later the pope became a 
prisoner, first at Rome, then in France, 
and Rome was formally governed by 
France (1806). In 181-1 the pope return- 
ed to his palace, but in 1848 the people 
rebelled, and established a republic. 
France again interfered; the republic 
ended. The pope returned, but when 
the French troops were withdrawn in 
1870, Italy became united under Victor 
Emmanuel. Rome was made the political 
capital of the nation (1871), and the 
temporal power of the holy see was 
abolished. The pope still occupies the 
Vatican, and is supported by contribu- 
tions of Roman Catholics of France, 
Austria, Belgium, Englpnd, the United 
States, and other countries, Pius IX. 
indignantly refused th« government 



EOO 



KUE 



pension, and called himself a prisoner 
in the Vatican. Leo XIII., though firm 
in maintaining his claim to the " patri- 
mony of Peter," is more peaceable and 
conciliatory. 

ROOF. See Dwellings. 

ROOM, in the phrases "uppermost 
room" or "chief room," Matt. 23 : 6 : 
Mark 12 : 39 : Luke 14 : 7, 8, 9 ; 20 : 46 ; 
denotes the seat of honor at the table, 
the first place on the first couch. See 
Eating. 

ROPES, 1 Kgs. 20:31, and 
CORDS. Josh. 2:15. The putting 
ropes upon the neck was significant of 
great earnestness and distress. The 
"cords of his sin," Prov. 5 : 22, probably 
denotes the power of sinful habits. And 
in Isa. 33 : 20 and Jer. 10 : 20 allusion 
is made to the construction of a tent. 
The " silver cord," Eccl. 12 : 6, is beau- 
tifully interpreted by Delitzsch as the 
soul, which holds the body in life, the 
"bowl" is the body, and the golden oil 
within it is the spirit. Zech. 4 : 12. 

ROSE (acrid bulb). The mean- 
ing of the original excludes from our 
consideration the true rose and several 
other plants suggested. It is the opin- 
ion of some of the best authorities that 
the polyanthus narcissus (Narcissus ta- 
zettn) is intended in Cant. 2 : 1 and Isa. 
35 : 1, where alone the rose is mentioned. 
This beautiful and fragrant narcissus 
grows in the plain of Sharon, as is re- 
quired by these references, and during 
its season of bloom is sold in the ba- 
zaars of the East and carried by every- 
body as a specially favorite flower. 

The " rose of Sharon " of modern writ- 
ers is a rose-like species of cistus, while 
the "rose of Jericho" is a small woody 
plant with minute cruciferous flowers. 
True wild roses are rarely seen except 
in the extreme North of Palestine. 

ROSH (head, chief). 1. A son of 
Benjamin. Gen. 46 : 21. 

2. As occurring in Eze. 38 : 2, 3 ; 39 : 
1, the word has been translated in our 
version, but is probably a proper name, 
denoting one of the three great Scythian 
tribes of which Magog was the head. 

ROSIN. Eze. 27 : 17, margin. The 
text correcMv reads "balm." 

ROWERS. Eze. 27:26. See Ship. 

RU'BIES. There is much uncer- 
tainty concerning this translation. Some 
would render the word " red coral," and 



others "pearl" or "mother-of-pearl," 
both of which latter are often of a 
ruddy hue. The word Occurs in Job 
28 : 18; Prov. 3: 15: 8:11; 20 : 15; 
31 : 10 ; Lam. 4 : 7, but seems never 
associated with the name of any pre- 
cious stone. 

True rubies are of a red color. They 
are next to the diamond in hardness, 
beauty, and value, and once command- 
ed even a higher price. See Stones, 
Precious. 

RUDDER-BANDS. See Ship. 

RU'DIMENTS, the first and sim- 
plest principles of a science or literature. 
The word is translated " rudiments " or 
" elements " without distinction, as both 
mean the same thing. Gal. 4 : 3, 9 : Col. 
2 : 20. 

RUE, a well-known herb (Ruta 
graveotens) which often grows wild in 
Palestine, and was also cultivated for 




Eue. (Ruta Graveolens. After Carruthers.) 

its disinfectant and other medicinal 
properties. It was among the things 
which the hypocritical and inconsistent 
Pharisees tithed, though uncommanded, 
745 



KUF 



EYE 



while they neglected to obey the import- 
ant and positive precepts of the Law. 
Luke 11 : 42. 

RUTUS (red), a Christian to whom 
Paul sent his salutation, Rom. 16 : 13 ; 
probably identical with Rufus, the son 
of Simon the Cyrenian. Mark 15 : 21. 

RU'HAMAH (comjyassionated. hav- 
ing obtained mercy), a symbolical name 
applied by Hosea. 2:1. 

RUMAH. 2 Kgs. 23 : 36. See 
Arumah. 

RUMAH (lofty), the home of Pe- 
daiah, the father of Jehoiakim's mother. 
2 Kgs. 23 : 36. Conder proposes to iden- 
tify it with a ruined village, Rumeh, north 
of Nazareth. Others have supposed that 
it was the same as Dumah, near Hebron. 
See Josh. 15 : 52. 

RUSH. The proverbial expression 
" branch and rush " occurs in Isa. 9 : 
14 and 19 : 15 in the sense of "top" 
and " bottom " or " utterly." Another 
word thus translated in Job 8:11 refers 
to the famous papyrus or paper-reed, de- 
scribed under Bulrush. 

RUTH (a friend, or, according to 
others, beauty), a Moabitish woman, Ruth 
1 : 4, who married a son of Naomi and 
showed her strong attachment to her 
mother-in-law by leaving her own coun- 
try and following her mother-in-law into 
Judaea. Her kindness was abundantly 
rewarded, as she soon found favor in the 
eyes of a kinsman, who afterward married 
her, through which event she became the 
ancestor of the royal family of David. 

RUTH, THE BOOK OF, so 
called, not from the author, but from 
the chief person. Ruth the Moabitess, is 
properly inserted between Judges and 
Samuel, as it is an appendix to the 
former and an introduction to the latter. 
The history relates to the time of the 
Judges, 1:1, perhaps during the judi- 
cature of Gideon, about B. c. 1241 or 
later, and forms a bright contrast to the 
dark and chaotic state of society at that 
time. It is a beautiful episode of domes- 
tic life, showing how domestic virtues 
may be practised and domestic happi- 
ness enjoyed even in periods of revolu- 
tion and anarchy. 

By the urgency of famine, Elimelech 
was obliged to emigrate with his family 
from Canaan to Moab, where he died, 
leaving a widow, Naomi or Noami, and 
two sons, who married women of Moab 
746 



by the names of Orpah and Ruth. Or. 
the death of the sons the widowed moth- 
er resolved to return to her country, and 
thereby she put the filial affection of her 
daughters-in-law to a severe test. But 
Ruth accompanied her with a devotion 
that was prepared for every sacrifice : 
" Whither thou goest, I will go, and 
where thou lodgest, I shall lodge," etc. 
1 : 16, 17. They arrived at Bethlehem 
in extreme poverty, and Ruth went out 
to glean after the reapers in the harvest- 
field of Boaz. a wealthy kinsman of her 
deceased father-in-law. Attracted by her 
personal appearance and filial devotion, 
he encouraged her return from day to 
day, and, after redeeming the patrimony 
of Elimelech, married her. From this 
union sprang Obed, the father of Jesse, 
the father of David, and through him our 
Saviour according to the flesh. Matt. 1 : 6. 
The age and authorship of this book 
cannot be definitely ascertained, but it 
cannot have been written before the time 
of David, since he is mentioned as the 
last in the genealogy. 4 : 18-22. It has 
been variously ascribed to Samuel, Heze- 
kiah, and Ezra. 

The practical lessons of the book are 
manifold and impressive — the sure re- 
ward of filial devotion and trust in God ; 
the true use of the calamities of life; 
j the overruling providence of God in 
j the private affairs of a humble family 
as well as in the palace of princes and 
j the public events of nations. It also 
i shows that God had children outside of 
Canaan and the Jewish theocracy, and 
the incorporation of Ruth into the 
Church of the 0. T. may be regarded 
as an intimation of the future call of the 
! Gentiles to the gospel salvation. 

RYE. This word occurs in Ex. 9 : 
32 and Isa. 28 : 25. The same Hebrew 
noun is translated "fitches" in Eze. 4 : 
j 9. Rye being a northern grain and 
| rarely cultivated in the East even in 
j our day, Celsius' view is universally ac- 
cepted — that in all these passages the 
i reference is to spelt (Triticum sjjelta), a 
grass closely resembling wheat and long 
I cultivated in the Levant. Though the 
I flour of its grain is inferior to that of 
j the latter, it is mixed with it for bread. 
j Spelt seems to have been sown later than 
wheat, on the border or headland of the 
j field, to which there is reference in the 
! word " place" of Isa. 28 : 25. 



SAB 



SAB 



S. 



SABACHTHA'NI (thou hast for- 
saken me), one of the words uttered by 
Christ on the cross. Matt. 27 : 46 ; Mark 
15 : 34. It is part of the phrase in Syro- 
Chaldee. 

SABAOTH, or SABAOTH 
(hosts). The phrase " Lord of Sabaoth " 
occurs twice in the N. T. — in Rom. 9 : 
29 and Jas. 5:4. It is a common blunder 
to understand it as referring to the Sab- 
bath or as implying rest. But it is the 
Greek transliteration of the Hebrew Tse- 
banth, " hosts " or " armies," so often re- 
curring in the 0. T., "the Lord of hosts," 
Isa. 1 : 9, "the Lord God of hosts " — i. e., 
the heavenly bodies, the angels, or the 
people of God. Sometimes it means 
nothing more than that God will guide 
Israel to victory. 

SAB'BATH (rest). The word first 
occurs in Ex. 16 : 23, but the institution 
of a day of rest is much older — is founded, 
indeed, in man's nature, and, like mar- 
riage, was instituted in Paradise. Gen. 
2 : 2, 3. The word usually indicates the 
seventh day of the week, which by God's 
appointment was set apart for his service, 
but it is used also of other days or times 
separated and sanctified in a similar way, 
Lev. 19 : 3, 30 ; 25 : 4, and in the orig- 
inal text of the N. T. for a whole week. 
Matt. 28 : 1 ; Mark 16 : 2 ; Luke 24 : 1 ; 
John 20 : 1; Acts 23 : 7; 1 Cor. 16 : 
2. In a spiritual sense it designates 
the eternal rest in heaven. Heb. 4 : 9 
(marg. and Greek). In the Christian 
Church the first day of the week has 
been substituted for the last. There is 
no explicit command on the subject, but 
the Church naturally commemorated the 
great event which was in a sense her 
birth, the resurrection of Christ. Bv 
changing the day the Church threw off 
the Jewish regulations which had load- 
ed down the Sabbath, and turned it into 
a day of ecclesiastical bondage. The 
Jews were not peculiar in their day of 
rest. It is a natural institution, and was 
observed also by some pagan nations 
quite independent of Judaism. Origi- 
nally it was devoted to simple rest from 
worldly toil, The fourth commandment, 



Ex. 20 : 8-11 ; Deut. 5 : 12-15, enjoins 
no specific religious service, except in 
the general direction to keep it holy. 
But the opportunity thus given was im- 
proved. Subsequent legislation made it 
a day of holy convocation. The sacri- 
fices of the temple were doubled; the 
shew-bread was changed : the inner court 
of the temple was opened for solemn ser- 
vices ; the prophets and the Levites took 
the occasion for imparting religious in- 
struction to the people. It was a day 
of holy joy. There was freedom for so 
much social enjoyment. Indeed, the 
fear was that the day would be *' wasted 
by idleness and degraded by sensuality 
and drunkenness " because it was so joy- 
ous. Neh. 8 : 9-12; Hos. 2 : 11. 

But after the Captivity arose the 
school of the Pharisees, and by them 
the attractive character of the Sabbafic 
observances was destroyed. In place 
thereof -they imposed upon the people 
the yoke of a pedantic, scrupulous, 
slavish Sabbatarianism which made the 
Sabbath an end instead of a means, 
hampered the spirit of true worship, 
and laid greater stress upon a punc- 
tilious obedience to mere human reg- 
ulations than upon the commands of 
the Law. Some of their ridiculous 
prohibitions are the following : Walk- 
ing in the grass on the Sabbath, be- 
cause the bruising would be a kind of 
threshing ; wearing nailed shoes, be- 
cause they would be a sort of burden: 
mounting a tree, lest a twig should be 
broken. 

It was against this perversion of the 
commandment that our Lord protested. 
He refused his sanction to Pharisaic 
legalism. Much to the consternation 
of the religious party of the day, he 
vigorously defended his Sabbath mira- 
cles. The example of Christ represents 
the Sabbath, not as a day of gloom, but 
as a pleasant and healthful day of rest, 
quiet religious service, and Christian 
benevolence. 

He kept the Sabbath in the highest 
j sense of the term. He observed every jot 
i and tittle of the Mosaic Law in the free- 
747 



SAB 



SAB 



dom of the spirit. From him we learn 
that religion is the uppermost business 
of the day, that acts of necessity and 
mercy are to be performed, that worldly 
occupations are to be put as far as pos- 
sible out of our thoughts. It is true we 
transfer the fourth commandment to the 
first day of the week, but we do not 
thereby violate the spirit of the divine 
law : for what God asked for was the 
entire seventh of our time. We may 
therefore claim the blessing which God 
has pronounced upon those who keep 
the day holy. 

It is a matter of secondary importance, 
and yet it shows the natural basis of the 
fourth commandment, that this division 
of time is scientifically correct. The 
night's sleep does not restore all the 
waste of the day ; additional rest, there- 
fore, is demanded for health. It is an 
interesting fact that the blasphemous 
abolition of Sunday by the French Revo- 
lutionists and the substitution of a day 
of rest every ten days was found poor 
policy, as the rest was insufficient. 

The Christian Church keeps the first 
day of the week, which celebrates the 
close of the spiritual creation, just as 
the last day celebrated the close of the 
physical creation. We have the fullest 
warrant for this change. Upon the first 
day of the week Christ arose from the 
dead. We find the disciples, before the 
Ascension, assembled on that day, and 
Jesus appeared to them. John 20 : 26. 
According to tradition, which is con- 
firmed by every probability, the outpour- 
ing of the Holy Ghost on the day of 
Pentecost was on Sunday. Paul preached 
at Troas on the first day of the week — evi- 
dently, among those Christians, the day 
of religious service. Acts 20 : 7. Paul 
tells the Corinthians that every one is to 
lay by him in store upon the first day 
of the week as he is prospered. 1 Cor. 
16 : 2. It was upon the Lord's day — 
and by this name he calls it — that John 
on Patmos saw through the opened door 
into heaven. Rev. 1 : 10. 

The first day of the week is therefore 
the Christian Sabbath, the day of rest 
and worship. And God has further con- 
firmed the change by giving it his bless- 
ing, as he blessed the Sabbath of crea- 
tion-week. 

Around the Lord's day we do well to 
throw safeguards. It is, in a sense, the 
748 



palladium of Christian liberty. The 
various states and cities have good laws 
for the protection of the civil Sabbath 
and against its open desecration. The 
positive observance of the religious Sab- 
bath can, of course, not be enforced by 
law, and must be left to the individual 
conscience. The American churches are 
unanimously in favor of a quiet Sabbath, 
in opposition to the evils of the so-called 
"' continental Sunday," and earnest efforts 
havebeen made to protectus against them. 

Our Lord states the case most con- 
cisely : " The Sabbath was made for 
man." Mark 2 : 27. It is the divine 
gift, which, when accepted and properly 
used, con tributes to man's physical, moral, 
and spiritual happiness and welfare, and 
gives a foretaste of the saint's everlast- 
ing rest in heaven. 

The following are among the leading 
passages of the Bible respecting the 
Sabbath and its proper observance : 

The divine institution of the Jewish 
Sabbath. Gen. 2 : 2, 3 ; Ex. 20 : 8-11 ; 
Deut. 5 : 12, 15 ; Eze. 20 : 12; 44 : 24. 

Servile labor forbidden. Ex. 16 : 23, 
29 ; 20 : 1 0, 11 ; 23 : 12 ; 34 : 21 ; 35 : 
2, 3 ; Deut. 5 : 14, 15; Jer. 17 : 21, 22; 
Mark 15 : 42 ; 16 : 1, 2 ; John 19 : 14, 
31, 42. 

The profanation of the Sabbath the 
cause of national judgments. Neh. 13 : 
15-18 ; Eze. 20 : 15, 16 : 23 : 38, 47. 

The Jewish Sabbath re-established 
under the gospel dispensation. Matt. 5 : 
17; 12 : 12; Mark 2 : 27. 

The change of the Sabbath from the 
seventh to the first day of the week. 
Gen. 2:2; Ex. 20 : 11 : Luke 23 : 56 ; 
John 20 : 19 ; Acts 20 : 7 ; 1 Cor. 16 : 
2 ; Rev. 1 : 10. 

The duties of the Sabbath enjoined. 
Lev. 19 : 30 ; 26 : 2 ; Eze. 46 : 3 ; Mark 
6:2; Luke 4 : 16, 31 ; Acts 13 : 14-16, 
27, 42, 44 ; 17 : 2, 3. 

Works of necessity and mercy to be 
done on this day. Matt. 12 : 1, 3, 5, 7, 
12, 13 ; Mark 2 : 23, 27 ; 3 : 2, 4; Luke 
6:9; 13 : 15, 16 : 14 : 3, 5 ; John 5 : 
8-10, 18; 7 : 22; 9 : 14. 

Blessings promised to those who keep 
the Sabbath. Isa. 56 : 2, 4, 5, 7; 58 : 13, 
14. 

Threatenings against Sabbath-break- 
ers. Ex. 31 : 14, 15; 35 : 2 ; Num. 15 : 
32-36 : Jer. 17 : 27 ; Eze. 20 : 13, 16, 23, 
24; 22 : 8, 14, 26, 31; 23 : 38, 46. 



SAB 



SAB 



Sabbath privileges taken away. Isa. 
1 : 13; Lam. 1:7; 2:6; Hos. 2: 11; 
Am. 8 : 10, 11. See Lour/s Day. 

SABBATH DAY'S JOUR- 
NEY. See Measures. 

SABBAT'ICAL YEAR. Ex.23: 
11. See Year, Sabbatical. 

SABE'ANS. Two tribes of this 
name are mentioned in the A. V. 

1. Descendants of Seba. Isa. 45 : 14; 
it should be simply " people of Seba/' 
son of Cush. 

2. In Joel 3 : 8 the descendants of 
Sheba, son of Joktan, are meant. Pos- 
sibly a third tribe is spoken of in Job 
1 : 15. The translation " Sabeans " in 
Eze. 23 : 42 is incorrect; read, as in the 
margin, "drunkards." 

SAB'TAjSAB'TAHO^V/bH^the 
third son of Cush. Gen. 10: 7: lChr.l:9. 

SAB TECHA, SAB TECHAH 
{striking ?), the youngest son of Cush. 
Gen. 10 : 7; 1 Chr. 1 : 9. 

SA'CAR (hire). 1. The father of 
Ahiam, a warrior of David's, 1 Chi. 11 : 
35; called Sharar in 2 Sam. 23 : 33. 

2. A Levite porter, and the fourth son 
of Obed-edom. 1 Chr. 26 : 4. 

SACK'BUT. A sackbut is a wind 
instrument, but that meant in the orig- 
inal of Dan. 3 : 5, etc., was a stringed 
instrument of a triangular shape, played 
with the fingers. It had four strings, 
and had a very penetrating sound. In 
process of time the strings were in- 
creased to twenty. See Music. 

SACK/CLOTH. This was a coarse 




Sitting in Sackcloth. 

fabric, as the Hebrew word "sack" 
means, made of black goats' hair and 



other materials, and worn either as a 
sign of repentance, Matt. 11 : 21, or as 
a token of mourning. Gen. 37 : 34 ; 2 
Sam. 3:31; Esth. 4 : 1, 2 ; Job 16 : 15 ; 
Ps. 30 : 11; Isa. 20 : 2; Rev. 6 : 12. 
Hence the frequent occurrence in Scrip- 
ture of figurative language connecting 
sackcloth with mourning and darkness. 
Isa. 3 : 24; Eze. 7 : 18; 27 : 31; Am. 
8 : 10. 

SACRIFICE. Gen. 31 : 54. Sacri- 
fices were in use from the earliest periods 
of the world, and among all nations. 
The universality of sacrificial rites is a 
powerful argument on behalf of their 
naturalness ; they meet the demand of 
the sinner for some way of appeasing 
the offended divinity. But Christians 
have no need of them, simply because 
of the one perfect Sacrifice once oflered 
on the cross. See Offerings. 

SACRILEGE, the crime of vio- 
lating or profaning sacred things. Rom. 
2 : 22. The Jews at some periods were 
eminently guilty in this particular, inas- 
much as they withheld the tithes and 
offerings which God required of them, 
Mai. 3 : 8-10, and converted his holy 
temple ihto a market. Matt. 21 : 12, 13. 

SADDLE. Lev. 15:9. Among 
the ancients saddles were very simple 
— merely a mat or quilted cloth ; such 
is the present Oriental saddle. 

SAD'DUCEES, a Jewish sect often 
mentioned in the N. T. The origin of 
the term and its meaning are involved 
in obscurity, but the most satisfactory 
theory is that the sect was derived from 
Zadok and constituted a kind of " sacer- 
dotal aristocracy." This explains Acts 
5 : 17. The Zadok spoken of is the 
famous high priest of that name whom 
Solomon appointed to succeed the de- 
posed Abiathar. ] Kgs. 2 : 35. The 
Sadducees were a small party, of limited 
influence among the people, and of a 
rationalistic turn of mind. From their 
connection with the high priests, they 
were men of position, and probably of 
more or less wealth. They were world- 
ly-minded and had only a superficial 
interest in religion. They are the fore- 
runners of the modern reform Jews. 

Their theology was in direct contra- 
diction to the Pharisaic, and, from its 
nature, could not be popular. It em- 
braced four principal tenets: (1) A 
denial of the divinity and consequent 
749 



SAD 



SAL 



authority of the oral Law, the body of 
commentary on the written Law which 
the Pharisees, without any historic evi- 
dence, maintained was handed down by 
tradition from the lawgiver himself. 
(2) The Sadducees accepted the teaching 
of Moses only, and seem to have rejected 
the later books of the 0. T. (3) The 
denial of man's resurrection — the soul 
dies with the body. Matt. 22 : 23. Of 
course the doctrine of future rewards 
and punishments fell with it ; likewise 
belief in angel or spirit. Acts 23 : 8 (4) 
Their fourth principal tenet was that 
man had the most absolute moral free- 
dom, for upon this freedom was depend- 
ent the moral quality of his actions. 
This tenet was, however, so far "pushed 
as almost entirely to exclude the divine 
government of the world." 

In the N. T. they are not spoken of 
with the same bitterness as the Phari- 
sees ; yet they were determined foes to 
our Lord, and made common cause with 
them in condemning him to the cross. 
Annas and Caiaphas were Sadducees. 
The sect disappears from history after 
the first Christian century. They have 
their successors in the worldly Jews and 
Christians of the present day. 

SA'DOC ij^st), one of our Lord's 
ancestors. Matt. 1 : 14. 

SAFFRON. Cant. 4: 14. Undoubt- 
edly this is the saffron crocus ( Crocus 
sativns), which, with other species of 
this plant, abounds in Palestine. This 
kind is in high repute as a perfume ; 
hence its mention among spices. The 
pistils of its blossoms, gathered, dried, 
and pressed into cakes or ground, be- 
came the saffron of commerce, which is 
used as an orange dye and is also 
employed in medicine in the East. 
This substance is also valued for 
adding flavor and aroma to food and 
drink. 

SAINTS, the title given by the sa- 
cred writers to believers in Christ, Heb. 
6 : 10, or the people of God. Ps. 16 : 3 ; 
Rom. 1 : 7 ; 8 : 27. A saint is one who 
is separated from the world and conse- 
crated to the service of God. It does j 
not necessarily imply entire personal 
holiness, but that believers are called to 
holiness and are to strive after it. The 
special application of the term to apos- 
tles and evangelists and a select number 
of men who constitute as it were a spirit- 
750 



ual nobility is not biblical, but dates from 
the fourth century. 

SA'LA, SA'LAH (sprout), a de- 
scendant of Shem, Gen. 10:24: 11: 
12-15 ; Luke 3 : 35 ; in 1 Chr. 1 : 18, 24 
the name is given as Shelah. 

SA1/AMIS (peaceful, or beaten), a 
seaport-town with a good harbor, on the 
eastern coast of Cyprus. It was visited 
by Paul and Barnabas on their first 
missionary journey. Acts 13 : 5. The 
city was once the capital of Cyprus, and 
stood on the north side of the river Pe- 
diaeus. The land is low in this region, 
and this river is the only true one in the 
island, the other streams being merely 
winter-torrents. We read of " syna- 
gogues," from which it is evident that 
the Jewish population in the city was 
numerous. The island was productive, 
and its trade in fruit, wine, flax, and 
honey, and the farming out of the cop- 
per-mines by Augustus to Herod, would 
naturally attract many Jews to this city. 
In the time of Trajan and Hadrian, there 
were great insurrections of the Jews; 
Salamis was partially destroyed, and its 
demolition completed by an earthquake, 
but it was rebuilt by a Christian empe- 
ror and named Constantia. Its site is 
now traced by broken cisterns and col- 
umns and the foundations of ancient 
buildings. The ruins are known as Old 
Famagnsta. 

SALATHIEL ([have asked God), 
a descendant of David, 1 Chr. 3:17; 
most often called Shealtiel. 

SAL'CAH, and SALCHAH 
(pilgrimage ?), a city on the eastern 
frontier of Bashan ; captured by the 
Israelites and assigned to the half 
tribe of Manasseh, but close to the 
border of Gad. Deut. 3 : 10; Josh. 
12:5; 13:11; 1 Chr. 6:11. Salcah 
is identical with modern Sail-had, 56 
miles east of the Jordan, at the southern 
end of Jebel Hauran. Near it begins the 
great desert, which stretches to the Eu- 
phrates. The city occupies a command- 
ing position : on the summit of a hill is 
a castle dating back to a period as early 
as the Romans, and surrounded by a deep 
moat now partially filled with stone. 
On several of the portals there are Roman 
eagles and Arabic and Greek inscriptions. 
Some of the latter have been found bear- 
ing the dates a. d. 196 and a. d 246. 
There are about eight hundred stone 



SAL 



SAL 



houses, many of them in a good state of 
preservation, but occupied by only a few 
families. The view from this site em- 
braces the ruins of many other cities. 

SA'LEM {peace), the place of which 
Melchizedek was king. Gen. 14 : 18; 
Heb. 7 : 1, 2. This word is only used 
elsewhere in Ps. 76 : 2. Some would 
interpret it, in the first two passages, 
not as signifying a place, but that Mel- 
chizedek was " king of peace." The 
majority understand it to mean a place, 
and it is usually interpreted as referring 
to Je-rusalem. Thus Josephus under- 
stood it. The name " Jireh," from Gen. 
22 : 14, was supposed to have been added 
to "Salem "to form*' Jerusalem," but this 
is uncertain. Jerome made the Salem 
of Gen. 14 : 18 and the Shalem of Gen. 
33 : 18 identical, and fixed it 6 miles 
from Scythopolis, while Van de Velde 
discovered the name in that neighbor- 
hood; but if such a Salein existed, it 
cannot be proved to be the town of Mel- 
chizedek. There might be an identity 
between Salem and Salim. See Salim. 

SA'LIM (peace, or fountains f), a 
place named to mark the locality of 
iEnon, where John baptized. John 3 : 
23. Some identify it with Salem. Eu- 
sebius and Jerome mention Salim as 
near the Jordan, 8 Roman miles south 
of Scythopolis. Robinson suggested 
that it was identical with the village of 
Salim, 3 miles ea*t of NablAs. Bar- 
clay proposed to identify it with Wddy 
Selim, 5 miles north-east of Jerusalem, 
a wild ravine running down from Ana- 
thoth, but Conder appears to adopt the 
location suggested by Robinson. See 
Exos. 

SAL'LAI (basket-maker). 1. A Ben- 
inmite who returned to Jerusalem. Neh. 
11:8. 

2. A priest who returned with Zerub- 
babel. Neh. 12 : 20. 

SAL'LU (weighed). 1, 2. A Benjam- 
ite and a priest. Neh. 11 : 7 : 12 : 7 ; 1 
Chr. 9 : 7. 

SAL/MA, or SALMON (clothed, a 
garment). The son of Nashon, prince of 
Judah, and father or ancestor of Boaz, 
the husband of Ruth. Ruth 4 : 20 and 
marg. ; 1 Chr. 2:11; Matt. 1 : 4, 5. He 
is conjectured to be the same with the 
son of Caleb, the son of Hur, 1 Chr. 
2 : 51, since it is possible that Caleb 
adopted him. 



SALMANASAR. 2 Kgs. 17 : 3. 
See Shalmanezer. 

SALMON (shady), Ps. 68 : 14, or 
ZALMON, Jud. 9 : 48, was one of 

the high hills which environed the 
ancient Shechem and afforded pastur- 
age for Jacob's flocks. See Zalmon. 

SALMO'NE (clothed), a promontory 
forming the eastern extremity of the 
island of Crete, and noticed in the ac- 
count of Paul's voyage to Rome. Acts 
27 : 7. It is a bold headland, visible at 
a considerable distance, and usually iden- 
tified with Cape Sidero. One writer has 
suggested a promontory several miles 
south of this point, known to the natives 
as Plaka, and to sailors as Gape Salmone. 

SALOME. 1. The wife of Zebedee, 
and the mother of James the elder and 
John the Evangelist, and probably the 
sister of the Virgin Mary, John 19 : 25 ; 
was one of the followers of Christ, Matt. 
27:56; Mark 15: 40; 16 : 1, though she 
seems, like many others, to have at first 
mistaken the true nature of his king- 
dom. Matt. 23 : 21. 

2. The name of "'the daughter of Her- 
odias " who danced before Herod. Matt. 
14 : 6 ; Mark 6 ; 22. She is not named in 
the N. T., but by Josephus (Antiq. 18, c. 5, 
# 4). The graphic account of Herod's 
feast may be trace 1 to Chusa, the wife 
of Herod's steward, Luke 8 : 3, who was 
probably present. Salome married her 
uncle Philip, tetrarch of Trachonitis, and 
next Aristobulus, king of Chalcis. 

SALT is abundant in Palestine. The 
famous J eh el Usdum is substantially a 
mountain of rock-salt about 7 miles long, 
from 1J to 3 miles wide, and several hun- 
dred feet high. This ridge, almost en- 
tirely composed of this mineral, extends 
to the south from the south-west corner 
of the Dead Sea. Besides the rock-salt 
to be obtained from this ridge and its 
vicinity, the Jews used, and preferred 
for domestic purposes, salt obtained by 
evaporation from the waters of the Med- 
iterranean and Dead Seas. On the east- 
ern shore of the latter it is found in lumps 
often more than a foot thick, in places 
which the lake had overflowed in the 
rainy season. The stones on the shore 
are covered with an incrustation of lime 
or gypsum. Branches and twigs which 
fall into the water from the bushes be- 
come encased in salt ; and if a piece of 
wood is thrown in, it soon acquires a 
751 



SAL 



SAL 



bark or rind of salt. From this fact 
some have attempted to explain the 
transformation of Lot's wife into a pil- 
lar of salt. Gen. 19:26; while others 
suppose that the expression is figura- 
tive, denoting that she was made an 
everlasting monument of divine dis- 
pleasure (salt being an emblem of per- 
petuity), and others still think that she 
was miraculously transformed into a solid 
column of salt. 

At the south-western extremity of the 
Dead Sea there is a plain of consider- 
able extent east of Jebel Usdiini, the soil 
of which is entirely covered with salt, 
without the slightest trace of vegetation. 
This is believed by Robinson to be the 
''valley" (or plain) "of salt," where 
David's army vanquished the Edomites. 
2 Sam. 8 : 13 ; 1 Chr. 18 : 12 ; 2 Chr. 25: 11. 

By the " salt-pits," Zeph. 2 : 9, we are 
not to understand quarries from which 
rock-salt is extracted, but such pits as 
the Arabs, even at this day, make upon 
the shore of the Dead Sea, in order that 
they may be filled when the spring fresh- 
ets raise the waters of the lake. When 
the water evaporates, it leaves in the pits 
a salt crust about an inch thick, which 
furnishes the salt used throughout the 
country. Pits of this sort seem to be 
alluded to in Eze. 47 : 11. In Josh. 15 : 
62 a "city of sa^ " is mentioned, in the 
neighborhood of the Dead Sea. 

The uses of salt are sufficiently known. 
Most food would be insipid without it. 
Job 6 : 6. Salt being thus essential to 
the enjoyment of food, the word was 
used to denote the subsistence which a 
person obtained in the service of another. 
Thus, in Ezr. 4 : 14, the words trans- 
lated "we have maintenance from the 
JciiH/'n palace" are in the original "we 
salt" for are salted) "with the salt of 
the palace." And even now, among the 
Persians and East Indians, to "eat the 
salt " of any one is to be in his employ- 
ment. Salt was also used in sacrifices. 
Lev. 2 : 13 ; Mark 9 : 49. In the last 
passage reference is had to the perpetuity 
of suffering. 

New-born children were rubbed with 
salt. Eze. 16 : 4. 

Salt, as a preservative from corrup- 
tion, symbolized durability, fidelity, and 
purity. Hence an indissoluble and per- 
petual covenant is called a "covenant 
of salt." Num. 18 : 19 ; Lev. 2 : 13; 2 
752 



Chr. 13 : 5. The idea of sacred obligation 
to the king isinvolvet in the above quota- 
tion from Ezra. Among the modern Arabs, 
to " eat salt" with any one is a pledge 
of perpetual and mutual friendship. 

No plants can germinate in a soil cov- 
ered with salt. Hence a "salt land" is 
an unfruitful, desert land. Jer. 17 : 6. 
Salt was also used as a visible emblem 
of sterility. When Abimelech took 
Shechem, Jud. 9:45, he "beat down 
the city and sowed it with salt," as a 
token that it should continue desolate. 
In like manner, the emperor Frederick 
Barbarossa, when he destroyed Milan, 
in the year 1162, caused the ground to 
be ploughed and strewed with salt. 

On the other hand, as salt renders food 
savory, it is employed as an emblem of 
holy life and conversation. Mark 9 : 50 ; 
Col. 4:6. In Matt. 5:13, Christ calls 
his disciples "the salt of the earth" — 
i. e., of mankind, because the latter was 
to be enlightened and purified by their 
agency and preserved for their sake. 
There is reference in the remainder of 
the verse to the fact that, as Oriental 
| salt often contains mineral impurities, 
i by exposure to rain or dampness this 
I material may lose its savor or valu- 
able part, and become " good for nothing 
but to be cast out, and to be trodden un- 
der foot of men." 

SALT, CITY OF, the fifth of 
the six cities possessed by the children 
of Judah, and situated in the wilderness 
of Judah. It is mentioned between Nib- 
shan and En-gedi. Josh. 15 : 62. Several 
sites have been suggested for this city. 

1. Van de Velde found a Nakr Maleh 
("salt"), one of four ravines forming 
the Wddy el-Bedim, and would locate 
the city of salt in that vicinity. 

2. Others propose to place it at the 
ruin Vm-baghek, or Em-berhek, lying a 
short distance north of the salt moun- 
tain of Jebel Usdum. 

3. Conder suggests that it is identical 
with the presenr large ruin, Tell el-Mi Ih, 
15 miles east of Beersheba. 

SALT SEA, or DEAD SEA. 
Names. — This sea is called in the Scrip- 
tures the "sea of the plain," Deut. 4 : 
49 ; 2 Kgs. 14 : 25 : the " salt sea," 
Deut. 3:17; Josh. 3:16; 12 : 3 ; the 
"east sea," Joel 2 : 20 ; Eze. 47 : 18; 
Zech. 14 : 8: and "the sea." Eze. 47 : 
8. It also appears as the " vale of Sid- 



K* ITebo 




48 



The Salt or Dead Sea. {After Sketch by Majcr Wilson.) 
The figures denote the depression below the Mediterranean Sea. 



SAL 



SAL 



dim." Gen. 14 : 3. In 2 Esd. 5 : 7 it ap- 
pears as the " Sodornitish sea;" in the 
Talmud as the " sea of Sodom " and the 
"sea of salt;" in Josephus as the " as- 
phaltic" and " Sodomitic lake." The ti- 
tle "Dead Sea" was not found in Jew- 
ish writers, but was introduced at an 
early period by the Greek authors. The 
Arabs give it the same name, but more 
commonly call it the Bahr Lut, or " Lake 
of Lot." 

Situation and Extent. — The Salt or 
Dead Sea is situated only 16 miles from 
Jerusalem, in a straight line, and is 
plainly visible from the Mount of Olives. 
It occupies the deepest portion of the 
great depression which extends from 
the range of Lebanon on the north to 
the Gulf of Akabah on the south. It 
lies between 31° 6' and 31° 46' N. lat., 
and 35° 24' and 35° 37' E. long. The 
sea is 46 miles long, 10J miles in its 
greatest width, and covers an area of 
nearly 300 square miles, varying some- 
what with the season of the year, as the 
flats are submerged by the rise of water 
from the winter floods and laid bare by 
the excessive evaporation of the summer. 

Physical Features. — The sea is of an 
oblong shape, and fills the lower end of 
an oblong depression. The enclosing 
mountains on each side run due north 
and south in parallel lines, and over- 
hang the sea at a height of more than 
]500 feet, coming on the east side close 
to the wa'er's edge. At the southern 
end the shore, for some 2 or 3 miles, is 
flat as far as the base of Jebel Usdnm, 
"the salt mountain." The oval contour 
is interrupted by the Lisan Peninsula, 
or "the tongue," a broad promontory 
extending northward from the south- 
east coiner for a distance of 10 miles, 
and having a breadth of from 5 to 6 
miles. It was visited by Lynch, but to 
Palmer and Drake is ascribed the credit 
of being the first thoroughly to explore 
this curious spot. It is described by 
Palmer as a plateau of soft chalk marl, 
encrusted with salt, and containing large 
quantities of sulphur in a very pure J 
form. The surface is for the most part j 
perfectly flat, but a few plateaus rise up | 
here and there upon it. The strin of j 
land which connects it with the shore is 
low, and the promontory appears to have I 
been an island at some period when the \ 
level of the sea was higher than it is at I 
754 



present. The ruins of a tower built of 
solid masonry and of a small reservoir 
were discovered. On the site were some 
broken columns of considerable architec- 
tural pretensions, and many pieces of 
glass and pottery lying in the ash-heap 
contiguous to the ruins, but nothing 
could be found to indicate the date. 

Depth and Level. — The soundings of 
Lynch showed that the bottom of the 
lake was a comparatively level plain of 
blue mud and sand, with crystals of salt. 
The greatest depth is 1310 feet; the mean 
depth north of the Lisan Peninsula, 1080 
feef; the greatest depth south of the 
peninsula, 11 feet. The level of the 
surface varies from 10 to 15 feet, accord- 
ing to the season of the year ; the mean 
level below the Mediterranean Sea is 
1293 feet (Lynch made it 1316 feet) j 
below Jerusalem, 3697 feet. Tristram 
found the height of the crest of the 
beach to be 18£ feet above the level of 
the water, and the line of driftwood some- 
what less. A French geologist, M. Lar- 
tet, found the ancient deposits of the 
Dead Sea at least 300 feet above the 
present surface of the lake, so that the 
water must once have stood at that level. 
The bottom is still subsiding, as is shown 
by a curious fact. Drake says : " At the 
southern end the fords between the Lisan 
and the western shore are now impassable, 
owing to the depth of the wa f er, though I 
have been told by men who used them 
that they were in no places more than 3 
feet deep some fifteen or twenty years 
ago. Again, the causewav which con- 
nects the Rijm el- Bahr with the main- 
land has, according to the Arabs, been 
submerged for twelve or fifteen years, 
though before that time it was f-equent- 
ly dry." Earthquakes, as in 1834 and 
1837, throw up large quantities of bitu- 
men from the bottom of the lake at its 
southern end. It was formerly supposed 
that the lake was at some early historic 
period connected with the Red Sea. but 
recent geological researches have shown 
any such connection very improbable, 
since a hill of cretaceous formation, 781 
feet above the sea, separates the waters 
of the Dead Sea. from those of the Gulf 
of Akabah, and the streams north of the 
hill flow northward into the Dead Sea. 

Tributaries. — The river Jordan emp- 
ties into the Dead Sea at its northern 
end. There are numerous wadies upon 




The Dead Sea at 'Am Feshkah : North-west Side. (After Tristram.) 





Tue l>ead Sea Horn Jebel Usdum CAiouiitam of Sait) : South end. (Ajter Trutram.) 



SAL 



SAL 



the east, south, and west sides, the most 
of which are winter-torrents, completely 
dry in summer. The principal streams, 
mostly perennial, are. beginning at the 
north-east and following southward: the 
Zerha Main (the ancient Callirrhoe. and 
Grove suggests possibly the more ancient 
En-eglaim). the Mojib (Anion of the Bi- 
ble), Kerak, Siddiyeh (brook Zered), Su- 
fieh, and, on the west, the 'Ain Jidy (En- 
gedi). 

The water has a clearness and purity — 
in color, at least — unequalled. The tur- 
bid flood of the Jordan in times of fresh- 
et can be distinctly traced by its ooffee- 
bvown color for a mile and a half into the 
lake. It has been estimated that fi, 000, 000 
tons of water fall into the Dead Sea dai- 
ly, the whole of which enormous quantity 
must be carried oft' by evaporation, as 
the lake has no outlet. Hence the water 
is impregnated with mineral substances 
containing on an average twenty-five 
per cent, of solid substances, one-half 
of which is chloride of sodivm (common 
salt). Among the other substances are 
chloride of magnesium, which gives the 
water its bitter taste, and chloride of cal- 
cium, which makes it smooth and oily 
to the touch. There is also a large amount 
of bromine, and many other mineral sub- 
stances exist in smaller quantities. The 
quantity of solid matter is more than 
ei°;ht times as great as in sea-water. 
The specific gravity varies from 1.021 
to 1.256— that is, if a gallon of distill- 
ed water weighs 10 pounds, a gallon of 
water from the Dead Sea would some- 
times weigh 12J pounds. 

From its density it seemed, in the 
storm encountered by the boats of 
Lynch's party, " as if their bows were 
encoun f ering the sledge-hammers of the 
Titans instead of the opposing waves of 
an angry sea." But when the wind 
abated the sea as rapidly fell. "Within 
twenty minutes from the time we bore 
awav from a sea which threatened to 
engulf us, we were pulling away at a 
rapid rate over a placid sheet of water 
that scarcely rippled beneath us." Tris- 
tram also noted the rapid subsidence of 
the surface after a storm : " Such a mass 
of water, so absolutely stagnant, I never 
saw before. In the morning it had been 
lashed by the gale; now it at once sug- 
gested, as its appropriate description, ' a 
93a of molten lead.'" 
766 



The spray leaves incrustations of salt 
upon clothes, hands, and faces, convey- 
ing a prickly sensation wherever it 
touches the skin, and exceedingly pain- 
ful to the eyes, lips, and nostrils, which 
smart excessively. 

Bathing. — Most visitors try a bath in 
the waters of the Dead Sea. Bathers can 
float with equal ease upon their backs 
or breasts, sit upon the water as one 
would upon a feather-bed, and place 
themselves in any attitude they please 
without fear of sinking. Swimming is 
made difficult by the tendency of the feet 
to rise to the surface with a suddenness 
that produces an unpleasant and some- 
times painful effect upon the back, and 
there is a constant tendency to roll over. 

Josephus says that when Vespasian 
went to see the Dead Sea, *' he com- 
manded that some who could not swim 
should have their hands tied behind 
them and be thrown into the deep: 
when it so happened that they all swam 
as if wind had forced them upward." A 
salt crust is soon formed over the body 
by the rapid evaporation, and the water 
leaves a greasy feeling on the skin. 
Asphalt lies in large masses at the bot- 
tom of the sea. and sometimes large 
fragments, loosened by storms and earth- 
quakes, rise to the surface. 

Animal and Vegetable Life. — Tristram 
observed that among the rounded peb- 
bles of the beach dead land-shells were 
thickly strewn. Quantities of very small 
dead fish lay on the gravel, killed by the 
salt water and thrown up by the flood, 
and on these various birds were feeding. 

Among the birds noticed were the 
partridge, raven, thrush, bulbul, spar- 
row, wild duck, brown-necked raven, 
kingfisher, gull, dunlin, teal, redshank, 
wagtail, pochard, duck, cormorant, 
heron, golden eagle, plover, stork, crane, 
grakle, snipe, catbird, hawk, and quail, 
and Lynch saw a duck upon the water 
about a mile from the shore. So the re- 
port that a bird trying to fly over the sea 
would fall dead, is without foundation. 

Among the wild beasts are the jackal, 
fox, coney, hare, ibex, porcupine, leop- 
ard, wild boar, and hyaena. These facts 
are enough to show how absurd are the 
stories about the shores of this sea being 
destitute of birds and animals. At the 
same time, it is quite certain that no 
form of either vertebrate or molluscous 



SAL 



SAL 



life can exist for more than a very short 
time in the sea itself, and that all that 
enter it from the Jordan are almost im- 
mediately poisoned. 

Various experiments have been made 
by putting sea-fish into the waters, and 
it was found that they invariably died 
very speedily. 

Plants. — Among the trees and plants 
are the pistachio (the terebinth of Scrip- 
ture), spina Christi (Christ thorn), tama- 
risk, osher, oleander, lily, yellow hen- 
bane, nightshade, mallow, mignonette, 
and a species of kale resembling that on 
the shores of the Great Salt Lake in 
Utah. About the springs are clumps of 
tamarisk trees, canebrakes 20 feet high, 
and dense bushes, through which the j 
wild boar beats paths. Wherever there J 
is fresh water the climate stimulates a 
luxuriant vegetation. 

Warm springs are numerous. The 
'Ain Ghnweir shows a temperature of 
96° in January. Another sulphur spring, 
within 6 inches of the sea, had a tem- 
perature of 95°, and its heated water 
extended out for 200 yards into the lake. 

Climate. — The climate, owing to the 
great depression of the valley, is semi- 
tropical. On the 14th of January, Tris- 
tram noted that the thermometer reached 
84° during the day. and at 1 A. m. stood at 
62° Fahrenheit. Warren found the heat 
at 'Ain Jidy (En-gedi), in July, to be 
110° after sunset. See Climate, under 
Palestine. 

Present Appearance. — Lynch describes 
the scene near Ran es-Feskka as "one 
of unmixed desolation. Except the cane- 
brakes clustering along the marshy 
stream, . . . there was no vegetation 
whatever; barren mountains, fragments 
of rocks blackened by sulphureous de- 
posits, and an unnatural sea, with low 
dead trees upon its margin, all within 
the scope of vision, bore a sad and som- 
bre aspect. We had never before beheld 
such desolate hills, such calcined barren- 
ness." When the members of the Brit- 
ish Ordnance Survey found themselves 
on the shores of the Dead Sea, " the sky 
was overcast with clouds, and a dense 
haze, obscuring the mountains, made the 
landscape as dreary and monotonous as 
it could be. In an aspect such as this 
the Dead Sea seemed more than ever to 
deserve its name. Not a sign of life was 
there — not even any motion save a dull 



mechanical surging of the water. The 
barren shore was covered with a thick 
incrustation of salt, relieved only by 
occasional patches of black, rotting mud 
or by stagnant pools of brine. All along 
the dismal beach large quantities of 
driftwood are thickly strewn, and amongst 
them might be detected the blackened 
trunks of palms." See Deut 34 : 3. 

Tristram describes the appearance at 
the north end of the sea as follows : 
"The beach is composed of a pebble 
gravel, rising steeply and covered for a 
breadth of 150 yards from the shore with 
driftwood. Trunks of trees lay tossed 
about in every possible position, utterly 
devoid of bark, grim and gaunt, a long 
and disorderly array of skeleton, forms. 
There was a great variety in the species 
of timber, but a very large proportion of 
the trees were palms, many with their 
roots entire. These must have been 
tossed for many years before they were 
washed up along this north shore. The 
whole of the timber is indeed so satura- 
ted with brine that it will scarcely burn, 
and when it is ignited emits only a pale 
blue flame. It is difficult to conceive 
whence such vast numbers of palms can 
have been brought, unless we imagine 
them to be the collected wrecks of many 
centuries, . . . accumulating here from 
the days when the city of palm trees ex- 
tended its groves to the edge of the river." 
— Land of Israel, p. 247. 

Below 'Ain Feshkah, on the west shore, 
the lake is fringed with canebrake, sep- 
arated from the water by a narrow strip 
of shingle and conglomerate. Farther 
south are huge boulders, rolled down on 
the narrowing beach from the hills above. 
The coast-line shows many indentations 
and irregularities. 

Bible History. — The earliest mention 
of this body of water is in Gen. 14 : 3, 
where we read that the confederate kings 
were joined together in "the vale of Sid- 
dim, which is the Salt Sea." Most 
writers have identified this vale of Sid- 
dim with the portion of the Dead Sea 
south of the Lisan Peninsula, which is 
very shallow, but some recent explorers 
incline to a northern location, in the Ghor 
of the Jordan. The Salt Sea is mentioned 
as one of the boundaries of the land of 
Canaan and of the tribes. Num. 34 : 3, 
12; Deut. 3 : 17 ; 4:49; Josh. 15:2, 5; 
18:19; 2 Kgs. 14 : 25. In Eze. 47 : 18 
757 



SAL 



SAM 



and Joel 2 : 20 it is mentioned as "the 
east sea," in distinction from " the west 
sea," which was the Mediterranean. 

The cities of the plain, which were 
destroyed by " brimstone and fire from 
the Lord out of heaven," were near the 
Dead Sea. Gen. 19 : 24. The suppo- 
sition formerly most common was that 
these cities were submerged by the wa- 
ters of the sea at the time of the great 
catastrophe — a theory which appears 
to be inconsistent with the geological 
and physical character of the region. 

For the disputed question respect- 
ing the sites of the cities of the plain, 
see Sodom and Gomorrah. 

The Salt or Dead Sea is not men- 
tioned in the N. T. 

SALT, VALLEY OF, more 
accurately a " ravine," and the bat- 
tlefield between Judah and Edom. 
It is five times mentioned in Scripture 
in connection with two remarkable vic- 
tories of the Israelites. 

1. That of David over the Edomites 
when 18,000 of them were slain. 2 Sam. 
8 : 13: 1 Chr. 13 : 12; and compare the 
title to Ps. 60. 

2. The victory of Amaziah, who slew 
10,000 Edomites and hurled 10,000 more 
over the "rock" (Petra). 2 Kgs. 14 : 7 ; 
2 Chr. 25 : 11. It has been proposed to 
locate this valley near the salt mountain 
Jebel Usdam, in the plains south of the 
Salt Sea; but Grove objects to this, and 
holds that " salt " is not necessarily 
the right translation of the Hebrew 
melach, and infers that Amaziah brought 
his prisoners to Selah (margin, " the 
rock," or Petra) ; hence that he would 
scarcely carry so many prisoners for 50 
miles through a hostile country. It 
would seem more likely, therefore, that 
the Valley of Salt was in Edom, near to 
Petra. 

SA'LU (weighed), a Simeonite chief. 
Num. 25 : 14. 

SALUTE', Matt. 10 : 12, SALU- 
TA'TION. Luke 1 : 41. The saluta- 
tions of the Jews were usually of a re- 
ligious character — at least, in form — 
and were attended with much ceremony, 
as they are to this day among the Ori- 
entals, even the Bedouins of the desert. 
Sometimes there was nothing but the 
simple exclamation, "The Lord be with 
you !" or " Peace be with you !" To 
this last and most common form strik- 
758 



ing allusion is made by our Saviour. 
John 14 : 27 ; 20 : 19, 26. It passed into 
the epistolary salutation. Rom. 1 : 7, etc. 
The time occupied in the ceremonies of 
salutation, repeatedly bowing, kissing 
the beard, etc., was often very consider- 




ilodes of Salutation in the East. 

able, Gen. 33 : 3, 4, and hence the caution 
in 2 Kgs. 4 : 29; Luke 10 : 4 against 
saluting. 

SALVA'TION, or deliverance, sup- 
poses evil or danger. Ex. 14 : 13 : comp. 
Ps. 106 : 8-10 with Isa. 63 : 8, 9. But 
in its ordinary use, in the X. T. especi- 
ally, the term denotes the deliverance 
of sinners from sin and death through 
faith in Christ. " The day of salvation," 
2 Cor. 6 : 2, "the gospel of your salva- 
tion," Eph. 1:13, and other like phrases, 
are employed in this sense. They all 
suppose mankind to be lost and ruined by 
sin, and hence to be in a state of guilt 
and deplorable misery and exposed to 
the just penalty of the divine law. The 
salvation which the gospel offers in- 
cludes in it the pardon of sin and de- 
liverance from its power, pollution, and 
consequences, and also sanctification of 
the soul and the joys of the eternal 
world. Matt. 1 : 21 ; Gal. 3:13:1 Thess. 
1:10; Heb. 5 : 9. Hence it is justly 
called a great salvation. Heb. 2 : 3. 

SAMA'RIA (watch-post), a noted 
city of Central Palestine, founded by 
Omri, king of Israel. 

Situation. — The city of Samaria was 
30 miles north of Jerusalem and 6 miles 
north-west of Shechem, and situated 
near the centre of a beautiful basin 
about 6 miles in diameter and sur- 
rounded by hills. The hill of Samaria 
was to the east of the centre of this 
basin, and about 1542 feet in height 
above the level of the sea. It was of 



SAM 



SAM 



an oblong form, with steep and terraced 
sides. The whole region about it is 
fertile, the site being a strong one for 
defence and the view from the summit 
very beautiful. From its top the Medi- 
terranean Sea can be plainly seen. 

History. — Shemer sold the ground upon 
which Samaria was built to Omri, the 
king of Israel, for two silver talents, and 
the latter built a city, calling it Samaria, 
B. c. 925. 1 Kgs. 16 : 23, 24. It appears 
that previous to this Shechem had been 
the capital, and Tirzah the court-resi- 
dence in summer. 1 Kgs. 15:21, 33; 
16 : 1-18. But Omri now made Samaria 
the capital of Israel — a position which 
it continued to hold for two hundred 
years, until the fall of the northern 
kingdom, b. c. 721. It was the seat 
of many idolatrous practices. Ahab 
erected a great temple to Baal ; Jehu 
destroyed it, and massacred the priests. 
1 Kgs. 16 : 32, 33; 2 Kgs. 10 : 18, 28. 
Twice the city was besieged by the 
Syrians — in the reign of Ahab, b. c. 
901, and in the reign of Joram, b. c. 
892. 1 Kgs. 20 : 1. At the latter siege 
the people were reduced to the most ter- 
rible distress by famine, but were won- 
derfully delivered, in accordance with 



the prophecy of Elisha. 2 Kgs. 6 : 24-33 ; 
7 : 1-20. About one hundred and seventy 
years later the city was caprured by the 
king of Assyria, after a siege of nearly 
three years : the northern kingdom was 
destroyed, and the ten tribes carried into 
captivity. 2 Kgs. 18 : 9-12. Colonists 
from Assyria were sent to repeople the 
country, ' 2 Kgs. 17 : 24 ; Ezr. 4 : 9, 10. 
The city of Samaria continued to be a 
place of some importance. It was cap- 
tured by Alexander the Great, who peo- 
i pled it with Syro-Macedonians ; it was 
| again taken by John Hyrcanus, after a 
! year's siege, and razed to the ground, 
! B. c. 1 09. It was rebuilt and adorned by 
Herod the Great, who named it Sebaste 
in honor of Augustus, who gave it to 
him, and settled a colony of six thou- 
sand persons there, composed of veteran 
soldiers and peasants. He enlarged the 
city, and surrounded it with a wall and 
colonnade. 

In N. T. times, Philip preached the 
gospel in Samaria, Acts 8:5, 9, and 
the place became an episcopal see. 
Septimius Severus planted a Roman 
colony there in the third century of 
the Christian era, but politically it was 
secondary to Caesarea. The city was 



- 




Euins of the Colonnade of Samaria. 



also surpassed in prosperity by Ne- 
apolis (Sichem). During the siege of 
Jerusalem. Samaria fell into the hands 



of the Muslims, but the Crusaders estab- 
lished a Latin bishop there, thus reviv- 
ing the old episcopal see. In a. d. 1184, 
759 



SAM 



SAM 



Saladin marched through the city : and 
notices of the place occur in the accounts 
of travellers from the fourteenth to the 
seventeenth centuries. 

Present Condition. — The ancient city 
of Samaria is now represented by 
the modern village Sebustieh (from 
"Sebaste"), situated upon the slope of 
the hill, having houses built of stones 
taken from the ancient remains. In and 
among the houses are scattered many 
fragments of ancient buildings, such as 
hewn blocks, shafts of columns, capitals, 
and portions of entablatures. Vines grow 
luxuriantly around the bases of broken 
shafts, grain is planted amid shattered 
columns, sculptured blocks of limestone 
are embedded in the rude terraces of the 
vineyards. The most imposing ancient 
building is the half-ruined church of John 
the Baptist, now turned into a mosque. 
Tradition states that John the Baptist 
was buried here. The church stands in 
a conspicuous position ori the brow of a 
hill, the present edifice being the work 
of the Crusaders of the twelfth century. 
On the round hill above the village, 
to the west, are the remains of the 
palace erected by Herod the Great in 
honor of Augustus. On the terrace to 
the south runs the fr.mous colonnade, 
about 2000 feet in length, of which one 
hundred columns still lemain, some 
standing, some overthrown or buried 
beneath the soil. Besides the tomb 
of John the Baptist, tradition points 
out the resting-place of Obadiah and 
Elisha under a stone slab near the 
ruined church. The prophet declares, 
" I will make Samaria as an heap of 
the field, and as plantings of a vine- 
yard: and I will pour down the stones 
thereof into the valley, and I will dis- 
cover the foundations the'eof." Mic. 
1 : 6. This prophecy has been literally 
fulfilled. 

SAMARIA, KINGDOM AND 
COUNTRY OF, a territory which 
lay north of Judah, and, in N. T. times, 
between that country and the region 
known as Galilee. 

Situation and Extent. — The kingdom 
of Samaria, as referred to in the 0. T., 
was synonymous with the kingdom of 
Israel. This varied in extent at dif- 
ferent times, at one period embracing all 
the territory allotted to the t' n tribes, 
at others covering a more limited region. 
760 



j In the days of Jeroboam it extended on 
| both sides of the Jordan ; but this terri- 
' tory was much reduced, first bv the in- 
I vasion of Pul, and later by that of 
i Tiglath-pileser, when the Israelites on 
; the east side were taken captive. The 
i extent of the kingdom was then con- 
| fined to the region between the Jordan « 
i and the Mediterranean, and to that 
! portion north of the kingdom of Judah, 
it being, in fact, only a subject province 
of Assyria. See Israkl, Kingdom of. 

In N. T. times Samaria was the region 
between Galilee on the north and Judaea 
on the south. Its boundaries have been 
traced by the British Ordnance Survey 
in accordance with the description by 
Josephus. The norlhern limit is de- 
fined by the towns of Beth-shan ( Beisan), 
En-gannim (Jeniv), and Caphar-out- 
heni (Kcfr Adhaii), being properly com- 
mensurate with the northern boundary 
of Manasseh. Beth-shan and the valley 
of Jezreel at one time belonged to 
Samaria, but were subsequently taken 
by the Jews. The southern boundary, 
as noted by Josephus, appears to have 
been the great valley called Wddy Deir 
Eallvt, which rises near the Libben (the 
ancient Lebonah). and leaves Sliiloh in 
Ihe territory of Judah. Antipatris (Ras 
el-Ain), Annath (Aina\ and Borceas 
(Brukin) are found on the frontier-line. 
According to Josephus, Samaria had no 
sea-coast, since the whole plain of Sharon 
up to Ptolemais belcnged to Judah. It 
is doubtful, also, whjit portion of the 
west Jordan valley belonged to Samaria, 
but it probably did not extend south of 
the Wad y Farah. The Roman high- 
way from Galilee to Jerusalem ran 
along the Jordan by way of Jericho, 
and was the one commonly u.'ed by 
pilgrims. It is important to note this 
position of Samaria as throwing light 
upon the route pursued by Jesus and 
other Galileans in going up to Jerusalem, 
for they would avoid, as far as possible, 
passing through (he territory of their 
neighbors, the Samaritans. 

History. — The history of the country 
of Samaria to B. c. 720 belongs to the 
kingdom of Israel. After Israel was 
carried into captivity the history of the 
Samaritans, as such, begins. Who were 
these Samaritans? The word occurs 
only once in the O. T., 2 Ktrs. 17 : 29, 
and then it seems to be used rather of 



SAM 



SAM 



the Israelites. But after they were 
carried away, men from Assyria were 
brought as colonists into the cities of 
Samaria, 2 Kgs. 17 : 24, and these were 
the ancestors of the Samaritans men- 
tioned in N. T. times. A much-debated 
question has been whether those Samar- 
itans were of purely foreign extraction 
or were of mixed Jewish blood. The 
latter opinion seems most reasonable. 
It is hardly to be supposed that all 
the Jews could have been carried away 
out of the land, and this opinion is 
supported by the fact that money was 
contributed from the cities of Manasseh 
and Ephraim to repair the temple in Jo- 
siah's time, 2 Chr. 34 : 9, and idols were 
destroyed in the same region. 2 Chr. 34 : 
6, 7. The Assyrian colonists obtainel a 
priest to teach them " the manner of the 
God of the land," and combined some 
forms of Jehovah-worship with their 
idolatry. 2 Kgs. 17 : 25-41. 

When the Jews returned from the 
Captivity with a spirit more exclusive 
than ever, the contrast between Jew and 
Samaritan was very strongly marked. 
The Samaritans wished to have a share 
in rebuilding the temple, but the Jews 
refused to allow rhem to co-operate. The 
breach widened, and the Samaritans suc- 
ceeded in hindering the work at Jeru- 
salem by misrepresentations to the Per- 
sian kings. Ezr. 4; Neh. 4, 6. 

At length the opposition culminated 
in the setting up of a rival temple by 
the Samaritans on Mount Gerizim. The 
occasion of this seems to have been the 
expulsion from Jerusalem by Nehemiah 
of a son of the high priest, who was a 
son-in-law of Sanballat. Neh. 13 : 28. 
According to Josephus, the person ex- 
pelled was Manasseh, whose father-in- 
law, Sanballat, obtained from Alexander 
the Great permission to erect the temple. 
But the temple was probably erected at 
an earlier date. After this time the city 
of Samaria declined, and Shechem in- 
creased in importance. This temple 
was destroyed by John Hyrcanus after 
standing for two hundred years. 

Conflicts between the Jews and the 
Samaritans were frequent. A party 
of Samaritans defiled the temple at 
Jerusalem with bmes of the dead. 
There was a general insurrection among 
them in the time of Pilate, whose severity 
resulted in his removal from office. A 



crowd arrayed themselves against Ves- 
pasian, and he slew 11,600 of them. 
The bitter animosity between the two 
races must be understood in order to 
comprehend many facts in the N. T. 
history. Thus the Galileans avoided 
going through Samaria, as far as pos- 
sible, in their journeys to Jerusalem, 
| since they were exposed to insult, as- 
sault, and even danger of death. The 
Seventy were not to go among the 
Samaritans, Matt. 10 : 5, and the in- 
I hospitality of that people excited the 
j blazing indignation of James and John. 
I Luke 9 : 52-56. Yet Jesus showed 
j himself to be far superior to the narrow 
feeling of race by his parable of the 
| Good Samaritan, Luke 10 : 30, 37 ; his 
commendation of the healed Samaritan, 
Luke 17 : 11—19; and his conversation 
! with the woman of Samaria. John 4 : 
\ 1-42. This interview throws light upon 
j the Samaritan character and claims. 
The woman asserts for them Abrahamic 
descent — '* our father Jacob" — but this 
the Jews would not allow. It was prob- 
able that the people had become more 
and more of a mixed blood, since, ac- 
cording" to Josephus, many renegade, 
apostate, and law-breaking Jews sought 
refuge among the Samaritans. The 
gospel gained some success there. Acts 
.1:8; 8 : 5-26. But most of the Sa- 
maritans adhe-ed to their old religion, 
and therefore frequently came into col- 
lision with Christianitv and with the 
; Roman emperors, particularly in A. D. 
I 529. About this time they martyred 
Christians and destroyed churches. 
Justinian subdued them and slew many 
' of the insurgents. During the Crusades 
i they are not mentioned. In the twelfth 
century Benjamin of Tudela found about 
j a thousand adherents of the sect of the 
■ Samaritans at Nabliis, and a few also 
I at Ascalon, Cassarea, and Damascus. 
During the sixteenth and seventeenth 
cen f uries various letters passed between 
| the Samaritans and Western scholars in 
regard to their Pentateuch. 

Present Condition. — The only repre- 
sentatives of the Samaritans are found 
in a community living at Nablfis 
j (Shechem). and consisting of some forty 
j to fifty families. They possess the Pen- 
i tateuch, in thp old Hebrew or Samaritan 
i writing, which has attracted great at- 
tention from scholars as a verv ancient 
761 



SAM 



SAM 



version. Three times a year, at the feast 
of unleavened bread, the feast of weeks, 
and the feast of tabernacles, they make a 




Cylinder enclosing the Samaritan Pentateuch 
at Nablus. 

pilgrimage to the sacred Mount Gerizim. 
They celebrate all the Mosaic festivals, 
and at the Passover they offer sacrifices. 
Sl^AR'ITANS, the inhabitants 
of Samaria, 2 Kgs. 17 : 29, but in the 
J\. T. the term is applied to the people 
762 



that were planted in Samaria, in the 
place of the exiled Israelites, by tue 
Assyrian king. 2 Kgs. 17 : 24. This 
defiled origin, Ezr. 4 : 1, the course 
pursued by the Samaritans before the 
Persian kings, Neh. 4 : 1, connected 
with their construction of the Mosaic 
Law, Deut. 27 : 11-13, and their sepa- 
ration from the Jews in their place of 
worship, Luke 9 : 52, 53 ; John 4 : 20, 
21, rendered the animosity between them 
very bitter, Matt. 10 : 5 ; John 4:9; and 
hence the very name " Samaritan " was, 
with the Jew, a term of reproach and con- 
tempt. John 8 : 48. The Samaritans ex- 
pected a Messiah, John 4 : 25, and many 
of them followed Christ. Acts 8:1; 9 : 
31 ; 15 : 3. See Samaria, Kingdom of. 

SAM'GAR-NE'BO {sword of 
Nebn), a Babylonish prince. Jer. 39 : 3. 

SAM/LiAH {garment), an ancient 
Edomite king. Gen. 36 : 36, 37; 1 Chr. 
1 : 47, 48. 

SA'MOS (a height), an island in the 
iEgean Sea, a few miles from the main 
land, and 42 miles south-west of Smyrna. 
The island is 27 miles long, 1 miles wide, 
and has an area of 165 square miles. It 
was the seat of Juno-worship, the birth- 
place of Pythagoras, and noted for its 
valuable pottery. Paul visited the island 
on his third missionary journey. Acts 
20 : 15. Samos was then the capital of 
the island. Two miles to the west was 
the temple of Juno ; there was a sacred 
way, which can still be traced, from the 
city to the temple. The modern name 
of the port at which Paul landed is Ti- 
gani. The island now contains about 
60,000 inhabitants, and is noted for its 
productions of oil, wine, oranges, grapes, 
raisins, and silk. 

SAMOTHRACIA (Thraeian Sa- 
mos), an island in the north-eastern part 
of the iEgean Sea, and a conspicuous 
landmark to sailors. It is 8 miles long 
and 6 miles broad. Homer says that 
from its lofty ridges the battlefield of 
Troy might be seen, and one of its 
mountains has an elevation of 5248 feet, 
affording a wide view. Paul visited it on 
his second missionary journey. Acts 16: 
11. The island is still called Samothraki, 
and contains from 1000 to 2000 inhabit- 
ants, subiect to Turkey. 

SAM'SON (swnlike) s son of Manoah, 
of the tribe of Dan, and for twenty years 
a judge of Israel. The circumstances at- 



SAM 



SAM 



tending the annunciation of his birth 
are remarkable. Jud. 13 : 3-23. See 
Maxoah. He was distinguished for his 
gigantic strength, and is the Hercules 
of the Hebrews. Contrary to the wishes 
of his parents, who were observers of 
the Law, Ex. 34 : 16; Deut. 7 : 3, he 
married a woman of Timnath, a Philis- 
tine city. On his way to that city he 
slew a lion, Jud. 14 : 5-9, and afterward 
found in the carcass of the beast a swarm 
of bees, and he ate of the honey himself 
and took some to his parents. This oc- 
currence gave rise to an enigma, which 
he propounded at his marriage-feast, 
promising a valuable present to any who 
would solve it within seven days, pro- 
vided they would make a like present to 
him if they failed. Unable to solve the 
riddle themselves, they resorted to Sam- 
son's wife, who, by the most urgent en- 
treaties, had obtained from him a solu- 
tion of it. By cruel threats they extort- 
ed from her the secret, and told it to him. 
But he knew their treachery ; and, though 
he kept his word and made them the 
present, it was at the expense of the 
lives of thirty of their countrymen. 
He also forsook his wife, who had been 
thus false to him. See Kiddle. 

On returning to Timnath with a view 
to a reconciliation with his wife, he found 
she had married again, and he was not 
permitted to see her. He immediately 
caught three hundred foxes, and, fasten- 
ing a firebrand to every pair of them, 
let them loose upon the fields and vine- 
yards of the Philistines, and spread fire 
and desolation over the country. The 
Philistines, to be avenged, set fire to the 
house where Samson's wife lived, and she 
and her father were burnt in it. This 
wanton barbarity again drew upon them 
the vengeance of Samson, who came upon 
them and routed them with immense 
slaughter. Jud. 15 : 1-8. 

He then took up his abode on the rock 
Etam, in the territory of Judah, whither 
the Philistines came to revenge them- 
selves, laying waste the country on every 
side. Three thousand of the men of Ju- 
dah remonstrated with Samson for thus 
exciting the resentment of the Philis- 
tines, and he consented that they should 
bind him and deliver him into their 
hands. This they did ; but in the 
midst of their exultations he burst his 
bands and fell upon bis enemies, put- 



ting a thousand of them to death and 
the residue to flight. Jud. 15 : 9-19. It 
was on this occasion that he was mirac- 
ulously supplied with water from a foun- 
tain opened on the spot — not in the jaw- 
bone with which he had slain the Philis- 
tines, but in the place where the bone was 
found and used. Jud. 15: 17, margin. 

His sensual nature betrayed him into 
an illicit connection with a woman in 
Gaza. His enemies meanwhile sur- 
rounded the place, expecting to kill 
him in the morning, but at midnight he 
arose and carried off" the gates of the 
city. Jud. 16 : 3. After this, Samson 
went to the valley of Sorek, where he 
attached himself to Delilah, a mercenary 
woman, by whom, after a variety of arts 
and stratagems, the secret of his great 
strength was discovered to lie in the 
preservation of his hair, for he was a 
Nazarite. Jud. 16 : 17. The Philistines 
came upon him 'while he was asleep, re- 
moved his hair, bound him with fetters 
of brass, put out his eyes, carried him 
to Gaza, and threw him into prison. 
Having thus secured their formidable 
foe, the, Philistine nobles assembled for 
a feast of joy, and, to add to their mer- 
riment, they proposed to have Samson 
brought. So a lad led him in and set 
him down between the two main pillars 
of the house where the nobles and a 
multitude of people, both men and 
women, were assembled, besides three 
thousand persons upon the roofs of the 
cloisters around, beholding the cruel 
sport. Samson requested the lad who 
had charge of him to let him rest him- 
self against the pillars on either side of 
him. This being granted, he prayed for 
strength, and, laying hold of the pillars, 
he bowed with all his might, carrying 
the pillars and the whole structure with 
him, and burying himself and the vast 
multitude within and around the courts 
in one common destruction. Samson is 
ranked with the heroes of the faithful. 
Heb. 11 : 32, 33. But we must, of course, 
not judee him from the standpoint of the 
N. T. He lived in the wild anarchical pe- 
riod of the Judges, when might was right, 
and he was iust the man for that time. 

SAMUEL (heard of God), the son 
of Elkanah and Hannah, was a celebra- 
ted Hebrew prophet, and the last of lheir 
judges. He is one of the purest an.f'i 
noblest characters in the 0. T. history. 
763 



SAN 



SAN 



While he was a child he officiated in some 
form in the temple, and was favored with 
revelations of the divine will respecting 
the family of Eli, the hi^h priest, under 
whose care and training his mother had 
placed him. 1 Sam. 3 : 4-14. See Eli. 

After the death of Eli, Samuel was ac- 
knowledged as a prophet, and soon com- 
menced a work of reformation. Idolatry 
was banished, the worship of the true 
God was restored, and Samuel was pub- 
licly recognized as a judge in Israel. 
Residing on his patrimonial estate in 
Ramah, he made annual circuits through 
the country to administer justice until his 
infirmities forbade it, and then he de- 
puted his sons to execute this duty. 
They proved themselves unworthy of 
the trust, and so general was the dissat- 
isfaction of the people that they deter- 
mined on a change of government. To 
this end they applied to Samuel, who, 
under the divine direction, anointed 
Saul to be their king, and Samuel re- 
signed his authority to him. 1 Sam. 12. 
After Saul was rejected for his disobe- 
dience in the matter of Agag, Samuel 
was instructed to anoint David as king, 
after which he returned to Ramah, where 
he died. 1 Sam. 25 : 1. See Saul. 

First and Second Books of, are called 
also the First and Second Books of Kings. 
They bear Samuel's name, perhaps be- 
cause he wrote the history of his own 
times as given in the First Book, and 
therefore the entire work went under his 
name. But it is more probable that the 
name was in consequence of Samuel be- 
ing the hero of the first part of the his- 
tory, and that the author belonged to a 
later period. The Hebrew is singularly 
clear and pure from Aramaisms. 

The two books are thus analyzed in 
Lange's Commentary: 1st part: Sam- 
uel's life and work as judge and proph- 
et. 1 Sam. 1 : 1-7. 2d part: Saul, chs. 
8-31 : (1 ) Founding of kingdom, his ap- 
pointment, chs. 8-15 ; (2) His fall. Chs. 
16-31. 3d part: David. 2 Samuel: 
1st part: David king over Judah only, 
2 Sam. 1-5 : 5. 2d part: David king 
over all Israel. Chs. 5 : 6-24. 

These books formed only one in the 
Hebrew canon. They are the antece- 
dents to the books of the Kings, but are 
not from the same hand. " In Kings 
are many express references to the Law ; 
in Samuel, none. In Kings the Exile is 
764 



often alluded to : it is not so in Samuel. 
The plans of the two works vary. Sam- 
uel has more of a biographical cast; 
Kings more the character of annals." 

SANBALJLAT (a hero?), a native 
of Horonaim, in Moab, who sadly im- 
peded the efforts of the Jews to rebuild 
the walls of the city by inciting a move- 
ment on the part of the Arabians and 
others who comprised the "army of Sa- 
maria," which apparently Sanballat com- 
manded. Neh. 4 : 2. After Nehemiah's 
departure he insinuated himself suffi- 
ciently with the high priest to be able 
to marry his daughter to the high priest's 
grandson. But Neheiniah, returning, 
promptly deposed the latter. 13 : 28. 
We have no further biblical information 
about him. 

SANCTIFY is to prepare or set 
apart persons or things to a holy use. 
Ex. 13 : 2. The term " sanetification," 
when applied to men, denotes the effect 
of God's Spirit upon the soul. It com- 
prehends all the graces of knowledge, 
| faith, love, repentance, humility, etc., 
J and the exercise of them toward God 
and man. 2 Thess. 2:13; 1 Pet. 1 : 2. 
It is a process by which the soul is 
I cleansed from the pollution and deliv- 
ered from the power of sin, and at the 
same time endued with those spiritual 
graces above named, without which there 
could be no taste or fitness for the joys 
or employments of the heavenly world. 
Heb. 12 : 14. Sanetification is the fruit 
of union to Christ by faith, and it is in 
the knowledge and belief of the truth 
as it is in Jesus that the soul becomes 
the subject of the sanctifying influences 
of the Spirit. John 17 : 17. From this 
inward sanetification proceeds every good 
word and work. Tit. 2: 11-14. When Christ 
speaks of sanctifying himself, John 17 : 
19, it is in allusion to the law which re- 
quired the sacrifice to be set apart to a 
holy use. He separates or dedicates him- 
self as a sacrifice to God for them. 

SANCTUARY, a holy or sanctified 
place. Ps. 20:2. By this name that part 
of the temple of Jerusalem was called 
which was the most secret and most re- 
tired, in which was the ark of the cove- 
nant, and where none but the high priest 
might enter, and he only once a year, on 
the day of solemn expiation. Lev. 4 : 6. 
It is also applied to the furniture of this 
holy place, Num. 10 : 21, the apartment 



SAN 



SAtf 



where the golden candlestick, table of 
phew-bread, altar of incense, etc., stood, 
2 Chr. 26 : 18, and to the whole taber- 
nacle or temple. Josh. 24 : 26 ; 2 Chr. 
20 : 8. It is called the " sanctuary of 
strength," because it was a strong place 
and easily fortified, and it belonged to 
God, the Strength of Israel, Dan. 11 : 31 ; 
a " worldly sanctuary," as it was of a 
carnal and earthly typical nature. Heb. 
9:1. It is also applied to any place 
appointed for the public worship of God, 
Ps. 73 : 17; to heaven, where God and 
his holy angels and saints for ever dwell, 
Ps. 102: 19; and, in allusion to the 
Jewish sanctuary, whose brazen altar 
protected petty criminals, a place of ref- 
uge and shelter is called a "sanctuary," 
Isa. 8 : 14; Eze. 11 : 16. The land of 
Israel was called God's sanctuary. Ex. 
15 : 17; comp. Ps. 78:54; 114: 2. 

SAND (from a root meaning to whirl). 
The wastes of Palestine consist mainly 
of parched soil and gravel. Sand oc- 
curs only along the shores of the seas 
and rivers. It is found in some parts 
of the desert of Sinai, and abundantly 
in Egypt. On the west especially the 
Nile valley is ever menaced by "the 
sands of the African desert — sands and 
sand-drifts which in purity, in bright- 
ness, in firmness, in destruotiveness, are 
the snows and glaciers of the south." — 
Stanley. The pyramids and most of the 
ancient remains of Egypt stand upon the 
edge of the whirling sand-wastes, and 
therefore are liable to be covered up, 
as indeed many have been. Here all 
stirring of the surface is quickly and 
utterly obliterated. Ex. 2 : 12. God has 
placed the sand for a bound of the sea 
by a perpetual decree. Jer. 5 : 22. 

Sand is also figuratively used to de- 
note an innumerable multitude or great 
abundance, Gen. 32 : 12 ; 41 : 49, and 
also that which is heavy. Job 6:3; 
Prov. 27 : 3. Issachar was to " suck 
of the abundance of the seas and of 
treasures hid in the sand." Deut. 33 : 
19. Some authorities find here an 
allusion to the great value of the 
sand of the river Belus, near Acre, for 
the manufacture of glass. But in this 
sand the mollusk (Murex trunculus) used 
for the purple dye is abundant, and vast 
quantities of crushed shells attest the 
ancient productiveness of this industry 
at Acre. Lieut. Conder understands 



these to be the " treasures hid in the 
sand," and claims this to be the inter- 
pretation of the Jewish rabbis. 

SAN'DALS. Mark6:9. See Clothes. 

SAN'HEDRIN",incorrectly butcom- 
monly SANHEDRIM. The word is 
a Hebrew transliteration from the Greek 
word xynedrion, which means "council." 
The Sanhedrin was the highest council 
of the Jews. When it was founded is 
uncertain. The Jews trace back to the 
time of Moses, and see its beginning in 
the elders. Others see the germ in the 
tribunal established by Jehoshaphat. 2 
Chr. 19 : 8-11. But much more likely 
the Sanhedrin dates from the extinction 
of the Great Synagogue, and therefore is 
after the Captivity and Return ; some put 
it down so low as b. c. 107. We must 
distinguish between two kinds of San- 
hedrin — the provincial, which was com- 
posed of twenty-three members in every 
town of 120, and of three where there 
was a smaller, population, and the Great 
Sanhedrin, which numbered seventy-one 
and was governed by a nasi, or president, 
and two vice-presidents; besides, there 
were secretaries and other officers. It 
met in a, room adjoining the temple, and 
the seats were arranged in the form of a 
semicircle. After the destruction of Jeru- 
salem it removed to Tabneh, and finally 
to Tiberias, where it became extinct, a.d. 
425. It had greatly changed its cha- 
racter before it ended. It appears, from 
the statements in the Talmud, that Her- 
od put all the Great Sanhedrin to death 
except one. But, although this be false, 
the complexion of the body was altered 
for the worse. Indeed, some say that the 
Sanhedrin really did not exist in Christ's 
day, but the council which arrogated to 
itself this name was " an arbitrary, in- 
competent, and special gathering." But 
in its glory it was the supreme privy 
council of the Jews — not only their 
court of final appeal and last resort, but 
also an executive and legislative assem- 
bly, shaping the general polity of the 
nation. Its power in matters civil and 
religious was practically unlimited. It 
decided all cases brought upon appeal 
from the lower courts ; it had authority 
over kings and high priests ; in it was 
vested the trial of heresy, idolatry, false 
prophets; and it alone had power to 
pronounce the sentence of death. When 
the Jews came under the Roman govern- 
765 



SAN 



SAft 



ment the range of its jurisdiction was 
decreased. The death power, according 
to Talmudic tradition, was taken from 
it three years before the death of Christ. 
Owing to its altered character, it declined 
in influence until its extinction was no 
loss. The Sanhedrin consisted of the three 
classes, the priests, the elders, and the 
scribes. The confirmation and execution 
of a capital sentence rested with the 
Roman procurator. The Gospels truth- 
fully, therefore, relate that, while Christ 
was condemned by the Sanhedrin for 
blasphemy, he was accused by the Jews 
of treason, and thus brought under Ro- 
man judgment. Cf. Matt. 26 : 65, 66 ; 
John 19 : 12 ; also 18 : 31 : " It is not 
lawful for us to put any man to death." 
The stoning of Stephen, Acts 7 : 57-59, was 
either tumultuous or else, if ordered by 
the Sanhedrin, illegal, as Josephus (Ant. 
xx. 9 § 1) expressly declares was the exe- 
cution of James, " the Lord's brother," 
A. D. 62, during the absence of Albinus, 
the Roman procurator. See Council. 

SANSAN'NAH [palm-branch), a 
place in the Negeb, or " south country," 
Josh. 15 : 31 ; also called " Hazar-susah " 
or "Susim," "horse-court" — that is, 
" depot of horses." Josh. 19 : 5 ; comp. 
1 Chr. 4 : 31. Wilton locates it in the 
modern Wddy es Siiny ; Conder, at Beit 
Sustn, 15 miles west of Jerusalem, but 
this seems too far north. 

SAPH (tall), a Philistine giant, 2 
Sam. 21 : 18 j called Sippai in 1 Chr. 

20 : 4. 

SAP FT I R (fair), a town addressed 
by the prophet Micah. Mic. 1:11. Ac- 
cording to Eusebius and Jerome, it was 
in the mountain-district between Eleu- 
theropolis and Ascalon. The Pal. Me- 
moirs suggest es Sudfir, some mud vil- 
lages 5 miles south-east of Esdud (Ash- 
dod), as its possible site, but say a site 
in the hills would suit better, though in 
other respects it agrees with the state- 
ments of Eusebius and Jerome. 

SAPPHI'RA [beautiful), the wife 
of Ananias, and partner in his guilt and 
punishment. Acts 5 : 1-11. 

SAPPHIRE. This was one of 
the precious stones of the high priest's 
breastplate, and of the foundations of 
the Apocalyptic city, Ex. 28 : 18; Rev. 

21 : 19, and is often mentioned in the 0. 
T. It was certainly of a blue color. Ex. 
24 : 10; Eze. 1 : 26; 10 : 1. But it is 

766 



generally agreed that the ordinary sap- 
phire of the ancients was our lapis-lazuli, 
an opaque mineral of a dark azure hue. 

Some scholars still hold that the Bible 
references require a transparent, hard, 
and valuable gem like the true sapphire. 
This stone is next to the diamond in lus- 
tre, beauty, and hardness. It differs only 
in color from the Oriental ruby, varying 
from the deepest to the lightest blue, and 
even to pure white. See Stones, Precious. 

SA'RA, same as Sarah. Heb. 11 : 11 ; 
1 Pet. 3 : 6. 

SARAH (princess). 1. The half 
sister and wife of Abraham, called 
"Sarai" down to Gen. 17: 15, when God 
changed her name from "my princess," 
as for Abraham, to "princess," for all 
the race. In addition to the notice of her 
in the article Abraham, it may be proper 
to say that she as well as Abraham was 
the subject of special promises. Gen. 17 : 
16. Her conduct in Egypt, Gen. 12 : 15, 
and toward Hagar, Gen. 16 : 6 : 21 : 10, 
and also when Isaac was promised, Gen. 
18 : 15, evinced great weakness, but her 
exemplary faith is commended by the 
apostles. Heb. 11 : 11 : 1 Pet. 3 : 6. She 
lived to one hundred and twenty-seven 
years of age, or upward of thirty-six 
years after the birth of Isaac, and was 
buried in a field of Machpelah, which 
Abraham bought for the purpose. 

2. A woman mentioned in Num. 26 : 
46. See Serah. 

SA'RAI (my princess), the original 
name of Abraham's wife, Sarah, which 
see. Gen. 11 : 29. 

SA'RAPH (burning), a descendant 
of Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 22. 

SARDINE, Rev. 4 : 3, or SAR- 
DIUS, Ex. 28 : 17, a gem of a blood- 
red or flesh color, susceptible of a high 
polish, and also called "sard" or " car- 
nelian." Its former name it obtains 
from Sardis, in Asia Minor, where it 
was first found. This stone has long 
been a favorite for the engraver's art. 
" On this stone all the finest works of 
the most celebrated artists are to be 
found; and this not without good cause, 
such is its toughness, facility of work- 
ing, beauty of color,. and the high polish 
of which it is susceptible, and which 
Pliny states that it retains longer than 
any other gem." — King: Antique Gems. 

SAR'DIS, a city in Asia Minor, and 
the capital of Lydia. Sardis was situ- 



SA& 



SAK 



ated at the foot of Mount Tmolus, about 
50 miles north-east of Smyrna and 30 
miles south-east of Thyatira. It was 
on the river Pactolus, celebrated for its 
" golden sands," and some 2 miles from 
the river Hermus. The site was one of 
great beauty. 

History. — Sardis had great celebrity as 
the residence of the famous Croesus, whose 
name is the synonym for riches. When 
Cyrus conquered him, B.C. 548, he is said 
to have taken treasure of the value of 
$600,000,000. The Persians kept a gar- 
rison in the citadel. Alexander gained 
possession of the city after the battle of 
Granicus, and garrisoned it. Antiochus 
the Great sacked the city, b. c. 214; af- 
terward it was subject to the kings of 
Pergamos. An earthquake destroyed it 
in the reign of Tiberius, a. d. 17, but it 
was rebuilt, the emperor remitting the 
tribute for five years and granting the 
money to assist in reconstructing the 
city. The prosperity of Sardis arose 
from its convenience as a commercial 
mart and prosperous manufactures. The 
art of dyeing wool was discovered there. 
Sardis was the seat of one of the seven 
churches of Asia, and the Christians 
seem to have been so corrupted by the 
prevailing worldliness that they receiv- 
ed a severe rebuke. Rev. 3 : 1-5. 

Present Condition. — The ruins of Sar- 
dis are now called Sert-Kctlessi. Among 
the remains are two massive columns 
over 6 feet in diameter, standing up- 
right, and supposed to have belonged to 
the massive temple of Cybele; the sen- 
ate-house, called the house of Croesus, 
having one hall 156 feet long by 43 
broad, with walls 10 feet thick. A 
Roman sarcophagus has lately been 
discovered, a famous tomb of Alyattes 
— one of the wonders of the world — a 
gigantic mound, several tumuli, and Ro- 
man walls in ruins. The Pactolus al- 
most disappears in summer. The waters 
of the Hermus breed fevers. The site 
is now very unhealthy, and few, if any, 
people inhabit it. 

SAR'DITES, the descendants of 
Sered, son of Zebulun. Num. 26 : 26. 

SAR'DIUS. Ex. 28 : 17. See Sar- 
dine. 

SARDONYX, only mentioned in 
Rev. 21 : 20. Like the sardine, this stone 
is a variety of chalcedony. The sar- 
donyx combines the qualities of the sard 



and onyx, whence its name. In this gem 
as used, a white opaque layer rests upon 
a transparent red stratum, as King states, 
or the reverse, according to Pliny. The 
sard and sardonyx are found in Judaea. 

SAREPTA (smelting-house), the 
Zarephath of the O. T., a Phoenician 
town on the Mediterranean Sea between 
Tyre and Sidon. Luke 4 : 26. It is now 
called Stirafend, south of Sidon. 

SAR'GON (in Assyrian Sarrukin, 
"established is the king"), the suc- 
cessor of Shalmaneser and father of 
Sennicherib, king of Assyria by usur- 
pation, B. c. 722-705. Of his existence 
nothing was known for many centuries 
save the single fact, incidentally stated 
by Isaiah as the mere date of one of his 
prophecies, that Tartan took Ashdod by 
command of Sargon. Isa. 20 : 1. The 
name was a stumbling-block. But Isaiah 
was correct, and to-day the buried ruins 
of the Khorsabad palace attest the ac- 
curacy of the prophet. From excava- 
tions made at the latter place, we are 
able to form a chronology, defective, 
however, of sixteen of the seventeen 
years of his reign. These ruins prove 
him, says Prof. Schrader, the distin- 
guished Assyriologist, who is the au- 
thority for these statements, " to have 
made a quite unmistakable progress in 
originality and fineness of design, in 
neatness of execution and variety of 
pattern." The colored enamelling of 
bricks was carried to a finish unat- 
tained in later Assyrian history. The 
reign was an almost unbroken series of 
military triumphs: all the nations round 
felt the power of his arm. His annals 
describe his expeditions against Babylon 
and Susiana on the south; Media on the 
east: Armenia and Cappadocia on the 
north ; Syria, Palestine, Arabia, and 
Egypt on the west and south-west. He 
had, indeed, very able generals, of whom 
Tartan was the chief; but this fact does 
not detract from his personal glory. 

The expedition against Philistia in 
which the city of Ashdod was taken, as 
Isaiah mentions, 20 : 1, took place in 
B. c. 711. But this was not the first 
time Sargon was near Judah, for in B. c. 
720 he conducted an expedition against 
Egypt, and in the year before he took 
Samaria, carrying away part of the in- 
habitants. 2 Kgs. 17 : 6; 18 : 9-11. 
" The king of Assyria" referred to is not 
767 



SA& 



SAtJ 



Shalmaneser, but Sargon. who claims it, 
and the indefiniteness about 18 : 10 — 
" they took it " — agrees with the inscrip- 
tions, and shows that during the siege 
Sargon became king. The inscriptions 
show further that Judah was already a 
vassal of Sargon at the time of the siege 
of Ashdod. For the interesting account 
of this event given by the conqueror him- 
self see Smith (George), Assyrian Discov- 
eries, pp. 289-292. The next year after 
this important capture Sargon turned his 
arms against Merodach - baladan, king 
of Babylon, and reduced him to vas- 
salage. In b. c. 707 he completed the 
building of the palace of Khorsabad, 
which was near Nineveh, and in this 
magnificent building, in b. c. 705, he 
was murdered. 

SA FID (a survivor), a landmark in 
the boundary of Zebulun. Josh. 19 : 
10,12. The Syriac version reads " As- 
dod," and the Septuagint reads " Sed- 
douk." Conder suggests that Sarid may 
be identical with Tell Shadvd, on the 
north side of the plain of Esdraelon, 
south-west of Nazareth. 

SA'RON. Acts 9 : 35. See Sharon. 

SARSECHIM, the chief of the 
eunuchs in Nebuchadnezzar's army at 
the taking of Jerusalem. Jer. 29 : 3. 

SA'RUCH. Luke 3: 35. SeeSERUG. 

SA'TAN (adversary), the adversary 
of God and man, the foe to goodness, and 
the author of evil. The references in 
Scripture to Satan, but not. commonly by 
this name, are numerous. The proper 
name appears five times in the 0. T. — 1 
Chr. 21 : 1 ; Job 1 : 6, 12 : 2:1; Zeeh. 
3:1; in the N. T. twenty-five times; 
the word " devil " occurs twenty-five 
times; "the prince of this world," three 
times; "the wicked one," six times; 
" the tempter," twice. In one remark- 
able verse several epithets are combined 
— the old serpent, the devil, and Satan, 
who deceiveth the whole world. Rev. 
12 : 9. The most striking mention of 
Satan is in Job, where he appears 
among "the sons of God." This is in 
itself sufficient to prove the subordina- 
tion of the powers of evil unto God and 
the permissive nature of sin, and Satan 
has no authority to vex save as God 
grants it. The existence of Satan is a 
perpetual menace to godliness, but by 
resisting him we put him to flight and 
deepen our moral nature. 
768 



SA'TYR, a fabled creature of Greek 
mythology, compounded of a man and a 
J goat, and supposed to be the deity of 
forests and rural places. Isa. 13 : 21 ; 34: 
14. The expression "satyrs shall dance 
there," etc., denotes that the place shall 
become as a rude, wild, uncultivated 
waste. It is possible that after the des- 
olation of Babylon some species of ape 
or baboon may have been found in that 
region, and may be meant by this word. 

SAUL (desired). 1. A king of Edoni. 
Gen. 36 : 37, 38; called Shaul in 1 Chr. 
1 : 48, 49. 

2. The first king of Israel, the son of 
Kish, of the tribe of Benjamin. His 
personal appearance was so remarkably 
fine and noble as to be particularly men- 
tioned by the sacred historian. His 
search for his father's asses was the oc- 
casion of his visit to Samuel, whom he 
consulted as a "seer," on the advice of 
his servant. Samuel, having been divine- 
ly admonished of the approach of Saul 
and instructed what to do, invited him 
to his house and treated him with marked 
distinction. The next day Samuel made 
known to him privately that he was to 
have the rule over Israel, and while they 
were in the way he took a vial of oil, 
and, pouring it on his head, anointed 
him fortheregal office. To convince Saul 
that this thing was of the Lord, Samuel 
predicted three signs, the last Saul's 
power to "prophesy," which would be 
fulfilled on his home-journey. The events 
happened as Samuel had foretold and 
Saul prophesied. By prophecy we are to 
here understand excited proclaiming or 
singing, and not a foretelling of the future. 
1 Sam. 9; 10 : 1-16. At this point we 
are obliged to depart from the order in 
First Samuel. The brutal insult of Na- 
hash was avenged by Israel under the 
leadership of Saul, who from his home 
at Gibeah, whither he had gone after his 
secret anointing, sends an urgent order 
upon every man in the nation to follow 
him. Some 330,000 assembled under his 
leadership, and a great victory was 
gained. Ch. 11. Thus the Lord pre- 
pared the way for Saul's acceptance by 
the people as their king. Ch. 10 : 17-25. 
At first, Saul lived unpretendingly, al- 
most as a private citizen — indeed, his 
sway seems to have been limited. But 
after a little while (comp. 10 : 26, 27 ; 13 : 
2) he lived in more regal fashion. It is 



SAtJ 



SCtt 



impossible to say how old he was at this 
time, but perhaps about forty years. He 
was emphatically a military king, and so 
successful was he that the borders of 
Israel must have been considerably en- 
larged and the fear of Israel very wide- 
spread. His reign opened favorably. 
But he soon proved he was no ideal 
prince. So impatient was he that he 
could not wait at Gilgal for Samuel to 
come, as he had appointed, and so he 
offered sacrifice ; for doing which he was 
reproved by the old prophet, 13 : 14, 
yet the divine favor was not withdrawn. 
Very strange, if not the result of madness, 
was his insisting that Jonathan should 
die, though the army interfered in time. 
The declaration of Samuel that the Lord 
would not establish his house preyed 
upon his mind, and he was a changed 
man from this time forth. He treated 
God's command carelessly, ch. 15, and 
was again severely rebuked by Samuel ; 
nor did he show any real repentance. He 
looked upon his attendants with sus- 
picion. He played the coward before the 
Philistines. Music relieved him, but his 
malady was no ordinary lunacy. His 
treatment of David, his first love for him, 
his failure to remember him, the return of 
his affection, and then the complete turn 
against him, indicated the state of his 
mind. He pursued David, though twice 
he was momentarily softened by David's 
words and deeds. Ch. 24 : 1 6 : 26 : 2 1. We 
can understand how jealousy, nourished, 
became madness at last. Then, too, we 
see the hand of God. Saul breaks down 
completely. On the eve of a battle, 
which his unsettled mind forebodes will 
be decisive, he seeks a witch, and of 
her demands an interview with Samuel. 
The woman performs her incantations, 
but, to her horror, she herself sees an 
apparition and hears the voice of the 
dead. Samuel charged Saul with his 
disobedience to the divine command in 
the matter of Amalek, assured him that 
all his efforts to obtain aid elsewhere 
were vain if God had become his enemy, 
and admonished him that defeat and | 
ruin were at hand, and that he and his 
sons should the next day be inhabitants 
of the world of spirits. Ch. 28. 

The last flicker of the old fire of cour- 
age sufficed to enable Saul to man him- 
self for the conflict, notwithstanding this 
crushing intelligence. He gave the 
49 



Philistines battle, but was routed with 
dreadful slaughter. Among the killed 
were Saul's three sons. Saul, finding 
himself wounded and likely to fall into 
the hands of the enemy, threw himself 
upon the point of his own sword. When 
the Philistines found the body of Saul 
they severed the head from it and fas- 
tened the body on the city wall, from 
which it was afterward taken in the night 
by some of his friends from a distance, 
and carried to Jabesh-gilead and buried. 
1 Sam. 31. 

SAUL OF TAR'SUS. See Paul. 

SAVIOUR. Luke 2:11. See 
Christ. 

SAW. This tool, among the He- 
brews, probably resembled that so often 
depicted upon the Egyptian monuments. 
It was only single-handled ; the teeth ran 
in the opposite direction to ours, therefore 
the workman drew the saw towa ds him, 
as is the custom now in the East. Be- 
sides a saw for wood, Isa. 10 : 15, there 
is mention of a kind for stone. 1 Kgs. 
7 : 9. Saws were used likewise as instru- 
ments of torture. 2 Sam. 12 : 31 ; cf. 1 
Chr. 20 : 3 : Heb. 11 : 37. Tradition 
asserts that in this manner the prophet 
Isaiah was killed, and history recounts 
instances of this use of the saw among 
the Egyptians, Persians, and Romans. 

SCAPEGOAT. Lev. 16 : 20. See 
Goat. 

SCARLET. Gen. 38 : 28. See 
Colors. 

SCEPTRE, a wooden staff or wand, 
5 or 6 feet long, usually overlaid with 
gold or decorated with golden rings, 
with an ornamented point. It was 
borne in the hands of kings and others 
in authority as a token of power. Gen. 
49 : 10 ; Num. 24 : 17. When the scep- 
tre was held out to be touched by an in- 
dividual approaching the throne, it was 
a sign of the royal acceptance and favor. 

There is no biblical instance of a 
"sceptre being actually handled by a 
Jewish king. The term is used meta- 
phorically. The use of a staff as a 
symbol of authority was not confined to 
kings; it might be used by any leader." 
—Smith. 

SCE'VA {fitted), an Ephesian Jew- 
ish priest whose seven sons practised ex- 
orcism. Acts 19 : 14. 

SCHISM means a rupture or separa- 
tion, 1 Cor. 12 : 25, but it is supposed to 
769 



SCH 



SCO 



denote in this passage any such aliena- 
tion of feeling among Christians as vio- 
lates the spiritual union which ought 
to exist among them, though there be 
no doctrinal error or separate commu- 
nions. 

SCHOOL, Acts 19 : 9, SCHOL- 
AR, 1 Chr. 25 : 8, SCHOOLMAS- 
TER. Gal. 3 : 24. Schools existed 
among the Jews from a very early pe- 
riod. They were established under the 
supervision of the prophets to train 
young men to become expounders of 
the Law, and so fit them for the priestly 
and prophetical offices. 1 Sam. 19 : 18-24 • 
2 Kgs. 2 : 3, 5, 7, 12, 15. The children 
were taught to read by their parents 
and in common schools, and in higher 
seminaries were instructed by doctors in 
the Law and traditions. The system of 
education in religious matters was quite 
advanced and very popular. It was set- 
tled just at what age a child should be- 
gin, how many scholars a teacher should 
have, and by whom he should be paid. 
See Education. 

The schoolmaster, in Paul's use of 
the term, was a person to whom was 
committed the care of children, to 
lead them, to observe them, and to in- 
struct them in their first rudiments. 
Thus the office nearly answered to 
that of a governor or tutoi*, Gal. 4 : 2, 
3, who constantly attends his pupil, 
teaches him, and forms his manners. It 
is said, Gal. 3 : 24, 25, " The law was our 
schoolmaster to bring us unto Christ." It 
pointed out Christ in the Scriptures, es- 
pecially in the figures and the prophecies 
of the 0. T. ; but, since we are supposed 
to be advanced to superior learning, and 
a-e committed to the tuition of the faith 
which we have embraced, we have no 
longer need of a schoolmaster, as such 
is of no further use to young persons 
when advanced to years of maturity. 

SCHOOLS OF THE PROPH- 
ETS. 1 Sam. 10 : 5. See Prophets. 

SCOR'PION, a venomous creature 
allied to the spider, but resembling the 
lobster so much that the latter is called 
the sea-scorpion by the Arabs. Its shape 
and general appearance are seen in the 
cut. Its usual length is 1 or 2 inches, 
but in tropical climates it is sometimes 
found 6 or 8 inches in length, and its 
sting is attended with excruciating pain, 
Bev. 9 : 3-6, terminating often in violent 
770 



convulsions and death. The malignity of 
the venom is according to the size and 
complexion of the different species; 

Scorpions are found in all warm cli- 
mates, and are abundant in Palestine, 
where eight species are known, and are 
especially common about Mount Sinai. 
Deut. 8 : 15. They remain dormant dur- 
ing the cold season, but through the rest 
of the year swarm under stones and in 
all the crannies and crevices of walls and 
houses. Their food consists of beetles, 
locusts, and other insects. The sting is 
a curved claw at the end of the tail, and 




Scorpion. 

this latter the animal, in running, car- 
ries over its back in a threatening atti- 
tude. Luke 11 : 12 seems to mean merely 
the bestowal of a dangerous and unwel- 
come gift rather than a good one, and 
may refer to the Greek proveru : " A 
scorpion instead of a perch." 

An instrument resembling a whip, but 
so formed with knots or small stones as 
that each blow should inflict a sharp 
stinging pain, is perhaps alluded to in 
1 Kgs. 12 : 11. See Scourge. 

" Maaleh-akrabbim," Josh. 15 : 3 ; Jud. 
1 : 36, is literally "the ascent of scor- 
pions," and derives its name from the 
multitude of scorpions which infest it. 

SCOURGE. After the Babylonish 
Captivity the scourge was formed of 
three lashes or thongs made of leather 
or small cords, thirteen strokes of which 
were equal to thirty-nine lashes, and not 
more than forty could be given under the 
Law. Deut. 25 : 1-3; 2 Cor. 11 : 24. The 
sufferer was tied by his arms to a low 
pillar, his back laid oare and his body 
bent forward, and the blows eo applied. 
Sometimes sharp iron points or sharp- 



sen 



scb 



cornered pieces of metal were fastened to 
the end of the thongs, to render the suf- 
fering still more extreme. It is debated 
whether the whip was used before the 




Flagellum or Scourge. 

Captivity. Certainly the rod was, as is 
the case to-day in the East. The pun- 
ishment was inflicted in the synagogue. 
Matt. 10 : 17 : 23 : 34 ; Acts 5': 40. The 
Romans used to beat with rods and whips ; 
the number of blows was unlimited. But 
so degrading was this punishment in its 
nature and effects that no citizen of the 
Roman empire could be subjected to it. 
Acts 22 : 25, 26. Many were known to 
die under the cruel infliction. Some- 
times it took place on the way to execu- 
tion, and sometimes it was itself the 
only punishment. The punishment with 
rods or twigs seems to have been a sepa- 
rate infliction. 2 Cor. 11 : 25. 

In our Lord's scourging, Matt. 27 : 26 ; 
Mark 15 : 15 : John 19 : 1 , we see a literal 
fulfilment of I>niah'> prophecv. 53 : 5. 

SCREECH-OWL. See Owl. 

SCRIBE. There are two Hebrew 
words which mean " a writer," but one 



is usually translated in the A. V. by 
Officer, which see. The other is cor. 
rectly rendered " scribe." The art of 
writing may well, among the Hebrews, 
have been in early times a rare accom- 
plishment, and therefore a class of men 
would arise who earned their living by 
carrying on correspondence orconducting 
accounts. But the first one of the class 
mentioned in the Bible is Sheva, the 
scribe of David, 2 Sam. 20 : 25, and that 
it was an honorable post is proven by the 
mention of him by name. The duty of 
the king's scribe was to record the edicts, 
and on one occasion at least to act as a 
kind of treasurer. 2 Kgs. 12 : 10. Scribes 
also officiated in the army. Jer. 52 : 25. 
It is, however, the N. T. usage which 
is most familiar to us. Scribes and Phar- 
isees are inseparably linked. But these 
" scribes" are wholly different. They 
were the copyists of the Law, and be- 
cause such a minute acquaintance with 
it as their business implied led them to 
become authorities upon the details of 
Mosaism, it came to pass that they were 
popularly regarded as the teachers of 
the Law. This class of men originated, 
it would seem, during the Exile. Ezra 
was their leader and pattern. Ezr. 7 : 6. 
They were held in great respect, but in 
many cases they were unworthy of it. 
As the distance from the close of the 
canon increased, these privileged and 
learned expounders of the Law took 
greater liberties with the text and made 
it void through their traditions. Mark 
7 : 13. But the position some of the 
class occupied as members of the San- 
hedrin, Matt. 26 : 3, the associates of 
the priests in the most important mat- 
ters, Matt. 21 : 15, their numbers, and 
the popular awe of them, increase our 
estimate of the courage evinced by Jesus 
in attacking them, as he did repeatedly 
and in the most unmeasured terms. 
Matt. 23 : 1-33. They were his de- 
termined and wily foes. Luke 5 : 30 : 6 : 
7 ; 10 : 25. That there were exceptions 
is manifest, for Jesus speaks of scribes 
being sent of God, Matt. 23 : 34, and one 
of his parables relates to a scribe "in- 
structed unto the kingdom of heaven." 
Matt. 13 : 52. The scribes formed a 
regularly organized college, into which 
members were admitted by special ex- 
amination. The scribes and lawyers 
were one class. See Lawyers. 
771 



SCR 



SEA 




^^s 



A Jewish Scribe. 



SCRIP, in 1 Sam. 17 : 40, means a 
shepherd's bag. In the N. T. " scrip " 
means a wallet suspended from the 
shoulder for carrying food. Matt. 10 : 
10 ; Luke 10: 4. 

SCRIPTURE. See Bible. 

SCUR'VY. Lev. 21 : 20 and 22 : 22. 
The disease known by this name, in 
modern times, is usually caused by long 
confinement in cold and damp climates, 
without fresh provisions. In the progress 
of it, the skin becomes dry and scaly 
and livid spots appear. Probably this 
appearance of the skin is all that is 
denoted by the word "scurvy" in the 
passages cited. 

SCYTHTAN, a name used in- 
definitely by ancient writers, sometimes 
to denote all the nomadic ^ tribes that 
roamed over the countries north of the 
Black and Caspian Seas, and sometimes 
for a particular people remarkable for 
their rude and barbarous condition. 
Col. 3 : 11. 

SCYTHOP'OLIS (city of the 
Scythians), a city in Palestine, and iden- 
tical with ancient Beth-shean. It is no- 
ticed by this name in the Apocryphal 
book of Judith. See Beth-shean. 

SEA. The Hebrew word yam, or 
"sea." is used in Scripture: (1) for the 
"gathering of waters," or the ocean, 
Gen. 1:2, 10; Deut. 30 : 13 ; (2) as re- 
ferring to the Mediterranean Sea, under 
772 



the title of the " hinder," the " western," 
the "utmost," sea, or the "sea of the 
Philistines," the "great sea," or simply 
" the sea," Deut. 11 : 24 ; 34 : 2 ; Joel 2 : 
20; Ex. 23:31: Num. 34:6,7: Josh. 
15 : 47 ; Gen. 49 : 13 : Ps. 80 : 11 ; 107 : 
23 : 1 Kgs. 4 : 20 ; (3) as referring to the 
Red Sea, Ex. 15 : 4; (4) as referring to 
inland lakes, like the Salt, or Dead, Sea; 
(5) to any great collection of waters, as 
the Nile or the Euphrates in time of a 
flood or high water. Isa. 19 : 5 ; Am. 8 : 
8, A. V. "flood;" Nah. 3:8; Eze. 32 : 
2 ; Jer. 51 : 36. 

SEA OF CHINNERETH. Num. 
34: 11. See Galilee. Sea of. 

SEA OF JA'ZER. Jer. 48 : 32. 
See Jazer. 

SEA OF TIBERIAS. John 21 : 
1. See Galilee, Sea of. 

SEA, THE DEAD. See Salt 
Sea. 

SEA, THE 31EDITERRA'- 
NEAN. See Sea; Great Sea. 

SEA, THE MOLT'EN, or 
BRAZEX, the name of the large 
copper or bronze laver made by Solo- 
mon for the temple, and which stood 
upon twelve metal oxen in the south- 
east corner of the court of the priests. 
It is described in 1 Kgs. 7 : 23-26. It 
was 7i feet high, 15 feet in diameter, 
and 45 feet in circumference, and con- 
tained 16,000 gallons (2 Chr. 4 : 5 says 






SEA 



SEA 



24,000). The Gibeonites, it is said, 
were at first employed to bring the 
water requisite to fill it, but at a later 
day it was supplied by a conduit from 
the pools of Betiilehem. Solomon made 
it of the copper captured from Tibhath 
and Chun, cities of Hadarezer, king of 
Zobah. 1 Chr. 18 : 8. Ahaz took down 
the sea from off the brazen oxen and 
put it upon a pavement of stones. 2 
Kgs. 16 : 17. The Assyrians broke it 
in pieces. 2 Kgs. 25 : 13. See Laver. 

SEA, THE RED. See Red Sea. 

SEA, THE SALT. Gen. 14 : 3. 
See Salt Sea. 

SEAL. 1 Kgs. 21 : 8. This was usu- 
ally employed to authenticate public or 
private papers. Jer. 32 : 10. If a door 
or box was to be sealed, it was first fas- 
tened with' some ligament, upon which 
clay or wax was spread and then im- 
pressed with a seal or signet. Frequent- 
ly a ring with some inscription on it was 
used as a seal, by the 
delivery or transfer of 
which the highest of- 
fices of the kingdom l 
were bestowed. Gen. £j[ ^ iTff 
41 : 42: Esth. 3 : 10. 
In sealing the sepul- 
chre, Matt. 27 : 66, it 
is probable that the 
fastening of the stone 
which seaured the en- 
trance was covered 
with clay or wax, and so impressed with 
a public or private seal that any viola- 
tion of it could be discovered at once, j 
See RrxGS, Letters. 

Modern travellers describe the seal j 
used in the East, at the present day, as 
made of cornelian, or agate, with the 
name or title of the writer, or some verse 
of the Koran or other motto, engraved 
upon it. 2 Tim. 2:19. It is fastened 
into a ring and worn on the hand. Cant. 
8 : 6. When u?ed it is either applied to 
the wax, or is covered with some sub- 
stance which, being stamped on the 
paper, leaves the desired impression. 

The word " seal " is used figuratively 
in the Bible to denote an act or token or 
process of confirmation. Rom. 4:11: 
Eph. 4 : 30. 

SEA'SONS. In Palestine the year 
is very nearly divided by the equinoxes 
into two seasons — the dry and the rainy. 
In the promise made to Noah, Gen. 8 : 




Phoenician Seal. 



22, this division seems to be indicated, 
and the two portions of the year are 
designated as " seed-time and harvest," 
"cold and heat," "summer and winter." 

More particularly, grain-harvest con- 
tinues from the middle of April until 
near the middle of June. During this 
period the sky is clear, the air warm, and 
even hot in the valleys and on the coast, 
very much like the beginning of summer 
with us. As it proceeds the heat in the 
plains is great. For the next two 
months the heat increases, and the 
nights are so warm that the people 
sleep in the open air upon the roofs of 
their houses. The Arabs call this the 
vernal summer. 

The season of fruits lasts from about 
the middle of August to the middle of 
November. The intensity of the heat 
is greater by day, but toward the end 
of summer the nights begin to be cool. 

During these three periods, up to the 
beginning or middle of September, there 
are no showers, rain being as scarce in 
summer as snow. 1 Sam. 12:17. Hence 
the proverb, Prov. 26 : 1. From the end 
of April until September a cloud rarely is 
to be seen upon the face of the heavens. 
During all this time the earth is moist- 
ened by the dew, which is. therefore, a 
frequent emblem of divine grace and 
goodness. Sometimes a cloud appears 
in the morning, but it disappears with 
the dew as soon as the sun exerts its 
power. Hos. 6 : 4. The dry grass of the 
fields sometimes takes fire and produces 
desolating conflagration, and the parched 
earth is cleft and broken into chasms. 
This is more particularly the case when 
the east wind blows. Gen. 41 : 6 ; Hos, 
13 : 15. Between the middle of Septem- 
ber and the middle of October there are 
two or three days of rain, which suffices 
to refresh all nature, so that the whole 
land is clad in verdure. 

This prepares the earth for seed- 
time, which continues from early in 
October until early in December, im- 
mediately following the former or "early 
rain," which is so needful for the sower. 
In the early part of this period it is still 
quite hot, so that all journeys are made 
by night, as the temperature is then 
agreeable and the sky is clear. As the 
year advances, however, there are alter- 
nations of heat and cold, as with us in 
autumn. The weather becomes unset- 

m 



SEA 



SEA 



tied, and there are fogs and clouds even 
when there is no rain. In the moun- 
tains snow sometimes falls toward the 
middle of December. The streams are 
still small, and many of their channels 
altogether dry. In the latter part of 
Xovember the trees lose their foliage, and 
fires are made toward the last days of 
seed-time. 

Winter strictly includes the period 
from the middle of December till the 
middle of February. Snow occasionally 
falls on the highlands, but seldom re- 
mains more than a few hours, except 
upon tbe mountains. Ps. 147 : 1 6, 17. Ice 
is rare, and vegetable life is seldom in- 
jured by frost and does not require pro- 
tection. During the winter months the 
roads are very bad. Matt. 24 : 20. The 
greatest cold lasts about forty days, from 
the 12th of December to the 20th of Janu- 
ary. The north wind is now exceeding- 
ly penetrating. Gen. 31 : 10. Yet in the 
level country, when the sun shines, it is 
quite warm. Josephus says that in his 
day it was as warm in winter at Caasarea, 
on the coast, as at other places in sum- 
mer. In this season hail- and thunder- 
storms are common; the brooks rise, and 
all the streams fill their channels. To- 
ward the end of January the fields be- 
come green, and there is every appear- 
ance of approaching spring. In the 
early part of February the trees are in 
leaf, and before the middle of the month 
some fruit trees are in blossom — first 
the almond, then the apricot, peach, and 
plum. Other trees blossom in March. 

From February until April it is still 
cold, but less so, and the spring may be 
said to have arrived. The heats of noon 
are greater and greater, especially in the 
flat country. The rains continue, but 
in smaller and smaller quantities. Thun- 
der and hail are more frequent. Toward 
the close of this period the rains cease, 
and the last falls in. the early part of 
April, and is called the "latter rain," 
•which seems to give strength to the fill- 
ing grain. The crops of grain are as 
much advanced in February as with us 
in May and June. The wheat and bar- 
ley have at this time nearly attained 
their height. The grain has fully ripened 
in the southern part of Palestine by the 
middle of April, and in the northern and 
mountainous parts three weeks later; 
but sometimes, when the sowing has 

774 



been in January, the grain does not 
come to maturity before July or August. 
Upon the sixteenth day after the first 
new moon in April, there was a solemn 
presentation made to the Lord of the 
first sheaf of ripe barley. The grain, 
however, as we may readily suppose, was 
mature sometimes earlier and sometimes 
later. It was common to reckon four 
months from seed-time to harvest. The 
cutting and securing the grain was car- 
ried on for about seven weeks — that is, 
from the Passover until Pentecost, which 
last is therefore called the "feast of 
weeks." This was a season of very 
great enjoyment and festivity when the 
harvest had been plentiful. The reap- 
ers — that is to say, the children, slaves, 
and other domestics — indulged in mirth 
and joined in songs suitable to the occa- 
sion, and in congratulations to the mas- 
ter of the harvest. Ps. 126 : 6 ; Isa. 9 : 3. 
The grain was then gathered and bound 
into sheaves, as with us. See Hail, 
Ratx. Palestine. 

SEAT, MOSES', Matt. 23 : 2, is 
a figurative expression, denoting the as- 
sumption of the same authority or office 
as belonged to Moses. 

SEATS. Matt. 21 : 12. The nations 

] of the East seat themselves upon the 
mats or carpets with which their floors 
are covered. In the houses of the rich 
there are spread pillows or cushions 
stuffed with cotton, or, in some cases, a 
broad but very low sofa or divan with 
arms, stuffed cushions, and costly orna- 
ments. Upon these divans, as well as 
upon the floor or ground, they sit, with 
the legs bent under and crossed, in a 
half-kneeling posture. 

The ancient Hebrews used the posture 
which has just been described. After 
the Captivity, however, the rich and 
noble adopted the Persian method of 
lying down at table upon couches, Am. 
6 : 1, which was likewise practised by 
the Greeks and Romans. In the pas- 

! sage of Amos it is said of the luxurious 
sinners who lived nearly eight hundred 

| years before Christ, they " lie upon beds 
of ivory, and stretch themselves upon 
their couches." These " beds of ivory " 
were probably divans, such as those 
above mentioned, but richly decorated 
with ivory. They used at table very 
low and broad divans, and the guests 

I stretched themselves at full length, .Each 



SEB 



SEC 



divan held three persons. The back was 
supported by a cushion, and the face so 
turned toward the table that the head 
was held up with the left hand upon an- 
other cushion. The right hand was thus 
free to reach the food. The second per- 
son lay with the back part of his head 
toward the breast of the former, and the 
third, in like manner, with the back part 
of his head toward the second. Thus 
they lay, so to speak, in the bosoms of 
their neighbors. Luke 16 : 23; John 13 : 
23. This was the ordinary posture at 
meals, and the feet of the guests were 
distant from the table. Hence we can 
readily form an idea of the scene de- 
scribed in Luke 7 : 38. 

In the eating-room there were com- 
monly three such divans; the middle 
place of the middle divan was accounted 
most honorable. This was the seat which 
the Pharisees so much affected at feasts. 
1 Sam. 9 : 22 ; Matt. 23 : 6 ; Luke 14 : 
8, 9. At the present day the corner of 
the bed-divan is the seat of dignity, and 
so it was in ancient times among the 
Hebrews. Am. 3:12. This manner of 
reclining at meals — at least, in Persia 
— was imitated by the women. Esth. 
7:8. It is uncertain whether Hebrew 
women ate in the same apartment with 
the men. See Eat, Eating. 

SE'BA (man ?), a wealthy and com- 
mercial region of Ethiopia, Ps. 72 : 10 ; 
Isa. 43 : 3 ; 45 : 14 ; Eze. 23 : 42. Seba 
appears to have corresponded to the 
northern portion of Abyssinia. Jose- 
phus placed the original Seba at Meroe', 
but the name seems, in later times, to 
have included a region of considerable 
importance on the south-western coast 
of the Red Sea. Its inhabitants are 
mentioned with Sheba, Ps. 72 : 10, the 
trading-people of the other side of the 
sea. The inhabitants of both Sheba and 
Seba were called Sabaeans by Greek and 
Latin writers, but the Hebrew words are 
distinct. Meroe lay between the river 
Astaboras, the northern tributary of the 
Nile, and the Astapus or " Blue River." 
The capital city was about 90 miles south 
of the junction of the Astaboras and the 
Nile. Extensive ruins 20 miles north- 
east of Shendy, in Nubia, near the Nile, 
may indicate the site. See Sab^eus. 

SEBAT, or SHEBAT. Zech. 
1 : 7. See Moxth. 

SEC'ACAH [enclosure), one of the 



six cities in the wilderness of Judah, on 
the western side of the Dead Sea. Josh. 
15 : 61. Conder suggests its identity 
with the ruin Sikkeh, east of Bethany. 

SE'CHU (the hill, ore/»uieHce),aplace 
apparently on the route between Gibeah 
and Ramah — that is, between the resi- 
dence of Saul and that of Samuel — noted 
for the "great well" or cistern. 1 Sam. 
19 : 22. Swartz speaks of a large pit at 
Bir Neballa, near Neby Samwil, which 
may mark the place, but Conder pro- 
poses to locate its site at Suweikeh, im- 
mediately south of Beeroth. 

SECT. The word appears eight 
times in the A. V. It has a twofold 
meaning — either a "chosen set of doc- 
trines or mode of life, Acts 24:14; 2 
Pet. 2:1; or else a party adhering to 
the doctrine." — Smith. But it does not 
necessarily imply any error of doctrine 
or practice. It is always in the singular, 
and always as a translation of the Greek 
term " heresy," which signifies, primarily, 
"choice," then "party," "sect," and is 
used of the religious parties among the 
Jews, Acts 5 : 17 ; 15 : 5 ; 26 : 5 ; of the 
Christians in general, who were for a 
long time called by the Jews, in con- 
tempt, "the sect of the Nazarenes," Acts 
24 : 5 ; of parties within the Christian 
Church, 1 Cor. 11 : 19 ; of heresies proper, 
or errors — that is, wilful perversions of 
Christian truth. 2 Pet. 2:1; Gal. 5 : 20. 

It is easy to see how Christianity was 
originally considered as a new sect of 
Judaism ; hence, Tertullus, accusing 
Paul before Felix, says that he was 
chief of the seditious sect of the Naz- 
arenes, Acts 24 : 5, and the Jews of 
Rome said to the apostle, when he ar- 
rived in that city, that, as to "this 
sect," it was everywhere spoken against. 
Acts 28 : 22. The word " heresy," in 
Acts 24 : 14, is the same in the orig- 
inal with the word "sect" in Acts 24 : 
5; so that the apostle replies directly 
to the argument of Tertullus, and ad- 
mits that, " after the manner of a sect, 
producing division and schism, as my 
persecutors say, so worship I the God 
of my fathers." In countries having 
an established Church or a State relig- 
ion, the word "sect" is applied to 
those communities or bodies of Chris- 
tians who separate themselves from the 
Establishment. In the United States 
the word cannot of course be used in this 
775 



SEC 



SEL 



Bense with any propriety, there being no 
national Church. Each separate com- 
munion enjoys its own rights and priv- 
ileges as fully as any other, and, while 
there are no sects, properly speaking, 
there are a great number of denomina- 
tions, as Roman Catholic, Presbyterian, 
Episcopal, Baptist, Methodist, etc., etc. 

SECUiV'DUS {second, or fortunate), 
a Christian of Thessalonica. Acts 20 : 4. 

SEDITIONS, Gal. 5 : 20, should 
be " divisions." 

SEED, MIN'GLED. Lev. 19 : 19. 
Travellers tell us that women are em- 
ployed in Aleppo and elsewhere in 
cleansing the mingled seed from all ad- 
mixture, to prepare it for sowing. 

SEED-TIME. Gen. 8 : 22. See 
Seasons. 

SEER. 1 Sam. 9 : 9. See Prophets. 

SEETHE, to boil. Ex. 16 : 23. 

SE'GUB {elevated). 1. The young- 
est son of Hiel, who built Jericho. 1 Kgs. 
16 : 34. 

2. A descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 
21, 22. 

SE'IR(/*am/),aHoritechiefwhogave 
his name, probably, to the mountainous 
region wherein he lived. Gen. 36 : 20. 

SE'IR {hairy), the name of a region 
and of a place. 

1. The land or mount of Seir was a 
mountain-district extending from the 
Dead Sea to the eastern arm of the Red 
Sea. It was bounded on the east by the 
Arabian desert, and on the west by the 
deep valley of the Arabah. The moun- 
tains are of sandstone and granite, the 
principal peak being Mount Hor, which 
is 4800 feet high. This district was an- 
ciently inhabited by the Horites. Gen. 
14 : 6 ; Deut. 2 : 12. Afterward, Seir 
was the possession of Esau and his pos- 
terity. Gen. 32 : 3 ; 33 : 14, 16 ; 36 : 8, 9 ; 
Deut. 2 : 4, 22 ; 2 Chr. 20 : 10. Hence, 
Seir sometimes means Edom. The Is- 
raelites, when refused permission to go 
to Moab through Edom, marched round 
the mountain, down the Arabah, between 
the limestone cliff's of the Tih on the west 
and the granite range of Mount Seir on 
the east, until they could turn to the 
left and march north toward Moab. 

2. Mount Seir, a place noted as one of 
the landmarks in the boundary of Judah. 
Josh. 15 : 10. It was between Kirjath- 
jearim and Beth-shemesh. and may be 
the high ridge between the Wddy Aly 

776 



and the Wddy Ghurab. In the pass 
leading to Beit Ainuu, near Tekua, is the 
modern village of Stair among the hills 
which may be its site, but Conder sug- 
gests Batn es Saghdr as the Seir of 
2 Chr. 20 : 23. 

SE'IRATH {she-goat), the place of 
refuge whither Ehud fled after his mur- 
der of Eglon. Jud. 3 : 26, 27. Perhaps 
it may be found in Mount Ephraim, a con- 
tinuation of the rugged bushy hills which 
stretched to Judah's northern boundary. 
SE'LA, and SE'LAH {rock), a cele- 
brated city of Edom, the Greek name 
being "Petra," or "rock." It was so 
called from its remarkable situation, 
" the rock," for which the Hebrew word 
is " Sela," and the Greek is " Petra." 
Sela was situated about halfway between 
the southern end of the Dead Sea and 
the northern end of the Gulf of Akabah. 
The city lay in a deep cleft of the range 
of Mount Seir, near the foot of Mount 
Hor, and in its situation and in its his- 
tory was one of the most remarkable 
cities of antiquity. 

History. — Sela is only twice mentioned 
in the O. T. Amaziah captured it, and 
called it Joktheel — that is, " subdued of 
God." 2 Kgs. 14 : 7. It was afterward 
a possession of Moab, and was then ex- 
horted to send a tribute of sheep to Zion. 
Isa. 16 : 1. In some other passages the 
word "rock" is supposed to refer to Sela, 
as in Jud. 1 : 36; 2 Chr. 25 : 11, 12; Isa. 
42 : 11 ; Ob. 3 ; but, some of these seem 
to be indefinite, and cannot be referred 
to the city with any certainty. Sela is 
j not mentioned in the N. T., but has a re- 
| lation to a N. T. character, for the first 
! wife of Herod Antipas, whom he divorced 
j to take Herodias, Luke 3 : 19, was the 
! daughter of Aretas, king of Petra, and 
this wickedness of Herod led to war. 

Aretas was the general name of the 
sovereigns of Arabia Petraea, a kingdom 
! which gradually included the territory 
belonging to the ancient Edomites, who 
I were driven out by the Nabatheans, an 
i Arabian tribe descended from Nebajoth, 
I the eldest son of Ishmael. Gen. 25 : 13; 
Isa. 60 : 7. In b. c. 301, Antigonus, one 
of Alexander's successors, sent two ex- 
peditions against them, but with slight 
success. Petra became an important 
trade centre. It is mentioned by Strabo, 
Pliny, Josephus, Eusebius, and Jerome. 
It became an ecclesiastical see, and its 




The Rock-Temples at Sela (Petra). {After a Photograph.) 



SEL 



SEL 



bishops are mentioned as late as A. D. 
536. Afterward, Petra entirely disap- 
peared from history, and remained un- 
knownfor thirteen hundred years. Since 
1807 it has been visited and described by 
many travellers, of whom the most noted 
were Seetzen (1807), Burckhardt (1812), 
Irby and Mangles (1818). The reports 
of these early travellers seem almost as 
unreal as an Arabian tale, but later re- 
searches have shown that Petra was 
really one of the most wonderful cities 
of the earth. Robinson, Porter, Baede- 
ker, and Stanley describe it fully. 

Present Appearance. — Petra is ap- 
proached from the east through a re- 
markable and famous defile, the Sik, or 
"cleft," between rocks of red sandstone 
rising perpendicularly to the height of 
100, 200, or 300 feet. This gorge is about 
a mile and a half in length. It is a dry 
torrent-bed, and is known among the 
Arabs as Wddy Mousa, from the tradi- 
tion of the Koran that this cleft was 
made by the rod of Moses when he 
brought the stream through into the 
valley beyond. The road through this 
cleft was once regularly paved like the 
Appian Way, and the pavement still re- 
mains in some places. The cliffs are of 
sandstone, and the rocks show beauti- 
fully-variegated colors of crimson, indi- 
go, yellow, purple, etc. At the end of 
the defile, and fronting it, is a temple 
excavated from the rock. This is the 
so-called Khaznet Fir'aun, or "Treasury 
of Pharaoh." The facade is 85 feet in 
height; the sculpturing is in excellent 
preservation ; five out of six columns are 
standing. The portal leads into a spa- 
cious chamber 12 yards square and 25 
feet high. About 200 yards farther are 
the ruins of the magnificent amphithe- 
atre, the chief boast of Petra. It is 
hewn entirely from the rock, and is 39 
yards in diameter; thirty-three tiers of 
seats rise one above another, and the 
whole would probably accommodate from 
three thousand to four thousand specta- 
tors. Among the other principal objects 
of interest are the Kasr Fir'aun, or " Pha- 
raoh's palace," the triumphal arch, sev- 
eral temples, and numerous tombs, some 
of very elaborate workmanship. The 
whole valley of Petra is about three- 
quarters of a mile long and from 250 to 
500 yards wide. The situation of this 
city in the midst of the desert greatly 
778 



enhanees the impression made by the 
ruins. The complete destruction and 
desolation of the place fulfils the proph- 
ecy of Jeremiah. 49 : 16, 17. 

SELAH. Hab. 3 : 3, 9, 13. This 
is a musical term, and occurs seventy- 
one times in thirty-nine Psalms, also in 
Hab. 3 : 3, 9, 13 — in all, therefore, sev- 
enty-four times in the Bible. The most 
probable definition of it is that it "di- 
rects the falling-in of the sound of the 
priests' trumpets into the Levites' 
psalm-singing and playing on stringed 
instruments. It occurs, therefore, where 
very warm emotions have been express- 
ed." " Higgaion," joined with " Selah," 
Ps. 9:16, some render " a louder strain," 
others, " piano." We know nothing defi- 
nite about it. See Marginal Reading. 

SE'LA-HAMMAHLE'KOTH 
(rock of divisions), a natural stronghold 
in the wilderness Maon, south-east of 
Hebron, and where David made a re- 
markable escape from Saul. 1 Sam. 23 : 
28. It has been identified with a place in 
the present Wddy Malaky, east of Maon. 

SE'LED (exultation), a descendant 
of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 30. 

SELEU'CIA, the seaport of Anti- 
och, and the place at which Paul and 
Barnabas embarked on their first mis- 
sionary journey. It was on the Medi- 
terranean, about 5 miles north of the 
river Orontes and 16 miles west of Anti- 
och. Seleucia lay on the slope of Mount 
Coryphaeus, and was founded by Seleu- 
cus Nicator, died B. c. 280. To distin- 
guish it from other cities named from 
the same founder, it was sometimes 
called " Seleucia ad Mare," or " Seleucia 
by the sea," and, from Mount Pierus, it 
was called "Seleucia Pieria." The city 
appears to have been a very beautiful 
one under the rule of the Seleucidae. The 
harbor was excellent, enclosing a basin 
of 47 acres. The masonry is yet in 
good preservation, although the port is 
choked with sand and mud. There is 
still a gateway at the south-eastern cor- 
ner of the city, through which Paul and 
Barnabas probably passed. The Arabs 
called it Seluhiyeh, and the city is now 
in a desolate condition, only a small vil- 
lage existing near its site, and called 
El-Kalusi. 

SELEU'CUS, the name of five 
kings called the Seleucidae. Seleucus 
Philopator was the fourth, and is men- 



SEM 



SEN 



tioned in the Apocrypha, 1 Mace. 7:1; 

2 Mace. 3 : 3, and elsewhere. He was 
the son of Autiochus the Great, whom 
he succeeded, B. c. 1 87. His policy toward 
the Jews was conciliatory. In 2 Mace. 

3 there is. an interesting account of 
the attempt he made to plunder the 
temple and how signally he failed. 
Heliodorus, who was the agent in this 
business, poisoned him, b. c. 175.- He 
was succeeded by Antiochus Epiphanes. 
Daniel describes him, 11 : 20, as " a 
raiser of taxes," because he had to re- 
sort to extraordinary measures to raise 
the requisite revenues. 

SEM, Greek form for "Shem," used 
in Luke 3 : 36. 

SEMACHI'AH (Jehovah sustains 
him), a grandson of Obed-edom, and a 
Levite porter. 1 Chr. 26 : 7. 

SEM'EI (renowned), one mentioned 
in our Lord's genealogy. Luke 3 : 26. 

SENA'AH (thorny), a place (named 
with the article) whose inhabitants re- 
turned from captivity with Zerubbabel. 
Ezr. 2 : 35 ; Neh. 7 : 38 ; 3:3. Eusebi- 
us and Jerome mention Maydal Senaah, 
7 miles north of Jericho, but it cannot be 
certainlv identified with this Senaah. 

SEN' ATE. The word denotes the 
"elders of Israel," one of three classes 
composing the Sanhedrin; the other 
two were the priests and the scribes. 
Acts 5 : 21. 

SE'NEH (bush, or thorn-rock), the 
name of one of the sharp rocks by which 
Jonathan sought the Philistines. 1 Sam. 
14:4. In the Wddy Suweinit, a deep 
valley south of Michmash, about 6£ 
miles north of Jerusalem, are two re- 
markable hills, one on each side of the 
valley, which are supposed to be Bozez 
and Seneh. 

SE'NIR (coat-of-mail, or cataract), 
a name for Mount Hermon. 1 Chr. 5 : 
23 : Eze. 27 : 5. See Hermon. 

SENNACH'ERIB (Heb. Sanherib, 
Sin, the moon, sent many brothers — ?'. e., 
he was not his father's eldest son) was king 
of Assyria when Hezekiah reigned in Ju- 
dah. He was the son and successor of Sar- 
gon. Judah had paid tribute to Assyria, 
but under Hezekiah it revolted, and so re- 
venge was determined upon; accordingly, 
Sennacherib appears in the Bible as the 
invader of Palestine on two occasions. 
The first time he was pacified by a trib- 
ute. 2 Kgs. 18 ; H, But, Hezekiah hav- 



ing the second time revolted, he sent an 
embassy with a few troops to the capital 
and demanded submission. He also sent 
an insulting letter to Hezekiah, who went 
up to the house of the Lord and prayed 
for deliverance. His prayer was an- 
swered, for the Assyrian army besieging 
Libnah was smitten with a plague so se- 




Sennacherib on his Throne, (irom monuments 
at Kouyunjik.) 

vere that it is stated 185,000 died in one 
night. The effect of this catastrophe 
was that the siege was raised and Sen- 
i nacherib retreated to Nineveh. 2 Kgs. 
I 19 : 35. Many years — perhaps twenty — 
| after this he was worshipping in the 
house of his god Nisroch when A dram - 
melech and Sharezer, his sons^ smote him 
with the sword. 19 : 37. He was succeed- 
ed by Esar-haddon. 

Sennacherib's reign lasted twenty-two 
779 



SEN 



SEE 



years, B. c. 705-682. It was brilliant. 
He crushed the revolt of Babylon, at- 
tacked Sidon, made many cities tribute, 
and, as Sargon had done, laid a heavy 
hand upon the neighboring nations. He 
made Nineveh his capital and adorned 
it with many splendid buildings. His 
palaces were large and beautiful. His 
monuments exist in unexpected places. 
Thus, at the mouth of the Nahr tl-Kalb, 
near Beyrout, and close by an inscription 
of Raineses the Great of Egypt, is the 
record of his arrival. 

SENU'AH {bristling), properly, 
"Hasenuah," with the definite article, a 
Benjamite. 1 Chr. 9:7; Neh. 11 : 9. 

SEO'RIM {barley), the head of the 
fourth priestly course. 1 Chr. 24 : 8. 

SE'PHAR, a boundary of the Jok- 
tanites. Gen. 10 : 30. It was probably 
in South-eastern Arabia, near the shore 
of the Indian Ocean, where is an ancient 
seaport-town called Zafar. 

SEPH'ARAD {separation), a place 
from whence captive Jews would return 
to the cities of the South. It is named 
only in Ob. 20. Some identify the place 
with Sardis in Lydia ; others with Zare- 
phath ; while modern Jews regard it as 
Spain, and otheis identify it with Sip- 
phara. See Srpharvaim. 

SEPHARVA'IM {the two Sipparas, 
one being on each side of the river)., a 
place in Assyria from whence colonists 
came into Israel or Samaria. 2 Kgs. 17 : 
24; 18:34; 19:13; Isa. 36: 19; 37: 13. 
Eawlinson and others have proposed to 
identify it with Sippara, a town on the 
Euphrates, between Hit and Babylon. 
It was built on both sides of the Eu- 
phrates, or of the canal, and the one was 
called Sipar-sa-Samas — i. e., " consecra- 
ted to Samas, the sun-god ;" the other was 
called Sipar-sa-Avunit, "consecrated to 
the goddess Anunit." On the monuments 
it is called " Sippara of the Sun." It had 
a library, probably similar to that found 
at Nineveh. which has been deciphered by 
George Smith and others. The modern 
town Mofiaib now stands near its site. 

SEPHARVITES, the inhabit- 
ants of Sepharvaim. 2 Kgs. 17 : 31. 

SEPTUAGINT, the Greek ver- 
sion of the 0. T. See Bible. 

SEPULCHRE. See Burial. 

SE'RAH ( jjrincess), a daughter of 
Asher, Gen. 46 : 1 7 ; 1 Chr. 7 : 30 ; called 
Sarah in Num. 26 : 46, 
780 



SERAI'AH {isarrior of Jehovah). 
1. David's scribe, 2 Sam. 8:17; called 
Sheva in 20 : 25, Shisha in I Kgs. 4 : 
3, and Shavsha in 1 Chr. 18 : 16. 

2. The high priest in the reign of Zed- 
ekiah, taken captive by Nebuchadnezzar 
and killed at Riblah. 2 Kgs. 25 : 18-21; 
1 Chr. 6 : 14: Jer. 52 : 24-27. 

3. A Netophathite who submitted to 
Gedaliah. 2 Kgs. 25 : 23 ; Jer. 40 : 8. 

4. A Judite. 1 Chr. 4: 13, 14. 

5. A Simeonite. 1 Chr. 4:35. 

6. A priest who came back with Zerub- 
babel, Ezr. 2:2; Neh. 10 : 2 ; 12 : 1, 12 j 
called Azariah in Neh. 7 : 7. 

7. One of the ancestors of Ezra, Ezr. 
7:1; Neh. 11 : 11; called Azariah in 1 
Chr. 9 : 11. 

8. An officer whom Jehoiakim com- 
manded to take Baruch and Jeremiah. 
Jer. 36 : 26. 

9. The brother of Baruch, who was a 
member of the court and held, during 
the journey of Zerubbabel to Babylon, 
the position of leader of the caravan, 
for so the words "quiet prince" should 
read. Jer. 51:59, 61. 

SER'APHIM {princes), the name 
given by Isaiah to the spirits waiting on 
the Lord, and which are apparently the 
most exalted of the angelic host. Isa. 
6 : 2, 6. 

SERED {/ear), one of Zebulun's 
sons. Gen. 46 : 14 ; Num. 26 : 26. 

SERGEANTS. Acts 16 : 35, 38. 
This was a class of public officers under 
the Roman government. They were ap- 
pointed to carry the fasces, or bundle of 
rods, before the supreme magistrates, 
and to inflict the punishment of scourg- 
ing and beheading upon criminals. 

SERGIUS PAULUS, the pro- 
consul or deputy governor of Cyprus at 
the time of Paul and Barnabas' visit. 
He showed his intelligence and candor 
by sending for the apostles and accept- 
ing the overthrow of Elymas, the sor- 
cerer, as demonstration of the overthrow 
of the creed Elymas represented. He 
embraced the gospel. Acts 13 : 7, 12. 
Some think the apostle Paul took this 
name instead of Saul, in compliment to 
his distinguished convert: which is im- 
probable. It is a proof of Luke's minute 
accuracy that he calls Sergius Paulus a 
proconsul because the island had been 
governed by a proprietor during the reign 
of Augustus, but in the reign of Claudius, 



SEE 



SET 



the time of the visit, as is proved by coins, 
it was under proconsular government. 

SERPENT. In its ordinary scrip- 
tural use, this word does not denote any 
definite species, but snakes as a class, or 
some one or more kinds made definite 
by the context. The serpent is a crea- 
ture distinguished for its subtility, Gen. 
3 : 1, and wisdom in avoiding danger, 
Matt. 10 : 16, as well as for the instinct- 
ive dread which it inspires in man and 
most animals. About one-sixth of all 
the species known are venomous. 

The devil is called "the serpent" and 
"the old serpent," Rev. 12:9, 14, 15, 
probably in allusion to his subtility and 
malice, and also to the fact that in tempt- 
ing our first parents to disobey God he 
employed a serpent or assumed the form 
of one. 2 Cor. 11 : 3. 

The serpent is used by the sacred wri- 
ters as an emblem of wickedness. Matt. 
23 : 33, cruelty, Ps. 58 : 4 ; Prov. 23 : 32 ; 
Eccl. 10: 11, and treachery. Gen. 49 : 
17. There is allusion to the art of 
taming and charming these reptiles in 
Ps. 58:5; Eccl. 10:11: Jer. 8:17; 
Jas. 3 : 7. Eatine dust is ascribed to it, 
Gen. 3:14; Isa. 65 : 25 : Mic. 7- 17, be- 
cause it is swallowed by the serpent with 
its food, or the expression is figurative 
for its life in the dust. There is no rea- 
son to suppose that this creature was 
able to go otherwise than on its belly 
before the fall, but subsequent to that 
event its normal mode of progression 
was constituted a mark of condemna- 
tion. The worship of these reptiles is very 
common in India and other parts of the 
Old World, and probably originated, in 
part at least, from fear of the more ven- 
omous and powerful kinds. " It was 
probably from a tradition of the instru- 
mentality of the serpent in the fall of 
man that it was used throughout the 
East as an emblem of the spirit of dis- 
obedience and of the evil spirit. The 
doctrine of Zoroaster — that the evil one, 
in the guise of a serpent, first taught 
men to sin — is a plain tradition of the 
history of the fall. 

"To this we may add that on the 
monuments of Egypt there not unfre- 
quently occurs the figure of a man in 
regal costume (probably an incarnate 
deity) piercing with a spear the head of 
a large serpent — remarkably suggestive 
of a tradition of the prophecy that ' the 



seed of the woman should bruise the ser- 
pent's head.'" — Tristram. The sacred 
symbol of the globe and serpent is found 
on almost all the monuments of Egypt. 
See Adder, Asp, Cockatrice. Viper. 

SERPENT, BRAZEN. Num. 
21 : 9. As a punishment for the mur- 
muring of the Israelites, God sent into 
the midst of the camp a venomous ser- 
pent, called " fiery," probably, from the 
burning which followed its deadly bite. 
There are many species of such dan- 
gerous serpents still found in the wil- 
derness of Sinai, the various kinds of 
which, or perhaps some particular spe- 
cies, may here be intended. The destruc- 
tion of life was fearful, and the people 
entreated Moses to intercede for their 
deliverance. To test the sincerity of 
their penitence, Moses was commanded 
to make a serpent of brass resembling 
I the serpents which were among them, 
j and put it upon a pole, that it might be 
! seen from all parts of the camp, and 
i then whoever was bitten should be heal- 
ed by simply looking at the brazen fig- 
ure : and it was accordingly done, and 
all the promised effects followed. This 
passage. of history is alluded to by our 
Saviour as an illustration of the work 
he came to do. John 3 : 14. 15. 

SERPENT, FIERY FLY'ING. 
Isa. 14 : 29 : 30 : 6. This creature has 
no connection with the preceding. The 
phrase may be a figurative expression 
for the swiftly-darting sand-serpents 
of Eastern deserts, or a mere poetic 
expression, like the entirely fabulous 
dragon or winged serpent of modern 
literature. 

SE'RUG (branch), one of the post- 
diluvian patriarchs, in the line of Sbem, 
Gen. 11 : 20, 23 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 26 ; called Sa- 
ruch in Luke 3 : 35. 

SERVANT. Phile. 16. The word 

so rendered is generally to be interpreted 

" bondman " or " slave." But there were 

also servants in our sense of the term : 

| thus. Joshua was servant to Moses. Elisha 

' to Elijah, and Elisha himself had a ser- 

I vant. Gehazi. There are other instances. 

See St.ave. 

SER'VITOR, a servant. 2 Kgs. 
4 : 43. 

SETH (mbstitution), son of Adam 

and Eve, was born when Adam was one 

hundred and thirty years old, and lived 

nine hundred and twelve years. Gen. 5 : 

781 



SET 



SHA 



3. Tradition ascribes to Seth the inven- 
tion of letters. 

SE'THUR {hidden), the spy from 
Asher. Num. 13:13. 

SEVEN. Gen. 2:2. As from the 
beginning this was the number of days 
in the week, so it has ever in Scripture 
a sort of emphasis attached to it, and is 
very often and generally used as a round 
number, or, as some would say, & perfect 
number. Clean beasts were taken into 
the ark by sevens. Gen. 7 : 2. The years 
of plenty and famine in Egypt were 
marked by sevens. Gen. 41 : 2, 3. With 
the Jews not only was there a seventh- 
day Sabbath, but every seventh year was 
a Sabbath, and every seven times seventh 
year was a jubilee. Their great feasts 
of unleavened bread and of tabernacles 
were observed for seven days. The 
number of animals in many of their 
sacrifices was limited to seven. The 
golden candlestick had seven branches. 
Seven priests with seven trumpets went 
around the walls of Jericho seven days, 
and seven times on the seventh day. In 
the Apocalypse we find seven churches 
addressed, seven candlesticks, seven 
spirits, seven stars, seven seals, seven 
trumpets, seven thunders, seven vials, 
seven plagues, and seven angels to pour 
them out. 

" Seven " is often put for any round or 
whole number; just as we use "ten " or 
" a dozen ;" so in 1 Sam. 2:5; Job 5 : 
19; Pro v. 26: 16, '25; Isa. 4 : 1 ; Jer. 
15 : 9 ; Matt. 12 : 45. In like manner 
"seven times," or "seven-fold," means 
"often," "abundantly," "completely." 
Gen. 4:15, 24; Lev. 26:24; Ps. 12:6; 
79 : 12; Matt. 18 : 21. And seventy 
times seven is still a higher superlative. 
Matt. 18:21, 22. 

SHAALABBIN (city of jackals), 
a town of Dan, Josh. 19 : 42 ; also called 
Shaalbim. Jud. 1 : 35 ; 1 Kgs. 4: 9. 
Now the present village Selbit, near 
Aijalon, south-east of Lydda. 

SHAALBIM. See above. 

SHAAL'BONITE, THE. 2 Sam. 
23 : 32 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 33. Eliahba, one of 
David's thirty-seven heroes, is so called. 
It is not known where Shaalbon was. 

SHA'APH (division). 1. 2. Two 
names in the genealogy of Judah. 1 Chr. 
2 : 47, 49. 

SHAARAIM (two gates). 1. A city 
in the plain of Judah ; called also Sha- 
782 



raim. 1 Sam. 17 : 52 ; Josh. 15 : 36. 
Probably identical with the ruin Saireh, 
west of Beit Atab. 

2. A town in Simeon. 1 Chr. 4 : 31. 
In the list of Joshua it appears as Sha- 
ruhen and Shilem, which see. 

SHAASHGAZ (beauty's lustre?), 
the eunuch in the second house of the 
harem of Xerxes. Esth. 2 : 14. 

SHABBETH'AI (sabbath-born), a 
Levite who assisted Ezra in expounding 
the Law and in dealing with the illegal 
marriages. Ezr. 10 : 15; Neh. 8 : 7; 11 : 16. 

SHACH'IA (Jehovah protects), a 
Benjamite. 1 Chr. 8 : 10. 

SHAD'DAI (the mighty), the name 
for God in common use, along with 
" El," before Jehovah was revealed. It 
is translated "the Almighty." 

SHADOW. The word is used in 
Col. 2:17: Heb. 8:5; 10 : 1 to express 
the relation between Judaism and Chris- 
tianity. The rites of the old religion 
prefigured the realities of the new. 

SHA'DRACH (royal?). Dan. 1 : 7. 
See Abednego. 

SHA'GE (erring), the father of one 
of David's warriors. 1 Chr. 11 : 34. 

SHAHARA'IM (the two dawns), a 
Benjamite. 1 Chr. 8 : 8. 

SHAHAZ'IMAH (heights), a town 
in Issachar. Josh. 19 : 22. Perhaps 
Tell esh Kdsim,, in the Jordan valley. 

SHA'LEM (peaceful). Gen. 33 : 18. 
If this term indicates a place, it may be 
identified with the present village of 
Salim, 3 miles east of Shechem. Some 
would render it, however, " in peace," 
and would read the verse, "Jacob came 
in peace to the city of Shechem." 

SHA'LIM, THE LAND OF, 
which means "the land of foxes" or 
"jackals" through which Saul passed. 
1 Sam. 9:4. It may have been eastward 
from Shalisha. 

SHAI/ISHA, LAND OF (tri- 
angular), a district near Mount Ephraim. 
1 Sam. 9:4. In it, perhaps, the city of 
Baal-shalisha was situated. 2 Kgs. 4 : 42. 
Eusebius and Jerome place it about 15 
Roman miles north of Lydda. Perhaps 
near Thilth. See Baal-shalisha. 

SHAL'LECHETH (a casting 
down), the name of a gate of the temple. 
1 Chr. 26:16. Literally, it means the 
"gate of projection" — that is, from 
which were thrown out the sweepings, 
tnd offal of the temple. The 



SHA 



SHA 



causeway was made by Solomon from ! 
his own palace by way of the Tyropoeon I 
valley to the western wall of the temple ; j 
to this causeway the gate led. Grove 
would identify it with the gate Sinsleh, \ 
at the western wall of the Harain en- 
closure, 600 feet above the south-western 
corner. 

SHAL'LUM {retribution). 1. The 
murderer of Zachariah, king of Israel. 
He usurped the crown, but was slain by 
Menahem at the end of the first month 
of his reign, b. c. 771. 2 Kgs. 15 : 10-15. 

2. The husband of the prophetess 
Huldah in the reign of Josiah. 2 Kgs. 
22:14; 2 Chr. 34 : 22. 

3. A man of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 40, 41. 

4. The fourth son of Josiah, king of 
Judah, and king three months, 1 Chr. 
3:15; Jer. 22:11; called Jehoahaz in 
2 Kgs. 23 : 31-34; 2 Chr. 36 : 1-4. 

5. A man of Simeon. 1 Chr. 4 : 25. 

6. A high priest. 1 Chr. 6 : 12, 13 ; 
Ezr. 7 : 2. 

7. A son of Naphtali. 1 Chr. 7:13. 
See Shillem. 

8. The chief of a family of porters. 1 
Chr. 9 : 17. His descendants returned 
with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 42 ; Neh. 7 : 45. 

9. One of the porters. 1 Chr. 9 : 19, 31. 

10. A chief Ephraimite. 2 Chr. 28 : 12. 

11. A Levite porter who had a foreign 
wife. Ezr. 10 : 24. 

12. A similar offender. Ezr. 10 : 42. 

13. One who helped to build the wall. 
Neb. 3 : 12. 

14. The uncle of the prophet Jeremiah. 
Jer. 32 : 7. 

15. A temple-doorkeeper. Jer. 35 : 4. 
SHAL'LUN (retribution), one who 

helped in repairing Jerusalem's walls. 
Neh. 3: 15. 

SHALMAI (my thanks). Some of 
the Nethinims were his children, and 
returned. Ezr. 2 : 46 ; Neh. 7 : 48. 

SHAL'MAN, the name of an As- 
syrian king before Pul. Hos. 10 : 14. 
The ordinary opinion, that it is a 
contraction for " Shalmaneser, " seems 
to be incorrect. 

SHALMANESER {Salman is 
gracious), a king of Assyria whose reign 
lasted from b. c. 727-722, coming be- 
tween those of Tiglath-pileser and Sar- 
gon. He comes into biblical notice as 
the invader of Israel. The king, Hoshea, 
had revolted, but he conquered and ex- 
acted a tribute. 2 Kgs. 17 : 3. He then 



returned home, but, as Hoshea revolted 
a second time and allied himself with 
So, king of Egypt, Shalmaneser return- 
ed, ravaged Samaria, besieged Hoshea 
in his capital, and after three years the 
city fell. "But during this time a rebellion 
headed by Sargon had broken out in 
Assyria, and Shalmaneser was deposed. 
It is not stated in 2 Kgs. 17 : 6 that 
Shalmaneser took Samaria, but that the 
kin;/ of Assyria did. See Sargon. 

SHA'MA {obedient), a warrior of 
David's. 1 Chr. 11 : 44. 

SHAMARI'AH {iohom Jehovah 
keeps), a son of Rehoboam. 2 Chr. 11 : 
19. 

SHAM'BLES, a meat-market. 1 
Cor. 10 : 25. 

SHAMED (o destroyer), a Benjam- 
ite. 1 Chr. 8 : 12. 

SHAMETACEDNESS, a mis- 
print or corruption in 1 Tim. 2 : 9 for 
" shamefastness," in the sense of being 
fast or established in modesty and devo- 
tion. 

SHA'MER (a keeper). 1. A Levite. 
1 Chr. 6 : 46. 

2. A chief of Asher, 1 Chr. 7 : 34; 
called also Shomer in v. 32. 

SHAM'GAR (cup-bearer ?), a judge 
of Israel of whom it is related that he 
slew six hundred Philistines with an 
ox-goad and delivered Israel. Jud. 3 : 31. 

SHAM'HUTH (desolation), one of 
David's captains. 1 Chr. 27 : 8. 

SHAMIR (a thorn), a Levite. 1 
Chr. 24 : 24. 

SHA'MIR (a sharp> point), a name 
for two places. 

1. A city in the mountains of Judah. 
Josh. 15 : 48. It is probably the ruins 
of Somerah, west of Debir. 

2. The place in Mount Ephraim where 
Tola lived. Jud. 10 : 1, 2. Swartz places 
it at Sanur, on a hill 6 miles north of 
Samaria; but Van de Velde at Sammer, 
10 miles south-south-east of Nablus. 

SHAM'MA (desolation), an Asherite 
chief. 1 Chr. 7 : : J «7. 

SHAM'MAH (desolation). 1. A 
duke of Edom. Gen. 36 : 13, 17 ; 1 Chr. 
1 : 37. 

2. The third son of Jesse, 1 Sam. 
16 : 9 ; 17 : 13 ; called also Shimeah 
and Shiinma. 

3. One of the three greatest of David's 
mighty men. 2 Sam. 23 : 11, 33. 

4. One of David's mighties, 2 Sam. 

783 



SHA 



SHA 



23 : .25 ; called also Shammoth the Ha- 
rorite in 1 Chr. 11 : 27, and Shamhuth 
the Izrahite in 1 Chr. 27 : 8. 

SHAM'iMI (desolated). 1, 2, 3. 
Three descendants of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 
28, 32,44, 45: 4:17. 

SHAM'MOTH. 1 Chr. 11: 27. See 
Shammah, 4. 

SHAMMU'A, SHAIMU'AH. 
1. The spy from Reuben. Num. 13 : 4. 

2. One of David's sons, born in Jeru- 
salem, 2 Sam. 5 : 14; 1 Chr. 14 : 4; called 
Shimea in 1 Chr. 3 : 5. 

3. A Levite. Neh. 11 : 17. 

4. A priest in the days of Jehoiakim. 
Neh. 12:18. 

SHAMSHERA'I (heroic), a Ben- 
jamite. 1 Cbr. 8 : 26. 

SHA'PHAM (bald), a Gadite. 1 
Chr. 5:12. 

SHA'PHAM (coney), the scribe or 
secretary to King Josiah. 2 Kgs. 22 : 
3-14; 2 Chr. 34:8-20, etc. 

SHA'PHAT (judge). 1. The spy 
from Simeon. Num. 13 : 5. 

2. The father of Elisha. 1 Kgs. 19 : 
16, 19; 2 Kgs. 3: 11; 6:31. 

3. One of the royal line of Judah. 
1 Chr. 3 : 22. 

4. One of the Gadite chiefs. 1 Chr. 5 : 
12. 

5. One of David's chief herdsmen. 
1 Chr. 27 : 29. 

SHA'PHER (brightness), a station 
of the Israelites at a mountain in the 
Arabian desert. Num. 33 : 23. Rowlands 
would identify it with Jebel Aral/, a 
rocky promontory on the western shore 
of the Elanitic Gulf; but others propose 
Jebel esh-Shureif, a hill 70 miles north- 
west of Elath. 

SHAR'AI (Jehovah frees him), one 
who had a foreign wife. Ezr. 10 : 40. 

SHAR'AIl (two gates). Josh. 15 : 
36. See Shaaraim. 

SHA'RAR (cord), the father of one 
of David's warriors, 2 Sam. 23 : 33; 
called Sacar in 1 Chr. 11 : 35. 

SHARE'ZER (prince of fire), the 
son of Sennacherib, who joined his 
brother Adrammelech in murdering their 
father. 2 Kgs. 19 : 37 ; Isa. 37 : 38. 

SHARON (the plain), a level tract 
along the Mediterranean, between Caes- 
area and Joppa; called also Saron. Acts 
9 : 35. It is 25 or 30 miles in length, 
and from 8 to 15 miles in width. 

Scripture History. — Sharon is first 
784 



noticed in the Bible as Lasharon, the 
Hebrew article being taken as part of 
the word. Josh. 12 : 18. It was renowned 
for its fertility. The flocks of David fed 
there, and Isaiah praised its excellency 
and uses it both in promise and in 
threatening. 1 Chr. 27 : 29 ; Isa. 35 : 2 : 
65 : 10 ; 33 : 9. The Rose of Sharon is 
celebrated in Solomon's Song. 2:1. 

Present Condition. — The luxuriance 
and fertility of the plain of Sharon are 
noted to this day, although the frequent 
raids of the Bedouin make its cultiva- 
tion difficult. The plain has on the 
north a range of inland cliffs. A por- 
tion of the plain is composed of marl 
and alluvial soil, another portion of red 
sandstone and shelly breccias of blown 
sand in large patches. The hills are of 
softest chalk, gently sloping, partly 
covered by woods of oak, the trees stand- 
ing at intervals like a park, the ground 
being sandy in some places and of a 
loam or limestone character in others. 

Sharon is mentioned in connection 
with Gilead in Bashan in 1 Chr. 5 : 16. 
Stanley, noting the difficulty of suppos- 
ing that the pasture-lands of Gad could 
have been so far from the home of the 
tribe east of the Jordan as Sharon would 
have been, thinks that " Sharon " — which 
has in the Hebrew exactly the same 
meaning as Mishor — may signify the 
Mishor, or " upland downs," of Gilead 
and Bashan. 

SHARONITE, THE. Shitrai 
is so called. 1 Chr. 27 : 29. 

SHARU'HEIV (pleasant dwelling), 
a city in Simeon. Josh. 19 : 6. It was 
in the " south country," and may have 
been identical with the large ruin esh- 
Sheriah. north-west of Beer-shcba. 

SHASH'AI (whitish, or noble), one 
who had a foreign wife. Ezr. 10 : 40. 

SHA'SHAK (eagerness), a Benjam- 
ite. 1 Chr. 8 : 14, 25. 

SHA'UL (desired). 1. A son of 
Simeon by a Canaanitish woman. Gen. 
43 : 10 ; Ex. 6 : 15 ; Num. 26 : 13 ; 1 Chr. 
4: 24. 

2. An Edomite king, 1 Chr. 1 : 48, 49 ; 
in A. V. of Gen. 36 : 37 he is called 
Saul. 

3. A Kohathite Levite. 1 Chr. 6 : 24. 
SHA'ULITES, descendants of 

Staatil. 1. Num. 26: 13. 

SHA'VEH (a plain), a valley on 
the east of Jerusalem; known also as 



SHA 



SHE 



the " King's Dale." Gen. 14: 17; 2 Sam. 
18 : 18. See Dale, the King's. 

SHAVEH-KIRIATHA'IM 

{plain of Kirjathaim), a plain or valley 
near the city Kirjathaini, in Moab. Gen. 
14 : 5. Afterward it belonged to Reuben. 
Num. 32 : 37; Josh. 13 : 19. Eusebius 
says it was well known in his day as a 
village 10 miles west of Medeba. 

SHAV'SHA {warrior of Jehovah), \ 
the scribe or secretary to David, 1 Chr. | 
18 : 16 ; called also Seraiah and Shisha. 

SHE'AL (asking), one who had a 
foreign wife. Ezr. 10 : 29. 

SHEAL'TIEL (/ have asked him 
of God), the father of Zerubbabel. Ezr. 
3 : 2, 8 ; 5:2; Neh. 12:1; Hag. 1 : 1, 12, 
14; 2:2, 23. 

SHEARI'AH {whom Jehovah esti- 
mates), a descendant of Saul. 1 Chr. 8:38; 

9 : 44. 

SHEARING -HOUSE, a spot 
between Jezreel and Samaria where Jehu 
slew forty-two of the royal family of 
Judah. 2 Kgs. 10 : 12, 14. According to 
Eusebius, it is in the plain of Jezreel, 15 
Roman miles from Legio (Lejun), and 
Conder suggests Akadah as the site, on 
the western side of the great plain. 

SHEAR-JASHUB (« remnant 
returns), the symbolical name Isaiah 
gave his son. Isa. 7 : 3. 

SHE'BA (an oath). 1. The son of 
Bichri, a Benjamite who revolted from 
David, was pursued by Joab. and be- 
headed in the fortress of Abel-beth-ma- 
achah. 2 Sam. 20 : 1-22. 

2. A Gadite chief. 1 Chr. 5 : 13. 

SHE'BA (man?). 1. One of Ham's 
descendants. Gen. 10 : 7 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 9. 

2. One of Shem's descendants. Gen. 

10 : 28 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 22. 

3. One of Abraham's descendants by 
Keturah. Gen. 25 : 3 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 32. 

These were all founders of tribes. 

SHE'BA (seven, or an oath), a name 
for a region in Arabia and a town in 
Palestine. 

1. A wealthy region in Arabia border- 
ing on the Red Sea. It included the 
most fertile districts of that country. 
The queen of Sheba visited Solomon, 
coming " to Jerusalem with a very great 
train, with camels that bear spices, and 
very much gold, and precious stones." 
1 Kgs. 10:1-13; 2 Chr. 9: 1-12. Many 
ancient writers noted the abundance of 
spices in the Yemen, or Sabaean country. 
50 



Herodotus says that the whole tract 
exhaled an odor of marvellous sweetness, 
and Diodorus relates that the perfume 
extended far out to sea; while Strabo 
asserts that the enormous profits of the 
spice trade made the Sabaeans one of the 
wealthiest nations on the face of the 
earth. They used gold and silver most 
lavishly in their furniture, their utensils, 
and even on the doors and roofs of their 
houses. Precious stones also abounded 
there. Its chief cities were Seba (Sana) 
and Sephar (Zafar). 

2. A town in Simeon, mentioned be- 
tween Beer-sheba and Moladah. Josh. 
19 : 2. Shema is named next to Moladah 
in Josh. 15 : 26, and is probably identical 
with this Sheba. Two miles east of 
Beer-sheba, on the road to Moladah, is 
a mound called el-Seba, which may mark 
the site of ancient Sheba. It has a well 
separate from those at Beer-sheba. 

SHE'BAH (seven, or an oath), a 
well dug by Isaac's servants, and from 
which Beer-sheba was named. Gen. 26 : 
33. See Beer-sheba. 

SHE'BAM (coolness), one of the 
towns east of the Jordan desired by 
Reuben 1 and Gad. Num. 32 : 3. See 
Shibmah and Sibiwah. 

SHEBANI'AH (whom Jehovah has 
made grow np). 1. A priest who blew a 
trumpet at the bringing up of the ark. 

1 Chr. 15 : 24. 

2. A Levite who sang and sealed the 
covenant. Neh. 9:5; 10 : 10. 

3. A priest who sealed the covenant. 
Neh. 10 : 4 ; 12 : 14. 

4. A Levite who did the same. Neh. 
10:12. 

SHEB'ARIM (ruins), a place near 
Ai to which the Israelites were pursued. 
Josh. 7:5. The term may mean "pre- 
cipices," or possibly " fissures," but the 
location is unknown. 

SHE'BER (breaking), a son of 
Caleb, the son of Hezron. 1 Chr. 2 : 48. 

SHEB'NA (youth). 1. The "treas- 
urer," or prefect of the palace of 
Hezekiah, Isa. 22 : 15-25, a man of 
great pride, but whose ignominious fall 
is prophesied by the prophet. 

2. The scribe or secretary of Hezekiah ; 
a different person from the preceding, 
though with the same name. Isa. 36 : 3 ; 

2 Kgs. 18 : 18, 37; 19 : 2. He was one 
of the ambassadors sent to Rabshakeh. 

SHEBUEL (captive of God). 1. A 
785 



SHE 



SHE 



descendant of Moses, 1 Chr. 23 : 16 ; 26 : 
24; also called Shubael in 1 Chr. 24 : 20. 

2. One of the Levite singers, 1 Chr. 
25 : 4 ; called Shubael in 25 : 20. 

SHECANIAH {familiar with Je- 
hovah). 1. One of the priests chosen by 
lot during David's reign. 1 Chr. 24: 11. 

2. A Levite in the reign of Hezekiah. 
2 Chr. 31 : 15. 

SHECHANIAH {familiar ivith 
Jehovah). 1. A descendant of the regal 
line. 1 Chr. 3:21, 22. 

2, 3. The fathers of persons with Ezra. 
Ezr. 8 : 3, 5. 

4. One who headed the party against 
foreign marriages. Ezr. 10 : 2. 

5. The father of Sheinaiah, a gate- 
keeper. Neh. 3 : 29. 

6. The father-in-law of Tobiah the 
Ammonite. Neh. 6 : 18. 

7. Head of some with Zerubbabel. 
Neh. 12 : 3. 

SHE'CHEM {the shoulder-blade). 
1. The ravisher of Dinah, slain by 
Simeon and Levi. Gen. 33 : 19; 34. 

2. A man of Manasseh. Num. 26 : 31 ; 
Josh. 17 : 2. . 

3. Another descendant of Manasseh. 
1 Chr. 7 : 19. 

SHE'CHEM {shoulder), a town in 
the valley between Mounts Ebal and 
Gerizim ; called also Sichem, Sychem, 
and Sychar ; in later times it was known 
as Neapolis, and now its Arabic name is 
Nabliis. It was 34 miles north of Jeru- 
salem, about 7 miles south-east of Sa- 
maria, and its site is unrivalled for 
beauty in Palestine. Two mountains 
parallel to each other, Ebal and Gerizim, 
almost meeting at their bases and only 
a mile and a half apart at their summits, 
enclose a beautiful little valley extend- 
ing east and west, not more than a 
hundred yards wide at the narrowest 
part, and widening out in both direc- 
tions. At the narrowest part of the vale 
is the town of Nabliis, clinging to the 
slope of Gerizim, the " mountain of 
blessing." It is at an altitude of 1950 
feet above the sea. 

Script are History. — The city is men- 
tioned forty-eight times in the Bible. 
Its history begins four thousand years 
ago, when Jerusalem had no existence, 
extends through Scripture from Abraham 
to Christ, and continues to the present 
day. When Abraham came from Chal- 
dsea to the land which God should give 
786 



him, he halted at the " place of Sichem." 
Gen. 12 : 6. When Jacob came from 
Mesopotamia, Shechem was a Hivite 
city, and Jacob bought from Hamor the 
parcel of the field which he afterward 
gave to his son Joseph. Gen. 33 : 18, 19 ; 
48 : 22 ; Josh. 24 : 32 ; John 4 : 5. She- 
chem was captured and the male inhab- 
itants murdered by Simeon and Levi. 
Gen. 34 ; 49 : 5-7. Abraham worshipped 
under the oak which was by Shechem, 
and there Jacob buried the images 
brought by his family from Padan-aram ; 
and Joseph came from Hebron to She- 
chem and Dothan, seeking his brethren, 
and there also Joseph was buried. Gen. 
27 : 12-28; Josh. 24 : 32. A solemn 
dedicatory service of the whole nation 
took place near Shechem. Deut. 11 : 29, 
30. Abimelech caused the Shechemites 
to revolt from the Hebrews and to elect 
him as king, but after a x-eign of three 
years he was expelled, and in revenge 
destroyed the city and sowed the ground 
with salt. Jud. 9. It was rebuilt, and 
Rehoboam went there to be crowned; 
but, in consequence of the revolt, he fled. 
The city was fortified by Jeroboam, who 
made it the first seat of the northern 
kingdom. 1 Kgs. 12 : 1-19, 25; 2 Chr. 
10. Men of Shechem were slain by 
Ishmael. Jer. 41 : 3, 5. After the Cap- 
tivity, Shechem became the centre of 
Samaritan worship. See Samaria. 

N. T. references to this city are few. 
Jesus visited the region, preached to a 
woman at Jacob's well, and many from 
Sychar believed on him. John 4 : 5, 39- 
42. Whether Sychar occupied precisely 
the same site as ancient Shechem has 
been a question in dispute among 
scholars. Stephen refers to the sepul- 
chres of the patriarchs a,t Sychem. Acts 
7:16. During the Christian period 
Neapolis became the seat of a bishop. 
Justin Martyr was born there. The 
Crusaders took it after the conquest of 
Jerusalem ; Baldwin II. held a great 
diet there, A. d. 1120. 

Present Appearance. — Modern travel- 
lers bear uniform testimony to the beauty 
of the scenery of Nablus. Dr. Robinson 
calls it " a scene of luxuriant and almost 
unparalleled verdure." Dean Stanley, 
says it is " the most beautiful — perhaps 
the only very beautiful — spot in Central 
Palestine," and Tristram says the land- 
scape is " the richest in Palestine." It 



SHE 



SHE 



is abundantly supplied with water; 
vegetation is luxuriant; there are olive 
trees and orange groves and palm trees. 

The streets of the town are cleaner, 
and its houses as a rule better, than those 
of Jerusalem, being high, built of stone, 
and crowned with domes. The side 
streets are often like low cellars, quite 
dark, vaulted, and narrow, and so low 
that the passengers can scarcely stand 
upright, except in the centre of them. 
The town is a considerable centre of 
trade and manufactures. Cotton became 
the staple of the place a few years ago, 
and a cotton-mill was erected. There is 
also a trade in wool, and there are a 
score of manufactories of soap, which is 
made from olive oil. The bazaar exhibits 
a great variety of wares. 

The inhabitants are chiefly Mussul- 
mans. Tristram estimated the popula- 
tion at 9000, of whom about 650 were 
Christians, 200 Samaritans, and a few 
Jews. There is a Protestant school, sup- 
ported by the English Church Missionary 
Society. Baedeker estimates the popu- 
lation at 13,000, including 140 Samari- 
tans, a few Jews, 600 Christians of the 
Greek Orthodox Church, and a few 
Latins and Protestants. The people still 

f (reserve their ancient reputation as rest- 
ess, turbulent, and quarrelsome. 

Among the principal attractions of the 
town is the great mosque Jdmi ei-Kebir, 
originally a church of the Crusaders, 
dedicated to St. John, and completed 
A. d. 1 167. There are two other mosques 
which were originally churches of the 
Crusaders. In the south-western part 
of the town is the Samaritan synagogue 
(Kemset es-Sdmireh), a small, plain 
whitewashed room, the pavement of 
which is covered with matting and must 
not be trodden on with shoes. The 
Samaritans still retain their hereditary 
form of worship, and possess the famous 
Samaritan Codex of the Pentateuch, which 
is guarded with great care. Sometimes 
a copy is shown instead of the original, 
which they derive from a grandson of 
Aaron. See Samaria. 

The well which Jacob dug, and upon 
which our Lord rested and talked with a 
woman of Samaria, is near Nablus. See 
Jacob's Well. 

A little distance north of Jacob's well 
is the reputed site of Joseph's tomb, Josh. 
24 : 32, which has been preserved from 
788 



molestation from age to age by the com- 
mon reverence in which the patriarch is 
held by Jew, Samaritan, Christian, and 
Muslim alike. The building shown is 
comparatively modern, being a common 
Muslim tomb in a square enclosure. It 
was recently restored by Mr. Rogers, an 
English consul at Damascus, in 1868. 
The Muslims claim that Joseph's body 
is in the cave of Machpelah, at Hebron, 
having been carried thither from She- 
chem. 

The granite shafts belonging possibly 
to the Samaritan temple on Gerizim are 
to be found amidst the ruins of a Roman 
villa in the plain, and again in another 
site of same date at a little distance. 

At the foot of the northern slope of 
Gerizim is a cemetery. The place is 
called j57 Amiid ("the column "), and the 
Rev. George Williams has with much 
probability identified it with "the pillar 
that was in Sheehem," where Abimelech 
was made king, Jud. 9 : 6, and with the 
oak of Moreh, near which Abraham built 
his first al(ar to the Lord after entering 
the Promised Land, and where Joshua 
set up a great stone. Josh. 24 : 26. 

SHECHEMITES, the family of 
Sheehem. Num. 26 : 31. 

SHECHI NAH (resfing-place). 
This familiar word is found in the Tar- 
gums and in Christian writings, although 
not in the Bible, but the fact it presents 
often is, for the shechinah was enveloped 
in the pillar of cloud and of fire, and 
was " the glory " which covered the tab- 
ernacle and filled Solomon's temple. In 
the N. T. there is reference to this "glory 
of the Lord " in Luke 2:9; Rom. 9:4; 
John 1 : 14, etc. 

SHEDEUR (darting of fire), the 
father of the prince of Reuben at the 
time of the Exodus. Num. 1:5; 2 : 10 ; 
7:30, 35; 10:18. 

SHEEP, SHEP'HERD, 
SHEEP -MASTER, SHEEP- 
COTE, SHEEP FOLD. The sheep 
is mentioned about five hundred times 
in the Bible, and seems likely to have 
been the first animal domesticated by 
man. Gen. 4 : 4. The sheep anciently 
kept by the Israelites were probably of 
the broad-tailed variety, in which the 
tail is a mass of delicate fat sometimes 
weighing 14 pounds, or even more. Ex. 
29:22; Lev. 3:9, 11. 

Sheep often constituted the chief wealth 



SHE 



SHE 



of a man in patriarchal times ; and hence, 
with the Jews, the care of sheep was 
among the earliest and most respectable 
employments, Gen. 4:2; Ex. 3:1; Job 
42 : 12; 1 Sam. 16 : 11, though it was 
odious to the Egyptians. The office of 
chief shepherd, Heb. 13 : 20 ; 1 Pet. 5 : 4, 
is often mentioned by heathen writers. 
It was an office of great trust and respon- 
sibility, as well as of distinguished honor. 
2 Kgs. 3 : 4. Chardin saw a clan of 
Turcoman shepherds whose flocks con- 
sisted of 400,000 beasts of carriage, such 
as camels, horses, oxen, cows, and asses, 
and 3,000,000 of sheep and goats. Dr. 
Shaw confirms his statement. 




Eastern Sheepfold. 



The shepherd or " sheep-master " was 
constantly with his flocks by night and 
by day, to number, gather, feed, conduct, 
and guard them, Gen. 31 : 39 ; Luke 2 : 
8, and was often attended with a despised 
dog. Job 30 : 1. His care of the sheep 
was constant and tender, and his control 
over them very great. Isa. 40 : 11 ; John 
10 : 1-16. Rev. John Hartley, a mission- 
ary in Greece, tells us that he was once 
passing by a flock of sheep, and, having 
heard it said they would obey the shep- 
herd's voice, he asked him to call one of 
his sheep, which instantly left its pas- 
turage and approached the hand of the 
shepherd with a prompt obedience which 
he never saw in any other animal. It 
is also universally true in that country 
that a stranger they will not follow. 
They flee from him, for they know not 
the voice of a stranger. 

It is said that the shepherds of Judaea 
gave each lamb a distinct name, and 
that they instantly obeyed the voice of 
the shepherd, coming and going daily at 
his call. An ancient Jewish writer, born 
and educated in Egypt, states that the 
sheep, in the season of shearing, would 



run to the shepherd at his call, and, 
stooping a little, put themselves into his 
hands to be shorn and stand quietly until 
he had done. 

The docility, timidity, and liability to 
wander (all which are among the charac- 
teristics of this animal) are often figura- 
tively employed by the sacred writers, 
as 2 *Chr. 18 : 16 ; Ps. 119 : 1 76 ; Isa. 11 : 
6 ; 53 : 6, 7 ; Mic. 5:8; Matt. 9 : 36. 

In the 0. T. the word "shepherd" is 
used figuratively for Jehovah. Ps. 80 : 1 ; 
Jer. 31 : 10 ; and for kings, Eze. 34 : 10 ; 
but in the N. T. it denotes Christ, John 
10 : 11, etc. ; Heb. 13 : 20 ; 1 Pet. 5 : 4, 
and also those teachers who presided in 
the synagogues. This use of the 
^^- . word gave rise to the application 
|B= of the word "shepherd" or " pas- 
5^g tor," in modern times, to rninis- 
~~ ters of the gospel, and those under 
their spiritual care are called the 
"fold" or "flock." 

It was the business of the shep- 
herd to count the sheep daily, per- 
haps oftener, and he was account- 
able for any that were missing. 
Gen. 31 : 38, 39 : Ex. 22 : 12, 13 ; 
Lev: 27 : 32 ; Jer. 33 : 13. See Rod. 
Sometimes a lamb was taken into 
the tent and brought up like a dog. 2 Sam. 
12 : 3. It is common in Armenia to see 
shepherds carrying in their bosoms the 
lambs of the flock they are tending. 
They are too feeble to roam with their 
dams, and nothing evinces more tender- 
ness and care than gently leading such 
as are with young, or such as have young 
lambs to which they give suck. Isa. 40 : 
11. Two of our American missionaries 
tell us that while travelling in Armenia 
they passed several shepherds, probably 
from the neighboring villages, carrying 
in their bosoms the lambs of the flocks 
they tended. The same scene had already 
frequently interested them by presenting 
the source of the beautiful imagery of 
the prophet. It is exhibited only at one 
season of the year, when lambs are fre- 
quently brought forth during the day at 
a distance from the fold. The new- 
comers, being too weak to follow the 
flock in its rovings after grass, are carried 
in the bosom of the shepherd, and not 
unfrequently they so multiply as to fill 
his arms before night. They are then 
taken to the fold, and guarded there 
until sufficiently strong to ramble with 
789 



SHE 



SHE 



their dams. One of these enclosures 
presents an amusing scene when the 
sheep return anxiously bleating in the 
evening from their day's pasture, and 
scores of hungry young ones are con- 
ducted by shepherds' boys each to its 
own mother. 

The time of shearing was a season of 
great festivity. 1 Sam. 25 : 7, 8, 11 ; 2 Sam. 
13 : 23. The flock was collected in an 
uncovered enclosure called a " sheepfold " 
or " sheepcote." Num. 32 : 16 : 2 Sam. 7 : 
8 ; Jer. 23 : 3 ; Zeph. 2:6; John 10 : 16. 
Here their legs were tied together, and 
the "shearing-house," 2 Kgs. 10 : 12, 14, 
literally means the "tie-house." They 
were never housed at any season of the 
year. 

A watch-house was often erected in 
the vicinity of the flocks, from which the 
approach of danger could be easily des- 
cried. This is called the " tower of the 
flock." Mic. 4 : 8. The wool of the sheep 
was probably made into cloth, Lev. 13 : 
47; Deut. 22 : 11, by women. Prov. 31 : 
13. It formed part of the tribute paid 
by the Moabites to Israel, 2 Kgs. 3 : 4, 
and was a common article of merchan- 
dise. Eze. 27 : 18. Ewes' milk was an 
important part of daily food. Deut. 32 : 
14; 1 Cor. 9 : 7. The flesh of sheep and 
lambs was eaten. 1 Sam. 25 : 18 ; 1 Kgs. 
1 : 19 ; 4 : 23 ; Ps. 44 : 11. If Josh. 6 : 
4 is correctly rendered, as probably it is 
not, rams' horns were made into trum- 
pets. Sheep-skins were used as a cover- 
ing for the tabernacle, Ex. 25 : 5, and 
the poor clothed themselves in them. 
Heb. 11 : 37. 

The sheep was especially the animal 
of sacrifice, and there were few offerings 
required in which the lamb or the ram 
was not admissible. As an animal sym- 
bolical of innocence and purity, the sheep 
was well fitted for this use. With refer- 
ence to his sacrificial mission, as well as 
to his meekness, patience, and submis- 
sion, Christ is often called "the Lamb," 
"the Lamb of God," "the Lamb slain." 
John 1 : 29, 36 ; Rev. 13 : 8 ; 22 : 1, 3. 

SHEEP-GATE, an ancient gate 
of Jerusalem. Neh. 3 : 1, 32 ; 12 : 39. 
Barclay concludes that it must have been 
near the temple, and between the tower 
of Meah and the Prison-gate. Compare 
Acts 3 : 32 with 12 : 39 ; A. V. "prison- 
gate." Tradition identifies the Sheep-gate 
with Saint Stephen's gate, which leads to 
790 



Gethsemane and Mount Olivet. Grove 
would place it near the Bab el-Kattanin. 

SHEEP-MARKET. John 5 : 2. 
" Market " is an interpolation by the 
translators; it should probably read 
" gate." 

SHEETS, Jud. 14 : 12, should be 
" shirts," either the thin garment worn 
next to the body or the loose night- 
wrapper. 

SHEHARIAH (Jehovah seeks 
hi>n), a Benjamite chief. 1 Chr. 8 : 26. 

SHEK'EL means "weight," then a 
particular weight of uncoined gold or 
silver, to the value of 20 gera. Ex. 30 : 
13. See Money. 

SHE'LAH (petition), the third son 
of Judah. Gen. 38 : 5, 11, 14, 26; 46 : 
12 ; Num. 26 : 20 ; 1 Chr. 2:3; 4 : 21. 

SHE'LAH (sprout). 1 Chr. 1 : 18, 
24. See Salah. 

SHE'LANITES, the descendants 
of Shelah. Num. 26 : 20. 

SHELEMI'AH (whom Jehovah re- 
pays). 1. 1 Chr. 26 : 14. See Meshel- 

EMIAH. 

2, 3. Two persons who had foreign 
wives. Ezr. 10 : 39, 41. 

4. Father of Hananiah. Neh. 3 : 30. 

5. A priest appointed by Nehemiah a 
treasurer. 13 : 13. 

6. Ancestors of one in time of Jehoi- 
akin. Jer. 36 : 14. 

7. Father of one of Jeremiah's ac- 
cusers to Zedekiah, 37 : 3 ; 38 : 1 ; per- 
haps identical with him mentioned in 
36 : 26. 

8. Father of the captain of a ward who 
arrested Jeremiah. 37 : 13. 

SHE'LEPH (drawn out), the sec- 
ond in order of the sons of Joktan. Gen. 
10 : 26 : 1 Chr. 1 : 20. 

SHE'LESH (tried), an Asherite 
chieftain. 1 Chr. 7 : 35. 

SHEL'OMI (pacific), the father of 
the prince of Asher in time of Moses. 
Num. 34:27. 

SHEL'OMITH (pnc^c). 1. The 
Danite mother by an Egyptian of a 
stoned blasphemer. Lev. 24 : 11. 

2. A daughter of Zerubbabel. 1 Chr. 
3 : 19. 

3. A Gershonite Levite. 1 Chr. 23 : 9. 

4. A Kohathite Levite, 1 Chr. 23 : 18; 
called Shelomoth in 24 : 22. 

5. One who had charge of the dedi- 
cated things in David's reign. 1 Chr. 
26 : 25, 26. 



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SHE 



6. A son of Rehoboam. 2 Chr. 11 : 20. 

7. One whose sons returned with Ezra. 
Ezr. 8 : 10. 

SHEL'OMOTH. 1 Chr. 24 : 22. 
See Shelomith, 4. 

SHELUMIEL {friend of God), 
the prince of Simeon in the wilder- 
ness. Num. 1:6; 2 : 12; 7 : 36, 41 ; 
10 :19. 

SHEM (nawe), the eldest son of Noah, 
preserved with his wife in the ark. His 
conduct toward his father on one oc- 
casion is recited to his praise. Gen. 9 : 
20-27. The Jews are his descendants, 
and, besides, there are the Aramaeans, 
Persians, Assyrians, and Arabians. The 
languages spoken by the descendants of 
Shem (the Hebrew, Chaldee, Assyrian, 
and Arabic) are called Shemitic lan- 
guages. 

SHE'MA {rumor). 1. A descendant 
of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 43, 44. 

2. A Reubenite. 1 Chr. 5 : 8. 

3. A Ben.jamite chief. I Chr. 8 : 13. 

4. One who stood by Ezra during the 
reading of the Law. Neh. 8 : 4. 

SHE'MA {rumor), a place in Judah, 
Josh. 15 : 26; 19 : 2, and the same as 
Sheba, No. 2. 

SHEMA'AH {rumor), a Benjamite 
whose sons joined David at Ziklag. 1 
Chr 12 * 3 

SHEM A F AH {Jehovah hears). 1. 
A prophet in the time of Rehoboam, and 
a chronicler of his reign. 1 Kgs. 12 : 22; 

2 Chr. 11 :2; 12 : 5, 15. 

2. A descendant of Zerubbabel. 1 Chr. 

3 : 22. 

3. A Simeonite. 1 Chr. 4 : 37. 

4. A Reubenite. 5 : 4. 

5. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11. Levites. 9 : 14 
cf. Neh. U : 15 ; 1 Chr. 9 : 1 6 ; 15 : 8, 11 
24: 6; 2 Chr. 17: 8; 29 : 14; 31 : 15 
35:9. 

12. The eldest son of Obed-edom. 1 
Chr. 26 : 4, 6, 7. 

13. A messenger of Ezra's. Ezr. 8 : 
13,16. 

14. 15. A priest and another who had 
foreign wives. Ezr. 10 : 21, 31. 

16. A traitor. Neh. 6 : 10. 

17. A priest who sealed the covenant. 
Neh. 10:8; 12:6, 18, 35. 

18. One of the princes of Judah. Neh. 
12 : 34. 

19. One of the choir at the dedication 
of the wall. Neh. 12 : 36. 

20. A priest. Neh. 12 : 42. . 



21. The father of a prophet in the time 
of Jeremiah. Jer. 26 : 20. 

22. A false prophet of Jeremiah's 
time. Jer. 29 : 24, 31, 32. 

23. The father of a prince in Jehoi- 
akin's reign. 36 : 20. 

S HE MAR FA H (toham Jehovah 
keeps). 1. One of David's soldiers at 
Ziklag. 1 Chr. 12 : 5. 

2, 3. Two who had foreign wives. Ezr. 
10 : 32, 41. 

SHEM'EBER {lofty flight), one of 
the allies who were attacked by Chedor- 
laomer. Gen. 14 : 2. 

SHE'MER {lees of wine), the owner 
of the hill which King Omri bought and 
covered with the city of Samaria, giving 
it its former owner's name. 1 Kgs. 16 : 
24. 

SHEMI'DA, SHEMFDAH 
{fame of wisdom), a man of Manasseh. 
Num. 26 : 32 ; Josh. 17 : 2 ; 1 Chr. 7 rl9. 

SHEMFDAITES, the descendants 
of the above. Num. 26 : 32. 

SHEMTlVITH(^e e/^70,amusical 
term which appears in 1 Chr. 15 : 21, and 
in the titles to Ps. 6 and 12. Its mean- 
ing is uncertain, but probably it refers to 
the time of the piece, rather than any 
instrument. 

SHEMIRAMOTH {name most 
high).. 1. A musical Levite in David's 
day. 1 Chr. 15 : 18, 20; 16 : 5. 

2. A Levite in the reign of Jehosh- 
aphat. 2 Chr. 17 : 8. 

SHEMITIC, or SEMITIC, 
LANGUAGES. See Shem. 

SHEMU'EL {heard of God). 1. 
The representative of Simeon in the 
division of the land. Num. 34 : 20. 

2. Samuel the prophet. 1 Chr. 6 : 33. 

3. A chieftain of Issachar. 1 Chr. 7 : 2. 
SHEIV [the tooth). Samuel erected 

the stone Ebenezer between Mizpah and 
Shen. 1 Sam. 7 : 12. It was probably 
so named from a tooth-shaped rock. 

SHENA'ZAR {fien, tooth), de- 
scendant of David. 1 Chr. 3 : 18. 

SHE'NIR, a name given to Mount 
Hermon by the Sidonians. Deut. 3:9; 
Cant. 4 : 8. See Hermon. 

SHE'PHAM {bear-region), a land- 
mark on the eastern boundary of the 
Promised Land, between Hazar-enan 
and Riblah. Num. 34 : 10. 1 1. 

SHEPHATHI'AH {Jehovah 
judges), a Benjamite. 1 Chr. 9 : 8. 

SHEPHATFAH {Jehovah fudges). 
791 



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SHI 



I. The fifth son of David. 2 Sam. 3:4; 
1 Chr. 3 : 3. 

2. A Benjamite warrior with David at 
Ziklag. 1 Chr. 12 : 5. 

3. The chief of the Simeonites in 
David's time. 1 Chr. 27 : 16. 

4. A son of Jehoshaphat. 2 Chr. 21 : 2. 

5. 6. Two persons whose posterity re- 
turned with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 4, 57; 
Neh. 7 : 9, 59. 

7. One of the posterity of Judah. 
Neh. 11 : 4. 

8. One who desired Jeremiah's exe- 
cution. Jer. 38 : 1-4. 

SHEPHERD (pastor). John 10 : 

II. See Sheet. 
SHEPHERD. Ps. 23 : 1. See 

SHETHI (a naked hill), a descend- 
ant of Seir, 1 Chr. 1 : 40 ; called Shepho 
in Gen. 36 : 28. 

SHE'PHO (smoothness). See above. 

SHEPHUPHAN {serpent), a 
grandson of Benjamin, 1 Chr. 8:5; 
called Shupham in Num. 26 : 39, Shup- 
pim in 1 Chr. 7 : 12, 15, and Muppim in 
Gen. 46 : 21. 

SHE 'RAH (blond-kindred), daugh- 
ter of Ephraim. 1 Chr. 7 : 24. 

SHEREBI'AH (heat of Jehovah), 
one of the chief Levilical friends and 
helpers of Ezra, and one who sealed the 
covenant. Ezr. 8 : 18, 24; Neh. 8:7; 9 : 
4; 10:12. 

SHE'RESH (root), a descendant of 
Manasseh. 1 Chr. 7:16. 

SHERE'ZER (Asur protect the 
king !), a man mentioned in Zech. 7 : 2. 

SHER'IFFS, mentioned in Dan. 
3:2 as among the Babylonish digni- 
taries, were probably officers like the 
mufti, or the '• head-doctors of the Law 
in the Turkish empire." 

SHE'SHACH, a symbolical name 
for Babylon, Jer. 25 : 26 ; 51 : 41, from 
its goddess Shach reduplicated, as Misael 
is called Meshach. 

SHE'SHAI (whitish), one of the 
three sons of Anak. Num. 13 : 22 ; Josh. 
15: 14: Jud. 1: 10. 

SHE'SHAN (lily), a descendant of 
Judah. 1 Chr. 2: 31. 34. 35. 

SHESHBAZZAR (fire- worship- 
per), the Persian name borne by Zerub- 
babel at the Persian court. Ezr. 1 : 8, 
11: 5:14. 16. 

SHETH (tumult). 1. The patriarch. 
1 Chr. 1 : 1. 
792 



2. In Num. 24 : 17 not a proper name,* 
read: "children of tumult," not "chil- 
dren of Sheth." Jer. 48 : 45. 

SHETHAR (a star), one of the 
Persian princes. Esth. 1:14. 

SHE THAR- BOZNAI (star of 
splendor), a Persian officer in Syria. Ezr. 
5:3, 6: 6:6. 13. 

SHE'VA (Jehovah contends). The 
name is corrupted from Seraiah. 

1. The son of Caleb ben-Hezron. 1 
Chr. 2 : 49. 

2. The scribe of David. 2 Sam. 20 : 25. 
SHEW'-BREAD was unleavened 

bread prepared anew every Sabbath, and 
presented hot on the golden table set in 
the sanctuary, in twelve loaves of a 
square or oblong shape, according to 
the number of the tribes of Israel. Ex. 
25 : 30. Salt and frankincense were put on 
each row. The loaves were placed either 
in two piles or in two rows, with six 
loaves in each, and it was called "shew- 
bread," or " bread of the face," or the 
" bread of setting before," because it 
stood continually before the Lord : later 
"bread of ordering." 1 Chr. 9:32; 
marg. ; Neh. 10 : 33. 




Table of Shew- bread. 

The incense having been burnt, the old 
loaves were removed ever} 7 Sabbath, Lev. 
24 : 8. and, as a general rule, were to be 
eaten by the priests alone, and by them 
only in the court of the sanctuary. 1 
Sam. 21 : 1-6 ; Matt. 12 : 3, etc. 

SHIBBOLETH [an ear of com, 
or a stream, a flood). Jud. 12 : 6. In the 
course of a war between the Ephraimites 
and the Gileadites, the former were rout- 
ed and fled toward the Jordan. The 
Gileadites had taken care to post a party 
at the fords, and when an Ephraiinite 



SHI 



SHI 



who had escaped came to the river-side 
and desired to pass over, they asked him 
if he were not an Ephraimite. If he 
said, "No," they bade him pronounce 
" Shibboleth," and if he pronounced it 
"sibboleth," according to the dialect of 
the Ephraimites, they killed him. Thus 
fell 42,000 Ephraimites in a single day. 
Comp. Matt. 26 : 73. Milton says, with 
reference to that event, 

"Without reprieve, adjudged to death, 
For want of well pronouncing shibboleth." 

The word is now used for a test or the 
watchword of a party. 

SHIB'MAH {fragrance), a town in 
Reuben, east of the Jordan. Num. 32 : 
38. See Sibmah. 

SHI'CRON {drunkenness), a land- 
mark of Judah between Ekron and Jab- 
neel. Josh. 15 : 11. 

SHIELD. Jud. 5 : 8. See Armor. 

SHIGGA'ION. Ps. 7, title. It 
probably means a dithyrambic ode, er- 
ratic — ;'. e., wild and mournful. 

SHIGIONOTH, the plural of 
Shiggaion. Hab. 3 : 1. 

SHI'HON (destruction), a place in 
Issachar. Josh. 19 : 19. Eusebius calls 
it a village near Mount Tabor, probably 
Shain, 3 miles north-west of Tabor. 

SHI'HOR. 1 Chr. 13 : 5. See Nile. 

SHI'HOR-LIB'NATH (black- 
white), a landmark of Asher. Josh. 19 : 
26. The term is usually supposed to re- 
fer to a river which formed the extreme 
point of the frontier toward the south, 
and must have included Dor. Probably 
the Zerka, or "Blue River." which runs 
into the Mediterranean south of Dor; 
but Conder suggests its identity with 
Wad)/ Shaghur. 

SHIL'HI (armed), the grandfather 
of Jehoshaphat. 1 Kgs. 22:42; 2 Chr. 
20: 31. 

SHIL/HIM (armed men), a town in 
Judah. Josh. 15 : 32. Wilton proposes 
to locate it at the ruin es-Saram, and 
Conder has conjectured that it might be 
at Sheflehah. 

SHII/LEM (requital), a son of 
Naphtali, and ancestor of the Shillem- 
ites. Gen. 46:24; Num. 26: 49. 

SHIL'LEMITES. See above. 

SHILO'AH (sending forth), the 
quietly-flowing stream Siloam. Isa. 8 : 
6. See Siloam. 

SHI'LOH. The word " Shiloh/' as 



used in Gen. 49 : 1 0, has given rise to much 
discussion. Many of the best scholars 
consider it as referring to the town. But 
it is better to adopt tlie traditional view, 
and interpret "Shiloh" of the Messiah. 
The word in this connection, according 
to the majority, means, "He whose 
right it is." Others translate " Peace." 
Cf. Isa. 9 : 6. Still others, " The sceptre 
shall not depart from Judah till He 
comes to whom it belongs." 

SHI'LOH (place of rest), a city 
north of Bethel, south of Lebonah, on 
the east of the road from Bethel to She- 
chem. Jud. 21 : 19. It is now called Sei- 
lun, and is 17 miles north of Jerusalem 
and very nearly midway between Bethel 
and Shechem, being about 9 or 10 miles 
from each. 

Scripture History. — Joshua selected 
Shiloh as the site of the tabernacle, and 
there made the allotments of the Prom- 
ised Land. Josh. 18:1, 8-10. During 
the period of the Judges, for three hun- 
dred years, the tabernacle remained here, 
and in its honor a festival was annually 
celebrated, on which occasion the daugh- 
ters of Shiloh danced, and thus gave an 
opportunity for the Benjamites to carry 
off two hundred of them as wives. Jud. 
21 : 19-23. Shiloh was the residence of 
Eli and of Samuel, 1 Sam. 3 and 4, and 
thither tidings were brought to the old 
man of the capture of the ark by the 
Philistines. The ark was never brought 
back to Shiloh, and the tabernacle was 
removed to Nob and thence to Jerusa- 
lem. 2 Chr. 1 : 3, 4. The prophet Ahi- 
jah lived there. 1 Kgs. 14: 1-17. Shi- 
loh seems to have been desolate in Jere- 
miah's day. Jer. 7 : 12, 14; 26 : 6, 9. In 
the time of Jerome the place was a ruin. 
In the Middle Ages it was erroneously 
supposed to have lain near Nehy Samwil. 

Present Appeara)>ce. — It has been iden- 
tified without doubt with Seilun, a ruin- 
ed village on a low hill, showing traces 
of ancient building-material and early 
foundations. The most interesting fea- 
ture is a sort of level open court, 412 
feet long and 77 feet wide, partly hewn 
out of the rock, " which might have been 
the actual spot where the ark rested, for 
its custodians would naturally select a 
place sheltered from the bleak winds that 
prevail in these highlands." (See Recov- 
ery of Jerusalem, p. 364.) In a little val- 
ley about half a mile from the ruins are 
793 



SHI 



SHI 




Seilun (ancient Shiloh). 



the spring and well of Shiloh. and this 
must have been the spot where the 
" daughters of Shiloh " were seized. In 
the neighborhood of this spring are 
many rock-hewn tombs, in which, ac- 
cording to Jewish tradition, were laid 
the bodies of Eli and his sons. From 
its central, and at the same time seclu- 
ded, position, Shiloh was well adapted 
to be the resting-place of the ark and 
the principal sanctuary of the Jewish 
nation. 

SHILO'NI, the descendant of She- 
lah. Neh. 11 : 5. 

SHILONITE, the resident of 
Shiloh; so Ahijah is called. 1 Kgs. 11 : 
29. 

SHI'LONITES, THE, members 
of the house of Shelah. 1 Chr. 9 : 5. 

SHII/SHAH (triad— i. e., the third 
son), an Asherite chief. 1 Chr. 7 : 37. 

SHIM'EA, SHIM'EAH (/Ae kr,r- 
ing — i.e., answering — prayer). 1. Brother 
of David, 2 Sam. 21 : 21 : called Shain- 
mah and Shimma. 

2. A son of David by Bathsheba. 1 
794 



Chr. 3:5; called Shammua and Sham- 
muah. 

3. A Merarite Levite. 1 Chr. 6 : 30. 

4. A Gershonite Levite. 1 Chr. 6 : 39. 

5. A Benjamite. 1 Chr. 8:32. 

SHIM'EAM {the hearing— \. e., an- 
swering — 2 ira y e >')> 1 Chr. 9 : 38 ; same as 
4, above. 

SHIM'EATH (the hearing), an Am- 
monites?, the mother of Jozachar or Za- 
! bab, one of the murderers of King Jo- 
ash. 2 K S s. 12 : 21 : 2 Chr. 24 : 26. 

SHIM'EATHITES, a family of 
scribes. 1 Chr. 2 : 55. 

SHIM'EI (renowned). 1. A son of 
Gershon, the son of Levi. Num. 3 : 18; 
1 Chr. 6: 17, 29: 23:7, 9, 10; Zech. 
12 : 13; called Shimi in Ex. 6:17. 

2. The Benjamite of the house of Saul, 
living at Bahurim, who cursed David 
when the latter was fleeing from Absa- 
lom. 2 Sam. 16:5-13. David forbade 
any violence at the time. On his victo- 
rious return Shimei sought the forgive- 
ness of David, who not only spared his 
life then, but covenanted with him never 



SHI 



SHI 



to put him to death. 2 Sam. 19 : 23. On 
his death-bed, however, he charged Sol- 
omon to remember Shimei as a guilty 
man. Solomon accordingly forbade him 
to leave Jerusalem on pain of death. 
This prohibition he violated by going to 
Gath in search of two fugitive servants, 
and suffered the threatened penalty. 1 
Kgs. 2 : 46. 

3. One of David's mighty men who 
opposed Adonijah. 1 Kgs. 1 : 8. 

4. The Benjamitish provision-officer 
of Solomon. 1 Kgs. 4 : 18. 

5. The brother of Zerubbabel. 1 Chr. 
3:19. 

6. A Simeonite. 1 Chr. 4 : 26, 27. 

7. A Reubenite. 1 Chr. 5 : 4. 

8. A Gershonite Levite. 1 Chr. 6 : 
42. 

9. Head of the tenth musical course. 
1 Chr. 25 : 17. 

10. The overseer of David's vineyards. 
1 Chr. 27 : 27. 

11. A Levite who assisted in Hezeki- 
ah's purification of the temple. 2 Chr. 
29 : 14. 

12. A Levite in Hezekiah's time who 
had charge of the temple-treasure. 2 
Chr. 31 : 12, 13. 

13. A Levite who had a foreign wife. 
Ezr. 10 : 23. 

14. 15. Two persons who put away 
their foreign wives. Ezr. 10 : 33, 38. 

16. One of the ancestors of Mordecai. 
Esth. 2 : 5. 

SHIM'EON (a hearing), one who 
had a foreign wife. Ezr. 10 : 31. 

SHI31' HI (renowned), a Benjamite. 
1 Chr. 8 : 21. 

SHI'MI. Ex. 6 : 17. See Shimei, 1. 

SHIM'ITES, the descendants of 
Shimei, 1. Num. 3 : 21. 

SHIM'MA (the hearing), David's 
third brother. 1 Chr. 2: 13. 

SHIMON {desert), a descendant of 
Judah. 1 Chr. 4:20. 

SIIIM'R ATH (watch), a Benjamite. 
1 Chr. 8:21. 

SHIM'RI (watchful). 1. A Simeon- 
ite. 1 Chr. 4 : 37. 

2. Father of one of David's guard. 1 
Chr. 11 : 45. 

3. A Levite in Hezekiah's reign. 2 
Chr. 29 : 13. 

SHIM'RITH (watchful), a Moab- 
itess, mother of Jehozabad, one of the 
murderers of King Joash, 2 Chr. 24 : 26 ; 
called Shomer in 2 Kgs. 12 ; 21. 



SHIl'ROM, mistaken spelling for 
SHIM'RON [watch), the fourth son of 
Issachar, Gen. 46:13; Num. 26:24; 1 
Chr. 7:1. 

SHIM'RON (watch-post), an ancient 
city of Canaan, over which Jabin was 
king. Josh. 11 : 1 ; 19 : 15. The Shim- 
ron-meron of Josh. 12 : 20 is probably 
the same with Shimron. It may be iden- 
tified with the village es-Semiriyeh, about 
5 miles from Acre, on the road to Tyre, 
where a solemn conference took place, 
A. i). 1277. The Pal. Memoirs suggest 
Semunieh, a small village with three 
springs, at the edge of the Plain of 
Esdraelon, 5 miles west of Nazareth. 

SHIM'RONITES, the descendants 
of Shimron. Num. 26 : 24. 

SHIMRON-MERON. Josh. 12 : 
201. See Shimron. 

SHIM'SHAI (sunny), the scribe or 
secretary of Rehum the chancellor. He 
joined in opposing the rebuilding of the 
temple under Zerubbabel. Ezr. 4 : 8, 9, 
17, 23. 

SHI'NAB (cooling), the king of Ada- 
mah, in the valley of Siddim, when Che- 
dorlaomer invaded the land. Gen. 14 : 
2. 

SHINAR, THE LAND OF 
(casting out? country of two rivers?), 
the region where the people, after the 
Flood, made bricks and used slime (bit- 
umen) for mortar. Gen. 11 : 2, 3. "Shi- 
nar" was probably the Hebrew name for 
the plain of Mesopotamia, on the Eu- 
phrates and the Tigris. It would seem 
originally to have denoted the northern 
part of Babylonia, as " Chaldsea " denoted 
the southern part; but subsequently, 
like "Chaldaea," it was sometimes used for 
the whole. Gen. 10 : 10 ; Isa. 11 : ] 1 ; 
Dan. 1:2; Zech. 5 : 11. In Josh. 7 : 21 
it is rendered " Babylonish." Among its 
cities were Babel (Babylon), Erech or 
Orech (Orchoi), Calneh or Calno (prob- 
ably Niffer), and Accad. 

SHIP. Dean Howson says that more 
about the ancients' merchant-ships is to 
be learned from Luke than from all the 
writers in classic literature. Some of 
these ships were very large, and prob- 
ably the majority carried from 500 to 
1000 tons. They were steered by two 
large paddles at the sides, Acts 27 : 40, 
carried usually but one mast with a huge 
sail, but were also propelled by oars, 
hence required rowers, were ornamented 
795 



SHI 



SHI 



by images in the bow and stern and 
figures painted on the side of the bow, 
which made "the sign" — e. g., Castor 
and Pollux. Acts 28: 11. They were fur- 
nished with undergirders, which passed 
round the frame at right angles to its 
length and "frapped" it when the 
planks were in danger of starting, an- 
chors like ours, except that they had 
no flukes, sounding-lines; "could sail 
within seven points of the wind ; seem 
to have had some mode of keeping the 
log ; and it has been supposed that with 
a fair breeze they could make seven knots 
an hour." — Ayre. Nor need they hug the 
shore. The Hebrews were not sailors. 
We have no information in regard to the 
ships of their nautical neighbors. The 
reference to rudder-bunch, Acts 27 : 40, 
is thus explained : the rudder-paddles 
already mentioned "were lashed up lest 
they should interfere with the ground- 
tackle. When they wished to steer again 
and the anchor-ropes were cut, they un- 
fastened the lashings or bands of the 
paddles." Ancient ships were properly 
gallevs. 

SHI'PHI (abundant), the father of 
the prince of Simeon in Hezekiah's time. 
1 Chr. 4 : 37. 

SHIPH'MITE. Probably Zabdi, 
1 Chr. 27 : 27, was a native of Shepham, 
which see. 

SHIPHRAH (beauty), one of the 
chief miclwives among the Hebrews in 
Egvnt. Ex. 1:15. 

SHIPHTAN (judicial), the father 
of the prince of Ephraim. Num. 34 : 24. 

SHI'SHA (Jehovah contends), father 
of the scribes of Solomon. 1 Kgs. 4:3; 
same with Seraiah. 

SHI'SHAK, the head of the twen- 
ty-second dynasty, Sheshonk I., who re- 
ceived the fugitive Jeroboam, 1 Kgs. 11 : 
40, and in the fifth year of Rehoboam, 
b. c. 969, invaded Judaea and spoiled the 
temple. 14 : 25, 26 ; 2 Chr. 12 : 2-9. At 
Karnak, on the Nile, there is an inscrip- 
tion which records this expedition. The 
king presents, among his other captives, 
one with an unmistakable Hebrew phys- 
iognomy. The accompanying inscrip- 
tion, " Iudaha-malek," has been inter- 
preted " Kingdom of Judah." If this 
is correct, then Rehoboam is probably 
meant. 

Other inscriptions give a particular 
list of the "fenced cities" mentioned in 
796 




Head of Shishak. (From temple at Karnak.) 

2 Chron. 12 : 4 as having been taken in 
this expedition. 

SHIT'RAI (scribe), one of David's 
chief herdmen. 1 Chr. 27 : 29. 

SHIT'TAH TREE. Isa. 41 : 19. 
See Shittim-wood. 

SHIT'TIM (acacias), the last en- 
campment of the Israelites before enter- 
ing Canaan ; the scene of the sin with 
the Midianites, and of its terrible pun- 
ishment, Num. 25; 31 : 1-12; the com- 
pletion of the Law and the farewell of 
Moses ; the sending forth of the spies 
to Jericho ; and the final preparation 
before crossing the Jordan. Josh. 2. 

Physical Features. — Shittim — also 
called Abel-shittim, or "the meadow 
of acacias," from the number of acacia 
trees in it — was the green, fertile, well- 
watered plain stretching from the foot 
of the mountains of Moab to the Jordan. 
Tristram describes it as "by far the 
largest and richest oasis in the whole 
Ghor." Many acacia (shittim) trees still 
grow there. The plain now bears the 
name of Ghor es-Seisaban. At the north 
is Teil Nimrin (Beth-nimrah). South of 
this are Tell Kefrain (Abel-shittim and 
Abila of Josephus), Tell er-Rama (Beth- 
haram), and Smceimeh, which Dr. Mer- 
rill and others would identify with Beth- 
jeshimoth. See Abel-shittim. 

SHITTIM, THE VALLEY 
OF, referred to in Joel 3:18, may 
denote the same valley mentioned above, 



SHI 



mo 



indicating that the blessing should spread 
even beyond the borders of Judah. Some, 
however, suppose that the reference is to 
a vailey in which acacias grew, on the 
west side of the Jordan, and nearer 
Jerusalem. 

SHIT'TIM-WOOD (from the 
shittah tree, Isa. 41 : 19) was much used 
in constructing and furnishing the taber- 
nacle. Ex. 25 : 15, 16. The only tim- 
ber tree of any size now found in the 
Arabian desert is theseyal( Acacia seyal). 
The large specimens of this have been 
mostly destroyed for charcoal and other 
uses, but the writer saw a sei/al in Wady 
Feiran 3 feet through, and Tristram 
speaks of trees of this kind on the west 
of the Dead Sea which would make 
planks "4 feet in diameter." There can 
be little doubt that this acacia was once 
abundant in the Sinai region and is the 
shittim of Scripture. 




Shittim-wood (Acacia). 

The seyal is a very thorny tree, some- 
what resembling our apple tree when 
seen from a distance, but with decom- 
pound leaves, small leaflets, and little 



yellow balls of fibrous bloom, followed 
by locust-like pods. Its wood is close- 
grained, hard, brownish-hued, and well 
adapted for cabinet-work. From cuts 
or cracks in the trunk and limbs of this 
and one or two other acacias gum-arabic 
exudes, and is collected. The burning 
bush, Ex. 3 : 2, on philological grounds, 
is believed to be a similar but smaller 
tree, the sunt (Acacia Nilotica), found 
occasionally in this region. Several 
localities mentioned in the Bible were 
named from the shittim. 

SHI'ZA (loving), the father of a 
Reubenite captain. 1 Chr. 11 : 42. 

SHO'A (opulent). Eze. 23:23. 
Whether this is the name of a place, 
as Palmer suggests, or merely a title, 
is uncertain. Ewald renders it "cry- 
ing;" Keil renders it " noble;" and the 
former takes it to be the name of some 
Chaldaean tribe. 

SHOBAB {apostate). 1. A 
child of Bathsheba by David. 2 
Sam. 5 : 14; 1 Chr. 3:5; 14 : 4. 

2. A son of Caleb, son of Hezron. 
1 Chr. 2 : 18. 

S HO BACH (pouring). 1. 
The general of Hadarezer, king of 
the Syrians of Zoba. David defeat- 
ed and slew him. 2 Sam. 10 : 15-18. 
In 1 Chr. 19 : 16, 18 he is called 
Shophach. 

SHO'BAI (taking captive), one 
whose children returned with Zerub- 
babel. Ezr. 2 : 42 ; Neh. 7 : 45. 

SHO'BAI, (floioing). 1. The 
second son of Seir the Horite, and a 
sheik of the Horites. Gen. 36:20; 
1 Chr. 1 : 38. 

2. The son of Caleb, son of Hur. 

1 Chr. 2 : 50, 52. 

3. In 1 Chr. 4 : 1, 2 he is identical 
probably with 2. 

SHO'BEK (forsaking), one who 
sealed the covenant. Neh. 10 : 24. 

SHO'BI (taking captive), a 
chief Ammonite who provisioned 
David during Absalom's rebellion. 

2 Sam. 17 : 27. 
SHO'CHO, 2 Chr. 28:18, 

SHOCHOH, 1 Sam. 17: 1, and 
SHO'CO, 2 Chr. 11 : 7. See Socoh. 
SHOES. See Clothes. 
SHOE-LATCHET. xMark 1 : 8. 
See Clothes. 

SHO'HAM (onyx), a Merarite Le- 
vite. 1 Chr. 24 : 27. 

797 



SHO 



SHU 



SHO'MER (a keeper). 1. A man 
of Asher, 1 Chr. 7 : 32 ; called Sharaer 
in v. 34. 

2. The father of Jehozabad, who killed 
Joash, 2 Kgs. 12 : 21 ; called Shiinrith 
in 2 Chr. 24 : 26. 

SHO'PHACH . (pouring). 1 Chr. 
19 : 16. 18. See Shobach. 

SHOPHAN. Num. 32 : 35. The 
word should probably be written in con- 
nection with the preceding Hebrew word, 
"Atroth Shophan " — that is, "Ataroth of 
the burrow " — to distinguish it from the 
Ataroth in v. 34. See Atroth. 

SHOSHANNIM {lily), Ps.45; 69, 
title, SHOSHAJiNIM - E'DUTH 
{lily, a testimony), Ps. 80, title, prob- 
ably signifies the melody to which the 
Psalm was sung. Some have regarded 
it as the title of a bridal-song, while 
others think it means a musical in- 
strument. 

SHOULDER. Gen. 49 : 15. To 
bare the shoulder is significant of ser- 
vitude, and to withdraw it denotes 
rebellion. Neh. 9 : 29. To bear upon 
the shoulder is to sustain. Isa. 9:6; 
22 * 22 

SHOVEL. See Fan, Winnow. 

SHRINE. See Diana. 

SHROUD, in Eze. 31:3, means 
" cover," " shelter." 

SHU'A {riches), father-in-law of 
Judah. Gen. 38 : 2, 12 ; 1 Chr. 2 : 3. 

SHUAH (a pit). 1. A son of Abra- 
ham by K<turah. Gen. 25 : 2; 1 Chr. 
1 : 32. Bildad is called the Shuhite. 
Job 2 : 11. 

2. A name in 1 Chr. 4 : 11. 

SHU'AL {a fox), an Asherite. 1 Chr. 
7:36. 

SHU'AL (fox. or jackal), THE 
LAND OF, a district toward which 
one of the three devastating bands of 
Philistines went from Michmash. 1 
Sam. 13 : 17. It was probably not far 
from Bethel. It is not mentioned else- 
where, but there is a wild region east 
of Taiyibeh containing a ravine named 
that of "hyaenas," and it may be iden- 
tical with the land of Shalim. 1 Sam. 
9:4. 

SHU'BAEL (captive of God). 1. 
In 1 Chr. 24 : 20. See Shebuel, 1. 

2. Tn 1 Chr 25 : 20. See Shebuel, 2. 

SHU'HAM (perhaps pit-digger), a 
son of Dan, Num. 26 : 42 j called Hu- 
shim in Gen. 46 : 23. 
798 



SHU HAMITES, the descendants 
of the above. 

SHU'HITE. See Shuah, 1. 

SHU'LAMITE, the woman from 
Shulem ; probably Shunem, and hence 
Abishag the Shunammite. Cant. 6 : 13. 

SHUMATHITES, the inhabit- 
ants of an unlocated village Shumah. 1 
Chr. 2 : 53. 

SHUNAMMITE. See Shu- 

LAMITE. 

SHU'NEM (two resting-pilaces), a 
city in the territory of Issachar. Josh. 
19 : 18. The Philistines encamped there 
before the great battle of Gilboa. 1 Sam. 
28 : 4. David's wife, Abishag, was of 
Shunem, 1 Kgs. 1 : 3, and it was the 
residence of the Shunammite woman who 
entertained Elisha. 2 Kgs. 4:8. It an- 
swers to the modern Sulem, on the south- 
western slope of Little Hermon, about 
53 miles north of Jerusalem, 8 Roman 
miles from Tabor, and 3£ miles north of 
Jezreel. The village is encircled by en- 
closed gardens and luxuriant fields of 
grain. Porter noticed children playing 
bareheaded in the grain-iields under the 
burning sun, thus illustrating how the 
Shunammite's child may have played in 
the prophet Elisha's day. The villagers 
are rude and hostile. The place is in 
full view of the sacred sites on Mount 
Carmel ; it has a spring, from which, 
doubtless, the Philistine army was sup- 
plied with water. 

SHU'NI (quiet), a son of Gad. Gen. 
46: 16; Num. 26: 15. 

SHU'NITES, the descendants of 
the above. 

SHU'PHAM, SHUP'PIM (ser- 
pents). 1. A Benjamite. Num. 26:39; 
1 Chr. 7 : 12. 

2. A Levite porter. 1 Chr. 26 : 16. 

SHUPHAMITES, descendants 
of Shupham. 

SHUR (fort-wall), a place in the wil- 
derness, on the south-west of Palestine, 
including the whole district between the 
north-eastern frontier of Egypt and the 
land of Canaan. The wilderness is also 
spoken of as the "wilderness of Etham." 
Num. 33 : 8. We first read of Shur in 
the account of Hagar's flight, and this 
region later became the dwelling-place 
of the wild Ishmaelites. Gen. 16 : 7 ; 25 : 
18. Abraham dwelt between Kadesh 
and Shur. Gen. 20 : 1. It was over 
against Egypt. 1 Sam. 15 : 7; 27 : 8. 



SHU 



SHTJ 



Some would identify it with Ayun 
Muaa, 7 or 8 miles from Suez ; but 
Trumbull supposes it to mean "a wall 
of Egypt," from the Great to the Red 
Sea. See Etham. 

SHU'SHAN {a lily), a celebrated 
city, known to the Greeks as " Susa," 
in the province of Elam, a part of an- 
cient Susiana. 

Hiatory. — " Shushan the palace," as it 
is named in the prophecy of Daniel and 
by Nehemiah, is mentioned over twenty 
times in the Bible, nineteen of the ref- 
erences being in the book of Esther. In 
Dan. 8 : 2 it is placed in the province of 
Elam. Elam is mentioned as a son of 
Shem, and then in connection with Che- 
dorlaomer's invasion of Canaan and in 
the prophecies of Isaiah, Jeremiah, and 
Ezekiel. The province was probably in- 
dependent of Babylon, and perhaps su- 
perior to it, but in later times came un- 
der the power of Persia. Gen. 10 : 22 ; 
14 : 1 : Isa. 21 : 2 ; Jer. 49 : 34 ; Eze. 32 : 
24. See Elam. The city of Susa was a 
place of great antiquity. Its name ap- 
pears in the Assyrian inscriptions of As- 
sur-bani-pal, the Sardanapalus of the 
Greeks, b. c. 650, who took it, and the 
record gives a ground-plan of the city. 
From the tablets, as deciphered by George 
Smith, we take the following: "I over- 
whelmed Elam through its extent. . . . 
Their bodies like bows and arrows filled 
the vicinity of Shushan. . . . Shushan, 
his royal city, I captured." Susa was 
possessed by the Babylonians after the 
division of the Assyrian empire by Cy- 
axares and Nabopolassar. In Belshaz- 
zar's last year Daniel was at Shushan in 
the palace when he saw the vision. Dan. 
8:2. By the conquest of Babylon the 
Persians under Cyrus came into posses- 
sion of Susa, and Darius Hystaspes and 
the Achaemenian princes made it the 
capital city. He founded the grand pal- 
ace described in Esth. 1:4, 6. It was 
cooler than Babylon, and. having excel- 
lent water, Susa was a suitable metrop- 
olis of the Persian empire. The kings 
made it their residence the chief part of 
the year, leaving it only during the sum- 
mer for Ecbatana, among the mountains. 
After the battle of Arbela, Alexander the 
Great found in the city, treasures worth 
over twelve millions sterling, and all the 
regalia of the great king. His preference 
for Babylon caused Susa to decline, and 



it was not again made the capital city. 
It was conquered by Antigonus, b. c. 315, 
who obtained treasures worth about three 
millions and a half sterling. It was 
again attacked by Molo, B. c. 221, who 
took the town, but did not capture the 
citadel. In the conquest of Persia by 
the Mohammedans, in A. n. 640, Susa 
was captured, fell into decay, and its 
i site was for a long period unknown. 
The region was famed for its fertility, 
and the Kerkhah water was so excellent 
that it was carried about with the great 
king on his journeys. For an illustra- 
tion of a palace see Assyria, p. 80. 

Present Appearance. — The site of Shu- 
shan has been identified with the mod- 
ern Shush or Sua, between the river Cho- 
aspes (Kherkhah) and the Ulai (Euhvus). 
These are really two branches of the 
same river, which divides about 20 
miles above Susa. Hence, Daniel might 
be standing on the " banks of the Ulai " 
and also " between Ulai." Dan. 8 : 2, 16. 
The site is nearly due east of Babylon 
and north of the Persian Gulf. The 
ruins cover an area some 3 miles in cir- 
cumference, being 6000 feet long from 
east to West and 4500 feet wide from 
north to south. There are four distinct 
and spacious platforms or mounds; the 
western one, of earth, gravel, and sun- 
dried bricks, is smallest, but loftiest, be- 
ing 119 feet above the river, with steep 
sides, having a round space at the top, 
and is supposed to have been the site of 
the citadel of Susa. South-east of this 
is a great platform of 60 acres, the east- 
ern face of it being 3000 feet long. A 
third platform, north of the other two, 
is a square of 1 000 feet each way. These 
three mounds together form a space point- 
ing almost due north, 4500 feet long by 
3000 feet wide. Remains have been 
found belonging to the great palace 
j built by Darius, the father of Xerxes, 
i as appears from inscriptions on the ped- 
estals, written in three languages. The 
central hall was 343 feet long and 244 
feet wide, and this was probably used 
\ for the great state ceremonies. The 
| bases of four of the immense columns 
! and the position of all the seventy-two 
| pillars of the original palace have been 
discovered. It was in the great palace 
and the surrounding buildings that the 
principal scenes of the book of Esther 
took place. The " King's Gate," where 
799 



SHU 



SID 



Mordeeai sat, Esth. 2 : 21, was probably 
a hall 100 feet square, supported by pil- 
lars in the centre, standing 150 feet from 
the northern portico. Between these two 
was probably the inner court, where Es- 
ther appeared before the king. The 
royal house and the house of the women 
were behind the great hall, toward the 
south, or between the great hall and the 
citadel, communicating with it by a 
bridge over the ravine. The "court of 
the garden of the king's palace" was 
in front of the eastern or western porch, 
and in it Ahasuerus made a feast " unto 
all the people seven days, . . . where 
were white, green, and blue hangings, 
fastened with cords of fine linen and 
purple to silver rings and pillars of 
marble." Esth. 1 : 5, 6. The feast was 
evidently out of doors, in tents put up 
in one of the palace courts. The effect 
of such a group of buildings, including 
a stately central palace standing high 
above the plain, upon an elevated pla- 
teau interspersed with trees and shrubs, 
must have been very magnificent. The 
tracing out of these ruins in detail has 
furnished the most interesting corrobo- 
ration of the Scripture history. On the 
low ground near the river is a building 
believed by the natives to be the tomb 
of Daniel. 

SHU'SHAN-EDUTH, Ps. 80, 
title, the same with Shoshannim. See 
Shoshanntm. 

SHUTHALHITES, the descend- 
ants of Shuthelah. Num. 26 : 35. 

SHU'THELAH {noise of break- 
ing), a son of Ephraim. Num. 26 : 35, 
36; 1 Chr. 7:20, 21. 

SHUTTLE, a well-known instru- 
ment used by weavers for throwing the 
thread of the woof across the warp. Job 
7:6. As it moves with great swiftness 
from one side to the other, so as scarcely 
to be seen in its passage, it is used fig- 
uratively to denote the rapid flight of 
time. 

SI'A, SI'AHA {congregation), the 
ancestor of some who returned. Ezr. 2 : 
44: Neh. 7:47. 

SIBBECAI, SIB'BECHAI 
{thicket of Jehovah), one of David's 
mighty men, 2 Sam. 21 : 18 ; 1 Chr. 11 : 
29 ; 20 : 4; 27 : 11 ; called Mebunnai in 
2 Sam. 23 : 27. 

SIB'BOLETH. See Shibboleth. 

SIB'MAH {coolness, or fragrance), 
800 



a city east of the Jordan, built or forti- 
fied by the Reubenites ; called also She- 
bam and Shibmah. Josh. 13 : 19 ; Num. 
32 : 3, 38. It is not noticed again until 
the prophet's lament over Moab. Isa. 
16 : 8, 9 ; Jer. 48 : 32. At that time it 
was a Moabite town noted for its grapes. 
Jerome says it was 500 paces from Hesh- 
bon. A trace of the name is found in 
the ruins es-Sameh, 4 miles east of Hesh- 
bon. 

SIBRAIM {twofold hope), a land- 
mark in the northern boundary of Pales- 
tine between Damascus and Hamath. 
Eze. 47 : 16. 

SI'CHEM. Gen. 12 : 6. See She- 

CHEM. 

SICK LE. Deut. 16 : 9. We have 
preserved in Egyptian monuments the 
form of the ancient sickle, which bore 
a very close resemblance to our imple- 
ment. The scythe was unknown in Bible 
times. 

SIDDIM, THE VALE OF. 
The name is variously interpreted. 
Fiirst and Stanley render it " the valley 
of the open "or "well-cultivated fields;" 
Gesenius and Kalisch, as "a valley filled 
with rocks and pits" or a "plain cut up 
by stony channels ;" Conder renders it 
"the valley of cliffs;" others as "the 
valley of gypsum." The place is men- 
tioned in Scripture only in connection 
with the battle between Chedorlaomer 
and the five confederated kings of Sodom 
and the adjacent cities. The vale is said 
to have been full of slime-pits. Gen. 14 : 
3-10. The "slime" means bitumen, 
which abounds in the neighborhood of 
the Dead Sea, and especially at the 
southern extremity. The site of the 
vale of Siddim is connected with that of 
the destroyed cities of the plain. The 
theory has long prevailed that these 
cities were at the southern extremity of 
the Dead Sea, and were submerged in it. 
In that event the southern part of the 
Dead Sea, below the Lisan Peninsula, is 
taken as their site, and this would cor- 
respond with the vale of Siddim; and 
thus it is indicated upon many maps. 
Many scholars, however, are now of the 
opinion that the cities were not at the 
south end of the sea, but probably at the 
north end, and hence that the vale of 
Siddim must be found in that region 
also. The sea is not of recent origin, as 
the theory of the submergence of those 



SID 



SIL 



cities would indicate, but the lake is 
only the remains of a larger and more 
ancient sea. Dr. Merrill, who favors the 
northern sites for the lost cities, de- 
scribes a series of singular pits extend- 
ing across the Shittim plain, which local 
tradition declares are very old and were 
used for military purposes. For a more 
full treatment of these disputed sites see 
Sodom, Salt Sea, and Zoar. 

SFDON. Gen. 10 : 15, 19. See 
Zinox. 

SIDO'NIANS, inhabitants of Sidon. 

SIEGE. Deut. 20 : 19. See War. 

SIEVE. Isa. 30 : 28. The bolter, 
or sieve, which is so necessary an article 
in our day in the preparation of meal 
for bread, etc., was in ancient times 
made of rushes and papyrus. Ancient 
writers say that only the Gauls had 
sieves of horsehair. What was left in 
the bolter was put into the mill a second 
time. Sieves of various degrees of fine- 
ness were no doubt used, for the same 
authors tell us of four different qualities 
of meal. 

SIGFONOTH. See Shigionoth. 

SIGNET. Gen. 38 : 10. See Seal. 

SIGNS, John 4 : 48, and WOIV- 
DERS (as they are usually connected), 
sometimes denote those proofs or demon- 
strations of power and authority which 
were furnished by miracles and by other 
tokens of the divine presence, as in Acts 
2 : 22, and at other times those unusual 
appearances which betoken the approach 
of a great event, as in Luke 21 : 11, 25. 

SFHON (sweeping away), a king of 
the Amorites who lost his dominions in 
consequence of his refusal to permit the 
Hebrews to pass through them on their 
way from Egypt to Canaan. Sihon him- 
self was slain in battle, his army was 
routed, Heshbon, his capital, was taken, 
and his country distributed between 
Reuben and Gad. Num. 21 : 21-30 ; Deut. 
1 : 4: 2 : 24-32; Josh. 13 : 15-29. 

SFHOR. Isa. 23 : 3; Jer. 2 : 18. 
See Nile. 

SFHOR-LIBNAH, the name of 
two separate valleys, according to the 
Septuagint, Josh. 19 : 26, now called 
Shaghnr and el-Belat, which run into 
each other. See Shihor-libnath. 

SFLAS, Acts 15 : 40, contracted 
from SILVA'NUS (icoody), 2 Cor. 1 : 
19, is called one of the chief of the breth- 
ren, Acts 15 : 22, and a faithful brother. 
51 



1 Pet. 5 : 12. He is supposed to have 
been a native of Antioch, and a member 
of the Christian church there. Acts 15 : 
37-41. He was the associate of Paul in 
several of his missionary tours, and his 
fellow-prisoner at Philippi. Acts 15 : 
40; 16 : 25, 29; 17 : 4, 10, 15. He is 
called a prophet, Acts 15 : 32, but what 
was the precise nature of this office in 
the days of the apostles is not clear. 

SILK. The only undoubted reference 
to silk occurs in Rev. 18 : 12. It is a 
question whether the Hebrews knew any- 
thing about it, although there are two 
passages in which a word so translated 
is employed. Prov. 31 : 22; Eze. 16 : 10, 
13. The ''silk" of the A. V. is rather 
byssus, or fine linen. But in N. T. times 
silk was common. 

SII/LA (a twig), a place near which 
King Joash was slain. 2 Kgs. 12 : 20. 
It was evidently in the valley below 
Millo. 

SILOAII, THE POOL OF, 
properly "the pool of Shelach" — that 
is, "the dart." Neh. 3:15. See Siloam. 

SILOAM, or SHILO'AH (sent), 
the name of a pool and of a tower. 

1. A pool near Jerusalem, referred to 
as "the waters of Shiloah that go soft- 
ly," and as "the pool of Siloah by the 
king's garden." Isa. 8:6; Neh. 3 : 15. 
It is also called " the pool." John 9 : 7- 
11. These texts give us no clue to the 
location of the pool. Josephus mentions 
it as a fountain and says it was at the 
mouth of the Tyropoeon valley, and there 
is no doubt as to its identity with a pool 
now existing at the mouth of this valley, 
about 450 yards south of the Haram wall 
and 60 yards west of the southern point 
of Ophel at Jerusalem. There are really 
two pools, of which the smaller may be 
properly the pool of Siloam. It is 52 
feet long, 18 feet wide, and 19 feet deep. 
A flight of steps leads to the bottom, and 
the pool has yet a good supply of water, 
generally somewhat salt to the taste, per- 
haps from the soil through which it per- 
colates, and it is, moreover, polluted by 
the washerwomen and tanners by whom 
it is constantly used. The pool is part- 
ly hewn out of the rock, partly built with 
masonry, and columns extend along the 
side walls from top to bottom. The water 
is supplied from the Fountain of the Vir- 
gin, with which the pool is connected by 
a zigzag tunnel, cut in the solid rock, 
801 



SIL 



SIL 



170S feet long. Robinson, Barclay, and 
Warren crawled through this passage, 
which is 16 feet high at the entrance, and 
only 16 inches at its narrowest part. 
In this tunnel a remarkable inscription 
was discovered in 1880. It is Hebrew, 
and narrates the completion of the 
tunnel. The inscription is reputed to 
belong to the age of Hezekiah or 
possibly of Solomon. See Cut. The 




Pool of Siloam. 

Arabs call it Birket el-Hamra, or the 
" red pond." Warren supposes this to 
have been the pool dug by King Heze- 
kiah, the "king's pool" of Nehemiah 
and the Siloam of Josephus. It was to 
the pool of Siloam that a Levite was sent 
with a golden pitcher on "the last day, 
that great day of the feast" of taber- 
nacles. To this Jesus alluded when, 
standing in the temple, he cried, " If 
any man thirst let him come unto me 
and drink." John 7 : 37-39. To this 
pool the blind man was sent to wash, 
and returned seeing. John 9 : 7-11. Its 
waters now refresh the gardens below, 
making them the greenest spots about 
Jerusalem, and abounding in olives, figs, 
and pomegranates. 

2. The tower of Siloam, which killed 
eighteen men in its fall. Luke 13 : 4. 
There is nothing in the text to deter- 
mine the spot where the tower stood. 
The name is preserved in a wretched 
802 



little village among the tombs on the 
east side of the Kedron, and now called 
Kefr Sitwan. The village is at the foot 
of the third height of Olivet, near the 
spot where Solomon built the temples to 
Chemosh, Ashtoreth, and Milcolm, known 
as "the Mount of Corruption." 

SILVA'NUS {looody). See Silas. 
SII/VER, a well-known precious 
metal. The Tarshish whence it was ob- 
tained was probably in Spain, as silver 
is still brought from the same region 
which furnished it in the dajs of Solo- 
mon, 1 Kgs. 10 : 22, as well as from 
many countries then unknown. That 
the value of this metal was recognized 
very early in human history is evident. 
Gen. 13 : 2; 44 : 2; Job 28 : I. The 
reason probably is that, like gold, it is 
often found in a state of purity in the 
earth, and therefore easily discovered. 
It was used in the construction of the 
tabernacle, Ex. 26 : 19, 32, for the fur- 
niture of the temple, 1 Chr. 28 : 14-17, 
and also for musical instruments, Num. 
10 : 2, and for adorning idols. Isa. 40 : 
19. And that it was abundant in that 
day appears from 1 Kgs. 10 : 27. 

Silver constituted the chief medium 
of trade, though it was not coined, but 
used by weight, Gen. 23 : 16, and the 
Hebrew word for this metal denoted 
money in general, as does the French 
word argent. The "pieces of silver" 
(thirty of which were given as the price 
if innocent blood, Matt. 26 : 15 ; 27 : 3) 
were probably shekels of silver, worth 
fifty cents each. The " silverling," Isa. 
7 : 23, is supposed to have been of like 
value. 

In Mai. 3 : 2, 3 there is manifest refer- 
ence to the " cupellation " of silver by 
means of lead, the process of purifica- 
tion employed before the discovery of 
quicksilver. 

" 'A very beautiful phenomenon, known 
as the fulguration of the metal, attends 
the removal of the last portions of lead 
from the silver. During the earlier 
stages of the process the film of oxide 
of lead, which is constantly forming over 
the melted mass, is renewed as rapidly 
as it is removed : but when the lead has 
all been oxidized, the film of litharge 
upon the silver becomes thinner and 
thinner as it flows off. It then exhibits 
a succession of the beautiful iridescent 
tints of Newton's rings j and at length 




1. Pool of Siloam. 2. Plan of the tunnel, leading from the Virgin's Fount, or Well, to 
the Pool of Siloam. 3. Fac-simile of the ancient Inscription found (1881) in the tunnel, 
about 15 feet from the Pool of Siloam. 



SIL 



SIM 



the film of oxide suddenly disappears, 
and reveals the brilliant surface of the me- 
tallic silver beneath.' — Miller's Chemis- 
try. The brilliant tints of the film of 
oxide in its later stages, and the sudden 
flashing forth of the metal in its full 
pure glory, form a striking illustration 
of the offering of righteousness which the 
refining and purifying influence of the 
Christian faith produces." — Prof. Deane. 

SIL'VERLING. Isa. 7 : 23. See 
Silver. 

SIM'EON (o hearing). 1. Son of 
Jacob and Leah. Gen. 29 : 33. Accord- 
ing to the prediction of Jacob, Gen. 49 : 
5-7, and as a punishment for his offence 
in the matter of the Shecheinites, Gen. 
34 (see Dinah), his posterity dwindled, 
comp. Num. 1 : 22, 23 ; 26 : 14, and their 
inheritance was only a dismembered 
portion of the terrritory of Judah. Josh. 
19:1. 

2. A man of singular piety residing at 
Jerusalem. Luke 2 : 25. He had been 
favored with a divine intimation that he 
should live to see the incarnate Redeem- 
er, the Lord's Christ, and, being led by 
the Spirit into the temple at the partic- 
ular time when the infant Jesus was 
brought thither by his parents, accord- 
ing to the requirement of the Law, Ex. 
13 : 12 ; 22 : 29, he took him up in his 
arms and uttered the most devout thanks- 
givings to God, accompanied with a re- 
markable prediction respecting the vari- 
ous effects of his advent. 

3. A man of this name was among the 
prophets and teachers of the Christian 
church at Antioch. Acts 13 : 1. Some 
have supposed (though without warrant) 
that he is the same with Simon the Cy- 
renian. Matt. 27 : 32. 

4. "Simeon" is a Hebrew name, and 
in Acts 15 : 14 is the same with " Simon." 

5. A name in our Lord's genealogy. 
Luke 3 : 30. 

SIMEON, THE TERRITORY 
OF, the south-western portion of the 
Promised Land. The district assigned 
to Simeon lay within the inheritance of 
Judah, and included eighteen cities in 
the South of Palestine around the well 
of Beer-sheba. Josh. 19 : 1-9 ; 1 Chr. 4 : 
28-33. On its entrance to the Promised 
Land, Simeon was the smallest of all the 
tribes, having at that time only 22,200 
able-bodied men. Xum. 26 : 14. At a 
later date some of the towns within its 



territory were possessed by Judah, as 
Hormah and Beer-sheba, while Ziklag 
became a Philistine, and then a Judaean, 
town. 1 Sam. 27 : 6 ; 30 : 30 ; 1 Kgs. 19 : 
3. After the division of the kingdom 
the territory of this tribe appears to 
haA r e been subject to many changes, as 
the population was partly in fellowship 
with the northern kingdom, though it 
seems to have shared in the reformation 
under Asa and Josiah. 2 Chr. 15 : 9 : 34 : 6. 

SIM'EONITES, the members of 
the tribe of Simeon. Num. 25 : 14; 26 : 
14. No eminent person is recorded as 
of this tribe save Judith, a heroine of a 
story in the Apocrypha, although there 
is a Jewish tradition that it furnished 
schoolmasters to the other tribes. 

SI'MON (a hearing), contracted from 
SIM'EON, a native of Samaria, and a 
famous sorcerer, who professed to be a 
convert to the Christian faith, and was 
baptized as such by Philip, but was 
severely rebuked by Peter as a hypocrite 
because, under the influence of merce- 
nary motives, he desired apostolic gifts. 
Acts 8 : 9. Hence the buying and selling 
of ecclesiastical rights, benefits, or priv- 
ileges is called simony — a high offence 
against the purity and integrity of the 
Christian faith, and one of which the 
seller and buyer are equally guilty. 

2. Simon Peter. Matt. 4: : 18. See Peter. 

3. Simon the Canaanite, Matt. 10 : 4, 
or Simon Zelotes (or the zealous), one 
of the twelve apostles; was ene of the 
party called Zealots, hence his name. 
The epithet " Canaanite " is properly 
" Kananite," the Chaldee for "zeal," 
and has no reference to locality. 

4. The brother of our Lord, Matt. 13 : 
55 ; Mark 6:3; not to be confounded 
with the preceding, nor with Symeon, 
who succeeded James as bishop of the 
church in Jerusalem. 

5. A Pharisee. Luke 7 : 36. 

6. A leper. Matt. 26 : 6. 

7. The father of Judas Iscariot. John 
6:71. 

8. The man of Cyrene who was com- 
pelled to bear our Saviour's cross when 
the latter was no longer able. Matt. 27 : 
32; Mark 16:21; Luke 23:26; John 
19:17. 

9. The tanner at Joppa with whom 
Peter lodged. Acts 9 : 43. 

SIM'RI {watchful), a Merarite Le- 
vite in the time of David. 1 Chr. 26 : 10. 
803 



SIN 



SIN 



SIN, Gen. 4:7, is the transgression 
of the law of God. 1 John 3 : 4. All 
unrighteousness is sin. 1 John 5 : 17. 
The word is sometimes used for a sin- 
oifering, as in Hos. 4:8; Rorn. 8 : 3 ; 2 
Cor. 5 : 21. In the text first cited refer- 
ence is had to the eating, either from 
greediness or in violation of the Law, 
of that which was brought as a sin- 
offering. 

The Bible traces the introduction of 
sin to the fall of our first parents. There 
is none sinless. But sins differ in enor- 
mity. John distinguishes the " sin not 
unto death " and •' the sin unto death." 
1 John 5 : 16. The verse teaches that 
a man can drive out God's Spirit from 
his heart and cut himself off from 
all intercession. There is also an " un- 
pardonable" sin. Matt. 12 : 31, 32. This 
is the result of absolute resistance to 
the operation and influence of the Holy 
Spirit upon the heart; it is final im- 
penitence, excluding the possibility of 
conversion, and hence of forgiveness. 

SIN" (mire), a city of Northern Egypt, 
known to the Greeks as Pelusium. It 
was " the strength," or strongh'old, " of 
Egypt." Eze. 30 : 15, 16. The city was 
situated upon the most easterly mouth 
of the Nile, only a few miles from the 
sea. A Sallier papyrus records a great 
battle at Sin between Rameses and the 
Sheta, and the reputed wonderful de- 
liverance of Sethos from Sennacherib — 
when mice gnawed the Assyrian bow- 
strings and shields by night, rendering 
the arms of the Assyrians useless — took 
place near this town. Herodotus re- 
ports a statue of Sethos with a mouse 
in his hands standing in Vulcan's tem- 
ple, probably in commemoration of this 
deliverance by mice. Ezekiel's proph- 
ecy, " Sin shall have great pain," was 
fulfilled by the great cruelty inflicted 
upon the Egyptians by Cambyses, who 
conquered them near this city. The 
site of Sin, or Pelusium, may be marked 
by some mounds at el-Farma, though 
some suppose it is at Aboo Kheeyar, west 
of the old Pelusiac branch of the Nile. 

SIN, WILDERNESS OF, a 
region between Elim and Rephidim. 
Ex. 16 : 1 ; 17 : 1 ; Num. 33 : 11, 12. 
Here the Israelites were first fed with 
manna and quails. The wilderness ex- 
tends 25 miles along the east shore of 
the Red Sea, from Wddy Taiytbeh to 
804 



Wddy Feiran ; it is now called the 
plain of el-Markha. It is barren, but 
has a little vegetation, and when the rain- 
fall was larger and the drainage from 
the mountain descended more gradually, 
instead of sweeping everything before it 
as now, it may have afforded fair pastur- 
age. Travellers report seeing numer- 
ous quails upon this plain in modern 
times. 

SI'NA, the Greek form of "Sinai." 
Acts 7 : 30, 38. 

SI'NAI [burning bush?), a name of 
a peninsula and of a mountain, or group 
of mountains. 

1. The peninsula of Sinai is a tri- 
angular region lying between the two 
arms of the Red Sea. On the west it 
extends along the Gulf of Suez for 
about 190 miles, and on the east along 
the Gulf of Akabah about 130 miles, 
while the base of the triangle, on a line 
from Suez to the north end of Akabah, 
is 150 miles long. It includes an area 
of about 11,500 square miles, or a little 
less than that of Massachusetts and 
Connecticut. 

Physical Features. — This district con- 
sists largely of sterile ranges of moun- 
tains, furrowed by teddies, or valleys 
with watercourses, which are scantily 
filled only after a rain. Projecting into 
it wedgewise from the north is the desert 
of Tih, or " wilderness of wandering," 
of limestone formation. South of the 
hills of the Tih plateau is a broad belt 
of sandstone, extending nearly from 
Suez to Akabah. South of this is a 
great cluster of granite mountains, in 
such a rugged, tumbled chaos as scarce- 
ly to admit of classification, the highest 
peaks reaching to an elevation of be- 
tween 8000 and 9000 feet. Between 
the mountains are deeply-cut valleys, 
through which a large company might 
march into the very heart of the moun- 
tain-region. The mountain-ranges ex- 
tend down the east side of Suez and 
down the west side of Akabah, the two 
ranges meeting in an angle at the 
southern portion of the peninsula, where 
the mountains are the most precipitous 
and elevated, and where they often as- 
sume fantastic shapes and take on gor- 
geous colors. This huge range is com- 
posed of gneiss and granite,- or, more 
exactly, of colorless quartz, felspar, 
green hornblende, and black slate, with 



SIN 



SIN 



considerable outcropping of limestone. 
It is rich in mineral wealth of iron, 
copper, and turquoise, so that the 
Egyptians called it the " land of copper." j 
Mines were once extensively worked in 
this region by the ancient Egyptians 
and others, but they have been long 
neglected. The most important were 
probably the mines of Maghara, situ- 
ated on the slope of a precipitous 
mountain, about 145 feet from the 
bottom of the valley. The opening is 
broad but low, and the shaft pene- 
trates the rock to a considerable depth, 
numerous pillars having been left to 
support the roof. From these a tur- 
quoise of a beautiful green color was 
taken, and copper was found together 
with a species of malachite. The miners 
were condemned criminals and prison- 
ers of war. See a striking account of 
this mining in Ebers' Uarda. 

History. — This region was known and 
settled nearly as early as Egypt itself. 
The first Pharaoh, having conquered the 
mountain-tribes, claimed to have dis- 
covered the mines. The region was 
dependent on the Pharaohs until the 
time of the Hyksos kings ; after their 
expulsion the region was again sub- 
dued by Egypt, but possesses its chief 
interest from the journey of the Israel- 
ites, who wandered in it for forty years 
previous to their entrance into Canaan. 
Christianity was planted here very early, 
perhaps by Paul ; the peninsula was an- 
nexed to the Roman empire, A. D. 105. 
In the fourth century it was peopled by 
anchorites and various brotherhoods of \ 
hermits and monks, their principal 
settlement being on Mount Serbal and 
in the Wady Feiran. They suffered 
terrible massacres from the Sai*acens, 
A. D. 373 to A. D. 411. In the reign of 
Justinian a church of the Virgin was 
founded on Mount Sinai. Later, the Mo- 
hammedans overran the peninsula, and 
its lonely valleys have been, and are still, 
traversed by hosts of Mecca pilgrims. 

Numerous inscriptions have been 
found in several of the valleys of the 
peninsula, but chiefly in the W&dy Mu- 
katteb, or the " written" valley. Ebers 
counted more than a hundred inscrip- 
tions, chiefly in groups, occurring 
quite frequently in a few hours' trav- 
el. Most of them are on the western 
side of the valleys. They were once 
806 



regarded as very mysterious, some sup- 
posing them to have been made by the 
Israelites. The inscriptions are mostly 
in the Nabatsean character, but some 
are in Greek, and a few in Coptic and 
Arabic. They are roughly engraved on 
the rock, which was seldom smoothed 
for the purpose, and the little figures 
are often extremely rude and inartistic. 
They represent armed men, travellers 
and warriors, camels, horses with and 
without riders, goats, stars, crosses, and 
ships ; a priest with raised arms and an 
equestrian performer are also among the 
figures worthy of notice. They are now 
believed to be not older than the second 
century before Christ, while some are 
not older than the fourth century of 
the Christian era. 

Among the highest summits in the 
peninsula are Jebel (the Arabic word 
for "mount") Serbal, 6734 feet; Jebel 
Musa, 7363 feet; Jebel Umm Shomer, 
8449 feet; Jebel Katharina, 8536 feet; 
Jebel Zebir, 8551 feet. 

2. "Sinai "is also used to designate 
the range of mountains from which the 
Israelites received the Law. The at- 
tempt to decide which of the numerous 
peaks in this extended range is the true 
Mount of the Law has been a source of 
protracted and animated discussion. In 
determining its identity with any exist- 
ing peak several conditions must be 
met: (1) The mountain must have be- 
fore it an open space within sight of 
the summit, Ex. 19 : 11 ; 20 : 18, large 
enough to contain at least two millions 
of people ; (2) It must rise sharply from 
the plain, since the people '"came near 
and stood under the mountain," Deut. 
4 : 11 ; it " might be touched," Heb. 12 : 
18; and Moses was commanded to "set 
bounds . . . round about," Ex. 19 : 12 ; 
(3) As the Israelites remained in the 
neighborhood for a year, they must have 
found a sufficient supply of water and 
pasturage. 

At least five mountains have been at 
different times identified with the Mount 
of the Law, but two of these, Jebel el- 
Ejmeh and Jebel Umm Alawi, do not at 
all fulfil the conditions, and must be set 
aside. Josephus says that Mount Sinai 
was the highest of the district, and this 
led to its identification with Jebel Kath- 
arina (8536 feet high), and its twin peak 
Jebel Zebir (8551 feet). But the moun- 



SIN 



SIN 



tains surrounding these summits so hem 
them in that they are not visible from 
any place in the neighborhood where a 
large number of people could be assem- 
bled. The question was thus narrowed 
down to Jebel Serbal, Jebel Musa, and 
Ra.8 Sufsdfeh. 



Jebel Serbal is described by Wilson 
(Bible Educator, iv. p. 186) as "perhaps 
the most striking mountain in the penin- 
sula. It rises abruptly to a height of 
more than 4000 feet above the valley at 
its base [6734 feet above the sea-level], 
and its summit, a sharp ridge about 3 




Outline ilap of Mount Sinai 

miles in lensrth, is b~oken into a series 
of peaks, varying little in altitude, hut 
rivalling each other in the beauty and 
grnndeur of their outline." There are 
"some ten or twelve peaks, which vary 
so little in altitude that when seen from 
lower ground or from a distance the eye 
fails to distinguish the highest." Evi- 
dently the true Sinai is not to be sought 



{After the Ordnance Survey.) 

in such a confusion. Nor is there any 
place in the neighborhood for the en- 
campment of a large host. Holland 
(Recovery of Jerusalem, p. 410) describes 
the valleys at its base as "a wilderness 
of boulders and torrent-beds," and the 
space between the valleys as " a chaos 
of rugged mountains." 

The members of the Ordnance Surrey 
807 



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SIN 



unanimously reached the conclusion that 
the real Sinai was to be found in Jebel 
Masa, including its peak Has Sufsafeh, 
which is situated a little north-west of 
the centre of the Sinaitic group, and 
some 20 miles east by south of Jebel 
Serbal. 

"Jebel Musa" is the general name 
applied to a mountain-mass, 2 miles long 
and 1 mile broad, which extends north- 
east and south-west. At its southern 
extremity is a peak 7363 feet in height, 
to which the name of ''Jebel Musa" 
("Mount of Moses") has been for ages 
applied. This is the traditional mount 
of legislation. 

Ras Sufsafeh, which was formerly 
thought to be a separate mountain, is 
now known to be only a northern peak 
of this mass of Jebel Musa. This north- 
ern peak, 6937 feet in height, is now re- 
garded as the place of the actual giving 
of the Law. To avoid confusion arising 
from this double use of the name" Jebel 
Musa," Wilson suggests " Musa-Sufsa- 
feh" for the whole mountain, thus limit- 
ing the name of "Jebel Musa" to the 
southern peak. Many writers — Ritter, 
the great German geographer, among 
them — supposed that this southern peak 
was the scene of the giving of the Law, 
and that there was to the south of it a 
plain of great extent ; but Dean Stanley 
describes the valley as " rough, uneven, 
and narrow," and the surveyors found 
no plain which would accommodate the 
hosts of Israel. 

At the northern end of the mountain, 
however, all the conditions are met in 
the peak of Ras Sufsafeh. 

This whole block is isolated from the 
surrounding mountains by deep valleys, 
so that boundaries might have been set 
completely around it. Ex. 19 : 12, 23. 
To the north of Ras Sufsafeh, and ex- 
tending to its very base is the plain of 
Er Rahah, 2 miles long and half a mile 
wide, embracing 400 acres of available 
standing-ground, directly in front of the 
mountain. The plain, with its branches, 
contains 4,293,000 square yards, in full 
view of the mount, affording more than 
sufficient standing-ground for the two 
millions of the Israelites. Here they 
might stand "at the nether part of the 
mount," Ex. 19 : 17, which rises so 
abruptly from the plain as to answer the 
description of "the mount that might 
808 



be touched." Heb. 12 : 18. This fulfils 
all the conditions of the Scripture nar- 
rative; and the conclusion is that this 
stately, awful-looking, isolated mass 
Ras Sufsafeh is the very mountain 
where "the Lord came down upon 
Mount Sinai, on the top of the mount," 
Ex. 19 : 20, and where " God spake all 
these words " of the ten commandments. 
Ex. 20 : 1-17. The southern summit 
(Jebel Musa) is completely hidden from 
the plain, and Palmer suggests that it 
may have been to this secluded spot 
Moses went when the Lord called him 
up to the top of the mount. Ex. 19 : 20. 
There, too, perhaps, he was " with the 
Lord forty days and forty nights." Ex. 
34 : 28. Near the base of Ras Sufsafeh 
is the Harun, or "hill of the golden 
calf." On the eastern declivity is the 
convent of St. Katharine, founded by 
the emperor Justinian in A. D. 527, 
where Tischendorf discovered the famous 
Codex Sinaiticus, one of the oldest and 
best manuscripts of the N. T. in exist- 
ence. Four running streams are found 
in the vicinity, and there is no other spot 
in the whole peninsula which is nearly 
as well supplied with water as the 
neighborhood of Jebel Musa. Besides, 
there is no other district in the penin- 
sula which affords such excellent pas- 
turage as the neighborhood of Jebel 
Musa. We add the testimony of modern 
travellers. Dr. Robinson, on his visit in 
1838, first ascended Ras Sufsafeh, and 
pointed it out as tlje true locality of leg- 
islation. In his account he says ( Bib- 
lical Res. I. 107) : " The extreme diffi- 
culty, and even danger, of the ascent was 
well rewarded by the prospect that now 
opened before us. The whole plain Er 
Rahah lay spread beneath our feet, with 
the adjacent wddys and mountains ; while 
Wddy esh- Sheikh on the right, and the 
recess on the left, both connected with 
and opening broadly from Er Rahah, 
presented an area which serves nearly to 
double that of the plain. Our convic- 
tion was strengthened that here, or on 
some of the adjacent cliffs, was the spot 
where the Lord 'descended in fire' and 
proclaimed the Law. Here lay the plain 
where the whole congregation might be 
assembled; here was the mount that 
could be approached and touched, if not 
forbidden ; and here the mountain-brow 
where alone the lightnings and the thick 



SIN 



SIP 



cloud would be visible, and the thunders 
and the voice of the trump be heard 
when the Lord 'came down in the sight 
of all the people upon Mount Sinai.' 
We gave ourselves up to the impressions 
of the awful scene, and read, with a feel- 
ing that will never be forgotten, the sub- 
lime account of the transaction, and the 
commandments there promulgated, in the 
original words as recorded by the great 
Hebrew legislator. Ex.19 : 9-25 ; 20 : 1- 
21." Dr. Schaff, who visited Mount 
Sinai in 1877, gives the following de- 
scription ( Through Bible Lands, p. 177) : 
" Then we climb with difficulty, and some 
danger, over granite blocks to the giddy 
height of Ras Sufsdfeh. Here, on a pro- 
jecting rock, we rest an hour, looking 
down on the vast plain of Er Rdhah and 
the adjoining icadys of esh- Sheikh and 
Lejah, and looking beyond to the am- 
phitheatre of mountains which wall them 
in and meditating over the past, which 
here assumes the character of a present 
overpowering reality, we are lost in 
amazement at the panorama of terrible 
sublimity of nature, and the immeasur- 
able significance of that historic event 
which is felt to this day all over the 
world as far as the ten commandments 
are known and read. It is difficult to 
imagine a more solemn and impressive 
sight. We then descend a steep ravine 
(imagining that we follow the track of 
Moses, Ex. 32 : 17, 19), over confused 
heaps of rocks, to the valley Er Rdhah, 
and return to our camp near the convent. 
It was the most fatiguing, as well as the 
most interesting, day's work of moun- 
tain-climbing I can remember. I fully 
satisfied my mind that Ran Sufsdfeh is 
the platform from which the Law was 
proclaimed. Here all the conditions re- 
quired by the Scripture narrative are 
combined. Moses may have received 
the Law on the higher Jebel Musa, but 
it must have been proclaimed to the peo- 
ple from Ras Sufsdfeh, which can be seen 
from every part of the plain below. For 
Er Rdhah is a smooth and gigantic camp- 
ing-ground, protected by surrounding 
mountains, and contains, as has been as- 
certained by actual measurement, two 
millions of square yards ; so that the 
whole people of Israel could find ample 
room and plainly see and hear the man 
of God on the rocky pulpit above. Dean 
Stanley relates that 'from the highest 



point of Ras Sufsdfeh to its lower peak, 
a distance of about 600 feet, the page of 
a book, distinctly but not loudly read, 
was perfectly audible, and every remark 
of the various groups of travellers rose 
clearly to those immediately above them.' 
Descending from that mount through a 
ravine between two peaks, Moses and 
Joshua might have first heard the shouts 
of the people before they saw them dan- 
cing round the golden calf. Ex. 32: 17, 
19. In one word, there is the most com- 
plete adaptation of this locality to all 
the circumstances of the Sinaitic legis- 
lation as described by Moses. Tradition 
is for Jebel Musa, the Bible for Ras Suf- 
sdfeh. But, after all, they form but one 
mountain (as do the five peaks of Serbal), 
and tradition in this case is at least very 
near the truth." 

SINCERITY stands opposed to 
dissimulation or hypocrisy, and implies 
the entire correspondence of the heart 
with the expressions of the lips. 2 Cor. 
1 : 12. The original word refers to the 
bright and penetrating light of the sun, 
and denotes such things as, on being ex- 
amined by the brightest light, are found 
pure and unadulterated. 

SFNIM. This geographical term 
occurs only once in the Bible, in Isa. 
49 : 12. The country meant is generally 
considered to be China, though some 
would leave it an open question. 

SIN'ITE, a tribe descended from 
Canaan. Gen. 10 : 17 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 15. 

SIN-MONEY, money sent by per- 
sons at a distance, with which to buy the 
required offerings, 2 Kgs. 12 : 16; and, 
as there was usually some surplus, it 
was the perquisite of the priest, and was 
called " sin-money," or " sin-offering 
monev." Num. 18 : 9. 

SIN-OF FERINGS. Num. 18 : 9. 
See Offering. 

SFON (lofty), the name of two 
mountains in Palestine. 

1. One of the various names of Mount 
Hermon. Deut. 4 : 48: See Hermon. 

2. The Greek form of the Hebrew 
name " Zion." Matt. 21 : 5; John 12 : 
15. See Zroy. 

SIPHMOTH (fruitful places), a 
place in the South of Judah frequented 
by David when an outlaw. 1 Sam. 30 : 
28. 

SIP PAI (threshold?), a Philistine 
giant, 1 Chr. 20 : 4; called also Saph. 
809 



SIE 



SLA 



SI'RAH, THE WELL OF (re- 
treat), the place from which Abner was 
recalled by Joab, who put him to death 
at Hebron. 2 Sam. 3 : 26. It is now 
called ' Ain Sarah, a spring about 1 mile 
from Hebron, and a little to one side of 
the main road. 

SIR'ION (breastplate?), a Zidonian 
name of Mount Hermon. Deut. 3:9; 
Ps. 29 : 6. Perhaps this name was ap- 
plied to a part of Hermon only. 

SISAM'AI (distinguished ?), a de- 
scendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 40. 

SIS'ERA (battle-array). 1. The 
general of Jabin's army. Jud. 4 : 2. 
See Barak, Deborah, Jael. 

2. The ancestor of some who returned 
with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 53 ; Neh. 7 : 55. 

SISTER'S SON. In Col. 4:10 
the term should be " cousin." In bib- 
lical usage, " sister" is not limited to 
our sense, but, like " mother," " father," 
"son," "daughter," has a far wider ap- 
plication. Thus, in 2 Sam. 13 : 2, it 
means a step- or half-sister, in Matt. 13 : 
56 a cousin, and in Rom. 16 : 1 merely a 
fellow-believer. 

SIT'NAH (strife), the name of the 
second of two wells dug by Isaac in the 
valley of Gerar, and for which the herd- 
men disputed. Gen. 26:21. It is be- 
tween Rehoboth and Beer-sheba, in a 
small valley called Shutnet er-Ruheibeh, 
names in which are doubtless preserved 
both the Sitnah and Rehoboth of the 
Scripture. 

SI' VAN. Esth. 8 : 9. See Month. 

SKINS. Heb. 11 : 37. See Clothing. 

SLAVE, SLAVERY. Slavery is 
contrary to the constitution and destina- 
tion of man and to the spirit of the Bible, 
which begins and ends with freedom, and 
represents man as made in the image of 
God, and places him, as lord, at the head 
of the whole creation. God gave Adam 
an equal and only partner in Eve. Slav- 
ery, like polygamy and war, was the con- 
sequence of sin, and spread with sin 
among all ancient nations. The Bible 
tolerates, regulates, moderates, and re- 
strains this abnormal institution, but 
provides also for its ultimate extinction. 
"The manner in which Christ and the 
apostles dealt with an institution so 
universally prevalent in its worst forms, 
and so intimately interwoven with the 
whole public and private life in the 
Roman empire, is a strong proof of their 
810 



divine wisdom. Christianity accomplish- 
ed what no other religion has even at- 
tempted before or since. Without inter- 
fering with slavery as a political and 
economical question, without encourag- 
ing any revolution or agitation, without 
denouncing the character or denying the 
rights of the slave-holder or creating 
discontent among the slaves, without 
disturbing the peace of a single family, 
without any appeal to the passions and 
prejudices of men on the evils and abuses 
of slavery, without requiring, or even 
suggesting, immediate emancipation, in 
one word, without changing the outward 
and legal relation between the two par- 
ties, but solemnly enforcing the rights 
and duties arising from it to both, — 
Christ and the apostles, nevertheless, 
from within, by purely spiritual and 
peaceful means, by teaching the com 
mon origin and common redemption, the 
true dignity, equality, and destiny of 
men, by inculcating the principles of 
universal justice and love, and by rais- 
ing the most degraded and unfortunate 
classes of society to virtue and purity, 
and to spiritual freedom in Christ, pro- 
duced a radical moral reformation of the 
system, and prepared the only effectual 
way for its gradual, legitimate, and harm- 
less extinction." — Schafp : Slavery and 
the Bible (1861). 

A.Hebrew Slavery. — There were 
only two conditions known among the 
Jews — independence and servitude. 
Whenever a man was too poor or 
otherwise unable to be independent, 
he became a slave. Slaves, among 
the Hebrews, were of two general 
classes: 1. Hebrews; 2. Non-Hebrews. 

1. Hebrews. — There were three ways 
whereby liberty could be taken from a 
Hebrew: (I) Poverty. He might sell him- 
self in default of payment of debt. Lev. 
25 : 39. (2 ) Theft, when he could not pay 
the amount required. Ex. 22: 1, 3. Ac- 
cording to Josephus, he could only be 
sold to a Hebrew. (3) Parents could sell 
their daughters as maid- servants, but 
they were ultimately to be their masters' 
concubines. Ex. 21 : 7. There were three 
ways by which the servitude might end : 
(1) When the debt or other obligation 
was met: (2) When the year of Jubilee 
had come, Lev. 25 : 40 ; (3) At the con- 
clusion of six years of service. Ex. 21 : 
2 ; Deut. 15 : 12. Indeed, no servitude 



SLA 



SMY 



could last longer than six years. In 
case, however, the slave did not wish to 
go at the expiration of the time, either 
because he loved his master or his wife 
— presumably a foreigner — and children, 
who must be left behind, as they were the 
master's property, the master announced 
this fact to the judges, and then bored 
his ear through with an awl. Ex. 21 : 6 ; 
Deut. 15 : 17. That this was done speaks 
volumes for the mildness of Hebrew slav- 
ery. Indeed, the Law made the condi- 
tion of a slave very tolerable. The owner 
was expressly forbidden to "rule over 
him with rigor." Lev. 25 : 43. Nor was 
he suffered to go away empty, but must 
be furnished liberally out of the flock, 
out of the floor, and out of the wine-press. 
Deut. 15 : 14. A slave might even marry 
a daughter of his master. 1 Chr. 2 : 85. 
In the case of a female Hebrew slave, 
there was not the release at the end of 
six years ; but if marriage with the 
owner or his son did not take place, she 
was not to be sold to a foreigner, but " he 
shall cause her to be redeemed" — i. e., 
he should return her to her father or find 
her another Hebrew master, or else free 
her absolutely. Ex. 21:7-11. When 
Hebrews became the slaves of non-He- 
brews, they might be redeemed or re- 
deem themselves, or else go free at the 
year of jubilee. Jewish Hebrew sla- 
very terminated at the Captivity. 

2. Non-Hebrews. — These constituted the 
majority of the slaves among the He- 
brews. They were mostly captives made 
in war from the neighboring tribes, but 
besides were purchased of dealers, Lev. 
25 : 45, foreigners reduced to this con- 
dition, or else the children of such slaves. 
Gen. 14 : 14; Eccl. 2 : 7. This sort of 
slavery survived the Captivity, but was 
opposed by the Pharisees. Thirty shek- 
els seems to have been the average price 
of a slave. Ex. 21 : 32. The slave's' lot 
was comparatively happy. Their per- 
sons were protected against violence; for 
if they lost an eye or a tooth from rough 
handling, they got their liberty. Ex. 21 : 
26, 27. To kill one was murder. Lev. 
24 : 17, 22. They had full religious 
privileges, since they were circumcised. 
Gen. 17 : 12. 

Slavery at best is bondage, and hence 
we find the service of these slaves was 
menial. They ploughed the fields, did 
the housework, ground the corn, took 



off and put on their master's sandals, 
washed his feet, and performed all the 
services expected of those in their con- 
dition. But slaves, by their industry 
and ability, could raise themselves to 
positions of trust, becoming stewards, 
as was Eliezer, Gen. 15 : 2, or independ- 
ent freemen, as was Ziba. 2 Sam. 9 : 2, 
10. 

B. Roman Slavery. — The Gospel of 
Jesus Christ, declaring freedom from 
the slavery of sin, was preached unto 
them who were literally bound. The 
early Christian Church was largely com- 
posed of slaves, and around them were 
thrown none of the protections which 
rendered a Hebrew slave so safe. On 
the contrary, the Boman master regard- 
ed his slaves as his absolute property. 
He might treat them kindly — and doubt- 
less many did — but no law compelled him 
to do so. The Boman proverb, " So many 
slaves, so many foes," tells a pitiful story 
of wrong. This was the sort of slavery 
mentioned incidentally in the N. T. It 
is remarkable that nothing is said about 
its abolishment. On the contrary, the 
slaves were enjoined to be obedient to 
their masters, and to prove their Chris- 
tian character by their patience under 
suffering. 

The Bible has furnished the defenders 
of slavery with proof-texts, but yet the 
study of the Bible has led to the abolish- 
ment of the system. The Mosaic legis- 
lation on the subject induced such mild- 
ness that the very idea could not be tol- 
erated, and so, in Christ's day, Hebrew 
slavery of both kinds was utterly extir- 
pated. The N. T. directions had a sim- 
ilar result. A Christian could not hold 
souls in bondage for whom the blood of 
Christ was shed. And so slavery ended 
in the empire among Christians. To- 
day it is acknowledged throughout Chris- 
tendom as a crime; while Mohammedan- 
ism holds fast to slavery and polygamy 
— the two twin-sisters of barbarism. The 
liberty in Christ Jesus extends to the body 
as well as to the soul. The gospel, in 
emancipating from the bondage of sin, 
breaks the backbone of every other kind 
of bondage, and substitutes for it the ser- 
vice of God, which is perfect freedom. 

SLIME. Gen. 11 : 3. See Pitch. 

SLING. See Arms. 

SMYR'jVA {myrrh), a city of Asia 
Minor named in Scripture as containing 
811 



SMY 



SMY 



one of the seven churches of Asia. Rev. 
1:11 j 2:8-11. 

Situation. — Smyrna is on the iEgean 
Sea, at the bottom of the Hermtean Gulf, 
the entrance to which is opposite the 
island of Mitylene. The modern town 
is situated 2£ miles from the ancient one 
of the same name, partly upon the slopes 
of Mount Pagus, and partly on the low 
ground at its foot. The city was about 
41) miles north of Ephesus. 

History. — Some piratical Greeks built 
a fortification on Mount Pagus about 
b. c. 1500 : Theseus built a city and call- 
ed it Smyrna, after his wife, b. c. 1312. 
It was on the border-line between Ionia 
and JEoMb,, and was possessed by both 
parties alternately in the times of the 
Trojan war. The king of Sardis de- 
stroyed it, B. c. 628 ; Alexander the Great 
built a new city, B. c. 320. From this 
time Smyrna became an important com- 
mercial place. It was subject to the 
Romans and was famous for its beauty, 
Antigonus calling it " the beautiful." 
Christianity was early planted there, 
and the church is commended in the 
Revelation of John. Polycarp, a pupil 
of St. John, suffered martyrdom at 
Smyrna, A. D. loo, in extreme old aa;e, 
perhaps illustrating the prophecy, "Be- 
hold, the devil shall cast some of you 
into prison, that ye may be tried ; and 
ye shall have tribulation ten days: be 
thou faithful unto death, and I will give 
thee a crown of life." Rev. 2:10. His 
grave, with a plain monument, is shown 
on a hill. The city sent a bishop to 
the Council of Nice, A. d. 325 : it was 
captured by the Turks, A. D. 1313, and 
is still in their possession. It has 
several times suffered from fires and 
earthquakes. 

Present Condition. — The modern city 
of Smyrna has a population of about 
180,000 to 190,000, of which not a fourth 
are Turks. There are many Europeans, 
and several Greek, Roman Catholic, and 
Protestant churches are sustained. Prof. 
A. H. Sayce, of Oxford, England, speaks 
of the new quay of the city, in 1880, as a 
busy centre of trade, and when its cafes 
are lighted up at night the traveller may 
imagine himself in fairy-land. " The en- 
chantment is rudely dispelled if we turn 
down one of the narrow alleys which 
lead into the back streets of the town. 
Dark, dirty, and noisome, full of uptorn 
812 



stones and deep holes into which the un- 
wary passenger may fall at any moment, 
they produce an impression of cheerless 
insecurity. And the impression is not 
diminished by the sight of the few way- 
farers that timidly and hurriedly pick 
their way through them. Each man is 
armed to the teeth, and seldom walks 
through the streets at night except in 
company with two or three friends. In 
fact, Smyrna, with all its trade, its wealth, 
and its prosperity, is an eminently unsafe 
place. Police, in the true sense of the 
word, there are none, and the number of 
desperadoes that crowd to it from all 
parts of the Levant makes midnight 
wanderings extremely dangerous. Dur- 
ing the day it is possible to pass from 
the quay to the principal street, which 
runs parallel with it, through a number 
of passages and arcades. The gates of 
these, however, are closed at nightfall, 
and the courts and houses within them 
made secure from the intruder. Even 
during the day, except on the quay, 
walking in Smyrna is not an agreeable 
pastime. The streets are so wretchedly 
paved — or, rather, unpaved — that it is 
as fatiguing to walk through them as 
over a bed of granite boulders. . . . The 
shops of Smyrna, however, are good and 
numerous : and if we wander on to the 
bazaar in the Turkish quarter, we may 
purchase in abundance Turkey carpets 
and Persian rugs at higher prices than we 
should have to give for them at home, or 
antiquities of all kinds, especially coins, 
which are mostly local forgeries." 

Concerning the people Prof. Sayce 
adds: "Creeds and nationalities of all 
kinds jostle one against the other at 
every turn. There is the stately Turk, 
in baggy trousers, scarlet waistband, 
and blue jacket, his head covered with 
a fez, or, if he claim descent from the 
prophet, with a green turban ; the con- 
sular kavass, strutting along in the 
proud consciousness of self-importance, 
his yataghan clashing behind him ; the 
Egyptian, in a long gown of colored 
silk ; the Arab, in cotton robe and white 
head-dress ; the Armenian, with keen 
eye and dark visage : or the multitudi- 
nous swarm of Europeans, of every 
country and race, among whom the 
Greek naturally predominates. Pres- 
ently there is a pressure of the crowd 
toward one side of the road as a long 



SMY 



SMY 



train of camels, tied to one another by 
a rope and led by a donkey, conies sol- 
emnly along, their heads bent stupidly 
down and their backs laden with the 
wares of the East." 

Ruins of the City. — Agraphic description 
of the interesting ancient ruins of Smyrna 
is given by Prof. Sayce in The New York 
Independent, 1880, which we condense: 

" At the foot of Mount Pagus are the 
remains of the seats of the Greek the- 
atre, though their place has been taken 
by Jewish graves, and the marble blocks 
which once clothed them have been con- 
verted into Jewish tombstones. The 
whole side of the hill, in fact, has be- 
come a vast Jewish cemetery. The an- 
cient temple of Zeus and a ruined watch- 
tower are also found on the side of the 
hill, and extensive fortifications crown 
the top of Pagus. Court after court of 
ruined masonry, crumbling towers, and 
broken walls are seen along the ridge. 
Here we come across a huge vaulted 
chamber of Roman brickwork, there 
solid walls of Macedonian construction, 
there again the irregular building of the 
Middle Ages. In one spot is a ruined 
mosque, once a Christian temple, in 
which, according to the legend, Poly- 
carp preached. Below flows the thin 
and narrow stream of the Meles, span- 
ned by two aqueducts, one of Roman, the 
other of Turkish, workmanship. 

" Perhaps even more famous among 
guides and tourists than the fortifica- 
tions with which the mount is crowned 
are the beds of oyster-shells which are 
passed on the way back into the town. 
Speculations have been various about 
them, but a morning's examination was 
sufficient to reveal their origin. Plenti- 
fully mixed with the shells I found frag- 
ments of Macedonian and Roman pot- 
tery and the bones of animals. These 
beds, therefore, are the kitchen-middens, 
or refuse-heaps, belonging to the houses 
of wealthy Greeks and Romans which 
once occupied the slope of the hill. The 
oyster-shells are the remains of banquets 
enjoyed, it may be, two thousand years 
ago." 

Such is Smyrna, the home of that lit- 
tle band of Christians to whom the wri- 
ter of the Apocalypse promises a crown 
of life in spite of tribulation and pov- 
erty. The city was not more than four 
hundred years old when St. John the 
814 



Divine saw his vision in Patraos. 1+ 
had been built by Lysimachus, the gen- 
eral of Alexander the Great, of whom 
the Macedonian wall on Mount Pagus is 
a lasting memorial. Of the other struc- 
tures which adorned the Greek city — the 
temples of Cybele and Nemesis, the town- 
hall, the public library and public hos- 
pital, the Homerium, or monument of 
Homer — not a vestige remains. 

As already noted, the city was once de- 
stroyed and rebuilt. The more ancient 
ruined town is thus described : 

" There was an older city than the 
Smyrna of the Apocalypse. It was the 
quick eye of Alexander the Great that 
chose the present site. For four hun- 
dred years previously no Smyrna had 
existed. The ancient city had been de- 
stroyed by the Lydians, and its inhabit- 
ants scattered through the villages of 
the plain. That ancient city stood on 
the steep hill which forms part of the 
range of Sipylus and rises above Burna- 
bat, on the northern side of the bay. It 
was discovered by the French explorer 
Texier, who imagined he had found in 
it the relies of the half- fabulous Tantalus. 
Here he uncovered some remarkable 
tombs, built of Cyclopean masonry and 
hidden under vast cairns of unshaped 
stones. The largest of these, erected on 
one of the points of the hill, he surnam- 
ed the Tomb of Tantalus. It is built of 
large stones, beautifully cut and fitted 
together without cement, in the shape of 
an arched corridor, the arch being form- 
ed by the gradual overlapping of the 
successive layers of stones. Still higher, 
through the prickly shrubs and dry grass, 
is the ancient Acropolis, surrounded by 
a wall of Cyclopean workmanship, and en- 
tered by a gateway whose lintel and posts 
are single blocks of stone. Below, on 
the western side, are the foundations of 
a temple, probably that of the great 
Asiatic goddess Cybele. From time to 
time new tombs are found on this steep 
and rocky site. Sometimes they are cut 
in the rock, like rectangular couches ; 
sometimes they consist of terra-cotta 
sarcophagi, into which the bodies of the 
dead have been made exactly to fit. 
Some tombs of the latter kind were dis- 
covered lately, and in them several ar- 
chaic ornaments of gold which take us 
back to an early period in the history 
of Greek art. ... It was this primeval 



SNA 



SOA 



city which was besieged in vain by 
Gyges, the founder of the last Lydian 
dynasty, the Gog of the 0. T., and its 
origin was traced back to the Amazons 
— the mythical companions of the Asiat- 
ic goddess. I believe that the legends 
of the Amazons in Asia Minor mark the 
presence of Hittite conquest and culture 
and the worship of the Assyrian goddess 
of love and war which the Hittites brought 
with them from their capital, Carche- 
mish. If so, we may see in Old Smyrna 
an ancient Hittite outpost, or, at all events, 
a city which owed its origin to the civiliza- 
tion carried, in a remote epoch, by Hittite 
chieftains from the banks of theEuphrates 
to the far West." 

SNAIL. The word thus rendered in 
Lev. 11 : 30 may denote some species of 




lizard — perhaps the sand-lizard, which 
is found in the desert of Sinai and in 
many parts of Palestine. These crea- 
tures are eaten by the Arabs, but are 
esteemed unclean by the Jews. 

In Ps. 58 : 8 the common snail or the 
slug is doubtless meant. The former is 
eaten by the Jews, as by most Orientals. 
These creatures, of many species, ex- 
ceedingly abound in Bible lands. Snails 
seem to waste themselves by covering 
their path with a thick shining slime. 
Though they secrete themselves in crev- 
ices of the rocks, yet during the long, 
dry summer multitudes of them perish 
from the heat, being utterly shrivelled 
and wasted away in their shells. The 
melting away spoken of in Psalms is 
doubtless to be taken in one or the 
other of these senses. 

SNOW, vapor congealed in the air, 
and often falling in large, broad flakes 



resembling wool. 2 Sam. 23 : 20 ; Ps. 147 : 
16. The allusions to snow in the sacred 
writings, especially to its whiteness, are 
frequent. Ex. 4:6: Num. 12 : 10 ; 2 Kgs. 
5 : 27 j Ps. 51 : 7 ; Isa. 1 : 18. The com- 
parison in Prov. 25 : 13 has reference to 
the use of snow brought from the moun- 
tains to cool the drink of the reapers in 
the heat of harvest, as we use ice. Snow- 
water is softer and more detergent than 
common water; hence the allusion in Job 
9 : 30. Snow is found on Mount Lebanon, 
and it lies in the ravines of Hermon and 
other peaks throughout the year. Rob- 
inson states, "Snow often falls in Jeru- 
salem in January and February to the 
depth of a foot or more, but does not 
usually lie long." — Bib. Res. I. 429. 

SNUFF-DISHES, SNUFFERS. 
Ex. 25 : 38 ; 37 : 23. See Candlestick. 

SO, the king of Egypt, mentioned 
once in the Bible, 2 Kgs. 17 : 4; prob- 
ably identical with Sevechus, the sec- 
ond king of the twenty-fifth dynasty. 
He reigned ten or twelve years. Hosea 
made an alliance with him after Israel 
had become the vassal of Assyria. The 
discovery of this led to the imprisonment 
of Hosea and the captivity of the ten tribes. 

SOAP. Jer. 2 : 22 ; Mai. 3 : 2. Sev- 
eral kinds of shrubby alkaline plants, 
one of which is figured, grow very 
abundantly in the vicinity of the Dead 




Salsola Kali. 

and Mediterranean Seas. The Arabs 
dry and burn these, and obtain a large 
proportion of potash from their ashes. 
815 



soc 



SOB 



With this, from oil and other fatty sub- 
stances, a soft soap has been made by 
the Jews from very early times. They 
used it not only for washing their per- 
sons and their clothes, but in smelting 
metals as a flux, or substance which 
cleansed them and made them flow 
more readily. In Isa. 1 : 25 the reading 
should be, instead of "purely," "as with 
alkali." Making hard soap from olive 
oil is the only important manufacturing 
business of modern Jerusalem. There 
is considerable exportation from Pales- 
tine of the alkali mentioned above. See 
Nitre. 

SO'CHO, and SO'CHOH 
(branches). 1 Chr. 4 : 18; 1 Kgs. 4 : 10. 
See Socoh. 

SO'COH (branches), a name of two 
towns in Judah. 

1. A city in the plains of Judah. Josh. 
15 : 35. It is also called Shoco, 2 Chr. 
11 : 7, Shocho, 2 Chr. 28 : 18, and 
Shochoh. 1 Sam. 17 : 1. At this place 
Goliath was slain and the Philistines 
were defeated. The town was included 
in one of Solomon's commissai-iat dis- 
tricts ; was fortified by Rehoboam ; was 
seized by the Philistines in the time of 
Ahaz; and in the time of Eusebius and 
Jerome was called Socchoth, and lay be- 
tween 8 and 9 Roman miles from Eleu- 
theropolis, on the road to Jerusalem. It 
is identified with the ruins esh-Shuwei- 
keh and the Wady Sumt, or " valley of 
Elah," about 3£ miles south-west of Je- 
rusalem. 

2. A town in the mountains of Judah. 
Josh. 15 : 48. It has been identified with 
esh-Shuweikeh, about a mile to the north 
of Jattir and 10 miles south-west of He- 
bron, in the Wddi/ el-Khalil. 

SOD, SODDEN, the preterite and 
past participle of "seethe." Gen. 25 : 29; 
Ex. 12:9. 

SO'DI (a confidant), the father of 
the spy from Zebulun. Num. 13 : 10. 

SOD'OM (burning?), the principal 
city in a group of cities in the vale of 
Siddiin, which were destroyed on account 
of the great wickedness of their inhab- 
itants. Gen. 10 : 19; 13 : 3, 10-13 : 19 : 
1-29. Sodom is first mentioned in de- 
scribing the Canaanitish border ; it was 
afterward chosen by Lot as his home, 
the country around it being fertile, well 
watered everywhere, " even as the gar- 
den of the Lord." It was plundered by 
816 



Chedorlaomer and his allies, but the cap- 
tives and booty were recovered by Abra- 
ham. The history of its great wicked- 
ness and its terrible punishment is given 
in Gen. 18 : 16-33 ; 19 : 1-29. Sodom is 
often held up as a warning to sinners to 
escape the terrible vengeance of God. 
Deut. 29:23; Isa. 1:9,10: 3 : 9 ; 13 : 
19; Jer. 23:14: 49:18; Eze. 16:49, 
50; Am. 4 : 11 ; Zeph. 2:9; Matt. 10 : 
15; 11:23, 24; 2 Pet. 2:6-8; Rev. 
11:8. 

Situation. — The overthrow of the cities 
of the plain, including Sodom, was so 
complete that their sites have never 
been certainly determined. It was 
formerly a common opinion that the 
Dead Sea covered the place occupied 
by these cities, and early travellers fan- 
cied that they could discern broken col- 
umns and other relics of the doomed 
cities in the waters of the lake. The 
southern part of the Dead Sea, below 
the " tongue," or Lisan Peninsula, is 
very shallow, having an average depth 
of not more than 13 feet, and here some 
would place the sites of the lost cities. 
There is no scriptural evidence, howev- 
er, that the cities were submerged, but 
the whole drift of the history, as well as 
the geological character of the region, 
is directly opposed to such a theory. 
There are only two possible localities 
for these cities — the lower end of the 
lake, or the upper end of the same. 
Tradition, from the time of Josephus 
and Jerome, has pointed to the southern 
site. This view has been further urged 
from the name Jebel Usduin, the latter 
word having a supposed resemblance to 
Sodom, and Usdum being at the south 
end of the lake. Some also have be- 
lieved that it .was favored by the fact 
that pillars of salt, detached from the 
great salt cliffs at the southern end, have 
borne the name of " Lot's Wife." A 
stronger argument in favor of the south- 
ern site is drawn from the fact that Abra- 
ham, standing near Hebron, beheld the 
smoke of the country. Gen. 19 : 27, 28. 
Another argument is found in the nu- 
merous " slime-pits," or wells of bitu- 
men or asphaltum, found in great masses 
on the southern shore. Gen. 14 : 10. This 
view has been advocated by Robinson, 
Woolcott, and Lynch, and favored by 
Porter, Baedeker, Schaff, and others. The 
arguments in favor of the northern site 



SOD 



SOL 



are : that Lot chose the "plain of Jordan," 
which must have been at the north end of 
the Dead Sea. Gen. 13 : 11, 12. This plain 
of Jordan would be visible to Abraham 
and Lot standing at Bethel, while they 
would not be able to see the south end 
of the lake from that point. It is also 
argued that the hill near Hebron from 
whence Abraham beheld the burning 
cities, being about midway between the 
north end and the south end of the lake, 
would enable him to see the smoke aris- 
ing from the northern end quite as clear- 
ly as from the southern end of the sea. 
It is also claimed that the northern site 
better suits the details in the account of 
the attack of Chedorlaomer. Dr. Mer- 
rill further asserts that there are numer- 
ous slime-pits in the vale of Shittim, at 
the northern end of the lake, and that 
there are several sites upon the plain 
which might harmonize with those of 
the lost cities. Tristram proposed a I 
site for Zoar at the northern end of the j 
sea, but this has not been satisfactorily ! 
established. The argument against the ' 
northern site, based on the fact that pil- 
lars of salt have been found at the south 
end named" Lot's Wife," is of little value, 
since these pillars are constantly changing 
by the action of the weather, and to sup- 
pose that a pillar of salt of the size of 
a person would stand for four thousand 
years is simply absurd. The northern 
site has been strongly advocated by 
Grove, Tristram, Thomson, and others, 
but the question is one which is unde- 
cided, since able scholars strongly ad- 
vocate each of the locations. See Salt 
Sea and Gomorrah. 

SODOM. Rom. 9 : 29. The Greek 
name for Sodom, which see. 

SOD'OMITES. The word has no 
reference to Sodom, but is the biblical 
term for those who practise sodomy — a 
sin to which the inhabitants of that city 
were addicted. Gen. 19 : 5. 

SOLDIERS. See Armies. 

SOLOMON {peaceful), from b. c. 
1021-981 king of Israel, was the son 
and successor of David. Soon after the 
birth of Solomon, the prophet Nathan 
was sent by divine authority to give him 
the name of " Jedidiah," signifying "be- 
loved of the Lord." 

Toward the close of David's life a 
conspiracy was detected to place Adoni- 
jah on the throne. To settle the gov- 
52 



ernment in the order of the divine ap- 
pointment, David caused Solomon to be 
invested with the robes of royalty and re- 
signed to him voluntarily the sceptre of 
government, giving him a solemn charge 
respecting the administration of it. 

The early part of his reign was ex- 
ceedingly prosperous, and was marked 
by several public acts which displayed 
his wisdom and piety. 1 Kgs. 2 : 19, 27, 
31 ; 3 : 1, 9, 16-28. His court was dis- 
tinguished for its magnificence, his do- 
minions and revenue were vast, his 
personal character exalted, his wisdom 
proverbial, and his capital and palace 
renowned for wealth and splendor. 1 
Kgs. 4 and 10. During his reign, for 
the only time in Jewish history, there 
was a flourishing commerce. The great 
event of his reign was the erection of the 
temple in Jerusalem (hence called Sol- 
omon's temple), begun in his fourth and 
finished in his eleventh year, which was 
designed by David, his father. 1 Chr. 
21 : 1-11. The plan and materials of 
the house and the furniture, as well as 
of the royal palace, are minutely de- 
scribed, 1 Kgs. 6, 7 (see Temple), as are 
also the services at the dedication of it. 
1 Kgs. 8. After this, Solomon received 
a renewed assurance of the divine favor 
and of a gracious answer to his prayers 
and supplications, and at the same time 
one of the most fearful denunciations of 
wrath in case he should forsake God's 
law. 1 Kgs. 9 : 1-10. 

In the latter part of Solomon's reign 
he was led by his numerous foreign wives 
and concubines into the practice of idol- 
atry and other abominable sins, which 
drew upon him and the country heavy 
judgments. 1 Kgs. 11. From the height 
of wisdom he sunk to the depth of folly. 
We are told that the Arabs call the south- 
ern side of the Mount of Olives the 
"Mount of Solomon," because his idol- 
atrous altars were built here. It is 
called the "Mount of Corruption," 2 
Kgs. 23 : 13, from the same cause. He 
reigned forty years, and was succeeded 
by his son Rehoboam. 1 Kgs. 11 : 42, 43. 

" Solomon," wrote his biographer, 
" spake three thousand proverbs, and 
his songs were a thousand and five." 
1 Kgs. 4 : 32. Thus he was a volumi- 
nous author and handled many topics. 
His repentance after his long course of 
folly is thought to be expressed in Ec- 
817 



SOL 



SON 



clesiastes, which teaches the sad but 
wholesome lesson of the vanity of all 
things and the paramount importance 
of " fearing God and keeping his com- 
mandments." 

The life of Solomon is very simply and 
truthfully told in the Bible. No excuse 
is made for him, no sin is glossed over. 
This is in itself a strong proof of the 
genuineness of the record, and a great 
contrast to the legends in which he is a 
hero of unparalleled splendor, to whom 
all power upon earth is committed. His 
life, so brilliant in its promise, so pros- 
perous in its course, so disastrous in its 
close, albeit his sins were forgiven, is 
not alone in history. Two characters 
are recalled — Seneca, the tutor of Nero, 
who combined great wisdom with low 
avarice, and Lord Bacon, ''the wisest, 
brightest, meanest of mankind." These 
instances show us that there may well 
be great elevation of sentiment with 
great laxity of life ; that the pearls of 
wisdom can be cast before the swine of 
selfishness and folly. There is, however, 
this difference — that Solomon was en- 
dowed with divine wisdom, and that his 
folly belongs to the later period of his 
life and cannot impair the authority of 
the inspired writings of his youth and 
manhood. 

SOLOMON'S POOLS. The 
three pools of Solomon are in a narrow 
valley south-west of Bethlehem, on the 
road to Hebron, and still supply Jeru- 
salem with water through an aqueduct. 
See Eccl. 2 : 6. They are partly hewn 
in the rock and partly built with ma- 
sonry, are all lined with cement, and 
are formed on successive levels, one 
slightly above the other, with conduits 
leading from the upper to the lower, and 
with flights of steps from the bottom to 
the top of each pool. The waters, gath- 
ered from the surrounding country into 
a large fountain or reservoir near the 
upper pool, are from thence conducted 
by an underground passage into the 
pools. The main supply of the water, 
however, comes from the spring, or foun- 
tain. The upper pool is 380 feet long, 
236 feet broad at the east and 229 feet 
at the west end, is 25 feet deep, and 160 
feet above the middle pool. This mid- 
dle pool is 423 feet long, 250 feet broad 
at the east and 160 feet at the west end, 
is 39 feet deep, and 248 feet above the 
818 



lower pool. The lower pool is 582 feet 
long, 207 feet broad at the east and 148 
feet at the west end, and is 50 feet deep. 
Dr. Thomson says, "When full of water, 
it would float the largest man-of-war 
that ever ploughed the ocean." These 
pools were built to supply Jerusalem 
with water. 

SOLOMON'S PORCH, a clois- 
ter or colonnade on the east side of the 
temple and of the court of the Gentiles. 
John 10 : 23 ; Acts 3:11; 5:12. The 
ceiling, finished with cedar, was 40 feet 
above the floor and supported by a 
double row of white marble Corinthian 
columns. See Jerusalem and Temple. 

SOLOMON, PROVERBS OF. 
See Proverbs. 

SOLOMON'S SERVANTS. 
Their descendants are mentioned in Ezr. 
2 : 55, 58 ; Neh. 7 : 57, 60. These "ser- 
vants " were probably his slaves, but 
they had been converted, and their con- 
nection, although enforced, with the con- 
struction of the temple and the other 
splendid structures of Solomon, gave 
their children a certain standing. 

SON. The Hebrews used all terms 
of relationship in a much looser way 
than we do. " ' Son ' implies almost any 
kind of descent or succession. ' Son of 
a year ' — i. e., a year old ; ' son of a bow ' 
— i. e., an arrow." " Son," when it ex- 
presses human connection, is used for 
grandson — e. g., Gen. 29 : 2 — and for re- 
moter descendants — e. </., Matt. 22 : 42. 

SONG OF SOLOMON. The 
book is entitled the "Song of Songs" — 
i. e., the most beautiful of songs — also, 
after the Latin, the " Canticles." It has 
always formed part of the canon, and 
has been held in the highest esteem. The 
Rabbins have a saying : "Proverbs are 
the outer court of Solomon's temple ; 
Ecclesiastes, the holy place; Canticles, 
the holy of holies." There are many 
theories in regard to its authorship, its 
object, and its proper character. There 
are three principal interpretations, and 
each appears under different forms. 

1. The Literal. — It was written by 
Solomon on the occasion of his mar- 
riage either with the daughter of Pha- 
raoh or with a beautiful shepherd- 
maiden. Its dialogues and monologues 
introduce these characters : a lover, 
Shelomoh (Solomon); a bride, the 
Shulamite (perhaps Abishag, the Shu- 




I. ,1 



mMSt 



ISLilSlllHllllllffil 1 it. 






I 



i'i 



Sill 1 



to 



1 1 i(l 



SON 



SOO 



nanimite) ; and a chorus of virgins, 
daughters of Jerusalem. 

2. The Typical. — It was written to set 
forth the Hebrew ideal of pure conjugal 
love, and throughout expresses typically 
the love of Christ for his Church. This 
interpretation commends itself by the 
fact that the 0. T. frequently represents 
the union of Jehovah to his people as a 
marriage relation, and by the further 
fact that St. Paul speaks of husband 
and wife as reflecting the sacred union 
of Christ and his Church, which is his 
Bride. Eph. 5 : 33. 

3. The Allegorical. — It is in no sense 
historical. The persons and objects de- 
scribed are mere figures or names for 
spiritual persons and objects, which 
latter are alone contemplated by the 
inspired writer. The Song is thus a 
description of the love of Jehovah for 
Israel, or of Christ for his Church. 
This is the view advocated by Jewish 
and by the majoi'ity of orthodox Chris- 
tian commentators. Thus interpreted, 
the book has held its place in the heart 
of Christendom. 

The general use of the Canticles has 
been prevented by their supposed indeli- 
cacies, but these can easily be explained 
and removed by a fuller understanding 
of Oriental customs and by a more correct 
translation. Our present Version need- 
lessly increases their number, while pru- 
dery and custom find them where they are 
not. A revised translation and a health- 
ier mind would entirely banish them. 
For instance, in 5 : 14 the reference 
is to the clothed, and not to the naked, 
body; for the "sapphires" are a figure 
of the dress of sapphire blue, or of the 
girdle of such gems which bound it, and 
in v. 15 the mention of legs is harmless. 
Dr. Kitto aptly reminds us that Oriental 
women keep their faces covered, but are 
"perfectly indifferent" to a display of 
their bosoms. Hence, as those parts 
habitually uncovered with us are free 
subjects of description, it is no shame 
for them to dwell upon the beauty of 
that part habitually uncovered with them. 

SON OF GOD. Dan. 3 : 25. This 
is one of the titles of our divine Re- 
deemer, and is applied to none else ex- 
cept in a connection which shows the 
sense. It is applied to angels, Job 38 : 
7, and to Adam, Luke 3 : 38, as created 
immediately by God's hand, and to be- 
820 



lievers, Rom. 8 : 14, 15 ; 2 Cor. 6 : 18, as 
adopted into God's spiritual family; but 
when applied to Christ, it is in a pecu- 
liar and exalted sense which cannot be 
mistaken. It signifies his divine nature, 
as the term " Son of man " signifies his 
human nature. He is the Son of God, 
the eternal, the only begotten Son. Comp. 
John 1 : 18 ; 5 : 19-26; 9 : 35-38 ; Matt. 
11:27; 16:16; 21:37, and many pas- 
sages in the Epistles. While he directs 
us to address God as "our Father," he 
himself never addresses him thus, but 
always as " my Father," or " Father " 
simply, because of his peculiar intimacy 
with God, far above the level of human 
children of God, who are made such only 
by regeneration and adoption. 

SON OF MAN. Matt. 8 : 20. This 
title is given to our Saviour eighty times 
in the N. T. It is also applied to him 
by Daniel. 7 : 13. The Jews perfectly 
understood it to denote the Messiah. It 
sets forth his peculiar and intimate 
relation to mankind in his incarnate 
state, as the phrase " Son of God " de- 
notes his peculiar relation to the divine 
Being. 

The phrase "the Son of man," how- 
ever, does not express simply the hu- 
miliation and condescension of Christ, 
who became bone of our bone and flesh 
of our flesh, but also his exaltation 
above the ordinary level of humanity. 
He calls himself, not a son of man (among 
other children of men), but the Son of 
man (above all others) — the ideal, the 
universal, the perfect Man. So, on the 
other hand, he calls himself not a, but 
the, Son of God — the only-begotten and 
eternal Son of the Father. Compare 
such passages as John 1 : 51 ; 3 : 13 : 6 : 
53 ; Matt. 9:6; 12 : 8 ; 18 : 11 ; Mark 
2: 10, 28. 

The term son of man is applied to Eze- 
kiel and Daniel, meaning merely " man," 
as it does in Num. 23 : 19 ; Job 25 : 6 ; 
Ps. 8 : 4, etc. 

SONS OF GOD. Thus the angels 
are called in Job 1:6:2:1:38:7. But 
in the verse Gen. 6 : 2 this designation 
is not allowable. The best interpreta- 
tion is that it refers to the race of Seth, 
who intermarried with the race of Cain, 
the daughters of men accursed. 

SOOTHSAYER was one who 
pretended to foretell future events. Dan. 
2 : 27. The original word comes from the 



SOP 



SPA 



verb to "divide," because the soothsayer 
dissected the entrails of animals for the 
purpose of telling from their appearance 
what would come to pass. The Philis- 
tines appear to have been notorious for 
their practice of this magic imposition. 
Isa. 2 : 6. This was a common mode of 
divining among the Romans. 

SOP. John 13 : 26. Our ordinary 
table-utensils were unknown among the 
Hebrews. Hence, in eating broth or 
milk, it was either taken with the hollow 
of the hand or the bread was dipped into 
it. This is at present the usage in all 
the Oriental countries — even at the table 
of the Persian king. Thus the reapers 
of Boaz dipped their " morsel in the 
vinegar," Ruth 2:14, and thus our 
Saviour "dipped the sop," or morsel, 
and gave it to the traitor Judas. 

SOP'ATER {father saved), a Be- 
raean who was Paul's companion. Acts 
20 : 4. Perhaps same as Sosipater. 

SOPHERETH {scribe), one whose 
descendants returned with Zerubbabel. 
Ezr. 2 : 55 ; Neh. 7 : 57. 

SORCERY, one of the arts of the 
magicians, Ex.7: 11 — hence called "sor- 
cerers" — by the use of which they pre- 
tended to predict future events, cure 
diseases, work miracles, etc. Acts 8:9; 
13 : 6. The practice of sorcery, or any 
confidence in it, is threatened with the 
severest judgments. Mai. 3:5; Rev. 21 : 
8: 22:15. 

SOREK, VALLEY OF {a choice 
vine), the home of Delilah, whom Samson 
loved. Jud. 16 : 4. Conder identifies it 
with the present Wddy Snrar, which has 
a broad flat valley, in the neighborhood 
of Beth-sheraesh and Zorah. On the 
northern side of this valley is a ruin 
called Surik. Perhaps it was along this 
same valley that the lowing kine drew 
the ark. See Beth-shemesh. 

SOSIP'ATER {preservation of a 
father), a native of Beraea, and a kins- 
man of Paul. Rom. 16 : 21. 

SOS'THENES {safe in strength), a 
ruler of the Jewish synagogue at Corinth. 
He was seized and beaten in that city 
by a party of Greeks, who were thus 
excited to acts of violence by what they 
thought the unjustifiable and malicious 
persecution of Paul. Acts 18 : 17. It is 
thought that he afterward became a 
convert to the Christian faith. 1 Cor. 1 : 
1,2. 



SO'TAI (a deviator), one whose de- 
! scendants returned with Zerubbabel. 
i Ezr. 2:55; Neh. 7 : 57. 

SOUL. Gen. 2 : 7. The Scriptures 
evidently distinguish between the soul 
and the spirit. 1 Thess. 5 : 23 ; Heb. 4: 
12. The word which we call " soul " is 
used to denote mere animal life — the seat 
of sensations, appetites, and passions. 
Gen. 1 : 20. Here the word translated 
"life" is the same with that which is 
elsewhere translated " soul." Hence it 
may be inferred that, as we have our 
bodies and animal life in common with 
brutes, it must be the spirit which was 
created in the likeness or image of God, 
and which raises man above the brutes 
that perish and makes him a rational 
and accountable being. Very often, 
however, the word " soul " is used in a 
wider sense, and designates the whole 
immaterial or spiritual nature of man; 
as when we say that man consists of body 
and soul. 

The immortality of the soul is a funda- 
mental doctrine of Christianity, which 
brought life and immortality to light ; so 
what the ancients hoped or guessed we 
know. Even among the Jews the truth 
| was only partially revealed. Much more 
j is said about the grave than of the life 
I beyond, and the prevailing tone, in view 
of death, is one of great sadness. In 
Christ, however, we are made alive, and 
can never die. To the Christian, death 
I is robbed of its sting; it is converted 
into a friend who ushers the soul into 
J the company of the blessed. 

It is the immortal soul which is the 
subject of future reward or punishment. 
SOUTH RA'MOTH, a place to 
which David and his outlaws resorted. 
1 Sam. 30 : 27. It bordered on the desert 
south of Judah. 

SOW, SOWER. Matt. 13 : 3. See 
Agriculture, Season. 

SPAIN, a well-known country of 
Europe, though the name anciently in- 
cluded the whole peninsula now occupied 
by Spain and Portugal. The Hebrews, 
in the time of Solomon, were acquainted 
with the position and wealth of Spain. 
Paul desired to preach the gospel there. 
Rom. 15 : 24-28. Whether he ever visited 
Spain is a question in dispute among 
scholars. Those who hold that Paul was 
twice imprisoned at Rome think that he 



visited Spain between 



his first 

821 



and 



SPA 



SPI 



second imprisonments. Christianity was 
introduced into that country at a very 
early period, as Irenseus and Tertullian 
testify. See Tarshish. 

SPAN. Isa. 40 : 12. See Measures. 

SPARROW. The original word 
might properly have been always trans- 
lated, as it is generally, "bird" or 
"fowl." It denotes, indefinitely, some 
of the sparrow-like (passerine) species, 
which in multitudes inhabit the Holy 
Land. In the East such little birds have 




Tree-Sparrow. (After Wood 

always been sold at the merest trifle for 
food. Matt. 10 : 29. The blue thrush of 
Palestine is peculiarly a solitary species, 
and in all its habits exactly meets the 
description of Ps. 102 : 7. Birds of the 
sparrow kind often build their nests in 
the mosques and public buildings of the 
East. The writer, during service in the 
English church at Nazareth, observed a 
house-sparrow enter through a broken 
pane of glass and fly to its nest, high 
overhead, illustrating Ps. 84 : 3. 

SPEAR. 1 Sam. 13 : 22. See Arms. 

SPEARMEN. The word so trans- 
lated in Acts 23 : 23 is of rare occurrence 
and of doubtful meaning, but it rriost 
probably refers to light-armed troops. 
822 



SPECK'LED BIRD. Jer. 12 .9. 
See Hyaena. 

SPI'CERY, SPI'CES. The 

former word occurs in Gen. 37 : 25, and 
should be the rendering instead of 
" spices " in Gen. 43 : 11. It is believed 
to denote gum-tragacanth, the product 
of several species of Astragalus, shrub- 
by and exceedingly thorny plants very 
abundant in Palestine. This gum had 
medicinal value. 

The term " spices," the translation of 
two other words, as 
used by the sacred 
writers, is much 
more comprehensive 
than the modern use 
of it. With them it 
includes not only 
fragrant gums, as 
myrrh, and also 
roots and barks, as 
cassia, cinnamon, 
cane, etc., but the 
odors of flowers and 
various perfumes. 
Cant. 4 : 14. Spices 
were imported into 
Judaea chiefly from 
Southern Arabia. 
Sweet spices, Mark 
16 : 1, are merely aro- 
matic substances used 
in embalming. The 
word " spices " fully 
expressed the mean- 
ing of the original 
word, without the ad- 
jective. 

SPI'DER, a 
well-known little 
creature of very singular structure and 
habits. The thinness and frailty of its 
web are made emblematic of a false hope 
and of the schemes of wicked men. Job 
8:14; Isa. 59 : 5. 

Another word thus rendered in Prov. 
30 : 28 has been thought by some of the 
best authorities to refer to the gecko, a 
kind of lizard which is able to run on 
perpendicular walls, or even on an in- 
verted surface. See Ferret. But so 
skilfully does the spider use her feet in 
making her web and climbing upon it 
and upon walls that they may well be 
termed hands, and thus our present trans- 
lation is rendered very plausible. The 
spider's spinning-organs serve as both 



SPI 



SPO 



hands and eyes. Spiders are abundant 
in Palestine, as elsewhere in the world. 

SPIKE'NARD, an aromatic plant 
from which was made the costly oint- 
ment poured on Jesus' head and feet. 
Cant. 1 : 12 ; 4 : 13, 14; Mark 14 : 3 ; 
John 12 : 3. There is little question 
that the spikenard was the dried stem 
of an herb of the valerian family (Nar- 
dostachys jatamansi), which grows ex- 
clusively in India and was once very 
precious. If the penny {denarius) was 




Spikenard (Nardostachys Jatamansi). 

equal to fifteen cents, the pound with 
which Mary anointed our Saviour was 
valued at a sum equal to forty-five dol- 
lars. This ointment was evidently en- 
closed, like other unguents or perfumes, 
in a slender-necked and closely-sealed 
flask or bottle of alabaster. It is not 
agreed whether breaking this box was 
merely opening the seal or was the 
fracture of the frail neck, but probably 
it was the latter. 

SPIN, SPINNING. The nations 
of antiquity placed great stress upon 
this womanly occupation — indeed, it was 
a necessary duty, since the preparation 
of the materials, no less than the mak- 
ing of the dress itself, fell upon the 
women. In the Bible there are only 
two direct notices of the art, Ex. 35 : 
25, 26 : Prov. 31 : 19 : but, since it is 
spoken of as a matter of course, we infer 
the custom was universal. Distaff-spin- 
ning was the mode, as is now the case 



in the East, wheel-spinning being ap- 
parently unknown. The Hebrew women 
spun wool and flax from the distaff and 
twisted the thread by means of the spin- 
dle, and made up camel and goat-hair 
into sackcloth for mourning, girdles, and 
tent-covers. The women also made rope 
and cord. The men did not engage in 
such work. See Distaff. 

SPIRIT. Both in Greek and He- 
brew the word for this implies a " blow- 
ing " or "breathing;" its primary sense 
is " wind." In 2 Thess. 2 : 8 it is used 
for breath, in Eccl. 8:8 for the vital 
principle; while in other places it de- 
notes the soul. Angels, both good and 
bad, souls without bodies, are thus desig- 
nated. Matt. 14 : 26; Luke 24 : 39. 
Metaphorically, the tendency or incli- 
nation is similarly called; hence we 
have a spirit of grace and of supplica- 
tion, Zech. 12 : 10, a spirit of infirmity. 
Luke 13 : 11, etc. 

The Holy Spirit or Holy Ghost is the 
third Person of the Holy Trinity, of one 
essence or nature with the Father and 
the Son, yet distinct from them. He is 
the Author of regeneration and sanctifi- 
cation. ■ He applies the work of re- 
demption to us, and makes us parta- 
kers of all the benefits of Christ, of his 
righteousness, life, and death. He is our 
Advocate, who pleads our cause, who 
strengthens and comforts us and pre- 
pares us for glory in heaven. Matt. 1 : 
18, 20 ; 28 : 19 ; John 1 : 33 ; 14 : 26 ; 
16 : 7, 8 ; 20 : 22 ; Acts 2:4: Rom. 5 : 
5; 2 Cor. 13:14; 1 Thess. 4 : 8. Our 
English Version uses, in most passages, 
the term Holy Ghost; in four passages, 
Holy Spirit, which is better. 

SPIRITUAL BODY. Paul so 
calls the resurrection body, 1 Cor. 15 : 44, 
which will be divested of all sensual 
and animal appetites, and be perfectly 
fitted for pure spiritual exercises and 
enjoyments, in perfect unison with the 
redeemed and completely sanctified 
soul. 

SPOIL. Ex. 3:22. The original 
word in this passage means "to recover 
propertv taken away by violence." 1 
Sam. 30 : 22. 

SPONGE, a submarine substance, 
composed of fibres interwoven in a sur- 
prising manner, and surrounded by thin 
membranes, which arrange themselves 
in a cellular form. Matt. 27 : 48. It ab- 



SPO 



STA 



sorbs a great quantity of fluid, and parts 
with it upon a strong pressure. Drink 
could be easily conveyed in this form 
where cups could not be used. This 
substance is inhabited by animals, like 
the coral, who use the openings of the 
sponge to suck in and throw out water. 

SPOUSE. See Marriage. 

SPRINKLING, BLOOD OF. 
Heb. 12 : 24. The Jewish high priest, 
on the great day of atonement, carried 
blood into the inner sanctuary and 
sprinkled it upon the mercy-seat. It 
was by this sprinkling of blood that an 
" atonement " was made " for the holy 
place, because of the uncleanness of the 
children of Israel." Lev. 16:16. The 
blood of sprinkling was typical of the 
atoning blood of Christ. When this 
has been applied to the soul of the be- 
liever, he may approach the presence 
of a holy God in the name of the great 
Advocate and Redeemer, confident of a 
gracious reception. The blood of Abel, 
alluded to in the above passage from 
Hebrews, called only for vengeance, Gen. 
4 : 10, 11, but the blood of Christ speaks 
of pardon, peace, and eternal life. 

STA'CHYS (an ear of corn), a Ro- 
man Christian friend of Paul's. Rom. 
16:9. 

STAC'TE (a drop), prescribed in 
Ex. 30 : 34 as one of the ingredients of 
the sacred incense. Stacte was either 
myrrh flowing spontaneously from the 
balsamodendron, or it was a gum from 
the storax tree (Styrax officinale). This 
latter is a large shrub which grows 
abundantly on the lower hills of Gali- 
lee and on Tabor and Carmel. Its oval, 
dark-green leaves are white beneath, and 
in March its twigs are profusely hung 
with sweet-scented, snow-white flowers, 
which resemble the flowers of the orange 
in color, size, and perfume, making it a 
shrub of rare beauty. The styrax of 
modern commerce has an entirely differ- 
ent origin. See Myrrh. 

STAR OF THE WISE MEN. 
Matt. 2 : 1-21. There are two theories 
in regard to this episode in our Lord's 
infancy. 

The first theory is that the star which 
the wise men saw was a miraculous star 
beyond astronomical calculation, prob- 
ably a meteor, and, having attracted 
their attention in their native country, 
it actually served as their guide to Pal- 
824 



estine and " stood over where the young 
child was." Matt. 2 : 9. This theory is 
in entire keeping with a literal meaning 
of the text, and is the one certain to oc- 
cur to the ordinary reader. Nor need 
there be any abjection on the score of 
improbability. Our Lord's birth was a 
most stupendous event. In honor of it 
the angelic host openly revealed them- 
selves, and many circumstances remark- 
ably conspired to render it possible. That 
the heavens should be laid under contri- 
bution and one of the heavenly bodies 
be the appointed, the silent leader of the 
magi, whose coming prophesied the in- 
gathering of the learning and the treas- 
ure of the Gentiles, was in itself a prob- 
able event. The earth felt the tread of 
his blessed feet; why should not the sky 
lend one of its jewels to light the path 
of his seekers ? 

The second theory asserts that the 
"star" of the wise men was a conjunc- 
tion of Jupiter and Saturn, in the sign 
of Pisces, with the later addition of 
Mars and probably an extraordinary 
star of uncommon brilliancy. Jewish 
astrologers ascribed to this conjunction 
a special signification, and connected it 
with the birth of Moses and with the 
coming of the Messiah. This theory 
rests upon astronomical proof, and was 
the suggestion of Kepler (1571-1630), 
the eminent and devout astronomer, 
who on Oct. 10, 1604, observed a star 
of uncommon brilliancy enter the con- 
junction of Jupiter, Saturn, and Mars. 
This excited his interest, as it seemed 
to give an explanation of the star of 
the wise men. By careful calculation, 
he discovered that a similar conjunc- 
tion had taken place three times, b. c. 
7 or 6. This puts the first appearance 
of the star one or two years before the 
birth of Christ, and allows time for the 
journey of the magi from the far East. 
Kepler's calculation has been verified 
by modern astronomers — Schubert at 
Petersburg, Ideler and Encke at Ber- 
lin, and Pritchard at Greenwich — and 
is pronounced to be "as certain as any 
celestial phenomenon of ancient date." 
This is a remarkable verification of 
Scripture from an unexpected quarter. 
" The star of astrology has become a 
torch of chronology," as Ideler says. 
The magi, with their astrological ideas 
and widespread Messianic expectations, 



STA 



STE 



must have been attracted by such a con- 
stellation in the highest degree. Divine 
Providence usually acts through natu- 
ral agencies and adapts revelation to 
the capacity, and even the weakness, of 
men. But if we take this theory, it is 
necessary to give the description of 
Matthew a liberal construction, remem- 
bering that the Bible, in alluding to 
astronomical phenomena, uses popular, 
not scientific, language, derived from 
their appearance to our eye, as we all 
now speak of the rising and setting 
sun, moon, and stars. 

STARS. Under the name of stars 
the Hebrews comprehended constella- 
tions, planets, and heavenly bodies — 
indeed, all luminaries except the sun and 
moon. The Psalmist, to exalt the power 
and omniscience of God, Ps. 147 : 4, de- 
scribes him taking a review of the stars 
as a king takes a survey of his army and 
knows the name of every one of his sol- 
diers. To express a very extraordinary 
increase and multiplication, the sacred 
writers use the similitude of the stars of 
heaven or of the sands of the sea. Gen. 
15: 5; 22: 17; 26: 4: Ex. 32 : 13, 
etc. 

No part of the visible creation ex- 
hibits the glory of the Creator more 
illustriously than do the starry heavens. 
Ps. 19 : 1. When we seriously contem- 
plate the moon and stars, the work of 
the fingers of God, we cannot but be 
astonished that he should condescend to 
pay any attention to man. Ps. 8 : 3. The 
celebrated philosopher Kant declared : 
" Two things fill my mind with ever- 
growing reverence and awe — the starry 
heavens above me, and the moral law 
within me,'' 

Stars are sometimes symbolically put 
for rulers and princes, Dan. 8:10; some- 
times, also, for pastors and ministers. 
Rev. 1:16, 20. The angels, too, appear 
to be intended by the term, Job 38 : 7, 
and sometimes it points prophetically to 
the Lord of angels. Num. 24 : 17. 

Jesus Christ is called the " Morning 
Star," Rev. 22 : ]6, as he introduced the 
light of the gospel day and made a fuller 
manifestation of the truths of God than 
the prophets, whose predictions are now 
accomplished. 

STATER. This coin, mentioned 
in the margin of Matt. 17 : 27, in the 
text vaguely spoken of as " a piece of 



money," was in value equal to four drach- 
mas or a shekel. 

STEEL. Ps. 18 : 34. This word 
occurs four times in our English Bible, 
and should in every instance be rendered 
"copper." It is not certain that the 
ancient Hebrews were acquainted with 
steel, though it seems to have been known 
to the Egyptians. 

Iron from the north, Jer. 15 : 12, may 
denote a superior kind of the metal, or 
that which had been unusually hard- 
ened. 

STEPH'ANAS (crown) was one of 
the earliest converts to Christianity in 
Corinth, 1 Cor. 16 : 15, and received 
baptism at the hands of Paul. 1 Cor. 1 : 
16. 

STEPHEN {crown), usually known 
as the first martyr, was one of the seven 
men of honest report who were elected, 
at the suggestion of the twelve apostles, 
to relieve them of a particular class of 
their labors. Acts 6 : 5. He was a fore- 
runner of the apostle Paul. He is de- 
scribed as a man full of faith and of the 
Holy Ghost. Acts 6 : 8. 10. He argued 
for the new faith with convincing power. 
It was to stop lips so eloquent that he 
was arrested an d placed before the " coun- 
cil," the Sanhedrin. But as he realized 
his position the prospect of testifying in 
that assemblage of the chief of his peo- 
ple to the love and work of Jesus so 
wrought upon him that his spirit rose 
within him, and his face had such beauty 
and purity, such thoughtfulness and man- 
liness, that he awed his judges, for on him, 
their victim, they beheld the angel-face. 
His defence was a calm historical proof 
of the two points: 1. God had not limit- 
ed his favor to the Holy Land or to the 
temple; 2. The Jews had always op- 
posed to this free spirit of their God a 
narrow, bigoted spirit. How long he 
would have spoken none can say, but 
the manner in which these quiet and 
truthful words were received caused him 
to break off" abruptly into fierce invec- 
tive and reproach ; but so direct was its 
appeal to the consciences of the populace 
that they were excited to madness, Acts 
7 : 54, and fell upon Stephen like wild 
beasts, shouting and stopping their ears; 
and after they had forced him beyond 
the walls of the city, they stoned him to 
death, Saul being present and conspicu- 
ous in this tumultuous transaction. The 
825 



STE 



STO 



last breath of the martyr was spent, like 
that of his divine Master, in prayer for 
the forgiveness of his murderers. It is 
worthy of remark that this prayer of 
Stephen is directed to the Lord Jesus, 
or rather it seems to be a continuation 
of the prayer respecting himself which 
was addressed immediately to Christ, as 
the word "God" in v. 59 of our trans- 
lation is an interpolation. 

The date of Stephen's martyrdom was 
about a. d. 37. His blood was the seed 
of the Church, and was soon followed by 
the conversion of his bitterest persecu- 
tor. 

STEWARD, the chief overseer of 
the household, as Eliezer, Gen. 15 : 2, and 
Chusa. Luke 8 : 3. Ministers, 1 Cor. 4 : 1, 
2 ; Tit. 1 : 7, and Christians generally, 1 
Pet. 4 : 10, are by a natural metaphor 
called stewards. 

STOCKS, the name of a machine 
or instrument by which the feet of pris- 
oners are secured. Job 13 : 27 ; 33 : 11. 
It is said that the jailer at Philippi, to 
whose custody Paul and Silas were com- 
mitted with a strict charge to keep them 
safely, not only put them in an inner 
prison or dungeon, but made their feet 
fast in the stocks. Acts 16 : 24. 

The upper half being removed, each 
leg is placed, just above the ankle, in the 
groove of the lower half, and then the 
upper part is so fastened down as to 
confine them inextricably. 




Ancient Stocks. 

The "stocks" used on Paul and Silas 
could be turned into an instrument of tor- 
ture by widely separating the legs. The 
" stocks '"used on Jeremiah, Jer. 20 : 2, 
were, properly speaking, the pillory, be- 
cause the neck and arms as well as the legs 
were confined, and so the body was bent. 
826 



STO'ICS were a sect of heathen 
philosophers, much like the Pharisees, 
who took their rise from one Zeno, a 
Cyprian of Citium, the name coming 
from the stoa, or porch, in which he 
taught, in the third century b. c. While 
in some respects there is a similarity 
between their opinions and those of 
Christians, there is yet the broad dif- 
ference that Stoic morality was based 
on pride ; Christian, on humility. They 
generally taught that it is wisdom alone 
that renders men happy, that the ills of 
life are but fancied evils, and that a wise 
man ought not to be moved with either 
joy or grief; and in their practice they 
affected much patience, austerity, and 
insensibility. The Stoics were known 
for many ages, especially at Athens, 
where some of them encountered Paul. 
Acts 17 : 18. The most distinguished 
members of the school were Epictetus, 
who died about A. D. 115, and the em- 
peror Marcus Aurelius, A. D. 121-180. 

Of all the ancient sects, the Stoics were 
most strict in their regard to moral virtue. 
They believed in the unity of the divine 
Being, the creation of the world by the 
Logos or Word, and a superintending 
providence administered in conformity 
with the will and purpose of God. 

STONE. Gen. 35 : 14. Houses of 
stone were common among the Hebrews, 
as they are now in Palestine. The more 
elegant structures were built of hewn and 
squared stones. Amos says to the lux- 
urious" Israelites, " Ye have built houses 
of hewn stone, but ye shall not dwell in 
them." Am. 5 : 11. When Solomon was 
about to raise the temple, he " command- 
ed, and they brought great stones, costly 
stones, and hewed stones, to lay the foun- 
dation of the house." 1 Kgs. 5 : 17. 

Stones were often used as we use 
knives, Ex. 4 : 25 ; Josh. 5 : 2, and we 
are told that stone knives were used by 
the Egyptians in preparing dead bodies 
for the process of embalming. The dis- 
ciples of Christ are called stones, or lively 
(living) stones, 1 Pet. 2 : 5, in allusion 
to their connection with Christ, upon 
whom they are built up compactly to- 
gether, as upon the one only foundation 
which God has laid, the living Stone, 1 
Pet. 2 : 4, or the Source of life. 

A " heart of stone" is a figurative ex- 
pression, importing great hardness and 
impenitency. A stone is sometimes put 



STO 



STO 



for an idol. Hab. 2 : 19. Heaps of stones 
were raised to mark some signal provi- 
dence of God in the way of either de- 
liverance or punishment. Josh. 4 : 4-7. 
The weights of the Hebrews were also 
called stones. 

STONE, WHITE, is supposed by 
many to be an allusion to the practice 
of some ancient nations of passing judg- 
ment on an accused person. Rev. 2 : 17. 
Those in favor of acquitting him cast a 
white ball into an urn, and those who 
adjudged him guilty cast in a black ball ; 
and if the number of the former exceeded 
that of the latter, the prisoner was dis- 
charged. Others think reference is made 
to the white stones which were given to 
conquerors in the Olympian games with 
their names written upon them, and the 
value of the prize they won. So the new 
name mentioned in Isa. 62 : 2 may de- 
note the adoption of the individual into 
the family of God, by which he is ad- 
mitted to privileges and blessings known 
only to him who possesses them. Arch- 
bishop Trench brings out what is prob- 
ably the best interpretation. He repudi- 
ates the idea that this symbol was 
borrowed from heathen antiquity, and 
maintains it was a diamond, the Urim 
and Thummim. 

STONES, PRECIOUS. About 
twenty different names of such stones 
are found in the Bible. In many in- 
stances it is at present impossible to 
determine precisely what gem was in- 
tended by these names. This whole sub- 
ject is one of great difficulty, for the 
mineralogy of ancient times was very 
vague and imperfect. The same word 
was often used for different gems or 
substances possessing some common 
property. Thus. " adamant" ("uncon- 
querable") might mean steel, quartz, 
corundum, or any other very hard sub- 
stance j "crystal" (kerach) meant either 
ice or transparent quartz. The same 
ancient names were applied differently 
by different authorities, and even by the 
same writer. Even where a word has 
passed unchanged in form from Hebrew 
through Greek or Latin into modern use, 
it cannot be certainly concluded that the 
present application is the early one. 

The stones of the high priest's breast- 
plate were engraved with the names of 
the tribes, Ex. 28 : 21, but it is certain 
that at that time the art of cutting the 



harder gems was unknown. According 
to Professor Maskelyne, a recognized 
authority, we must for this reason ex- 
clude from the breastplate the diamond, 
sapphire, emerald, and topaz. In place 
of these there may be substituted, re- 
spectively, rock-crystal (or chalcedony), 
lapis-lazuli. garnet, and chrysolite. The 
ruby and chrysoberyl would be too hard 
to claim a place in this list. Few dia- 
monds were ever known of the size of 
these stones, which Josephus tells us 
were large, and which probably reached 
at least an inch square. If the diamond 
is mentioned in the Bible, it is probably 
only in the N. T. See Jasper. 

The sacred ornament of the high priest 
was probably broken up early in our 
era, but the gems which composed it are 
doubtless somewhere in existence in the 
Turkish empire or in Persia. It is not 
probable that all of these large engraved 
precious stones will always remain in 
obscurity. " What a source of rejoicing, 
both to archaeologists and, above all, to 
the religious world, will be the identifi- 
cation of even one of these venerable 
relics! — a contingency by no means to 
be pronounced chimerical in an age 
which has witnessed the resuscitation of 
Sennacherib's own cup, signet, and 
queen's portrait." (See C. W. King's 
Precious Stones and Metals ; art. " Urim 
and Thummim.") 

In the very earliest times men set a 
high value on some of these minerals. 
Gen. 2:12; 1 Chr. 29 : 2. The Tyrians 
traded in precious stones, which they 
obtained from India, Arabia, and Syria. 
Eze. 27:16,22. 

Figuratively, the various gems are 
used in the Bible to emphasize such 
ideas as value, beauty, and durability, in 
Cant. 5:14; Isa. 54:11, 12 ; Lara. 4:7; 
Rev. 21 : 18-20 ; and passages already 
mentioned. 

STON'ING was the most general 

punishment inflicted on notorious criini- 

nals, and is usually meant where no 

other description of capital punishment 

is expressly mentioned, as in Lev. 20 : 

10. Idolaters, blasphemers, Sabbath- 

j breakers, incestuous persons, and stub- 

j born or rebellious children were liab]e 

j to it. The culprit was led out of the city 

' nnd, as some have supposed, was bound. 

The witnesses against him were required 

to commence the work of death, and 

827 



STO 



STO 



probably they divested themselves of 
clothing that it might be done more 
effectually. Acts 7 : 58. At the mui'der 
of Stephen they committed the custody 
of their clothes to Saul, who was not 
improbably, from his talents and ardor, 
a ringleader of the mob and one of the 
most violent of the persecutors, and the 
multitude followed the example of the 
leaders until the victim was beaten to 
death. The Eabbinical writers say that 
the first stone was cast by one of the wit- 
nesses on the chest of the convict; and if 



this failed to cause death, the bystanders 
proceeded to complete the sentence. 

Some think that the frequent taking 
up of stones by the Jews to throw at our 
Saviour, and the stoning of Stephen, Acts 
7 : 59, and of Paul, Acts 14 : 19, were 
vestiges of a punishment called the 
"rebels' beating," inflicted by the mob, 
with fists, staves, or stones, on the ex- 
citement of the moment. 

STORK (the pious), a bird of pas- 
sage, much like the crane, but larger. 
It feeds on insects, snails, frogs, and 




The Stork. (Ciconia Alba. After Tristram.) 



offal, and was reckoned among unclean 
birds. The common stork (Ciconia alba) 
stands nearly 4 feet high, and is white 
except the extremities of the wings, 
which are black. Its long legs enable it 
to seek its food in the water as well as 
on the land, and its bill is so formed as 
to retain its slippery prey. In Palestine 
it builds its nest on trees, Ps. 104 : 17, or 
828 



on lofty ruins, but in Europe it every- 
where appropriates chimney-tops and 
the eaves of houses. 

In Hebrew as in Latin the stork is 
"the pious bird," and its English name 
comes, indirectly at least, from the Greek 
storge, which signifies "natural affec- 
tion." Unquestionably, these birds ex- 
hibit unusual tenderness toward their 



STB 



STR 



young and their mates, but the ancient 
opinion that the offspring recognize their 
parents all through life and carefully 
tend them in age, it is a pity to say, is 
probably apocryphal. 

Storks are singularly regular in their 
migrations to and from Africa. They 
pass over Syria in vast flocks, which 
sail high in the heaven, and as their 
legions wheel in the sky and even dim 
the sunlight the most stupid mind is 
awakened to admiration. Jer. 8 : 7. 

"In various parts of Holland the nest 
of the stork, built on the chimney-top, 
remains undisturbed for many succeed- 
ing years, and the owners return with un- 
erring sagacity to the well-known spot. 
The joy which they manifest on again 
taking possession of their deserted dwell- 
ing, and the attachment which they 
testify toward their benevolent hosts, 
are familiar in the mouths of every one. 

"In all the countries where the stork 
breeds it is protected ; boxes are provided 
on the tops of the houses, and he con- 
siders himself a fortunate man whose 
roof the stork selects. There is a well- 
authenticated account of the devotion of 
a stork, which at the burning of the town 
of Delft, after repeated and unsuccessful 
attempts to carry off her young, chose 
rather to remain and perish with them 
than leave them to their fate. Well might 
the Romans call it pia avis ! 

" The beauty and power of the stork's 
wings are seized on as an illustration by 
Zechariah : ' The wind was in their wings, 
for they had wings like the wings of a 
stork.' 5 : 9. The black pinions of the 
stork, suddenly expanded from their 
white body, have a striking effect, having 
a spread of nearly 7 feet, and the bird 
on the wing, showing its long bright-red 
bill and steering itself by its long red 
legs, stretched out far behind its tail, is 
a noble sight. The stork has no organs 
of voice, and the only sound it emits is 
caused by the sharp and rapid snapping 
of its bill, like the rattle of castanets." — 
Tristram. 

This bird seems to be fond of the 
society of man, is often seen stalking 
in the crowded street, and is supersti- 
tiously protected in the East. Its marked 
preference for Muslims over Christians 
is, however, not due to special attach- 
ment to the faith of Islam, as the Turks 
boast, but to the greater amount of offal 



to be found about Mohammedan dwell- 
ings, and, what is more creditable, to 
the kinder treatment the bird receives at 
their hands. 

The black stork (Ciconia nigra) is 
abundant about the waters of Palestine. 
It builds its nest in trees, is somewhat 
smaller and darker -colored than the 
white species, and is unlike it in shun- 
ning the society of man. See Peacock. 

STRAIN" AT, misprint for "strain 
out." Matt. 23 : 24. 

STRANGER. Gen. 15 : 13. This 
word has a variety of significations in 
the sacred writings, as — 

1. One who is in a foreign land, at a 
distance from the place of his nativity. 
Gen. 23 : 4. 

2. One who is not a Jew. Ex. 20 : 10 ; 
Isa. 14 : 1. 

3. One not of Aaron's family. Num. 3 : 
10; 16:40. 

4. One that is not of the royal stock 
and family. Matt. 17 : 25, 26. 

5. Unknown, disregarded. Ps. 69 : 8. 
But usually the " strangers " were like 

our "naturalized citizens" — persons from 
foreign parts who cbme to reside per- 
manently among us, and who are in all 
respects one with us. This element was 
very numerous in Israel, owing to the 
presence of the "mixed multitude" dur- 
ing the Exodus, and also because so 
many Canaanites continued to reside in 
the land. Among both these classes 
there would be proselytes, and with them 
marriage was permitted. This is the Rab- 
binic opinion. Captives were accounted 
strangers. Jewish law held them, equally 
with the Jews, under control. They 
amassed property, and were able to share 
in the worship provided they were cir- 
cumcised. By this act they became one 
with the chosen people, and all offices 
were open to them save the kingship. 
Deut. 17 : 15. It is d-oubtful whether 
they could be landowners, although they 
might hold mortgages. Neh. 9:2; 13 : 
3 prove that after the Captivity the Jews 
were more exclusive. Our Lord, by his 
parable of the Good Samaritan, rebukes 
this narrow spirit. 

In the N. T. "proselyte" takes the 
place of the 0. T. term " stranger." The 
strangers were generally foreigners, oc- 
casionally in its more technical sense, as 
opposed to a citizen. 

STRAW. Gen. 24 : 25. The straw 
829 



STR 



SUP 



wanted by the Jews for bricks, Ex. 5 : 
7-18, was to lay them on when fresh 
moulded. For want of it their mould 
fell in pieces, and their work was vain. 

STREET. Gen. 19 : 2. The streets 
of Oriental cities are usually narrow. 
Mats are sometimes spread across from 
roof to roof to shade the streets from the 
sun. Some streets were named as in 
modern times, Ezr. 10 : 9 ; Acts 9 : 11, 
but it is supposed that in other passages, 
2 Chr. 32 : 6 ; Neh. 8:1,3, 16, the word 
translated " streets " means squares or 
open places around the gates. "Each 
street and bazaar in a modern town is 
locked up at night, and hence a person 
cannot pass without being observed by 
the watchman. The same custom appears 
to have prevailed in ancient times." 
Cant. 3:3. To make " streets " was to 
secure commercial accommodations. 1 
Kgs. 20 : 34. 

SU'AH (sweepings), an Asherite 
chieftain. 1 Chr. 7 : 36. 

SUBURBS. Lev. 25 : 34. See City. 

SUCCOTH (booths), a name for 
two places. 

1. The place to which Jacob journey- 
ed after leaving Esau, and where he 
built him a house and made booths for 
his cattle. Gen. 33 : 17. . It was given 
to the tribe of Gad. Josh. 13 : 27. From 
this fact it would appear to be on the 
east side of the Jordan. Gideon severe- 
ly punished the people of the place for 
not aiding him against the Midianites. 
Jud. 8 : 5-8, 14-16. At this town were 
the brass-foundries for casting the met- 
al-work for the temple. 1 Kgs. 7 : 46 ; 2 
Chr. 4 : 17. In the valley of the Jordan, 
about a mile from the river, and 10 miles 
south of Beisan. is a ruin called Sakut, 
which is identified by Robinson and 
others as Succoth. But the position of 
this place is on the wrong side of the 
Jordan for Succoth. The Talmud calls 
Succoth, Darala, and Dr. Merrill discov- 
ered a site on the east side of the Jor- 
dan, called Tell Darala, which is 1 mile 
north of the Jabbok. This may be the 
ancient Succoth. The principal mound 
is thickly covered with broken pottery. 

2. The first camping-place of the Is- 
raelites in the desert. Ex. 12 : 37 ; 13 : 20 ; 
Num. 33 : 5, 6. It was a day's journey 
from Rameses, and must have been 12 
or 15 miles east of that place. Some 
would identify it with Birket Timseh, or 

830 



"lake of crocodiles," a few miles north 
of the northern end of the Red Sea. 

SUCCOTH-BE'NOTH (tents 
of daughters), an idol-divinity of thq 
Babylonians for which the transplanted 
Babylonians built a temple upon their 
arrival in Samaria; but nothing more 
is known about it. 2 Kgs. 17 : 30. 

SU'CHATHITES, a family of 
scribes at Jabez. 1 Chr. 2 : 55. 

SUK'KIIMS, the name of a portion 
of the allies of Shishak, king of Egypt, 
in the invasion of Judaea. 2 Chr. 12 : 3. 
They are supposed to have been a tribe 
of Ethiopians from the shores of the Red 
Sea. 

SUMMER. See Seasoxs. 

SUMMER-HOUSE. See Dwell- 
ings. 

SUN". The Hebrews, according to 
the latest researches, gave the sun a 
name whose root means "to run," be- 
cause it was, as they regarded it, the 
greatest heavenly wanderer. The Psalm 
ist compares him to a bridegroom coming 
out of his chamber as a strong man ti> 
run a race. Ps. 19 : 5. 

The worship of this luminary was one 
of the earliest forms of idolatry, and ex- 
isted in all the nations around Palestine ; 
it is therefore mentioned in all parts of 
the 0. T. Manasseh introduced it in its 
purest form — as it existed among the 
Assyrians — into Judah. 2 Kgs. 21 : 3, 5. 
He and his successor, Amon, dedicated, 
horses and chariots to the sun, and burn- 
ed incense to it on the housetops. 2 Kgs. 
23 : 5, 11. The worship the Israelites 
met with in Egypt at On, the Baal and 
Moloch worship in Palestine, were all 
derived from the sun-worship. 

SUN'DAY is of heathen origin (like 
our designations of the other days of the 
week), and means "the day of the sun," 
or " sacred to the god of the sun." It 
does not occur in the Bible, but is now 
in common use for the first day of the 
week, which has taken the place of the 
Jewish Sabbath, and should properly be 
called the Lord's Day, Rev. 1 : 10, as the 
day of the resurrection of Christ. See 
Lord's Day and Sabbath. 

SUPERSCRIPTION. Mark 15 r 
26. See Cross. 

SUPERSTI'TIOUS. Acts 17 .22. 
This term in the original signifies noth- 
ing offensive, but simply that the Athe- 
nians were remarkably religious in their 



SUP 



SWE 



polytheistic way. They had more gods, 
more temples, more festivals — in short, 
more religious observances — than the 
apostle had seen elsewhere, and he was 
about to tell them what he thought were 
errors in these services. 

SUP'PER.Lukel4:16. SeeEATiNG. 
SURETY. In Heb. 
7 : 22, Jesus is called the 
" Surety of a better testa- 
ment " (covenant), because f§|Hl ' ^- 
his divine character, posi 
tion, and dignity give to 
the new covenant of grace 311 
its value. We are sure it Q3j| 
will be carried out. 

The danger of becoming 
surety for others is strongly 
represented. Pro v. 6 : 1 ; 11 : 
15; 17: 18; 20:16; 22:26. 
The striking or joining of 
hands was a token of sure- 
tyship. Job 17 : 3. 

SU'SA, a name for Shu- 
shax, which see. Esth. 2:3; 
9 : 11, 18. 

SUSAN'NA {lily), one 
of the women who minis- 
tered to Jesus. Luke 8 : 3. 

SU'SI (horseman), the father of the 
spy from Manasseh. Num. 13:11. 

SWAL'LOW. In Ps. 84 : 3 there is 
reference to this bird's habit of making 
its nest in all buildings to which it can 
gain access. Swallows still rear their 
young about the mosques which occupy 
the site of Solomon's temple, and circle 



often build within reach of the hand. 
The incessant and rapid flight of this 
bird explains Prov. 26 : 2. 

In Jer. 8:7 and Isa. 38:14 another 
word is found, which seems to refer to the 
swift, a bird of the swallow family and a 
regular migrant, which in Palestine the 





above these hallowed places as of old. 
In Palestine and other Eastern countries 
they are so rarely disturbed that they 



The Purple Gallinule. 

swallow is not. Its harsh and constant 
cry is specially appropriate to the sec- 
ond passage. Several species of swifts 
and swallows inhabit the Holy Land and 
breed in the cliffs or about buildings. 

SWAN. This bird is mentioned only 
in Lev. 11 : 18 ; Deut. 14 : 16, and there 
as unclean. The swan is very rare in 
the Levant, while there seems to be 
no reason why it should not be eaten. 
It is possible that the sacred ibis, 
once abundant in Egypt, may be 
meant, or the purple gallinule. 
Either of these birds might natu- 
rally be forbidden as food, from its 
unclean diet, and the former, also, 
as connected with idolatry. 

SWEAR. Ps. 15 : 4. See Oath. 
SWEARING, VOICE OF. 
Lev. 5:1. The import of this ex- 
pression in the Hebrew is "hear the 
voice of adjuration, execration, oath, 
or curse " — i. e., hear this voice when 
one is adjured or put upon his oath 
as a witness in court. The precept 
relates to the case of one who is 
summoned to give evidence before the 
civil magistrate. Judges among the 
Jews had power to adjure not only the 
831 



SWI 



SYC 



witnesses, but the persons suspected, as 
appears from the high priest's adjuring 
our Saviour, who thereupon answered, 
though he had before been silent. Matt. 
26 : 63. If a person " heard the voice 
of swearing " — i. e., if he were adjured 
by an oath of the Lord to testify what 
he knew in relation to any matter of 
fact in question, and yet, through fear 
or favor, refused to give evidence or 
gave it but in part — he was to " bear 
his iniquity." It seems to be implied 
that such a one should be considered in 
the sight of God as guilty of the trans- 
gression which he has thus endeavored 
to conceal. 

SWINE, Deut. 14 : 8, or HOG, was 
unclean by the ritual law, and an object 
of utter abhorrence to the Jews. Hence 
the employment of the prodigal son im- 
plies the most contemptible degradation. 
Luke 15 : 15. Eating the flesh of swine 
is mentioned among the sinful practices 
of the Jews. Isa. 65 : 4; 66 : 17. The 
filthy habits of this animal illustrate one 
feature in the character of sinners. 2 Pet. 
2:22. 

The herd of swine miraculously de- 
stroyed, Matt. 8 : 32, perhaps belonged 
to Jews, and, if so, were of course kept 
in violation of their own law. Lev. 
11:7. 

To cast " pearls befoi*e swine," Matt. 
7 : 6, is not more vain and wasteful than 
to offer the words of truth and wisdom 
to those who are known to despise them, 
and who would only return the offer with 
insult and abuse. 

As the Moslems hold the hog in fully 
as great abhorrence as do the Jews, it is 
very rarely that this animal is seen in 
Palestine or Mohammedan countries. 

SWORD. See Arms. 

SYCAMINE, the familiar black 
mulberry (Morns nigra), which is still 
called in Greece sycamenea. Luke 17 : 
6. Both the black and white species are 
now largely cultivated in Syi*ia to feed 
silkworms. The mulberry belongs to 
the same natural order of plants with 
the sycamore and the fig. See Mul- 
berry. 

SYC 'AM ORE (Greek, fig-mul- 
berry). This tree {Ficns sycomorus) is 
now rarely seen in Palestine except along 
the coast, though it is abundant in Egypt. 
It belongs to the genus of the common 
fig, which it closely resembles in fruit, 



while its aromatic leaf is shaped like 
that of the mulberry. From these two 
resemblances comes its name. 

The sycamore is a large and noble 
tree, affording a dense shade, while the 
branches are remarkably spreading and 
are easily reached. This was the reason 
why Zacchaeus climbed it in order to get 
a glimpse of Jesus as he passed. Luke 
19 : 4. It was once exceedingly abun- 
dant in the valley of the Jordan, 1 Kgs. 
10 : 27 ; 2 Chr. 1 : 15 ; 9 : 27, but all are 
now gone save a few aged survivors near 
Jericho. 

Its fruit grows singly or in clusters 
on small sprigs, which grow directly 
from the branches and trunks, independ- 
ently of the leaves. Sycamore fruit re- 
sembles in shape and peculiar method of 
flowering that of the Fig, which see. It 




Sycamore. 

is, however, smaller, but sweetish and 
edible, especially if cut or nipped a few 
days before it is quite ripe, that the ac- 
rid properties may be discharged. In 
Am. 7 : 14 we should read, in this sense, 
"cutter" (instead of "gatherer") "of 
sycamore fruit." As the sycamore bears 
continuously for more than half the year, 
it is in this respect a valuable tree. The 
wood, though porous, is exceedingly du- 
rable, being the material of the Egyptian 



SYC 



SYtf 



mummy-cases, which are three thousand 
or more years old. It seems to have 
been valued on this account or for its 
fruit by David. 1 Chr. 27 : 28. There 
is allusion to its peculiar sensitiveness 
to frost in Ps. 78 : 47. 

In our own country the plane tree, 
button-ball, or cotton-wood is often called 
sycamore; while in England, and more 
rarely here, a species of maple {Acer 
pseudoplatanus), used as a shade-tree, 
bears this name. These trees have no 
relationship to the true sycamore, and 
should be otherwise designated. 

SY'CHAR {drunken?). John 4 : 5. 
It is generally supposed that Sychar is 
a name of Shechem, perhaps given to it 
in derision. This was Robinson's view, 
and he seems to have followed a monk- 
ish tradition of the Middle Ages. The 
objection to identifying Sychar with 
Shechem is that Jacob's well, at the 
entrance into the valley, is a mile and 
a half from Shechem, and the woman, 
if belonging to Shechem, would not go 
so far for water when plenty was nearer 
at hand. Hence Thomson, Canon Wil- 
liams, Conder, Baedeker, and others 
identify Sychar with the little village of 
'Askar, on the eastern slope of Ebal, 
about a mile and a half from Shechem, 
and to the north-east of Jacob's well. 
The village is merely a modern one 
built of mud, but there are remains of 
ancient tombs near the road beneath it. 

SYCHEM, a Greek form for She- 
chem. Acts 7:16. 

SYE'NE {opening, or key), the fron- 
tier-city of Egypt, on the south, and 
bordering on Ethiopia. Eze. 29 : 10.; 30 : 
6, margin. It was situated on the Nile, 
below the First Cataract, and is repre- 
sented now by the Arabic village of As- 
souan, or Aswan, a little north of the 
ancient site. The well-known rock called 
syenite is quarried here, and hence its 
name. It was a chief city of the Shep- 
herd-kings. The expression (in the mar- 
gin), "from Migdol to Syene" — that is, 
from the fortress near Pelusium, at the 
mouth of the Nile, to Syene, on the bor- 
ders of Ethiopia — was used to describe 
the whole land of Egypt. 

SYL'VANUS. See Silas. 

SYNAGOGUE (on assemblage). 

There is no conclusive evidence that 

stated meetings of the people for social 

religious services, or meetings for receiv- 

63 



ing public instruction, were known among 
the Jews before the Captivity. After 
that event such meetings became com- 
mon, and were called synagogues. They 
were probably held at first in private 
houses or in the open air. After a time 
buildings were erected expressly for their 
use, and these were also called " syna- 
gogues," signifying properly the collec- 
tion of worshippers, but figuratively the 
place of meeting. Tradition says there 
were no less than four hundred and eighty 
of these buildings in the city of Jerusa- 
lem before it was subdued by the Romans. 
Probably this is an exaggeration. To 
build a synagogue was considered a deed 
of piety and public usefulness. Luke 7 : 
5. They might be built in any place 
where there were worshippers enough to 
associate for the purpose. Ruins of an- 
cient synagogues are found at Tell Hum, 
Meiron, Safed, Arbela, and Kefr-Bereim. 
There was some resemblance between the 
construction of these synagogues and that 
of the temple. The centre building, which 
was called the temple, was furnished with 
an ark or chest containing the copy of 
the Law which was read. A low desk or 
pulpit was erected about the middle of 
the synagogue. Some of the seats were 
higher than others, and were assigned 
to the elders. They were called chief 
or uppermost seats. Matt. 23 : 6. The 
officers of each synagogue were: 

1. The art'hisynagogos, "the chief 
ruler of the synagogue." Mark 5 : 35 ; 
Acts 18 : 8. 

2. The council, composed of aged and 
influential men, presided over by the 
chief ruler, Mark 5 : 22 ; Acts 13 : 15, 
who had authority to scourge and to ex- 
communicate. Matt. 10 : 17 ; John 16 : 2. 

3. " The minister," Luke 4 : 20, who got 
the building ready for service and taught 
the school connected with the synagogue. 

4. At least two alms-collectors, and at 
least three distributers. 

5. One who was not a permanent 
officer, but who offered prayer and read 
the Scriptures as the " delegate of the 
congregation." Some erroneously con- 
nect this office with that of "the angel 
of the congregation." Rev. 1 : 20. 

6. Three of the council, the "dele- 
gate," the three deacons for alms, the 
interpreter, who read the Hebrew and 
translated it into the vernacular, the 
theological schoolmaster and his in- 

833 



SYN 



SYN 



terpreter; these constituted the so- 
called "men of leisure," permanently 
on duty, who constituted a congrega- 
tion (ten being the minimum number), 
" so that there might be no delay in 
beginning the service at the proper 
hour, and that no single worshipper 
might go away disappointed." 

The service of the synagogue was as 
follows : The people being seated, the 
minister, or angel of the synagogue, 
ascended the pulpit and offered up the 
public prayers, the people rising from 
their seats and standing in a posture of 
deep devotion. Matt. 6:5; Mark 11 : 25 ; 
Luke 18 : 11, 13. The prayers were nine- 
teen in number, and were closed by 
reading Deut. 6:4-9; 11 : 13-21 ; Num. 
15 : 37-41. The next thing was the rep- 



etition of their phylacteries, after which 
came the reading of the Law and the 
Prophets. The former was divided into 
fifty -four sections, with which were 
united corresponding portions from the 
prophets, see Acts 13 : 15, 27 ; 15 : 21, 
and these were read through once in the 
course of the year. After the return 
from the Captivity an interpreter was 
employed in reading the Law and the 
Prophets, Neh. 8 : 2-8, who interpreted 
thetn into the Syro- Chaldaic dialect, 
which was then spoken by the people. 
The last part of the service was the ex- 
pounding of the Scriptures and preach- 
ing from them to the people. This was 
done either by one of the officers or by 
some distinguished person who happened 
to be present. This happened with our 




Synagogue at Meiron. {After Photograph of Palestine Fund.) 



Saviour, Luke 4 : 17-20, and there are 
several other instances recorded of him- 
self and his disciples teaching in the 
svnagogues. Matt. 13 : 54 ; Mark 6:2; 
John 18 : 20 ; Acts 13 : 5, 15. 44; 14 : 1 ; 
17 : 2-4, 10, 17 ; 18 : 4, 26 ; 19 : 8. The 
whole service concluded with a short 
prayer or benediction. The days of 
public worship were the second, fifth, 
and seventh ; the hours, the third, sixth, 
and ninth. 

SYXAGOGUE, THE GREAT, 
the name given to the council of one 
hundred and twenty men who, according 
834 



to Rabbinic tradition, under the presi- 
dency of Ezra, formed the Hebrew canon 
and established the synagogue-worship. 
They had successors in eminent scribes. 
The tradition, however, is questioned, and 
doubtless is not entirely correct. Still, 
it is probable there was such a body as 
the predecessor of the Sanhedrin. 

SYNTYCHE (event), a female 
member of the church at Philippi who 
is exhorted by Paul to be reconciled with 
Euodia (incorrectly "Euodias"). Those 
who maintain there was an order of dea- 
conesses in the apostolic Churcn con- 



SYB 



SYH 



sider that these women were members 
of it, and consequently their difference 
was censurable. Phil. 4 : 2. 

SYR'ACUSE, a noted city in the 
eastern part of Sicily at which Paul spent 
three days while on his voyage to Rome. 
Acts 28 : 12. It is well situated for 
commerce, having the best harbor in 
Sicily. The city was colonized by the 
Corinthians, b. c. 758, and in the third 
century before Christ its walls, according 
to one authority, were 22 miles in cir- 
cumference. It was taken by the Ro- 
mans, b. c. 212, after a long struggle. 
Archimedes, who had greatly aided in 
the defence by his mechanical genius, 
was killed in the general slaughter. In 
Paul's time it was a convenient place 
for the Alexandrian corn-ships to stop 
at, for the harbor was good and the water 
from the fountain Arethusa excellent. 
The modern town is situated upon the 
islet Ortygia, but the principal ancient 
ruins are upon the main island. The 
present town has little commerce and 
enterprise. It bears the Italian name 
Sir acuta. 

SYR'IA, the Greek name for the 
country known to the Hebrews as 
"Aram." It may signif} 7 "the region 
of Tyre." This country included, in a 
stricter sense, only the highlands of 
Libanus and Anti-Libanus, but in a more 
extended sense it reached to the Taurus 
Mountains on the north and across the 
Euphrates, eastward to the Tigris and 
the great desert, and westward to Phoeni- 
cia and the Mediterranean Sea. It was 
about 370 miles long and 150 miles wide, 
and may be called a continuation of 
Palestine on the north. In its most 
extended sense it consisted of Syria of 
Damascus. Syria of Zobah, and Syria of 
ftie Two Rivers, which was nearly the 
same as Mesopotamia. For this latter 
district see Mesopotamia. 

Physical Features. — Syria proper is 
naturally divided into three or four 
separate sections: (1) North of the 
Orontes. The principal feature of this 
region is Mount Amanus (Musa Dayh), 
between 5000 and 6000 feet high. East 
of Mount Amanus is a hilly tract, drained 
by the streams which fall into the Lake 
of Antioch. Beyond this lies the dry 
upland tract extending to the Euphrates. 
(2) The Orontes valley extends from 
Antioch to Eleutherus. Through this 



district, and almost parallel to the coast, 
runs a mountain-range which is steep 
toward the Orontes, but descends into 
low, irregular hills on the west. East of 
the fertile valley is another range of 
mountains of less elevation. (3) The 
valley of the Leontes {Litany), which 
flows between the two great mountain- 
ranges of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon. 
See Lebanon". The valley between the 
mountains is called " Ccele-Syria," or 
"hollow Syria." Among the rivers of 
Syria, besides the Orontes and the Leon- 
tes, are the Barada, known as the Abana 
of Scripture, and the Atcaj, or Pharpar. 
The chief mountains of Syria are : Great 
Hermon, 9383 feet high, in the Anti- 
Libanus or eastern range: Jebel Makh- 

\ waif near Beirut and Tripoli, 10,016 feet 

j high; andZ><»/*/--e/-AW/M0,052feethigh, 
in the Lebanon, or western range. Mons 
Carius of the ancients is on the coast, 

; and Amanus (Musa Dagh) borders on 
the Taurus range. Of the mountains on 
the east of Jordan to the south, the 
largest number are volcanic until the 
table-lands of the Hauran are reached. 
See Moab. On the climate of Syria 
consult the article Palestine. 

Among the principal cities may be 

' noticed Damascus, Antioch, Hamath, 

i Gebal, Berytus or Beirut, Tadmor or 
Palmyra, Heliopolis or Baalbec, Aleppo, 

' Emesah, and Zedad. Baalbec is one of 
the most wonderful ruins in Syria; 
Damascus is its oldest and largest city; 
Beirut is a flourishing seaport town, 

i which is a progressive and energeti3 
modern city and the seat of an American 

j Protestant college. 

History. — Syria was first settled by the 
Hittites and other Hamitic races. Later, 

1 a Shemitic element entered it from the 
south-east, under leaders such as Abra- 
ham and Chedorlaomer. In early times 
the country was divided among many 
pettv kings, as those at Damascus, Re- 
hob,* Zobah, and Geshur. 1 Kgs. 10 : 29 : 
2 Kgs. 7 : 6. Joshua subdued the country 
in the region of Hermon and Lebanon. 
Josh. 11 : 2-18. David conquered the 
Syrians of Damascus and reduced the 
country to submission. 2 Sam. 8 ; 10 : 
6-19. It continued subject to Solomon, 
but near the close of his reign an inde- 
pendent kingdom was formed at Damas- 

! cus. 1 Kgs. 4:21; 11 : 23-25. The kings 

1 of Damascus became formidable enemies 
835 



SYR 



§Yft 



of Israel, and were frequently engaged 
in wars with one or the other of the 
Israelitish nations. 1 Kgs. 15 : 1 8-20 ; 20 ; 
22 ; 2 Kgs. 6 : 8-33 ; 7 ; 9 : 14, 15 ; 10 : 
32, 33 ; 13 : 3, 14-25. The attempt of the 
king of Syria, and of the king of Israel 
to overthrow Judah led Ahaz to seek the 
aid of the king of Assyria, and at the 
end of the conflict Syria became a part 
of the great Assyrian empire. It was 
ruled by the Babylonians, by the Per- 
sians, and conquered by Alexander the 
Great, b. c. 333. At his death it came 
into possession of one of his generals, 
Seleucus Nicator, who made Syria the 
head of a vast kingdom and founded 
Antioch as its capital, b. c. 300. The 
country was less prosperous under his 
successors, the most remarkable of them 
being Antiochus Epiphanes, who was a 
most cruel oppressor of the Jews. He 
plundered the Jewish temple, desecrated 
the holy of holies, and caused a revolt of 
the Jews under the Hasmonean princes, 
who gained their independence. The 
Parthians, under Mithridates I., overran 
the eastern provinces, B. c. 164, but, later, 
Syria was added to the Roman empire 
by Pompey, b. c. 64. In the organiza- 
tion under Augustus, Syria became an 
imperial province, of which Antioch was 
the capital. Several districts, however, 
retained a degree of independence for 
some time, and took the position of pro- 
tected states. Of these, Chalcis was a 
little kingdom; Abilene, a tetrarchy ; 
Damascus, partially independent (till 
the time of Nero); while Judaea, being 
remote from Antioch, the capital, and 
having a restless people, was put under 
a special procurator, subordinate to the 
governor of Syria, but having the power 
of a legate within his own province. 
Damascus was under a governor or eth- 
narch, appointed by Aretas, king of 
Arabia Petraea, when Paul escaped from 
it. 2 Cor. 11 : 32. Palmyra did not actu- 
ally belong to the empire until a later 
age — about A. D. 1 14. Christianity spread 
in Syria through the preaching of Paul. 
Acts 15 : 23, 41 ; 18 : 18 ; 21; 3; Gal. 1 : 
21. The country was overrun by the 
Saracens, a. d. 632, but was under the 
control of the Crusaders for a time. 
Selim I. conquered the country, A. D. 
1517, and it has since belonged to the 
Turkish empire, with the exception of a 
few years when it was controlled by 
836 



Egypt. See Map at the end of the 
Dictionary. 

Present Condition. — Syria is now one 
of the divisions of Asiatic Turkey, and 
contains about 60,000 square miles. 
The population is estimated at about 
2,000,000, and consists of a very mixed 
race, including many wandering tribes 
of Bedouins poorly governed. In religion 
the people are Mohammedans, Jews, and 
Christians of various churches. The 
American missionaries have been very 
successful in establishing missions and 
churches, and Protestant missionary so- 
cieties in Europe also have prosperous 
missions in the country. The language 
usually spoken is the Arabic. Syria has 
great natural resources, and, under a 
good government, it would have a prom- 
ising future. 

The mode of travelling in Syria is 
much the same now as in the days of the 
patriarchs. There are no railroads, and 
the only modern carriage-roads are the 
diligence-route from Beirut to Damascus, 
built by a French company after the mas- 
sacre of Christians in 1860, and, in Pal- 
estine, the road from Jaffa to Jerusalem. 
Horses, mules, donkeys, and camels, ac- 
companied by dragomans, tents, cooking- 
utensils, beds, blankets, and whatever else 
may be actually necessary for the trav- 
eller, are still the means of transporting 
passengers and tourists through this land. 
Steamers ply along the coast from the va- 
rious Mediterranean ports, but inland the 
primitive method of journeying followed 
four thousand years ago still prevails. 

Under Syrians proper are usually 
classed all the descendants of the people 
who spoke Aramaic at the beginning of 
the Christian era, except the Jews. The 
Aramaic language has been displaced by 
the Arabic, the former being spoken in 
only a few (perhaps three) villages of 
Antilibanus. Some Creeks have recently 
settled in the country, but there are few, 
if any, descendants of those Greeks who 
settled in Syria during the supremacy 
of the Europeans, which extended over 
nearty one thousand years. The Arabi- 
ans are of two classes — the settlers in 
towns, and the Bedouins, or nomadic 
tribes. The latter are professed Mus- 
lims, living a half-savage life, dwelling 
in tents, and preying upon the traveller, 
the settled inhabitants, and not infre- 
quently upon one another. The Bedouin 



SYR 



SYR 



regards with great scrupulosity the law 
of hospitality, and protects a guest for 
three days after his departure from his 
camp, if he has been hospitably received. 
There are many small tribes f)f these 
nomadic Arabs, and tbey are generally 
at war with each other or have deadly 
blood-feuds existing among them, render- 
ing it unsafe to travel within any region 
over which they roam. About four-fifths 
of the whole population of Syria are 
believed to be Muslims and followers of 
Mohammed. The native Christians 
chiefly belong to the Greek Church, but 
usually speak and conduct their services 
in the Arabic tongue. 

The Roman Catholic, or Latin, Church 
includes several sects. Among them are 
the Maronites and the European monks. 
The Maronite population of Lebanon 
alone is upward of 200,000. They live 
by agriculture, silk-culture, and raising 
cattle. The Jews in Syria, and especially 
Palestine, are rapidly increasing, though 
they still form only a small fraction of 
the entire population in any section of 
the country. Syria has not been very 
thoroughly or scientifically explored, and 
the ruins and inscriptions, as those at 
Hamath, when investigated thoroughly, 
may hereafter throw much clearer light 
upon its early historv. 

SYR'IA-MAACHAH. 1 Chr.19 : 
6. See Aram and Maachah. 

SYR'IAC, the ancient language of 
Syria, a dialect of the Aramaean. The 
word occurs in Dan. 2 : 4, where it should 
be "Aramaic," as it is in the Hebrew. The 
Chaldaeans spoke in Aramaic in order to 



conform to the custom of the court, but 
this was not their proper or scientific 
language. Daniel at this point begins 
to employ Chaldee in his book, and 
continues its use to the end of the sev- 
enth chapter. " The tongue of the 
Chaldaeans," Dan. 1 : 4, was the old 
Chaldee, the language of Akkad, used 
by the original inhabitants of Baby- 
lonia, and in the time of Nebuchad- 
nezzar a dead language. 

The language now called Syriac first 
comes to notice in the second century 
A. D., but ceased to be a vernacular before 
the twelfth century. It contains the most 
extensive literature of any Aramaean dia- 
lect, chiefly theological, and, of greatest 
importance, a translation of the Bible — 
commonly called Peshito ("simple"), 
because it was literal and not para- 
phrastic — which was made in the sec- 
ond century. It is the earliest of the 
direct versions. 

SYRIAN, inhabitant of Syria. 
Gen. 25 : 20, and elsewhere. 

SYRO-PHCENIC'IA. See Phoe- 
nicia. 

SYRO -PHOENICIAN, a title 
applied to the woman who besought 
Jesus to heal her daughter. Mark 7 : 
26. She is also called a woman of 
Canaan. Matt. 15 : 22. " Syro-Phceni- 
cian " may denote a mixed race, half 
Syrian, half Phoenician, or the peo- 
ple in the Phoenician portion of the 
Roman province of Syria may have 
been so called, to distinguish them 
from the Phoenicians of Libya or the 
Carthaginians. 

837 



TAA 



TAB 



T. 



TA'ANACH, and TA'NACH 

{sandy soil), an old city of the Canaan- 
ites. Josh. 12 : 21. Joshua conquered 
its king, and it was in the territory of 
Issachar, but assigned to Manasseh, and 
then to the Levites. Josh. 17:11-18; 
21 : 25 ; Jud. 1 : 27. Barak's victory 
was gained at Tabor, not very near Ta- 
anach, as some assert. Jud. 5 : 19. In 
later times, with Megiddo and other 
places, this city formed a part of one 
of Solomon's commissariat districts. 1 
Kgs. 4 : 12. The Aner of 1 Chr. 6 : 70 
may possibly be the same as Taanach. 
Taanach was situated on the south-west- 
ern edge of the plain of Esdraelon, 4 
miles south of Megiddo, 13 miles south- 
south-west of Nazareth, and 48 miles 
north of Jerusalem. The village is sit- 
uated on the southern side of a large 
isolated hill, or tell, which is covered 
with ruins, cisterns, and rock-hewn 
tombs. The modern village is a mean 
one bearing the name of Tannuh. 

TA'AMTH-SHI'LOH {ap- 
proach to Shlloh), one of the landmarks 
on the border of Ephraim. Josh. 16 : 6. 
It has been regarded by some as identi- 
cal with Shiloh, but Conder suggests 
Khurbet Thala, a mound of ruins, 10 
or 12 miles east of Shechein. 

TAB'BAOTH (rings), the ancestor 
of Nethinim who returned with Zerub- 
babel. Ezr. 2 : 43 ; Neh. 7 : 46. 

TAB'BATH {celebrated), a place 
noted in the account of the flight of 
the Midianite host. Jud. 7 : 22. Grove 
suggests its identity with Tubukhat- 
Fahil, a remarkable mound or bank 
about 600 feet high, east of the Jordan, 
opposite Beisan (Beth-shean). 

TA'BEAL {God is good), the father 
of one who was proposed king of Judah 
by the army of Pekah, the son of Rema- 
liah. Isa. 7 : 6. The name is Syriac, 
and it has been conjectured that he was 
a descendant of Naaman. 

TA'BEEL {God is good), a Persian 
officer in Samaria during the reign of 
Artaxerxes. Ezr. 4 : 7. 

TAB'ERAH {a burning), a place 
in the wilderness of Paran. Num. 11 : 
838 



3 ; Deut. 9 : 22. It was also called Kib- 
roth-hattaavah,from the pestilence which 
followed upon the excess of the Israel- 
ites in eating quails. The Israelites 
rested there for at least a month. 

TA'BERING. This obsolete word 
occurs in Nah. 2:7. It means " to beat 
as a taber " or " tabret." The picture is 
of a company of Ninevite women beat- 
ing upon their breasts as players upon 
a taber. A taber is a small drum beaten 
by one stick, to accompany a pipe. 

TABERNACLE probably means 
a tent or movable dwelling-place. Ex. 
25 : 9. In this sense it is used in Num. 
24 : 5 ; Job 11 : 14 ; 20 : 23 ; Matt. 17 : 
4, but in the Scriptures generally it is 
applied to the structure which was pre- 
pared by Moses, under the divine direc- 
tion, in which the Jews were to worship. 

There is undoubted mention in the 0. 
T. of two sacred tabernacles, the one 
erected in the wilderness and the other 
that in which David put the ark, and 
where it remained until the completion 
of the temple. 2 Sam. 6 : 17 ; 1 Kgs. 8 : 
1 ; 1 Chr. 16 : 1. The old tabernacle, 
meanwhile, was at Gibeon. It is uncer- 
tain whether Solomon removed it or the 
Davidic tabernacle into the temple — 
most likely the latter. 1 Kgs. 8 : 4. 
Some commentators claim that prior to 
the Sinaitic tabernacle there was a tent 
used for divine worship. They appeal 
to Ex. 33. The tabernacle there referred 
to was, they say, either the tent Moses 
had set apart for this purpose, or a sa- 
cred tent the Israelites had possessed in 
Egypt. But if the Hebrew verbs, which 
are all in the future in this passage, are 
read in the future tense, then the taber- 
nacle meant is that constructed in the 
wilderness after the divinely-revealed 
plan. See Lange, Commentary on Exo- 
dus, p. 137. 

Our Version often confounds "tent" 
and "tabernacle," as in Ex. 33 : 7-11, 
where the word should be "tent" through- 
out. The importance of this distinction 
is manifest. The Bible account in regard 
to this structure is derived from Ex. 26 
and 36 : 8-38, In this article we follow 



TAB 



TAB 



In the main Mr. Fergusson's article "Tem- 
ple" in Smith's Dictionary of the Bible. 

" The tabernacle comprised three 
main parts — the tabernacle, strictly so 
called, its tent, and its covering. The 
tabernacle itself was to con- 
sist of curtains of fine linen 
woven with colored figures 
of cherubim, and a structure 
of boards which was to con- 
tain the holy place and the 
most holy place ; the tent was 
to be a true tent of goats'- 
hair cloth, to contain and 
shelter the tabernacle ; the 
covering was to be of red 
rams' skins and sealskins, 
and was spread over the 
goats'-hair tent as an ad- 
ditional protection against 
the weather." — Bible Com- 
mentary, in loco. 

The court of the taberna- 
cle was surrounded by can- 
vas screens. Those of the 
tabernacle were 5 cubits 
(about 8 feet) in height, 
and hung from brazen pil- 
lars, 8 feet apart, by hooks 
and fillets of silver. Twenty 
of these pillars were on each 
side, and ten on each end. 
The space thus enclosed was 
150 feet by 75. The enclo- 
sure was only broken on the 
eastern side by the entrance, 
30 feet wide, which was clos- 
ed by a curtain of fine -twined 
linen with embroidered fig- 
ures of cherubim. This cur- 
tain could be drawn up or *| 
aside at pleasure. The pil- I 
lars were kept firm by cords ^ 
and tent-pins of bronze, had 
their capitals overlaid with 
silver, and stood on bases 
of bronze. Ex. 27 : 9-18. 

At the upper end of this 
enclosure, and facing the 
entrance, which was toward 
the east, stood the taberna- 
cle itself. This tabernacle 
proper was 45 by 15 feet, and 15 feet 
high. The sides and rear were en- 
closed with boards, anl the front was 
open. Each of these boards was fur- 
nished with two tenons at its lower ex- 
tremity, which fitted into silver sockets 



placed on the ground. At the top, at 
least, they were fastened together by 
bars of acacia-wood run through rings 
of gold. The middle bar, which reached 
from end to end, was, properly speaking, 




the ridge-pole of the tent. According- 
ly, we must conceive of the tabernacle, 
not as having a flat roof, but a pitched 
one, like an oidinary tent. See illus- 
tration, by which the arrangements of 
the coverings will also be understood. 
839 



TAB 



TAB 



Over the top was thrown a rich, gor- 
geous fabric of various materials, the 
connection and disposition of which, as 
well as of the other parts of the cover- 
ing, are prescribed with the utmost mi- 
nuteness. Ex. 26 : 1-30. The entrance 
or door of the tabernacle was covered 
with a beautifully-embroidered curtain 
suspended on five columns. The inte- 
rior was subdivided into two apartments, 
separated, each from the other, by a 
richly-wrought curtain hanging entirely 
across and reaching from the top to the 
bottom. This was called " the veil," or 
" second veil," Heb. 9 : 3, because the 
first entrance was also curtained. The 
outer apartment was called the "holy 
place," or " sanctuary," or the " first 
tabernacle," and the inner was the " sec- 
ond tabernacle," or the "most holy 
place," or the " holiest of all." Heb. 9 : 
2-8. 

As to the furniture of the court, there 
were — (1) The altar of burnt-offering, 
which stood near the centre of the en- 
closure. See Altar. (2) The brazen 
laver, Ex. 30 : 18, corresponding to the 
molten sea, 1 Kgs. 7 : 23, which stood 
between the altar and the tabernacle, in 
its shape resembling an urn. It contained 
water for washing the hands and feet of 
the priests when they were about to enter 
the sanctuary. See Sea, Brazen. 

As to the furniture of the tabernacle 
itself, there were — (1 ) The golden candle- 
stick, standing on the left of a person 
entering the sanctuary. See Candle- 
stick. (2) The table of shew-bread, 
opposite to the candlestick. See Shew- 
Bread. (3) The altar of incense, be- 
tween the shew-bread and the candle- 
stick, and in front of the ark. See Al- 
tar. (4) The ark of the covenant. See 
Ark. 

The tabernacle and its court were fin- 
ished with perfect exactness according to 
the pattern or model supernaturally re- 
vealed to Moses. Heb. 8:5. It is esti- 
mated that the silver and gold used in 
its construction (to say nothing of the 
brass or copper, the wood, the curtains 
and canopies, the furniture, etc.) amount- 
ed in value to $1,250,000. 

When it was finished, after about nine 
months' labor, it was consecrated, with 
very solemn and imposing rites, to the 
service of Jehovah. Ex. 30 : 23-33 ; 40 : 
9-11: Heb. 9:21. 
840 



While passing through the wilderness 
the tabernacle was always pitched in the 
midst of the camp. The tents of the priests 
and Levites surrounded it in appointed 
order, and at some distance from them the 
residue of the tribes, in four great divis- 
ions consisting of three tribes each, and 
each division with its appropriate name 
and standard or banner. Num. 2 : 2-34. 
The tabernacle and its furniture were 
so constructed as to be conveniently ta- 
ken down, transported, and set up again, 
and particular individuals or classes had 
their respective duties assigned to them. 
Every encampment and removal, and 
even the order of the march, was direct- 
ed expressly by Jehovah. On the day 
the tabernacle was completed God re- 
vealed himself in a cloud, which over- 
shadowed and filled it. By this cloud, 
assuming the shape of a pillar or col- 
umn, their subsequent course was gov- 
erned. When it rested over the tent the 
people always rested, and when it moved 
the tabernacle was taken down, and the 
whole host followed wherever it led. In 
the night this cloud became bright like 
a pillar of fire, and preceded them in 
like manner. Ex. 40 : 35-38 ; Num. 9 : 
15-23. When the journeyings of the 
people were ended and they entered Ca- 
naan, the tabernacle was erected at Gil- 
gal, Josh. 4 : 19, where it continued un- 
til the country was subdued, and then it 
was removed to Shiloh, 1 Sam. 1 : 3, 
where it stood between three hundred 
and four hundred years. It was thence 
removed to Nob, 1 Sam. 21 : 1-9, and 
thence, in the reign of David, to Gibeon, 
1 Chr. 21 : 29, where it was at the com- 
mencement of Solomon's reign, 2 Chr. 1 : 
1-13; and when the temple was finished; 
some suppose the sacred fabric, with its 
vessels and furniture, was removed into 
it. See Temple. 

The " tabernacles " spoken of in Am. 
5 : 26 as existing in the northern king- 
dom of Israel were probably portable, 
carried upon the shoulders, and con- 
tained the idol. 

TABERNACLE OF WIT'- 
NESS, Num. 17 : 7, 8, TABERNA- 
CLE OF TEST IMONV. Ex. 38 : 
21. These terms may refer to the Law, 
which was deposited in the tabernacle, 
and which testified to God's authority 
and holiness, Ex. 25 : 21, or they may 
refer to the revelations which God made 



■ "ft- ''■/ , ';:' :! ^|||ffl|i|il| : " : " '"'.'" '.■.'"'" 




^Mf 



TAB 



TAB 



of himself in the tabernacle, and by 
which he testified his presence and maj- 
esty in the most sublime and mysterious 
manner. 

TAB ERNACLES, FEAST 
OF, one of the three greatest Jewish 
feasts. The law for it is laid down in 
Lev. 23 : 34-43, Num. 29 : 12-40. It 
was designed to commemorate the long 
tent-life of the Israelites during the 
Wandering. The feast began on the 
fifteenth day of the seventh month, and 
lasted eight days — seven for the feast 
and one day for a " solemn assembly," a 
sabbath of rest. In Num. 29 : 12-39 the 
proper sacrifices for each day are given. 
During the whole time, the people dwelt 
in booths. Like the other feasts, the 
place for keeping this one was Jerusalem. 
The city must have presented a very 
animated and picturesque appearance. 
The booths were erected on the tops of 
houses, in the courts of the temple, and 
in the streets and on the neighboring 
hills. There was also much innocent 
mirth ; indeed, it was distinguished 
for this. It was commanded to rejoice 
before the Lord. On the first and last 
days there was a holy convocation. 
Deut. 31 : 10-13 enjoins the reading of 
the Law to the whole people every sev- 
enth or sabbatical year at the feast of 
tabernacles. This regulation, as in- 
terpreted by later Jewish practice, is 
obeyed by reading, on the first day of 
the feast, certain portions of Deuteron- 
omy. 

In Ex. 23 : 16 this feast is called "the 
feast of ingathering," because it came 
at the end of the harvest, 15th to 22d 
Tisri — September-October. References 
to the observance of the feast are found 
in the 0. T. in Neh. 8 : 13-18 ; Hos. 12 : 
9; Zech. 14 : 16-19, and in the N. T. in 
John 7 : 2, 37, 38. In the latter passage 
our Lord is by some supposed to refer 
to a daily custom at the feast, adopted 
in later times. The Israelites, dressed 
in holiday clothes, repaired to the tem- 
ple at the time of morning sacrifice. A 
priest then took a golden ewer, holding 
about two pints and a half, went to the 
pool of Siloam, filled his ewer, and re- 
turned to the temple by the Water-gate. 
His approach was the signal for a blast 
of trumpets. Before the people he as- 
cended the steps of the altar, and poured 
the water into that one of the two silver 
842 



basins which was on the eastern side. 
Into the other wine was poured. There 
were small openings in the bottoms of 
each, and so the two streams flowed, 
mingled together, through pipes, into 
the Kidron. But on the eighth day this 
ceremony was omitted. Hence our Lord 
on that day offers himself to the people 
as the Source of living waters. 

Again, in John 8 : 12, so*me see an al- 
lusion to another post-biblical ceremony 
in this pre-eminently popular feast; viz, 
to the torch-feast — ?'. e., the lighting of 
the great golden candelabras in the court 
of the women on the evening of the first 
day of the feast. Before them the men 
performed a torchlight dance with music 
and singing. 

TAB'ITHA (gazelle), an exemplary 
disciple of Christ at Joppa, whose deeds 
of benevolence had greatly endeared her 
to the people. After she was dead and 
her body prepared for the grave, she 
was miraculously restored to life through 
the instrumentality of Peter. Acts 9 : 
36-40. 

TA'BLE. The table of ancient 
times was nothing but a circular skin 
or piece of leather spread upon the mat- 
ted or carpeted floor, and this, at home 
as well as by the way, answered for table 
and cloth. Near the edges of this leath- 
ern tray there are holes or loops, through 
which, when the meal is completed, a 
cord is drawn, by means of which the 
whole affair is compressed into a small 
compass and hung upon a nail. Bread 
was kneaded upon it. 

The nearest approach to what we call 
a table is a mere stool, which is placed 
in the centre of the leather we have 
mentioned. This might be intended in 
Jud. 1 : 7. Its only use is to hold the 
principal dish or dishes. There have 
been seen among the Arabian nobles and 
in cities long tables. These, however, 
were only a span high and not a yard 
wide, and were entirely uncovered, and 
usually held nothing but the dishes. 
More frequently all such conveniences 
are wanting, and the dishes stand on the 
leather. 

Instead of a table-cloth, there is spread 
round the leathern tray a long cloth, or 
two such cloths, of a dark color, which 
prevent the soiling of the carpet. Among 
poorer people there is nothing of the kind, 
and every one uses his handkerchief by 



TAB 



TAB 



way of napkin. Instead of plates, there 
are set thin, round cakes of a coarse kind. 

After the Captivity raised tables like 
ours became common, and the Persian 
practice of reclining on couches at meals 
was introduced. For the manner of sit- 
ting, see Seats, Eat. 

In Mark 7:4" tables " is a mistrans- 
lation for "beds" or "couches." The 
"writing-table" of Zacharias, Luke 1 : 
63, was a waxed tablet, on which one 
wrote with a stylus. 

TABLES, TO SERVE. Acts 6 : 
2. This expression may denote either 
actual attendance upon the gathering 
and distribution of food for the poor, or 
attention to the pecuniary affairs of the 
church. The word is used for the " tables " 
of money-changers. Matt. 21 : 12 ; John 
2 : 15. 

TAB'LET. See Book, Table. 

TA'BOR (mound, height). 1. A 
mountain of Palestine; by Greek and 
Roman writers called Itabyrion and 
Atybyrion ; now known by the Arabic 
name of Jebel et-Tor. Tabor is situated 
on the north-eastern edge of the great , 
plain of Esdraelon, and on the borders \ 
between Zebulun and Naphtali. It is 6 | 
miles south of east from Nazareth, and 
10 miles south of west from the southern 
extremity of the Sea of Tiberias. 

History. — The position of Tabor, over- 
looking the great battle-plain of Pales- 
tine, Esdraelon, made it a suitable place 
for the Israelites to assemble for battle. 
There Barak gathered his forces — 10,000 
men — for the overthrow of Sisera. Jud. 

4 : 6-14. Some of Israel's warriors had 
been slain there by the Midianites before 
Gideon's victory. Jud. 8 : 18. Tabor is 
extolled with Hermon in Ps. 89 : 12, and 
mentioned with Carmel in Jer. 46 : 18. 
Idolatries practised upon that mountain 
were a " net spread upon Tabor." Hos. 

5 : 1. Tabor is not mentioned in the N. 
T. A tradition dating certainly as early 
as Origen and Jerome made this the 
Mount of Transfiguration. Mark 9 : 2- 
10. But the summit of Tabor must at 
that time have been covered with houses, 
since the town was then existing which 
Antiochus the Great founded, b. c. 218, 
on the top of the hill. Furthermore, the 
Mount of Transfiguration was probably 
in the region of Caesarea-Philippi, as the 
transfiguration occurred only a few days 
after Christ bad arrived at that place and 



solicited the great confession of Peter. 
However, the legend attached to Tabor 
led to the erection, before the end of 
the sixth century, of three churches, in 
memory of the three tabernacles. After- 
ward the Crusaders erected a church and 
a monastery, which were destroyed by 
the Muslims. 

Present Appearance. — Mount Tabor is 
one of the most remarkable of the moun- 
tains of Palestine. It rises from the 
plain as an isolated mass, only connected 
on the west by a low and narrow ridge 
with the hills of Nazareth. Its appear- 
ance varies with the point of observation. 
From the south it has the form of a dome 
or the arc of a circle; from the west- 
north-west, that of a truncated cone. It 
rises from the adjoining plain of Jez- 
reel about 1375 feet, and its summit 
is 1843 feet above the Mediterranean. 
The ascent is steep and rugged, but 
persons can reach the summit on horse- 
back. The time required for ascending 
is about an hour. The southern slope is 
of barren limestone rock ; the other sides 
are wooded with the oak, terebinth, mock- 
orange, and trees " resembling the scat- 
tered glades in the outskirts of the New 
Forest." The soil is fertile, yielding 
luxuriant pasture. Partridges, hares, 
foxes, and other kinds of game abound. 
Porter speaks of seeing jackals, wolves, 
and a panther while he was visiting Ta- 
bor. The mountain has a flat summit a 
little less than a quarter of a mile long 
and an eighth of a mile wide. Two 
monasteries of comparatively modern 
date occupy the top of the hill, one be- 
longing to the Greeks and the other to 
the Latins. There are also ruins of tow- 
ers, fortifications, vaults, cisterns, and 
other structures of various periods, Jew- 
ish, Greek, Roman, Christian, Saracenic, 
Frank, and Turk, blended together in 
a confused mass. The view from the 
summit of Tabor is the best in all Cen- 
tral Palestine. To the north and east 
are Mount Hermon, the Sea of Galilee, 
the mountains of Bashan and Gilead ; 
to the south and west, the great plain 
of Esdraelon, Gilboa, Carmel, and the 
Mediterranean. Standing on this spot, 
the traveller sees why Tabor was the 
gathering-place of the northern tribes, 
and can trace out the great battlefields 
below. 

2, A city in Zebulun, assigned to the 



TAB 



TAD 



Levites. 1 Chr. 6 : 77. Probably the 
same as Chisloth-tabor, which see. 
TABOR, THE PLAIN OF. 

This should rather be the " oak " or 
"terebinth of Tabor." It is mentioned 
only in 1 Sam. 10 : 3. What is meant 
by "Tabor" it is impossible to say. It 
has been suggested that " the oak of 
Tabor" was the same as the " Allon- 
bachuth" the oak under which Deborah 
was buried. Gen. 35 : 8. But Conder 
proposes to identify this Tabor with el- 
Bukeia, a plain south of Jerusalem. 

TAB'RET. See Timbrel. 

TABRIttON (Rimmon is kind), 
the father of Benhadad I., king of Syria, 
a contemporary of Asa, king of Judah. 
1 Kgs. 15 : 18. 



TACH'ES were hooks or clasps of 
gold and copper, used in connecting the 
curtains of the tabernacle. Ex. 26 : 6, 11. 

TACH'MONITE, a corruption for 
"Hachmonite," the appellation of Jasho- 
beam. 2 Sam. 23 : 8 ; cf. 1 Chr. 11 : 11. 

TACKLING. Isa. 33:23; Acts 
27 : 19. Strictly, in the former pas- 
sage, it is used for the ropes attached 
to the mast : in the latter it is used 
loosely, and imports the sails, cordage, 
baggage, and indeed all the instruments 
of sailing except the anchors or what 
was indispensable to the preservation 
of the ship. 

TAD'MOR(Heb. Tamar/' palms"), 
a city in the wilderness, built bv Solomon. 
1 Kgs. 9 : 18 j 2 Chr. 8 : 4. There is no 




Temple of the Sun. 



Tadmor (Palmyra). 



Street of Columns. 



other Scripture mention of this city, and 
hence no other clue to its site or after- 
history. It has usually been identified 
with the famous city of Palmyra. Some 
critics, indeed, assert that there is little 
authority for the insertion of the letter d 
in the name mentioned in these passages, 
and would make the place built rather 
Tamar, on the south of the confines of 
Judah. Eze. 47 : 19. Palmyra was within 
the extensive empire of Solomon, and 
it is most natural to identify Tadmor 
with it. 

Situation. — Palmyra occupied the most 
favorable position on the great caravan- 



route between the rich cities of the East 
and the ports of the Mediterranean. A 
spring of good water makes it a natural 
halting-place. It was 120 miles north- 
east of Damascus and 60 miles from the 
Euphrates, according to the BiUical Edu- 
cator, but Baedeker's Handbook makes 
it a five days' journey with camels, in 
long. 38° 30' E. and lat. 33° 58' N. 

History. — Palmyra has no Scripture 
history, and hence only a brief sketch 
of it need be given here. It was men- 
tioned by Pliny, Josephus, Jerome, and 
other early writers. About a. d. 260 it 
became famous in Roman historv from 
845* 



TAH 



TAH 



Zenobia, "the Queen of the East," a 
woman of extraordinary ability. After 
the assassination of her husband, Oden- 
athus, she ruled the realm, and under 
her Palmyra reached the height of its 
glory, extending its supremacy over 
Syria, Mesopotamia, and even parts of 
Egypt. She was subdued by the Ro- 
man emperor Aurelian, and led through 
the streets of Rome to grace the empe- 
ror's triumphal procession. The inhab- 
itants of Palmyra afterward revolted, 
and were slain in great numbers by the 
Romans. Later, Palmyra was merely 
a frontier-town in the direction of the 
wilderness, fortified by Justinian. In 
1173 the rabbi Benjamin of Tudela 
found a considerable colony of Jews 
there. It then fell into oblivion until 
visited by members of the English 
factory at Aleppo, in 1678. Since then 
the city has been explored and de- 
scribed by many travellers. 

Present Condition. — Porter says : " In 
describing the ruins of Palmyra, it 
would be almost impossible to exag- 
gerate. There is nothing like them 
in the world. In no other spot in the 
world can we find such vast numbers 
of temples, palaces, colonnades, tombs, 
and monuments gi-ouped together so as 
to be seen at a single glance. The ruins 
extend over a plain about 3 or 4 miles in 
circuit. The most noteworthy are, 

" 1. The Temple of the Sun. — This was 
dedicated to Baal. The edifice was en- 
closed by an outer wall, 256 yards in 
length and 50 feet high, flanked by 
pilasters 68 feet high. On the north 
side this wall is still tolerably pre- 
served. Round the whole of the inte- 
rior ran a double colonnade or cloister 
like that surrounding the court of the 
Gentiles in the temple at Jerusalem. 
The number of columns was three 
hundred and ninety. Near the centre 
of the court is the temple proper, 65 
yards long and 34 yards wide, and still 
well preserved. In the great court is 
an Arab village of some fifty houses. 

" 2. The Street of Columns.— This ex- 
tends from the temple of the Sun west- 
ward across the plain, through the cen- 
tre of the ancient city. It was 1240 yards 
in length, and consisted of rows of col- 
umns 55 feet high. Wood thought there 
were four rows of columns, making the 
original number about fifteen hundred. 
846 



Baedeker supposes a double row having 
seven hundred and fifty columns. About 
one hundred and fifty of these are yet 
existing. 

" 3. The Tombs. — Some of these are of 
great magnificence, and appear to have 
been intended for temples as well as 
tombs. The inscriptions show that 
these tombs mostly belong to the first 
three centuries of our era. The an- 
cient name is still retained in the form 
of Thadmor." 

TA'HAN (station, camp), an Ephra- 
imite. Num. 26 : 35 ; 1 Chr. 7 : 25. 

TA'HANITES, the descendants 
of Tahan. Num. 26 : 35. 

TAHAPANES. Jer. 2 : 16. See 
Tahpanhes. 

TAHATH (station). 1. A Levite. 
1 Chr. 6 : 24, 37. 

2, 3. Two Ephraimites. 1 Chr. 7 : 20. 

TAHATH (place, station), one of 
the camping-stations of Israel in the 
wilderness. Num. 33 : 26, 27. Palmer 
notes that the difficulty at Kibroth-hat- 
taavah began with the mixed multitude, 
"or riffraff," and he found a Wddy Tah- 
meh, and " Tahmeh" denotes, in Arabic, 
" a mixed multitude in a state of sedition." 
Tahath is probably to be found in the 
region of the Tyahah Arabs, and at 
Jebel et- Tih. 

TAH'PANHES, a city on the 
Tanitic branch of the Nile, in Lower 
Egypt, and called Tahapanes and Te- 
haphnehes ; possibly the Hanes of Isa. 
30:4; Jer. 2:16: 43 : 7, 8, 9 ; 44 : 
1; 46:14; Eze. 30:18. The name 
resembles that of the Egyptian queen 
Tahpenes, referred to in 1 Kgs. 11 : 18- 
20. Jeremiah, after the murder of Ged- 
aliah, was taken to this place, and Pha- 
raoh had a palace built or restored there, 
made of clay in a brick-kiln. The chil- 
dren of Noph (Memphis) and of Taha- 
panhes are used to represent the entire 
body of the Egyptians. Jer. 2 : 16. It 
is identical with the Daphne of the 
Greeks. The site of Daphne is sup- 
posed to be marked by a mound called 
Tel Defenneh, which lies nearly in a 
direct line between the modern Zan 
and Piusium. 

TAH'PENES (head of the world f), 
the queen of Egvpt, whose sister Hadad 
married. 1 Kgs. 11 : 18-20. The Pharaoh 
belonged to the twenty-second dynasty. 

TAHRE'A (cunning), a descendant 



TAtf 



TAN 



of Saul, 1 Chr. 9 : 41 ; called Tarea in 
8 : 35. 

TAH'TIM-HODSHI, THE 
LAND OF. This is admitted to be 
an inaccurate text, but neither the Sep- 
tuagint nor the Syriac version throws 
light on the true reading. The land 
was visited by Joab while taking the 
census of the land of Israel. 2 Sam. 
24 : 6. Some make it a proper name, 
some translate it as above; others trans- 
late the first part, and make " Hodshi " 
a proper name. This is done by Fiirst, 
who makes Hodshi a city in Northern 
Palestine. Porter (in Kitto) says it was 
manifestly a section of the upper valley 
of the Jordan, probably that now called 
Ard-el-H&leh, lying deep down at the 
western base of Hermon. Merrill locates 
it at the south end of the Sea of Galilee. 

TAL'ENT. See Measures. 

TAL'ITHA-CU'MI, a phrase in 
the Syro-Chaldaic language, the lit- 
eral translation of which is given by 
the evangelist: "Damsel" (or "maid- 
en"), "arise." Mark 5 : 41. Several 
scholars contend that Talei'tha Kum is 
the true reading, corresponding with 
the Aramaic and with similar phrases 
in the Talmud. 

TAI/MAI (brotherly). 1. A son of 
Anak. Num. 13 : 22 ; Josh. 15 : 14; Jud. 
1:10. 

2. A king of Geshur, father-in-law of 
David. 2 Sam. 3:3. 

TAL'MON (oppressed), a Levite, 
one of the head-doorkeepers in the tem- 
ple, whose descendants returned with 
Zerubbabel. 1 Chr. 9 : 17; Ezr. 2 : 42 ; 
Neh. 7 : 45: 11 : 19: 12 : 25. 

TAL'MUD,THE (teaching). This 
body of Jewish laws upon all topics is 
divided into two parts — the Mishna, or 
the text, and the Gemara, or commentary. 
The Mishna ("repetition") is a collec- 
tion of various Jewish traditions, with 
expositions of Scripture-texts. These, the 
Jews pretend, were delivered to Moses 
on the mount, and were transmitted from 
him, through Aaron, Eleazar, and Joshua, 
to the prophets, and by them to the men 
of the Great Synagogue and their suc- 
cessors until the second Christian cen- 
tury. when Rabbi Jehuda reduced them to 
writing, and so he is the collector of the 
existing Mishna. The Gemara ("teach- 
ing") is the whole body of controversies 
and teachings which arose in the acade- 



mies after the close of the Mishna. There 
are two of them, known, in connection 
with the Mishna, as the Jerusalem Tal- 
mud (third and fifth century), prepared 
by the rabbis of Tiberias, and the Baby- 
lonian Talmud (fifth century). 

The Talmud is useful as an aid in 
studying the teaching of Christ. It 
explains some of his allusions, and, as 
a Teacher sent from God, proves his 
unique superiority to the Jewish doc- 
tors of the Law. 

TA'MAH (laughter), the ancestor of 
Nethinim who returned with Zerubbabel, 
Neh. 7 : 55 ; called Thamah in Ezr. 2 : 53. 

TA'MAR (palm tree). 1. The wife 
of Er and Onan successively, the sons 
of Judah. The patriarch refused to give 
her his remaining son, Shelah, and there- 
fore Tamar, in order to remove the re- 
proach of childlessness, and likewise to 
be revenged on Judah, contrived to in- 
duce the latter to unintentionally commit 
incest. The story is told in Gen. 38. 

2. The sister of Absalom, whom Am- 
non, by artifice, defiled. 2 Sam. 13; 1 
Chr. 3*: 9. 

3. A daughter of Absalom. 2 Sam. 
14 : 27. 

TA'MAR (palm tree), a place on the 
south-eastern frontier of Judah. Eze. 
47 : 19 ; 48 : 28. According to Eusebius 
and Jerome, it was a day's journey south 
of Hebron toward Elim. Robinson iden- 
tified it with the ruins of Kurnnb, about 
a day's journey south of el-Milh (Mala- 
tha or Maladah) ; Wilton identifies it with 
Hazar-gaddah ; but both these sites are 
as yet only conjectural. Some suppose 
that this, instead of Palmyra, was the 
" Tadmor in the wilderness" built by 
Solomon. See Tadmor. 

TAMMUZ (sprout of life), probably 
the same with the Adonis of Grecian 
mythology, who was fabled to have been 
killed by a wild boar while hunting, and 
to have been passionately bewailed by 
Venus. The worship of Tammuz, as 
conducted in Syria, was accompanied 
with obscene rites. It took place in 
Julv. Eze. 8 : 14. 

TA'NACH. Josh. 21 : 25. See 
Taanaoh. 

TAN'HUMETH (comfort), the 
father of a captain under Gedaliah. 
2 Kgs. 25 : 23 ; Jer. 40 : 8. 

TA'NIS. Eze. 30 : 14, margin. See 
Zoan. 

847 



TAN 



TA£ 



TAN'NER. The occupation of 
tanning was considered disreputable in 
antiquity, especially by the Jews. Ac- 
cordingly, tanners were obliged to carry 
on their trade outside of the town, as is 
the case in the East at the present day. 
Peter showed his independence in stop- 
ping with Simon, a tanner, at Joppa. 
Acts 9 : 43. 

TA'PHATH (drop), Solomon's 
daughter, who married the son of 
Abinadab. 1 Kgs. 4:11. 

TAP'PUAH {apple tree), a de- 
scendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 43. 

TAP'PUAH (apple-region), a name 
for two places. 

1. A "city in the plain-country of 
Judah, Josh. 15 : 34 : it is mentioned with 
a group of towns 10 to 15 miles west of 
Jerusalem. It is not the same as Beth- 
tappuah, which was near Hebron. 

2. A place on the border of Ephraim 
and Manasseh, Josh. 16 : 8 ; 17 : 8 ; 
probably the same as En-tappuah. Josh. 
17 : 7. Around the city was a district 
called the land of Tappuah ; the city 
belonged to Ephraim, and the land to 
Manasseh. Josh. 17 : 8. It was ap- 
parently near the torrent Kanah, but 
has not been identified. Which of the 
two places above mentioned is referred 
to in Josh. 12 : 17 is uncertain. 

TA'RAH (station), a station of the 
Israelites in the wilderness, between 
Tahath and Milcah, Num. 33 : 27, 28 ; 
possibly in the region of the Tawarah 
Arabs. 

TAR'ALAH (a reeling), a city in 
Benjamin, between Irpeel and Zelah. 
Josh. 18 : 27. 

TA'REA (.flight). See Tahrea. 

TARES, bearded darnel (Lolinm 
temtd.entnm), a grass sometimes found in 
our own grain-fields, but very common 
in Eastern countries. Matt. 13 : 25. 
Until the head appears its resemblance 
to wheat is very close. The seed is 
noxious, even when ground with wheat 
in small quantities producing dizziness, 
and in larger proportions convulsions 
and death. Many instances of such 
pernicious effects are on record, some 
having been observed in England. 
Owing to its smaller size, the grain 
of tares is readily separated from wheat 
by winnowing. Travellers describe the 
process of pulling up this grass and 
separating it from the genuine grain, 




and their descriptions perfectly accord 
with the language of our Saviour in 
the parable. 

TARGET. 1 Sam. 17: 6. See Armor. 

TARPELITES, THE, an As- 
svrian people sent to colonize Samaria. 
Ezr. 4 : 9. 

TARSHISH, and THAR'- 
SHISH (rocky ground?). 1 Kgs. 10: 
22; 22:48. In the genealogies given 
in Genesis we find "Elishah and Tar- 
shish, Kittim and Dodanim. By these 
were the isles of the Gentiles divided in 
their lands." Gen. 10 : 4, 5. We read 
of "the kings of Tarshish and of the 
isles." Ps. 72 : 10. Solomon's "ships 
went to Tarshish with the servants of 
Huram ; every three years once came 
the ships of Tarshish, bringing gold 
and silver, ivory, and apes, and pea- 
cocks." 2 Chr. 9 : 21. Tarshish is men- 
tioned with distant places: "The isles 
afar off." Isa. 66:19. It must have been 
on the seacoast, for we frequently read 
of the "ships" and the "navy" of Tar- 
shish. See 1 Kgs. 10 : 22 ; Ps. 48 : 7 ; 
Isa. 2 : 16 ; 23 : 1, 14 ; 60 : 9 ; Eze. 27 : 
25. It was the seat of a vast and profit- 
able commerce with Tyre. Eze. 27 : 
12-25. Jonah embarked from Joppa 
for Tarshish. Jon. 1:3; 4:2. 



TAB 



TAX 



Situation. — There has been much dis- 
cussion as to the site of Tarshish. 

1. Some have identified it with Tarsus 
in Cilicia. There is a similarity in the 
names, and there has always existed an 
extensive commerce between Joppa and 
Tarsus, so that vessels were constantly 
passing from one port to the other. The 
Arabs identify Tarshish with Tarsus. 
But this opinion is very slenderly 
supported. 

2. Most scholars would identify Tar- 
shish with the southern part of Spain 
and with Tartessus. This was a Phoe- 
nician colony, the emporium for the 
products of Spain as well as the Phoe- 
nician depot for the exports from Great 
Britain. Thus there was an extensive 
trade in the various products mentioned 
as carried by the ships of Tarshish. 
Eze. 27 : 12; comp. Jer. 10 : 9. But 
from the fact that ships of Tarshish 
sailed also from Ezion-geber, on the Bed 
Sea, 1 Kgs. 9 : 26 ; 22 : 48 ; 2 Chr. 9 : 
21 ; 20 : 36, some have inferred that 
there was also a Tarshish in the re- 
mote East. Others, however, suppose 
that "ships of Tarshish" was the gen- 
eral name for a certain class of vessels 
fitted for long voyages, like the British 
East Indiamen. 

TAR'SHISH. One of the seven 
princes of Persia. Esth. 1 : 13, 14. 

TAR'SUS, celebrated as the birth- 
place of the apostle Paul. Acts 9:11, 
30 ; 11 : 25 : 21 : 39 : 22 : 3. It was the 
capital of Cilicia, in Asia Minor, and 
"no mean city." It stood in the centre 
of a spacious and fertile plain, 12 miles | 
from the Mediterranean, which lay to the 
south, and about the same distance from j 
the Taurus range, on the north. The 
city stood on both banks of the river | 
Cydnus, which has since changed its 
channel. At the mouth of the river 
were docks, and the port of Tarsus 
was a place of much commerce, being, 
indeed, identified by some writers with 
Tarshish, which see. 

Tarsus was said to have been founded 
by the Assyrian Sardanapalus. It suf- 
fered severely during the civil wars fol- 
lowing the assassination of Caesar. Au- 
gustus made it a free city. It possessed 
a Roman stadium and gymnasium, and 
became famous as the seat of one of 
the three great universities of the pagan 
world, ranking next to Athens and 
54 



Alexandria. The imperial family of 
Rome selected tutors from the literati 
of Tarsus. Hence the boyhood of the 
apostle Paul was passed in a city not 
only of great commercial importance, 
but one offering opportunities for secu- 
lar learning as well. The modern city 
is called Tersous. It stands about a 
mile from the Cydnus, and is a mean 
Turkish town with narrow and filthy 
streets and low, flat-roofed houses. The 
population is about 30,000 during the 
winter season. In summer it is re- 
duced to 4000 or 5000 by the migration 
of the inhabitants on account of the 
miasma, which renders the city un- 
healthy. 

TAR'TAK (prince of darkness), one 
of the gods of the Arvites, colonists 
whom Shalmaneser placed in Samaria 
to occupy the land after the original 
inhabitants had been removed. 2 Kgs. 
17 : 31. It has been identified with 
the Accadian god Turtak, who specially 
watched over the Tigris. 

TARTAN. 2 Kgs. 18 : 17. It is 
the name of an office — commander-in- 
chief of an army — not a proper name. 

TAT'NAI [gift), a Persian governor 
in Palestine. Ezr*. 5 : 3, 6; 6:6, 13. 

TAVERNS, THE THREE, a 
place where some of the "brethren" 
came to meet Paul on his journey to 
Rome, and by their coming the apostle 
took fresh courage. Acts 28 : 13-15. 
It was on the Appian Way, 33 miles 
south-east from Rome, and 10 miles 
from Appii Forum. It was also at the 
junction of the road from Antium, 
and a great number of travellers passed 
through it. It may have taken its name 
from the three taverns or places of re- 
freshment for travellers. But Luke does 
not translate the Roman word, but simply 
transfers it into Greek as " Tres Ta- 
bernae." There are no remains of The 
Three Taverns by name at the present 
day, but the site may be placed near 
the modern Cistema. 

TAXES. As the government of the 
Jews shifted from the lax rule of the 
Judges to the firmer hold of the kings, 
and from a domestic to a foreign power, 
the taxes and the mode of their collec- 
tion likewise altered. Taxes were first 
exacted for religious purposes — for the 
support of the priests and Levites. 
They were called the Tithks, First- 
849 



TAX 



TAX 



fruits, and the Redemption-money 
(see separate titles). "The payment 
by each Israelite of the half shekel as 
atonement-money for the service of the 
tabernacle on taking the census of the 
people, Ex. 30 : 13, does not appear to 
have had the character of a recurring 
tax, but to have been supplementary to 
the freewill-offering levied for the con- 
struction of the sacred tent." Ex. 25 : 
1-7. The taxes were light; when the 
Jews got a king their burdens were 
largely increased. In addition to forced 
military service, heavy taxes were laid 
upon the productions, monopolies sprang 
up. 1 Kgs. 10 : 28, 29. We find the most 
detailed account of these taxes in the 
history of Solomon's reign, but doubt- 
less the same phenomena appeared in 
all subsequent reigns. Great complaints 
were made. 1 Kgs. 12 : 4. The idolatry 
of the king occasioned less anxiety than 
his extravagance. The pocket is touched 
sooner than the heart. The Persians, 
H!ce all conquerors, required the con- 
quered to pay heavily. A wise man 
like Nehemiah did what he could to 
lessen the evils, but he was only par- 
tially successful. He exercised economy, 
and refused for himself the usual sup- 
plies furnished for the governor. Neh. 
5 : 14. Read Neh. 5:1-11 for a sad 
picture of the times. This taxation 
led, apparently, to such a neglect of 
the tithes that a special poll-tax of 
one-third, Neh. 10 : 33, afterward in- 
creased to one-half, a shekel was laid 
for the temple-services. The latter 
amount was exacted in N. T. times. 
Matt. 17 :*24. 

During the Graeco-Egyptian period, 
which followed, there was a continuance 
of oppression, owing to the wretched 
system of "farming" the revenues. 
This, of course, led to incalculable 
troubles. After the Romans had made 
themselves masters of Palestine thev 
left the collection of the taxes to the 
native kings, who were required to send 
a large tribute yearly to Rome. But 
when the Jewish kings gave way to 
Roman governors, then the system of 
tax-collection so familiar to us by the 
N. T. came into vogue. It was a tax 
on poll and ground, on product of field 
and hand. " There were duties to be 
paid at harbors and the gates of cities, 
and there was also a house-tax in Jeru- 
850 



salem, but Agrippa I. remitted it." 
Under these payments the people 
groaned, but particularly because it 
was a galling proof of their subjection. 

TAXING, DAYS OF THE, 
mentioned in Luke 2 : 2. Properly it 
was an enrolment, like our census, but, 
as its object was taxation, there was a 
registration of property. It was held, 
under an imperial order, through all the 
Roman world. We read of another en- 
rolment in Acts 5 : 37. That Joseph and 
Mary were enrolled proves that the Ro- 
man and the Jewish usages were em- 
ployed — tribal registration, which was 
the Jewish usage, supplemented by fam- 
ily, "for the Romans required the enrol- 
ment of women, and possibly their actual 
presence at the place of enrolment. This 
mixture of Roman and Jewish usage, so 
likely to occur in an enrolment made 
under a Jewish king, yet by order of the 
Roman emperor, is a strong proof of the 
accuracy of Luke's account." And yet 
upon this circumstance depended the 
Bethlehemic birth of Jesus ! " The Sa- 
viour of the world was registered in the 
first census of the world." There is no 
direct proof that Augustus ordered a 
universal census, but it is reasonably 
inferred, from the known fact that he 
prepared a list of all the resources of 
his empire, which was read in the 
senate after his death. Herod mani- 
festly could not resist such an order, 
inasmuch as he was but a tributary 
king. And, as Dr. Woolsey says, "if 
the census was made under the direc- 
tion of the president of Syria, by Jew- 
ish officers, it would not greatly differ 
from a similar registration made by 
Herod, nor need it have alarmed the 
Jews if carefully managed." 

The interesting question in connection 
with this enrolment is, "How can we 
vindicate the veracity of Scripture in say- 
ing that it was first made when Cyreni- 
us (P. Sulpicius Quirinius) was governor 



of 



To this question, for a long 



time, no definite answer could be given. 
It formed one of the commonplaces of 
infidelity. Josephus states that Quirinius 
came to Judaea as imperial legate, and 
in A. n. 6 or 7 he completed a census. 
But this date is ten years after our Lord's 
bi'th. The best explanation of the 
difficulty is to maintain that Quirinius 
was tioice governor of Syria, as lately 



TEA 



TEL 



proved — the first time before Christ's 
birth, or b. c. 4-1 ; the second time, 
A. d. 6 onward. See Cyrenius. 

TEARS. Allusion is supposed to 
be made in Ps. 56 : 8 to an ancient 
custom, which was preserved among the 
Romans, of collecting the falling tears 
of mourners at funerals and putting 
them into a bottle or urn, called a 
*' lachrymatory," or "tear-bottle." The 
vessel was afterward fixed upon the 
sepulchres of the dead, thus seeming to 
preserve a memorial of the affection and 
grief of the survivors. 

TE'BAH {slaughter), eldest of the 
sons of Nahor by his concubine Reumah. 
Gen. 22 : 24. 

TEBALI'AH {Jehovah purifies), 
third son of Hosah, of the children of 
Merari. 1 Chr. 26 :11. 

TE'BETH. Esth.2:16. See Month. 

TEETH. Gen. 49 : 12. See Tooth. 

TEHAPHNEHES. Eze. 30 : 18. 
See Tahpanhes. 

TEHIN'NAH {cry for mercy), the 
father or founder of Ir-nahash — the city 
of Nahash — and son of Eshton. 1 Chr. 
4:12. 

TEIL TREE. The word thus 
rendered in Isa. 6 : 13 is translated 
"elm" in Hos. 4:13 and "oak" in 
many passages, which are mentioned 
under Oaks. See also Nuts. In most, 
perhaps all, of these places the terebinth 
(Pistacia of several species) is doubtless 
meant. 

This tree has pinnate leaves, small 
red berries, and belongs to the order of 
the sumac. According to the writer's 
observation, the terebinth was most 
abundant in the North of Palestine, and 
especially above Lake Merom, where 
some of these trees were very sym- I 
metrical, dense, and spreading, with 
luxuriant foliage of a blue-green, afford- 
ing a delightful shelter, if not appropri- ' 
ated as Arab burying-places. Such 
specimens show that the terebinth, if j 
suffered to reach age, is a noble tree, and 
that Absalom might easily have been 
■caught in riding under one of them. It 
is an Eastern idea that this tree lives a ; 
thousand years, and when it dies the race 
is renewed by young shoots from the : 
root: so that the tree may, in a sense, 
be caller! perpetual. Hence the allusion 
in Isa. 6:13. 

" In Smyrna, Constantinople, and other 



Eastern cities the cypress overshadows 
the Muslim's grave, but the terebinth 
the Armenian's. They say that this 
homeless people brought this tree with 
them from the shores of Lake Van, and 
love to see those who are dear to them 
sheltered in their last sleep by its ances- 
tral shade." — Warburton. 

TE'REL. Dan. 5 : 25. See Mene. 

TEKO'A, and TEKO'AH (pitch- 
ing of tents?), a city on the borders of 
the desert to which it gave its name: 
" The wilderness of Tekoah." 2 Chr. 20 : 
20 ; Jer. 6:1. Perhaps founded by Ashur. 

1 Chr. 2 : 24 ; 4:5: fortified by Reho- 
boam. 2 Chr. 11 : 6. The "wise woman" 
who interceded for Absalom resided here, 

2 Sam. 14 : 2, 4, 9, and here also was the 
j birthplace and residence of the prophet 

Amos. Am. 1 : 1. Tekoa was situated 
about 5 miles south of Bethlehem, at a 
place still called Tek'ua, on a broad hill- 
top. The region is bleak and desolate, 
and the inhabitants wild and uncivil. 
There is a fine view toward the east, and 
the Dead Sea is visible. " The ruins at 

; this place are extensive [covering 4 or 5 

I acres], but uninteresting. To the east 

; are many excavated caves and cisterns, 
but the town itself is simply a heap of 

! ruins, the stones of which are small and 
friable." There are ruins of a Greek 
church and baptismal font and of a fort- 

; ress. 

TEKO'ITES, inhabitants of Te- 

! koa. 2 Sam. 23 : 26; 1 Chr. 11 : 28 ; 27 : 

j 9 : Neh. 3 : 5, 27. 

TEX/ABIB (corn-hill), a city of 
Chaldaea or Babylonia, on the river 
Chebar, the residence of Ezekiel. Eze. 
3: 15. 

TE'LAH (breach), an Ephraimite. 

! 1 Chr. 7 : 25. 

TEL/AIM (young lambs), the place 

i where Saul collected and numbered his 

1 host before his attack on Amalek. 1 Sam. 
15 : 4. Possibly it may be identical with 

| Telein, as suggested by Wilton, who sup- 
poses it to have been at El Kuseir, a 
ruin between the Dead Sea and Beer- 
sheha. See Tkt/em. 

TELASSAR, and THELASAR 
(the hill of Asshur), a place inhabited by 
the "children of Eden " and subdued by 
the Assyrians. 2 Kgs. 19 : 12; Isa. 37 : 
12. Rawlinson puts it in Western Meso- 
potamia, near Harran and Orfa; Layard 
at Tell Afer, 40 miles west of Mosul. 
851 



TEL 



TEM 



TE'LEM {oppression), a temple- j 
porter. Ezr. 10 : 24. 

TE'LEM {oppression), a city in the 
South of Judah, occurring between Ziph 
and Bealoth. Josh. 15: 24. It is possibly 
identical with Telaiji, which see. Wil- 
ton associates it with Dhullam, a district 
south-east of Beersheba, in the neigh- 
borhood of Moladah {el- Milk), and per- 
haps, it may be, at Kubbet el-Baul. 

TELHARE'SHA, and TEL- 
HAR'SA {forest kill), a place in 
Babylonia from which some Jews who 
could not prove their pedigree returned 
to Judaea with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 59; 
Neh. 7 : 61. Rawlinson thinks it was in 
the low country near the sea; Fiirst 
places it in Upper Mesopotamia, on the 
Chebar. 

TEL-NELAH (salt hill), a place 
in Babylonia from which persons of 
doubtful pedigree returned. Ezr. 2 : 59 ; 
Neh. 7 : 61. Rawlinson would identify 
it with a city near the Persian Gulf, the 
Thelme of Ptolemy; Fiirst would place 
this also near to Tel-harsa, in Upper 
Mesopotamia. 

TE'MA (south desert), an Ishmaelite 
tribe descended from Tema, Gen. 25 : 15 ; 
1 Chr. 1 : 30, and settled in Arabia. Tema 
is mentioned with Sheba, Job 6:19, and 
with Dedan. Isa. 21:14; Jer. 25 : 23. 
On the great caravan-road from Damas- 
cus to Mecca and on the eastern border 
of Syria is a town called Teyma', near 
Dumah and Kedar, which is supposed to 
represent Tema. 

TE'JMAN (south desert), a country 
named from the oldest son of Eliphaz, the 
son of Esau. Gen. 36:11. These people 
were called Temani, or Temanites, and 
seem to have been noted for wisdom. 
Jer. 49 : 7 ; Ob. 9. They are especially 
mentioned in the prediction against 
Edom. Jer. 49 : 7 ; Eze. 25 : 13 ; Am. 1 : 
12; Ob. 9; Hab. 3 : 3. Their eountry 
seems to have been the south-eastern 
part of Edom, the land of "the sons of 
the east." Eusebius and Jerome men- 
tion a Tern an 15 miles from Petra. 

TEMANI, and TEMANITE. 
Gen. 36 : 34 ; Job 2:11, etc. See Teman. 

TEM'ENI, the father of Tekoa. 1 
Chr. 4 : 6. 

TEMPERANCE, in the A. V., 
does not mean moderation only in the 
use of wine or other drink, but self-con- 
trol leading to moderation in everything. 
852 



It is to be regretted that this good word 
should be doubly perverted — first in the 
direction mentioned above, and second 
to mean total abstinence from drink. 
This perversion leads to inaccurate 
thinking. 1 Cor. 9 : 25. 

TEMPLE, the sacred edifice erected 
at Jerusalem upon Mount Moriah. See 
Jerusalem. In its general form it 
resembled its prototype, the tabernacle, 
after which it was modelled. There are 
three temples mentioned in the Bible. 
We shall treat them in their historic 
order. 

1. The Temple of Solomon. — The idea 
of building a temple to take the place of 
the tabernacle as the permanent place 
of worship for the Jewish Church was 
first, it would seem, the idea of David. 
1 Chr. 17 : 1. And, although forbidden 
by the Lord from beginning the work, 
he ever held it in mind, and joyfully 
accumulated from the spoils of his 
enemies and from the revenue of his 
kingdom a fund for this purpose. In 
1 Chr. 22 : 14 the amount is thus given 
in the chronicler's report of David's 
speech to Solomon : " I have prepared 
for the house of the Lord one hundred 
thousand talents of gold and one million 
talents of silver, and of brass and of iron 
without weight." Reckoning the talent 
of silver at 3000 shekels of silver, and 
the talent of gold as worth sixteen times 
that of silver, this amount of money, put 
into our coinage, would be, according to 
Lange (Commentary, in loco): Silver, 
$1,710,000,000: gold, $2,737,500,000: 
total, $4,447,500,000— "a sum incredibly 
high for the requirements of worship at 
that time." But, reckoning the shekel 
after the king's weight, or half the value 
of the shekel of the sanctuary, then the 
above sum is cut down one-half, and we 
can parallel it from secular history. 

Besides gold and silver, David collect- 
ed immense quantities of brass (bronze 
or copper), iron, stone, timber, etc., and 
he secured skilful mechanics and arti- 
ficers for every branch of the work. 1 
Chr. 22 ; 29 : 4, 7. He also furnished 
the design, plan, and location of the 
building ; in all which he was divinely 
instructed. 1 Chr. 21; 22; 28:11-19. 
He was not permitted, however, to see a 
single step taken in its erection. 1 Kgs. 
5 : 3. The superintendence of the build- 
ing was committed to Solomon, the son 



TEM 



TEM 



and successor of David, who commenced 
the work in the fourth year of his reign. 
There were 183,600 Jews and strangers 
employed on it — of Jews 30,000, by ro- 
tation 10,000 a month ; of Canaanites, 
153,600, ol whom 70,000 were bearers of 
burdens, 80,000 hewers of wood and 
stone, and 3600 overseers. The parts 
were all prepared at a distance from the 



site of the building, and when they were 
brought together the whole immense 
structure was erected without the sound 
of hammer, axe, or any tool of iron, 1 
Kgs. 6 : 7, and at the end of seven and 
a half years it stood complete in all its 
splendor, the glory of Jerusalem, and 
the most magnificent edifice in the 
world, b. c. 1005. 




Level of the Temple-Platform. (After Beswick, 1875.) 



Like the tabernacle, it had its front 
toward the east. All the arrangements 
of the temple were identical with those 
of the tabernacle, and the dimensions 
of every part exactly double those of the 
previous structure. 

We shall give an idea of the temple 
of Solomon by condensing the account 
in Stanley's History of the Jewish Church, 
Lecture 27. On the eastern side was a 
cloister or colonnade. The later kings, 
however, continued it all around. This 
portico opened on a large quadrangle, 
surrounded by a wall, partly of stone, 
partly of cedar, and planted with trees. 
Within this quadrangle was a smaller 
court, on the highest ridge of the hill, 
which enclosed the place of David's sac- 
rifice — the rocky threshing-floor of Arau- 
nah the Jebusite. This rock was levelled 
and filled up, so as to make a platform 
for the altar, which was a square chest 
of wood, plated outside with brass, fill- 
ed inside with stones and earth, with the 
fire on a brass grating at the top, the 
whole placed on a mass of rough stone. 
South of the altar was the brazen laver, 
supported on twelve brazen bulls. This 
was used for the ablutions of the priests 
as they walked to and fro barefooted 
over the rocky platform. On each side 
were the ten lesser movable vessels of 
brass, on wheels, for the washing of the 
entrails. Round about the lesser court, 
in two or three stories raised above each 
other, were chambers for the priests and 
other persons of rank. 2 Chr. 31:11; 
Jer. 36:10. In the corners were the 
kitchens and boiling-apparatus, Eze, 



46 : 20-24. Each had brazen gates. 2 
Chr. 4:9. In the court was the " tem- 
ple " properly so called. In front towered 
the porch, in height more than 200 feet. 
Behind it was a lower edifice, lessening 
in height as it approached its extremity. 
On the sides were small chambers, enter- 
ed only from without through a sandal- 
wood dopr on the south, and gilded 
chambers above them accessible to the 
king alone. 1 Kgs. 6 : 8. The two elab- 
orate pillars called Jachin and Boaz 
stood immediately under the porch. 
Within, another pair of folding-doors 
led into the holy place. It would have 
been almost dark were it not that, in 
place of the original single seven- 
branched candlestick, ten now stood on 
ten tafres. five on each side. 1 Kgs. 7 : 
49. Within the chamber were the table 
of shew-bread and altar of incense. The 
holy of holies was separated from the 
holy place by a " wall of partition," 
penetrated, however, by folding-doors 
of olive-wood, over which hung a party- 
colored curtain embroidered with cher- 
ubs and flowers. 1 Kgs. 6:31. The 
holy of holies was a small square cham- 
ber, absolutely dark except by the light 
received through this aperture. In it 
were two huge golden figures, standing 
upright on their feet, on each side of the 
ark, which rested upon a protuberance 
of rough rock. Above the ark the wings 
of these cherubim met. The walls of 
the chambers which ran round the rest 
of the building were not allowed to lean 
against the outer walls of this sanc- 
tuary. 

853 



TEM 



TEM 



The quarries of Solomon have recently 
been discovered under the present city 
of Jerusalem, near the Damascus-gate. 
They are very extensive, and to-day 
exhibit, in partially-excavated blocks of 
stone, the evidence of the monarch's 
architectural tastes and requirements. 

The temple of Solomon stood, alto- 
gether, four hundred and twenty-four 
years, but it was plundered by Shishak, 
king of Egypt, during the reign of Re- 
hoboam. 1 Kgs. 14 : 25, 26. After this 
it was frequently profaned and pillaged, 
and was at last broken down and de- 
stroyed by the king of Babylon, and the 
nation itself carried into captivity, 2 
Kgs. 25 : 8, 9, 13-17 ; 2 Chr. 36 : 18, 19, 
B. c. 598. 

2. The Temple of Zerubbabel — In 
B. c. 536, Cyrus the Persian, conqueror 
of Babylon, gave permission to the Jews 
to return. Many availed themselves of 
the opportunity, and returned in a great 
caravan under Zerubbabel. The latter, 
as Jewish governor, and Joshua, the 
high priest, superintended the people in 
rebuilding the temple. Cyrus permitted 
and encouraged them to do this work, 
and in the second year after their return 
they laid the foundation. Ezr. 3 : 8. 
Owing to the opposition of their enemies, 
it was not, however, completed until 
twenty years had gone by, B. c. 515. 
The story of this long struggle and 
trouble is told in the book of Ezra. 

This second temple, though inferior in 
many respects to the first — having no 
ark, no mercy-seat, no visible revelation 
of the divine glory, no sacred fire, no 
Urim and Thummim, and no spirit of 
prophecy, Ezr. 3 : 12, 13 — still was in 
breadth and height, in almost every di- 
mension, one->third larger than Solo- 
mon's. In three particulars the gene- 
ral arrangements differed from those of 
the ancient sanctuary : (1) There were 
no trees in the courts; (2) At the north- 
western corner was a fortress-tower, the 
residence of the Persian, afterward of 
the Roman, governor; (3) The court of 
the worshippers was divided into two 
compartments, of which the outer en- 
closure was known as the court of the 
Gentiles or heathens. It furnished a 
fixed place of worship for the nation, 
and ultimately became the theatre of far 
more glorious illustrations of the divine 
attributes than the first temple ever wit- 
8H 



nessed. Hag. 2:6-9; Mai. 3:1; Col. 2 : 
9; 1 Tim. 3:16. 

3. The Temple of Herod.— The tem- 
ple of Zerubbabel had stood nearly five 
hundred years and was much decayed 
when Herod the Great, with a view to 
secure the favor of the Jews and obtain 
to himself a great name, undertook to 
rebuild it; so that it was not a new edi- 
fice, strictly speaking, but rather a com- 
plete repair of the second temple. He 
began the work twenty years before the 
birth of Christ, and completed the main 
building in one year and a half, and the 



.„.,,. 






-f 




3— 1 




1 ROYALClOISTtflS 


r 




"THE TEMPLE o ; 

COURT OFlHECENTUEsf: 





4- 






imtonmI 




p — D 


SB* 


1 










ituli 




BRIDCE 


; THE TEMPLE 



Reconstruction of the Temple. 
1. According to Wilkinson: 2. According to Fergus- 
son ; 3. According to Porter ; 4. According to Lewiu. 

adjoining buildings in eight years. But 
the work was not entirely ended till 
A. D. 64, under Herod Agrippa II. So 
the statement in John 2 : 20 is correct. 
We shall describe the temple as it stood 
in the days of our Saviour, condensing 
in the main the statements of F. R. and 
C. R. Conder in the Handbook to the 
Bible (N. Y., 1879). The temple was 
located in the present Haram enclosure, 
the wall of which has been most care- 
fully and elaborately surveyed. See 
Quarterly Statement for January, 1880, 
of the Palestine Exploration Fund. 
The building stood upon the top of 
Mount Moriah, but not in the middle 
of the area, which was 500 cubits square 
(cubit = 16 ip.). Along the ramparts of 



TEM 



TEM 



the temple-hill ran double cloisters or 
arcades, and there the money-changers 
sat. Matt. 21 : 12. The royal cloister 
was triple, and was on the south side ; 
Solomon's Porch was on the east. The 
pillars could hardly be spanned by three 
men ; two of them still exist. The en- 
closure was entered through five gates. 
The gate Shushan was directly opposite 
to the temple proper. There were sev- 
eral courts about the temple which were 
upon different levels. The outer court, 
or court of the Gentiles, came first, then 
the court of the women, the court of Is- 
rael, the court of the priests, and then 
the temple itself. Between the first two 
came the "soreg" ("interwoven"), or 
'•'middle wall of partition." Eph. 2 : 14. 
It had thirteen openings; upon it, at in- 
tervals, were square pillars with Greek 
inscriptions, threatening death to the un- 
circumcised intruder. The charge that 
Paul had brought such a Greek into the 
enclosure aroused the Jerusalem mob. 
Acts 21 : 28. The court of the women, had 
4 chambers, and was so called, not because 
it was set apart exclusively for their 
use, but because they were not allowed to 
come any nearer the temple. There were 
three gates, of which the eastern, cover- 
ed with gold, was the larger. The women 
had a gallery above the cloister, erected 
in order to avoid the crowding at the 
feast of tabernacles. In this court were 
probably the thirteen money-chests, 
Mark 12 : 41. The court of Israel, 10 
cubits by 135, was fifteen steps higher 
up, and upon them the fifteen Songs of 
Degrees (Ps. 120-134, inclusive) were 
sung. The musical instruments were 
kept there. It was merely a platform, 
and had no cloisters or coiumns. Only 
men especially purified could enter it. 
The court of the priests, or sanctuary, 
135 by 176 cubits, was 2£ cubits higher 
than the court of Israel, the wall being 
1 cubit high, with three steps above it. 
On the wall there was a platform, from 
which the priests blessed the people. 
There was no communication between 
this court and the lower, except through 
the side-chambers of the gate Nicanor, 
which stood above the fifteen steps 
already mentioned. The court of the 
prirsts had seven gates. The south- 
eastern gate was called the Water-gate, 
because the water used in the feast of 
tabernacles was brought through it. 



j There were no cisterns within the court, 
i and the altar was joined to the earth, 
having no excavations under it. The 
north-western gate was called Moked 
("hearth"), and was the guard-house 
of the priests who kept watch round the 
| fire, whence the name. The north-east- 
ern gate was called Nitzotz ("promi- 
nence"), because it was a kind of out- 
standing tower. Above the Water-gate 
was a room called Aphtinas, in which 
the incense was made. The Sanhedrin, 
: which see, sat in the so-called Pavement, 
or chamber of hewn stone, which opened 
! on this court. In this court, directly 
I before the temple, was the altar, which 
I was built of solid stone, cemented, 
whitewashed at intervals, and had a 
j line of red paint drawn round it. See 
! Altar. Lieut. Conder points out that 
j the Talmudic description indicates a 
much ruder structure than is usually 
supposed. There were holes in the foun- 
dation through which the blood flowed 
into drains, and a man-hole to facilitate 
the examination of the drains. To the 
left was the laver. 

We come now to the temple, and, con- 
tinuing to take the guidance of the 
Handbook, give the following facts : The 
facade of the temple was a square of 100 
cubits, and was gilded. The entrance of 
the temple was 20 cubits wide and 40 
high. Over it hung the golden vine, 
supported, probably, by nails. The 
temple was of two stories ; in the lower 
there were thirty-eight chambers in 
three tiers; in the upper, none. The 
holy house was entered from the porch 
by a gate 20 cubits high and 10 broad, 
with double doors, opening out and in ; 
before it hung a veil of equal width 
with the doors. Before the entrance to 
the holy of holies hung two veils or two 
curtains, 1 cubit apart, and, inasmuch 
as the opening of the outer curtain was 
upon the north, while the inner was on 
the south, no glimpse of the holy of 
holies could be obtained by any one but 
the high priest. (See Handbook to the 
Bible, p. 123.) 

The allusions to the second (third) 
temple are neither many nor important. 
The scene of the purification of Mary, 
Luke 2 : 22, must have been at the gate 
Nicanor, since here it took place. The 
Child Jesus was found amid the doctors 
of the Law, who sat on the steps of the 
855 



TEM 



TEM 




Tlan of Herod's Temple. 



1. The Holy of Holies. 

2. The Hoiy Place. 

3. The Court of the Priests. 

temple-courts. Luke 2 : 46. The Beau- 
tiful Gate, Acts 3 : 2, was probably the 
entrance from the Tyropoeon bridge to 
the beautiful southern cloister built by 
Herod. The castle of Antonia, from 
which, by a secret passageway, the 
Roman soldiery could be poured down 
into the temple-area to preserve order — 
as nota'dy to rescue Paul, Acts 21 : 31, 32 
— was situated upon the north-western 
corner of the outer cloister, and had four 
towers with a large interior space. It 
was arranged by John Hyrcanus for a 
residence, and enlarged by Herod. 

This third temple was destroyed by 
the Romans on Friday, 9th day of Ab 
(August), A. n. 70, and the prophecy of 
Jesus was literally fulfilled. Matt. 24 : 
2. The emperor Julian endeavored to 
rebuild it, A. D. 363. To this end he 
advanced funds from the public treasury 
and applied the contributions from the 
856 



4. Altar of Burnt-Offering. 

5. Inner Gate of Temple. 

6. Court of the Women. 



Jews, who were enthusiastic over the 
proposition. But the work met with a 
check from an unexpected quarter. God 
used Nature to defeat the plan : " As the 
workmen dug down to the foundations 
terrific explosions took place: what 
seemed balls of fire burst forth ; the 
works were shattered to pieces ; clouds 
of smoke and dust enveloped the whole 
in darkness, broken only by the wild and 
fitful glare of the flames. Again the 
work was renewed by the obstinate zeal 
of the Jews; again they were repelled 
by this unseen and irresistible power, till 
they cast away their implements and 
abandoned the work in humiliation and 
despair." — Milman : History of Chris- 
tianity, vol. iii. p. 27. 

There stands to-day, upon the site of 
the temple, a Mohammedan mosque, the 
Dome of the Rock, so called from the 
famous Sakhrah, or Holy Rock, which, 



TEM 



TER 



according to Mohammedan tradition, at- I 
tempted to follow Mohammed on his | 
memorable night-journey to heaven, but 
was held back by the band of the arch- 
angel Gabriel : in proof, both the " foot- 
print of Mohammed" and the "hand- 
print of Gabriel " are shown. Some 
consider that this rock was the site of 
the great altar of burnt-offering. In 
confirmation is adduced the hole in the 
rock, and the cave under it, which, upon 
this hypothesis, was the cesspool. 

Up to quite recent times the Haram, 
as the enclosure containing the site of 
the temple is called, was closed to all 
non-Mohammedans, but the pressure 
brought to bear after the Crimean war 
(1856) was too great, and now travellers 
find no difficulty in gaining admittance. 

TEMPLE, CAPTAIN OF. 
See Captain of the Temple. 

TEMPT, Matt. 22 : 18, TEMP- 
TA'TION. Luke 4:13. These words 
are used in various senses. The ordi- 
nary import of them is allurement or 
enticement to sin. Hence our great ad- 
versary the devil is called " the tempter." 
Matt. 4 : 3. They also denote the trial 
of a person's faith or obedience, Gen. 
22 : 1 ; Jas. 1 : 2, 3, or the trial of God's 
patience and forbearance. Ex. 17 : 2 ; 1 
Cor. 10 : 9. The prayer. " Lead us not 
into temptation," Matt. 6 : 13, does not 
imply that God leads us into sin, Jas. 
1:13. 14, but it is a prayer that he may 
guard and protect us from temptation. 
When it is said that the lawyer and 
others tempted our Saviour, Matt. 16 : 
1 ; 19 : 3 ; Mark 10 : 2 ; Luke 10 : 25. it 
is meant that they tried to ensnare him 
or lead him into the commission of some 
offence. 

TEN COMMANDMENTS, 
THE. By this title the writing con- 
tained on the two tables of stone given 
on Mount Sinai is usually designated. 
But the phrase, in the original, is "the 
ten words," and it were well to retain it. 
The Greek word decalogue exactly ex- 
presses the Hebrew. " The word of the 
Lord," the constantly-recurring term for 
the fullest revelation, was higher than 
any phrase expressing merely a com- 
mand, and carried with it more the idea 
of a self-fulfilling power. Other phrases 
for the t' n words are " the words of the 
covenant," " the tables of testimony," or 
more briefly " the testimony," Ex, 25 : 



16; 31 :18, etc. The chest which con- 
tained the two tables was therefore called 
the ark of the covenant; the tent under 
whose cover the tables rested became the 
tabernacle of witness or of testimony. 
Ex. 38 : 21 ; Num. 17 : 7 : 2 Chr. 24 : 6, 
etc. The ten words, originally spoken, 
j Ex. 20 : 1, were written by the finger of 
| God on two stone tablets, Ex. 24:12; 
! but Moses having broken them in his 
anger, those the Jews possessed were 
duplicates. Ex. 34 : 1. 

It is common to assign four "words" 
to the first table and six to the second. 
But the command to honor parents is 
I based upon the Fatherhood of God, and 
j is a religious duty. St. Paul, in Bom. 
13 : 9, enumerates only five commands as 
applying to man exclusively. 

It is at least possible that all the com- 
mandments were in the concise legal 
form in which some are expressed. The 
"reasons annexed" are probably mere 
scholia, or notes, which crept into the 
text, or else verbal commentary of God, 
made at the time. In this way the 
discrepancy between Ex. 20 and Deut. 5 
is easiest removed. 

The number ten symbolizes the com- 
prehensiveness and completeness of this 
moral law. The first table, with five 
commandments, enjoins the duties to 
God; the second, with five command- 
ments, the duties to our neighbor. All 
these duties are comprehended and sum- 
med up in this : Thou shalt love God 
supremely, and thy neighbor as thyself. 
Love is the fulfilment of the whole law. 
Matt. 22 : 37, 38 ; Rom. 13 : 9 ; Gal. 5 : 
14; Jas. 2:8. 

The civil and ceremonial law of the 
Jewish theocracy rested on the Decalogue, 
and is divided into seven groups, each 
with ten commandments. 

TENT. See Dwellings. 

TENTH DEAL. See Measures. 
. T ENT- MAKERS. Acts 18 : 3. 
Tent-making is said to have been Paul's 
trade, but the word so translated is 
supposed to refer to the manufacture of 
tent-cloth rather than to the preparing 
of tents. Some suppose that he made 
military tents, the material of which was 
goatskins. 

TE'RAH (loiterer), the father of 

Abraham, who accompanied him to Ha- 

ran, in Mesopotamia, where he died at 

the age of two hundred and five, Abraham 

§57 



TEE 



TET 



being then seventy-five years of age. 
Gen. 11 : 31, 32. 

TERAPHIM (givers of prosperity). 
The word is sometimes left untranslated ; 
elsewhere "images," Gen. 31 : 19, 34, 35 ; 
1 Sam. 19 : 16 ; " idolatry." 1 Sam. 15 : 
23. The derivation is not settled. Ge- 
senius takes it from a root meaning " to 
be rich," so the teraphim dispensed 
prosperity. From the passages quoted 
it is plain that this word denotes house- 
hold idol-gods or images. But since 
these were used as means of supernatural 
knowledge, they might be found in pos- 
session of those who were not idolaters. 
There is a very remarkable occurrence 
of the word in Hos. 3 : 4, where teraphim 
are associated with idolatry. They were 




Teraphim. 

small images, resembling the human form, 
and were regarded as oracles. 

The use of teraphim came to the He- 
brews from the family of Laban, for they 
were Aramaic deities. But, once intro- 
duced, they were tenaciously held to. 
We find them mentioned in a familiar 
way in the historical books. Jud. 18 : 1 7 ; 
1 Sam. 19 : 13, 16; 2 Kgs. 23 : 24, etc. 
They were not idols in the worst sense. 
They were used by Jehovah-worship- 
pers acquainted with the second com- 
mandment. Thus we find a Levite 
in Micah's family using them, and in 
David's house were teraphim. 1 Sam. 19 : 
13. But in the days of the prophets they 
858 



were denounced as idolatrous, and Josiah 
destroyed them, 2 Kgs. 23 : 24, margin 
— an indication of the growth of correct 
religious feeling and the spread of know- 
ledge. 

In regard to their size and appearance 
nothing definite is known. Probably 
they were varied. They may best be 
compared to the household penates of the 
classic world. 

TEREBINTH. See Teil Tree. 

TE'RESH (severe), one of two 
eunuchs who conspired againet Ahasu- 
erus. Esth. 2:21; 6:2. 

TER'TIUS (the third), Paul's 
amanuensis, to whom he dictated the 
Epistle to the Romans. Rom. 16 : 22. 

TERTUL'LUS (diminutive of 
" Tertius "'), a lawyer, probably a Roman, 
who, in consequence of their lack of 
familiarity with Roman forms of law, 
was hired by the Jews to act as prosecu- 
tor in the case of Paul before Felix. Acts 
24 : 1-9. 

TESTAMENT. Heb. 9 : 15. The 
word "testament," when applied to our 
Scriptures (as "the Old and New Testa- 
ments"), is used in the same sense with 
" covenant." The old covenant is spoken 
of in Ex. 24 : 8, and the new in Matt. 
26 : 28. The former was ratified by the 
blood of sacrifices, and the latter (of 
which the other was a type) was ratified 
by the blood of Christ. 

TESTAMENT, OLD, NEW. 
2 Cor. 3 : 6. See Bibt.e. 

TESTIMONY, TESTIMO- 
NIES. Ps. 119 : 88, 99. These terms 
sometimes denote the whole revelation 
of God's will. They frequently occur in 
this sense in the above Psalm. They 
also refer to the tables of stone, which 
were part of the covenant between God 
and the people of Israel, Ex. 25 : 16; 
and hence the ark in which they were 
deposited is called "the ark of the testi- 
mony." Ex. 25 : 22. See Ark. The 
gospel is also called "the testimony" in 
1 Cor. 1:6; Rev. 1 : 2, and elsewhere. 
See Witness. 

TE TRARCH. This title was 
given to a sovereign prince, and strictly 
denotes one who governs the fourth part 
of a province or kingdom. Matt. 14 : 1. 
In our Scriptures, however, it is applied 
to any one who governed a province of 
the Roman empire, whatever portion of 
the territory might be within his juris- 



THA 



THE 



diction. The tetrarch had the title of 
king. Matt. 14 : 9. 

THADJJiEUS. Matt. 10 : 3. See 

JlJDE. 

THA'HASH (a badger, or seal), a 
son of JSJahor by Reuinah, his concubine. 
Gen. 22 : 24. 

THA'MAH. Ezr.2:53. See Tamah. 

THA'MAR. Greek form of Tamar, 
1. Matt. 1 : 3. 

THAM'MUZ. See Tammuz. 

THANK-OFFERING. See Of- 
ferings. 

THA'RA. Luke 3 : 34. See Terah. 

THARSHISH {fortress), a Ben- 
jamite. 1 Chr. 7 : 10. 

THAR'SHISH, a more accurate 
form of Tarshish, which see. 1 Kgs. 10 : 
22 ; 22 : 48. 

THEATRE, a place of public 
amusement, where popular assemblies, 
courts, elections, etc., were often held. 
Acts 19 : 29, 31. 

" The taste for theatrical amusements 
was never strongly developed among the 
Jews, though some of their later rulers, 
especially the Herods, favored them and 
established theatres in Palestine. Herod 
the Great introduced Greek actors at 
his court in Jerusalem, greatly to the 
scandal of the Jews, and built a the- 
atre and amphitheatre at Caesarea." — 
Hackett. 

THEBES. See No-amon. 

THE'BEZ (brightness), the town 
where Abimelech was killed. Jud. 9 : 50 ; 
2 Sam. 11 : 21. It is now Tubas, a place 
11 miles north-east of Shechem (Nablus), 
on the road to Beth-shean (Beisan). It 
is a handsome village, situated in the 
midst of groves of olive trees, on the 
west slope of a basin, but possessing no 

SP THELA'SAR. 2 Kgs? 19 : 12. See 
Telassar. 

THELAS'SAR. See Telassar. 

THEOPHILUS {lover of God), a 
distinguished individual, probably of 
Greece or Rome, to whom, as his par- 
ticular friend or patron, Luke addressed 
both his Gospel and his history of the 
Acts of the Apostles. Luke 1 : 3. The 
title "most excellent" probably denotes 
official dignity. Acts 23 : 26 ; 24 : 3 ; and 
26 : 25. 

THESSALO'NIANS, EPIS'- 
TLES TO. They were written by 
the apostle Paul to the church of the 



Thessalonians, and are the earliest of 
his writings and the oldest portions of 
the N. T. They were probably written, 
near the close of A. d. 52 or the begin- 
ning of 53, from Corinth, not from Athens, 
as the subscription states. The first was 
composed in consequence of the recep- 
tion of Timothy's on the whole cheer- 
ing intelligence about the Thessalonian 
church. But Paul learned that his 
favorite theme of the speedy coming 
of Christ had given rise among some 
of them to the erroneous impression 
that their dead were separated from 
Christ so much that they could not join 
in the triumphs of his return. Others 
of them had grown careless, paralyzed 
by the hope. Accordingly, he devotes 
his Epistle to the removal of these 
troubles, the more particularly since un- 
authorized prophets had fanned their 
enthusiasm and occasioned, on the part 
of the sober-minded, contempt for the 
prophetic gift. " The apostle therefore 
wrote to confirm them in the faith, to 
strengthen them against persecution, to 
rectify mistakes, and to inculcate purity 
of life." But, this Epistle not fully an- 
swering its purpose, Paul wrote a second 
shortly after. Some one had forged a 
letter in his name, advocating the very 
delusion he deprecated. 2 Thess. 2 : 2. 
He therefore corrected the mistake and 
tried to put a stop to the ensuing evils. 

We thus analyze the Epistles : First 
Thessalonians. — I. After a salutation, 1 : 
1, Paul gives thanks to God for their 
conversion and advancement in the faith, 
1 : 2-2 : 16, and then expresses his desire 
to see them and his loving care over 
them. 2:17-3: 13. II. In the didactic 
and hortatory part he exhorts them to 
holiness and brotherly love, 4 : 1-12; he 
speaks of Christ's advent, 4 : 13-5 : 11 ; 
and adds various admonitions. 5 : 12-24. 
He then concludes with a charge that the 
Epistle be generally read, with greetings 
and a benediction. 5 : 25-28. 

Second Thessalonians. — Besides the 
salutation, there are three sections, an- 
swering to the three chapters : I. A 
thanksgiving and prayer for the Thes- 
salonians. 1 : 3-12. II. Instruction and 
exhortation in regard to the " man of 
sin." 2. III. Sundry admonitions: (1) 
To prayer, with a confident expression 
of his hope respecting them. 3 : 1-5; (2) 
To correct the disorderly. 3 : 6-15. He 
859 



THE 



THE 



then concludes with a special remark, 
showing how his letters were thereafter 
to be identified, and the usual salutation 
and apostolic benediction. 3 : 16-18. 

T HE S SAL O NIC A, a city of 
Macedonia. It was anciently called 
Thermae ("hot baths"), but Cassander, 
one of the generals of Alexander the 
Great, rebuilt the city, and called it, 
after his wife, Alexander's sister, Thes- 
salonica. The city was situated at the 
north-east corner of the Thermaic Gulf. 
It was in Paul's time a free city of the 
Romans, the most populous city in 
Macedonia, and the capital of one of 
the four Roman divisions of Macedonia, 
which extended from the river Strymon 
on the east to the Axius on the west. 



Scripture History. — Paul and Silas, in 
A. D. 58, came to Thessalonica from 
Philippi, which was 100 miles north- 
east, on the Via, Egnatia. There was the 
synagogue of the Jews. For at least 
three Sabbaths the apostles preached 
to their countrymen. A church was 
gathered, principally composed of Gen- 
tiles. At length the persecution became 
so violent as to drive the apostle away. 
He desired to revisit the church there, 
and sent Timothy to minister to them. 
Among his converts were Caius, Aris- 
tarchus, Secundus, and perhaps Jason. 
Acts 17 : 1-13: 20 : 4; 27 : 2 ; comp. 
Phil. 4 : 16 ; 2 Tim. 4:10. Paul wrote 
two Epistles to the Thessaionian church 
from Corinth. 1 Thess. 1 : 1 ; 2 Thess. 1 : 1. 




Thessalonica. 



The "rulers" of the city, Acts 17 : 6, 8, 
are called, in the original, "politarehs." 
This is a peculiar term, not elsewhere 
found in the N. T., but this very word 
appears in the inscription on a tri- 
umphal arch believed to have been 
erected after the battle of Philippi. 
The names of seven politarchs are given. 
During several centuries Thessalonica 
was an important centre of Christianity 
in the Oriental Church, and from it the 
Bulgarians and Slavonians were reached. 
Present Condition. — Thessalonica still 
survives as a Turkish town, under the 
name of Salonika. It has a conspicuous 
and beautiful situation on a hill sloping 
back from the gulf, and its palaces and 
mosques present a fine appearance. Its 
walls are some 5 miles in circumference. 
860 



The streets are narrow and irregular. 
Many of the mosques were formerly 
Christian churches. It is also the seat 
of a Greek metropolitan, and contains 
numerous churches and schools of dif- 
ferent denominations. Its commerce is 
extensive; some four thousand vessels 
visit its harbor every year, representing 
the trade of France, Austria, Italy, Eng- 
land, Greece. Switzerland, Belgium, the 
United States, etc. The population is 
about 80,000, of whom 30,000 are Jews 
and 10,000 Greeks. Among the most 
important of the ancient monuments 
are a hippodrome, a. colonnade built 
under Nero, the triumphal arch com- 
memorating the battle of Philippi, and 
another triumphal arch, of the time of 
Constantine. 



THE 



THI 



THEUDAS {God-given), an in- | 
surrectionary chieftain mentioned by 
Gamaliel. Acts 5 : 36. Josephus men- 
tions a similar character of tins name, 
but his insurrection occurred some eleven 
years after Gamaliel's speech. An ex- 
planation of the difficulty is to identify 
Theudas with Matthias, an eloquent and 
popular Jewish teacher, who headed a 
band in the days of Herod and destroyed 
the Roman eagle set up by the king over 
the great gate of the temple, being out- 
raged by Herod's impiety. " The name 
'Matthias' in Greek would be ' The- 
odotus/ and this is equivalent to ' Theu- 
das.'" But perhaps it is best to say that 
this Theudas was an obscure individual 
who is not mentioned elsewhere. The 
name was a common one. 

THIEF, THIEVES, THE 
TWO. Theft is always severely pun- 
ished in rude societies. The Mosaic Law 
is severe. The thefts would naturally 
be. among the Jews, of live-stock most 
frequently ; accordingly, the Law, Ex. 
22 : 1-4, limits itself to only this class 
of cases. Restitution was obligatory — 
five oxen in return for one stolen, four 
sheep for one. Resistance to robbery 
even to the death was innocent. If the 
thief did not or could not restore, he was 
to be sold for his theft. Prov. 6 : 31 
mentions a sevenfold restitution, and 
Lev. 6 : 1-5 also apparently conflicts 
with Exodus, because it lays down a 
trespass-offering and the restoration of 
the principal and the fifth part more. 
Perhaps the Law varied. It added to 
the ignominy of our Lord's position that 
he was crucified between thieves, or, more 
properly, robbers. Tradition calls the 
penitent thief Demas, or Dismas; the 
impenitent, Gestas. It is probable that 
at first they both reviled him, but his 
noble courage softened the heart of 
" Dismas " into admiration, love, and 
belief. Luke 23 : 32, 39-43. 

THIGH. The practice of putting 
the hand under the thigh might denote 
the obedience or subjection of the in- 
dividual, or it might be connected with 
the rite of circumcision as a token of 
God's faithfulness. Gen. 24 : 2. The 
inscription upon the thigh, Rev. 19 : 16, 
alludes to the custom of inscribing the 
names and deeds of conquerors on their 
garments and weapons. The name might 
be inscribed on the sword, which was 



girded on the thigh, or on that part of 
the dress which covered the thigh. 
Jacob's thigh was smitten by the angel, 
Gen. 32 : 25, to show that he had super- 
natural power, and that he yielded in 
mercy and not from necessity. See 
Jacob. 

THIMMTHAH, now Tibneh, 
north-east of Lydda. Josh. 19 : 43. See 

TlMNAH, 1. 

THISTLES and THORNS. 

Gen. 3 : 18. Palestine abounds in all 
manner of such plants, as is indicated 
by the fact that about eighteen different 
Hebrew words for them are found in the 
0. T. These are translated by " bramble," 
"brier," the above terms, and a few 
others, without much method or consist- 
ency. 

The figurative use of these plants 
denotes desolation. Prov. 24 : 31 ; Isa. 
5:6; Hos. 2:6; 9:6; 10 : 8 ; the visi- 
tations of Providence, Num. 33 : 55 ; 
Jud. 2:3: 2 Cor. 12 : 7 ; difficulties and 
hindrances, Prov. 15 : 19; and troubles. 
Prov. 22 : 5. 

The " crowning with thorns," Matt. 
27 : 29, was probably the wanton inven- 
tion of tbe Roman soldiery, and made no 
part of the established punishment. Very 
possibly the Saviour's enemies used for 
this purpose the twigs of the Christ-thorn 
(Zizyphns xpina-Christi), which are slen- 




Palestine Thorn (Zizyphus Spina- Christi). 

der, yet armed with terrible spines, and 
are still found growing in the Valley of 
the Jordan. 

In the Holy Land various kinds of 
buckthorn, with other allied and equally 
formidable shrubs, are abundant, as is 
also the box-thorn (Lycium Europseum). 
True thistles and thistle-like centaureas 
are common. In the Jordan valley a 
solanum (S. sanctum) grows from 3 to 5 
861 



THO 



THO 



feet high, clothed with spines. Tristram 
observed that the common bramble 
{Rnbns fructicoaua) was very abundant 
between the ancient Beth-shean and the 
fords of Succoth, and these were perhaps 
the thorns of Jud. 8:7, 16. The most 
formidable of all is that herbaceous plant 
the acanthus, well called by botanists 
spino8us. These are a few of the multi- 
tude of thistles and thorns that cover 
the land and often choke the very crops. 
Matt. 13 : 7. 

Of the shrubby burnet Miss M. E. 
Rogers justly says : " No plant or bush 
is so common on the hills of Judeea, 
Galilee, and Carmel as this. It is used 
extensively for fuel, especially for the 
bakers' ovens, and the ' crackling of 
thorns under a pot,' Eccl. 7 : 6, may often 
be heard in Palestine." 

This low burnet is commonly pulled 
up and laid upon the tops of the mud 
walls enclosing houses or gardens. Being 
held in place with clay, few animals or 
men will attempt to cross a wall thus 
guarded. Often the still more formidable 
Christ-thorn is used for the same purpose, 
illustrating Hos. 2 : 6. 

A traveller in Judaea remarks: "As 
we rode through Riphah we perceiv- 
ed it to be a settlement of about fifty 
dwellings, all very mean in their appear- 
ance, and every one fenced in front with 
thorn-bushes, while a barrier of the same 
kind encircled the whole of the town. 
This was one of the most effectual de- 
fences which they could have raised 
against the incursions of horse-riding 
Arabs, the only enemies whom they 
have to dread, as neither will the 
horse approach to entangle himself 
in these thickets of brier, nor could 
the rider, even if he dismounted, get 
over them, or remove them to clear a 
passage without assistance from some 
one within. 

" There are a great many more thorny 
plants in Palestine than in America, and 
these plants love the wheat-fields. The 
farmers have a habit of going out before 
these thorns go to seed and gathering them 
with a sickle and forked stick, and burn- 
ing them or threshing them out for the 
donkeys to eat. But some farmers are 
lazy and do not take this trouble, and 
sometimes even an industrious farmer 
will neglect a corner of his field, and it 
will presently be overrun with coarse 
862 



thorns. But the stalks of these thorns 
rot away and disappear in the winter, 
and only their seeds remain concealed in 
the ground at the season of sowing. The 
earth looks like that of the rest of the 
field, and the farmer ploughs in his seed 
with a good heart in hopes of an abun- 
dant return. But the thorns spring up 
with the wheat, and, being much stronger, 
their roots soon twine about those of the 
wheat and absorb all the water from the 
ground in which they both grow together, 
and their branches overshadow the green 
blades, and so the plants either make no 
seeds, or so few and poor ones that the 
farmer does not care to pick out the 
stalks from the thorns, and he either 
burns them together or threshes out all 
as food for his donkey. Matt. 13 : 18-23." 
— Post. 

THOM'AS (twin), one of the twelve 
apostles, was also called "Didymus" 
(" the twin "). We know little of his 
history. He seems to have been of 
singular temperament, cautious, scepti- 
cal, thoughtful, and gloomy, yet holding 
fast tenaciously what he once believed. 
John 11 : 16 ; 14 : 5 ; 20 : 20-29. He 
represents the honest, truth-loving scep- 
ticism among the apostles; he would not 
believe in the resurrection till he had 
tangible evidence of it. but then he ex- 
j claimed, " My Lord and my God !" Those 
! who, not having seen, yet believe, are 
i highly commended. There are various 
I traditions in regard to his history after 
I the ascension of Christ. The earlier rep- 
i resent him as preaching in Persia; the 
later, in India. He suffered martyrdom. 
THORN IN THE FLESH, 
PAUL'S. In two passages, 2 Cor. 
12 : 7-10 and Gal. 4:14, 15, Paul al- 
ludes to some circumstance or infliction 
which hindered his ministry ; but, as he 
does not say what it was, but calls it 
merely a " stake in the flesh," there have 
been numerous conjectures. This is one 
1 of the questions, as Dean Stanley well 
says, " where the obscurity for us is oc- 
casioned by the very fact that it was 
! plain to contemporaries." The explana- 
I tions which have at various times been 
advanced may be divided into three 
I classes : 

1. Spiritual trial*. — Either sensual 
temptations, as is the favorite view of 
Roman Catholic writers, or temptations 
to unbelief, doubts arising from tbr 



THO 



THE 



memory of his sinful past; so Luther 
and Calvin and other of the Reformers. 

2. External calamities. — Either his 
persecutions and sufferings or else his ] 
Judaizing opponents, as Chrysostoni and 
the Greek Fathers thought. But some 
of the ancient and mediaeval as well as 
the modern commentators have been dis- ' 
satisfied with these explanations because 
they do not meet the difficulty, and ac- 
cordingly have favored — 

3. Some bodily ailment. — Almost every 
disorder — pleurisy, the stone, defect of i 
utterance, hypochrondria, headache, ear- i 
ache, epilepsy, acute ophthalmia — has j 
been suggested and advocated by the ' 
fathers and schoolmen. Tradition sup- ! 
ports the notion that the " thorn " was ' 
some sort of pain in the head. Accord- 
ing to modern opinion, the choice lies 
between epilepsy and acute ophthalmia. 
In favor of the former is the life Paul led, 
his trances, his enthusiasm followed by 
depression, his enormous nervous strain; 
this would be enough to shatter his sys- 
tem. But against any such notion is ' 
Paul's physical activity, his balanced 
mind, his self-control, and his confidence. 
Xo such objection seems to lie against 
acute ophthalmia — a disease which is 
quite common in the East. It may well 
have been caused in his case by the 
bright light which fell upon his eyes ; 
at his conversion, and increased, or at ! 
least not lessened, by his wandering, la- 
borious life. There are many indications 
that this interpretation of the " thorn " 
is correct. Paul says that the Galatians 
would have plucked out their eyes and 
given them to him, Gal. 4:15: the very 
word he uses, 2 Cor. 12 : 7 — " stake," not 
"thorn" — would, as Canon Farrar says, 
"most appropriately express the inci- 
sive pain of ophthalmia, which is as if 
a splinter were run into the eye." The 
disfigurement it causes would have made 
him the object of contempt and loathing 
he represents himself to have been. Gal. 
4: 14; 2 Cor. 10:10. Paul's failure 
to recognize the high priest, Acts 23 : 5 ; 
his dread of being left alone, shown by 
his allusions to it as a trial, 1 Thess. 3 : 
1; 2 Tim. 4: 16; his expression, "Ye 
see with what large letters I write unto 
you with my own hand," Gal. 6:11; his 
employment of an amanuensis for at 
least the major part of his Epistles, cf. 
Rom. 16 : 22, — these are facts looking in 



the same direction. Accepting this in- 
terpretation, what light it throws upon 
the life of Paul ! How it elevates our 
conception of his heroism ! how it in- 
creases our respect for his work ! We 
see that he was not able to move about 
or write as he would, but was dependent 
upon others ; and yet, notwithstanding 
his suffering and his persecutions, his 
dimmed vision and his interrupted toil, 
he struggled and labored for his Master 
unto death. 

THORNS. See Thistles. 
THREE TAVERNS. See Tav- 
erns, The Three. 

THRESH, THRESHING- 
FLOOR. The ancient threshing- 
places were selected on the highest sum- 
mits, open on every side to the wind. 
Hence the point of rock over which the 
temple stood had been used for this pur- 
pose by Oman. 1 Chr. 21 : 15-28. Though 
called "floors," they were nothing but 
flats of ground from 50 to 100 feet in 
diameter, annually levelled and rolled, 
so as to be as hard as a floor. Often 
there was, as is still frequently the case, 
but one such place for a village, and 
each husbandman, in a fixed order, must 
take his turn for using it. 

The sheaves were thrown together in 
a loose heap, and the grain beaten out 
by a machine or by the feet of oxen. 
Deut. 25 : 4. The threshing-machine 
was formed of a heavy square frame 
with rollers, each of which was encir- 
cled by three or 
four iron rings 
or wheels ser- 
rated like the 
teeth of a saw. 
Isa, 41 : 15, 16. 
The machine 
was drawn by a 
pair of oxen, the 
driver sitting on 
a cross-piece 
fastened into 
the frame ; and 
as the heavy 
rollers passed 
& over it the grain 
Threshing-Instrument (up- was crushed out 
per view). on e v e r y side, 

and the straw, by being torn, was ren- 
dered suitable for fodder. Sometimes 
this frame was so constructed as to re- 
semble a cart, Isa. 28 : 27, 28, and fur- 
863 




THB 



THK 



nishes a striking figure of violence and 
destruction. Am. 1:3; Hab. 3 : 12. As 
the grain accumulated it was formed 
into a great heap in the centre of the 
floor, around which the oxen were driv- 
en. It was customary for the owner to 
sleep near by to protect the grain from 
thieves. Ruth 3 : 2-14. Tender cereals 
were beaten out with a stick. Isa. 28 : 
27. After the grain was threshed and 
winnowed (see Fax), the chaff was col- 
lected on a neighboring hill and burned. 
Isa. 5 : 24 ; Matt. 3:12. The fruits of 
the harvest were then doubtless some- 
times stored in caves, as is now a com- 
mon Syrian custom. Here grain is safe 
partly by superstition, and partly by a 
stifling gas which it generates in such 



I of these instruments is thus described 

I by a traveller in Syria in 18o7: " The 

threshing-instrument is a board about 3 




Threshing-Instrument (side view). 

close places ( Underground Jerusalem, 
p. 481). 

Tristram says: " When winnowed and 
sifted the wheat is stored in underground 
pits. These ' silos,' or granaries, are 
hollow chambers about 8 feet deep, care- 
fully cemented to exclude the damp, and 
with a circular opening about 15 inches 
in diameter, which could easily be con- 
cealed. In such receptacles the corn 
will keep good for several years. Many 
such may still be seen in different parts 
of the country. I have found them on 
Mount Carmel, often close to an ancient 
wine-press, and about many of the de- 
serted cities of Southern Judah. Such 
a storehouse as those on Mount Carmel 
is probably alluded to in Jer. 41 : 8. 

" Generally, owing to the insecure state 
of the country, these storehouses are 
made under the house, especially under 
the most retired portion, the apartments 
of the women." 2 Sam. 4:6; 17 : 18, 19. 
In the latter passage the well is prob- 
ably the storehouse under the women's 
chamber. 

In the interesting passage, Isa. 41 : 
15, 16, " a new sharp threshing-instru- 
ment having teeth" is mentioned. One 
864 




Threshing-Sledge of Palestine. 
A, Upper side; B, Lower side. 

feet wide, 6 or 8 feet long, and 3 inches 
thick. On the lower side many holes are 
made, from H to 2 inches in diameter, in 
which are fastened pieces of stone, flint, or 
iron. These project, it may be, from a half 
to three-quarters of an inch from the face 
of the board, and serve as teeth to tear 
the beards of the grain in pieces. O^en 
are fastened to the forward end of the 
board and driven round the floor, draw- 
ing it after them. The driver of the 
oxen usually stands or sits on the in- 
strument. This is the common thresh- 
ing-instrument in these countries. I 
saw it everywhere, and I have seen no 
other. The oxen are usually without 
muzzles, and are often, as they pass 
around, taking up from time to time a 
few straws and feeding on them. I do 
not recollect of seeing the horse used in 
any instance on the barn-floor — the oxen 

| very often." See Agriculture. 

THRONE, the seat of a king on 

[ state occasions. In the East the usual 
position is squatting or reclining ; hence 
a chair is a seat of some dignity. 2 Kgs. 
4: 10. The word "chair," with the no- 

I tion of royalty, is the Hebrew word for 
"throne," the chair of the king, such as 
David, 2 Sam. 3 : 10, and Solomon sat 
upon, 1 Kgs. 2:12: 7:7, when they dis- 
pensed judgment. The throne of Solo- 
mon was quite unique. 1 Kgs. 10 : 20. 

! It was made of wood inlaid with ivory 
and covered with gold, except where the 

! ivory showed. It was approached by 
six steps, each step having upon it two 
lions; thus the twelve lions symbolized 
the twelve tribes. The chair had arms, 
upon which were lions. (See cut.) The 
back was rounded. When the king sat 



THU 



THY 



upon his throne he was clad in royal 
robes. 1 Kgs. 22 : 10 ; Acts 12 : 21. 
Naturally, the throne being the sign 




A Chair of State or Throne. (From Assyrian 
Monuments at Khorsabad. After Layard.) 

of royalty, the word is applied to the 
centre of divine authority and used in 
other figurative ways. 

THUM'MIM. Ex. 28 : 30. See TTrim. 

THUNDER is very rare in Pales- 
tine from the middle of April to the 
middle of September. Hence it was a 
striking miracle when, in answer to 
Samuel's prayer, God sent thunder and 
rain in wheat-harvest (May 18 to June 
15). 1 Sam. 12:17. Thunder was re- 
garded as Jehovah's voice. Job 37 : 2 ; 
Ps. 18 : 13: 81 : 7; Isa. 30 : 30, 31. 
When the people heard God's voice, they 
said that it thundered. John 12 : 29. 
Thunder accompanied the giving of the 
Law. Ex. 19 : 16. It was a symbol of 
divine power, implying possible ven- 
geance upon wrong-doers. 1 Sam. 2:10; 
2 Sam. 22 : 14 ; Isa. 29 : 6 ; Rev. 8 : 5. 

THYATI'RA, a city of Asia Minor, 
on the northern border of Lydia, near 
the road from Pergamos to Sardis, and 
some 27 miles from the latter city. It 
lay near the river Lycus and was a 
Macedonian colony, bearing successive- 
ly the names of Pelopia, Semiramis, and 
Euhippia. Dyeing was an important 
branch of its business from Homer's 
55 



time, and the first N. T. mention of 
Thyatira, Acts 16 : 14, connects it with 
the purple-seller, Lydia. Three votive 
inscriptions have been found among 
its ruins purporting to have come from 
the guild of" " The Dyers." It has 
been supposed that perhaps Lydia re- 
turned to her own city and aided in es- 
tablishing Christianity there. Thyatira 
was the seat of one of the seven churches 
of Asia. Rev. 2 : 18-29. Its population 
was made up of various races, and it is 
a question what is meant by the refer- 
ence to Jezebel. A shrine stood outside 
the walls, in the midst of the " Chal- 
daean's court," dedicated to Sambath, a 
sibyl, Chaldsean, Jewish, or Persian. 
Grotius refers it to the wife of the bishop. 

Present Condition. — The city is now 
called ak-Hissar, or " white castle." 
The scarlet cloth dyed there has the 
reputation of being unsurpassed for 
brilliancy and permanence of color. 
The . population is estimated at from 
17,000 to 20,000. There are a Greek 
church and several mosques. 

THYINE-WOOD. This was ob- 




Thyine-Wood {Thuya Articulata). 

tained from a small tree {Thuya articu- 
lata) belonging to the cone-bearing or- 
865 



TIB 



TIB 



der and resembling our cedar and arbor- 
vitas. It was highly valued by the 
Romans, in the days of their luxury, 
for cabinet-work, being very compact 
and fragrant and of a handsome brown, 
often variegated by knots. It was ob- 
tained in Northern Africa, and from it 
is still collected the true gum-sanda- 
rach. Rev. 18 : 12. 

TIBERIAS, a town of Galilee, 
situated on the western bank of the Sea 
of Galilee, which is called ''the Sea of 
Tiberias '' only by John, who was the last 
of the N. T. writers. John 6 : 1 ; 21 : 1. 

History. — The city is only once men- 
tioned in the N. T. John 6 : 23. Although 
it was an important and busy town in 
Christ's time, there is no record that he 
ever visited it. It was then a new city, 
built by Herod Antipas, a. d. 16-22, and 
named in honor of the emperor Tiberias. 
Josephus, who mentions the city very' 
frequently, says that Herod built it on 
a site where were ancient sepulchres 
belonging to an extinct and forgotten 
city. Thus it was unclean to the Jews, 
and Herod brought in many strangers, 
foreigners, and slaves. A palace was 
erected, with an amphitheatre, bath- 
houses, temples, and costly works of 
art. An aqueduct 9 miles long brought 
in fresh water. During the Jewish wars 
Josephus fortified Tiberias. After Jeru- 
salem was destroyed the Sanhedrin set- 
tled here, and for many centuries it was 
one of the most celebrated seats of Jew- 
ish learning. The Jewish Mishna, or an- 
cient traditional law, and the Masorah 
were compiled here. 

Present Condition. — The modern city 
called Tubariya stands on the south- 
western shore of the lake, some 4 miles 
from its southern extremity, in lat. 32° 
46' 14". It occupies only a small por- 
tion of the ground covered by the an- 
cient city, the remains of which stretch 
southward for a mile and a quarter, to 
the hot springs. Many of the old stones 
have been removed for use in the modern 
buildings, but some very fine specimens 
of polished marble and black basalt 
remain. For view, see Galilee, Sea op. 

The modern city is surrounded on the 
land-side by a wall much broken and not 
repaired. The great earthquake on New 
Year's day, 1837, overthrew the city and 
destroyed six hundred lives. A small 
church standing on the reputed site of 



! St. Peter's house, and a mosque half in 
j ruins, are the principal buildings to at- 
\ tract attention. Although the town is 
extremely picturesque as seen from the 
distance, with its wall, minaret, and 
palm trees, it is found on closer acquaint- 
ance to be in a state of filth which even 
I in the East can be scarcely paralleled. 
| This is aggravated by the excessive heat, 
! the temperature often attaining 100° 
Fahr. Tiberias is still one of the four 
holy cities of the Jews, and more than 
' one-half of the inhabitants are Jews of the 
! poorer class, who live, in great measure, 
on the alms sent by their coreligionists 
in various parts of the world. Many 
of the Jews are immigrants from Poland. 
There are also Mohammedans and Chris- 
tians. The population is some 3000 or 
4000. The famous hot springs, to the 
south, are still much resorted to for 
medicinal purposes. The temperature 
ranges from 131° to 142° Fahr. On a 
slight eminence, 1 mile west of the 
town, lies the Jewish burial-ground, in 
which some of the most celebrated of 
the Jewish Talmudists are interred. 

TIBERIAS, THE SEA OF. 
John 6:1; 21 : 1. See Galilee, Sea of. 




Head of Emperor Tiberius. (From a Coin.) 

TIBERIUS, CLAUDIUS 
NERO (full title), Luke 3 : 1, was the 
867 



TIB 



TIM 



step-son and successor of Augustus, Luke 
2 : 1, and, though with some apparent 
virtues, was one of the most infamous 
tyrants that ever scourged the empire 
of Rome. All the events of Christ's 
manhood took place during this reign. 
He began well, but quickly " degenera- 
ted into a gloomy despot." Madness was 
probably the excuse for his cruelties. 
He began his reign A. d. 14, reigned 
during the eventful period of the suc- 
ceeding twenty-three years, and was 
finally murdered by suffocation. 

TIB'HATH {butchery). 1 Chr. 18: 
8. See Betah. 

TIB'NI {building of Jehovah), a 
claimant to the throne of Israel, and 
one who for four years headed half the 
people in a struggle against Omri, whom 
the army had proclaimed king after 
Zimri's death. Tibni was defeated, and 
probably killed. 1 Kgs. 16 : 21, 22. 

TI'DAL {great son), a king who 
joined Chedorlaomer. Gen. 14 : 1-9. 

TIGLATH-PILESER (my help 
is the son of Esarra's — i. e., Adar), "the 
second Assyrian king mentioned in the 
Scriptures as having come into contact 
with the Israelites," and the second of 
the name. He invaded Samaria. 2 Kgs. 
15 : 29, and after some years he returned 
and did much more damage, destroying 
Damascus and taking many captives, 1 
Chr. 5 : 26. The occasion of the first 
attack was probably the refusal of Pe- 
kah to pay tribute; of the second, the 
call of Ahaz upon him for assistance 
against Pekah and Rezin, the king of 
Syria. Tiglath-pileser at Damascus 
met Ahaz, who became his vassal. 2 
Kgs. 16 : 10. His wars were insignifi- 
cant. He reigned b. c. 747-730, having 
probably usurped the throne. 

TIGRIS. Gen. 2: 14. SeeHiDDEKEL. 

TIK'VAH, TIKVATH (expec- 
tation). 1. The father-in-law of Hul- 
dah the prophetess. 2 Kgs. 22:14; 2 
Chr. 34 : 22. 

2. The father of Jahaziah. Ezr.lO:15. 

TILE, TILING. See Dwelling, p. 
243. 

TIL'GATH-PILNE'SER, a cor- 
ruption of Tiglath-pileser, which see. 

TI'LON (lofty), a descendant of 
Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 20. 

TIMiE'US (polluted?), the father 
(bar is Aramaic for " son ") of a man whom 
Jesus cured of blindness. Mark 10 : 46. 
868 



TIM'BREL, a musical instrument, 
supposed to have resembled very nearly 
the instrument of modern days called 
the tambourine. Ex. 15 : 20. A skin is 
stretched over a rim like the end of a 
drum ; around the rim are hung little 




Timbrel. (After specimen in Kensington Museum, 
London.) 

bells, and the player strikes the skin with 
the knuckles of one hand and shakes 
it with the other hand. It was used in 
ancient times chiefly by women. 

TIME. See Days, Hours, Watches 
or the Night. 

TIMNA, TIM'NAH (restrained). 
1. The concubine of Eliphaz, son of 
Esau, and mother of Amalek. Gen. 36 : 
12, 22; 1 Chr. 1:39. 

2. An Edomite sheik. Gen. 36 : 40 ; 1 
Chr. 1:51. 

TIM'NAH (portion assigned), a 
name of two towns. 

1. A town on the northern border of 
Judah, Josh. 15 : 10, occupied by the 
Philistines. 2 Chr. 28 : 18. This is 
probably the same place which is called 
Thimnathah, Thamnatha, and Timnath, 
and which apparently belonged to Dan. 
It is now represented by the modern 
Tibneh, a ruin on a hill 740 feet above 
the sea-level and 2 miles west from Beth- 
shemesh. 

2. A town in the mountains of Judah, 
south of Hebron, Josh. 15:57; prob- 
ably a ruin called Tibna, near Jeba, and 
about 9 miles south of west of Bethle- 

TIMNATH, and TUNA- 
THAH (portion assigned), the name 
of two places. 

1. A place to which Judah was going 
when he was met by his daughter-in- 



TIM 



TIM 



law Tamar, Gen. 38:12-14; perhaps 
identical with Timnah, 1. 

2. The home of Samson's wife, Jud. 
14 : 1, 2, 5 ; probably also identical with 
Timnah, above, the modern Tibneh, west 
of Beth-shemesh. There are traces of 
ancient cultivation and rock-hewn wine- 
presses, suggesting the vineyards in 
which he slew the lion. 

TIM'NATH-HERES. Jud. 2 : 

9. See TlMNATH-SERAH. 

TIM'NATH-SERAH {portion 

of abundance), AND TIM'NATH- 

HE'RES (portion of the sun), a city 
in Ephraim assigned to Joshua, and the 
place of his residence and burial. Jud. 
2:9; Josh. 19 . 50 ; 24 : 30. 

1. Christian tradition points to a, Tibneh 
(not that under Timnath), on the Roman 
road from Jerusalem to Antipatris and 
some 14-i miles north-north-west of Je- 
rusalem as the site of ancient Timnath- 
serah. Jerome speaks of this place as 
on the border between the possessions 
of Dan and Judah. The ruin of Tibneh 
has a remarkable rock-cemetery, con- 
taining nine tombs, south of the site of 
the town; one of these tombs is large, 
with a portico supported on rude piers 
of rock. There are niches for over two 
hundred lamps, once burning in front 
of the tomb-entrance. Within there is 
a chamber with fourteen gi-aves, or ko- 
kim, and a passage leads into an inner 
chamber with only one koka. There is 
no direct evidence of the date of this 
tomb, which some have regarded as the 
tomb of Joshua, but this is hardly prob- 
able. Another curious fact is that near 
the tomb is a great oak tree called sheikh 
et-Teim, "the chief of the servant of 
God." There is also a village, about 3 
miles to the east, called Kefr Ishu'a, or 
" Joshua's village." 

2. Another site proposed for Timnath- 
heres or -serah is at Kefr Hdris, 9 miles 
south of Nablus (Shechem). The Samar- 
itans state that Joshua, son of Nun, and 
Caleb were here buried. The two tombs 
of Caleb and Joshua were noticed here 
by Rabbi Jacob of Paris, a. r>. 1258. 
Conder inclines to this as the burial- 
place of Joshua, since Jew and Samar- 
itan both point to it. (See picture of 
the tomb of Joshua under Joshua.) 

TIMNITE, THE (i. e., the Tim- 
nathite), Samson's father-in-law. Jud. 
15:6. 



TI'MON (honoring), one of the sevei, 
deacons ordained by the apostles on the 
election of the Jerusalem church. Acts 
6 : 5. 

TIMO'THEUS (honoring God), the 
Greek name of Timothy, used generally 
in A. V. Acts 16 : 1. 

TIMOTHY (honoring God), an 
evangelist and pupil of St. Paul. He 
was a Lycaonian, a native of either 
Derbe or Lystra. His father was a 
Greek and a heathen ; his mother, 
Eunice, was a Jewess, and a woman of 
distinguished piety, as was also his 
grandmother, Lois, 2 Tim. 1 : 5, and by 
them he was early educated in the holy 
scriptures of the 0. T. 2 Tim. 3 : 15. Paul 
found him in one of the cities above named, 
and, being informed of his good standing 
among the Christians there, selected him 
as an assistant in his labors, and, to 
avoid the cavils of the Jews, performed 
on him the rite of circumcision. 1 Cor. 
9 : 20. He afterward became the com- 
panion of Paul, and that he was the 
object of the extraordinary affection and 
solicitude of that apostle his letters 
plainly show. He was left in charge of 
the church at Ephesus, and that, prob- 
ably, when he was quite young, thirty- 
four or thirty-five. 1 Tim. 4 : 12. The 
post-apostolic tradition makes him bish- 
op of Ephesus. In that case he would 
be the " angel " of that church addressed 
in Rev. 2 : 1-7, or his predecessor. 

Epistles op Paul to. These, with 
that to Titus, are commonly spoken of 
as the Pastoral Epistles because they are 
predominantly given up to directions 
about church work. The First is sup- 
posed to have been written about the 
year 64, and contains special instructions 
respecting the qualifications and the 
duties of sundry ecclesiastical officers and 
other persons, and the most affectionate 
and pungent exhortations to faithfulness. 
The Second Epistle was written a year 
or two later and while Paul was in con- 
stant expectation of martyrdom, 2 Tim. 
4 : 6-8, and may be regarded as the 
| dying counsel of the venerable apostolic 
j father to his son in the Lord. It con- 
I tains a variety of injunctions as to the 
| duties of Christians under trials and 
j temptations, and concludes with expres- 
j sions of a full and triumphant faith in the 
Lord Jesus Christ, and in all the glorious 
| promises made to his true followers. 
869 



TIN 



TIS 



TIN, a well-known metal in use at ! 
a very early period, Num. 31 : 22, and j 
an article of Tyrian commerce, probably j 
obtained from Spain or England. Eze. ' 
27 : 12. Captain Burton has recently ! 
found tin-ore in tbe land of Midian. 

In Isa. 1 : 25 the word "tin " doubtless 
means a sort of dross. 

TINK LING. See Bell, Clothes. ! 

TIPHSAH {ford), a name for two j 
places. 

1. A city on the western bank of the 
Euphrates. The name connected with 
the Hebrew word signifies " to pass over," | 
which is represented in Greek and Latin 
by Thapsacus, a town situated at one of j 
the most frequented fords of the Euphra- 
tes. The city was large and flourishing, 
being a great emporium of trade between 
Assyria and the West, and in a direct 
line from Tadmor. It has been found 
that the only practicable ford of the 
Euphrates is at Hammdm, 181 miles 
higher up the river than Deir, which 
was formerly thought to be the true 
position^ but where the river is not 
fordable. 1 Kgs. 4 : 24. 

2. Menahem, king of Israel, "smote 
Tiphsah and all that were therein, and ! 
the coasts thereof." 2 Kgs. 15 : 16. 
This place has been identified with the 
above, but some leading scholars would ; 
put this Tiphsah in Palestine, near to | 
Tirzah, or a ford of the Jordan. Conder > 
suggests its identity with the ruin Tafsafi, 
south of Shechem. 

TI'RAS {desire?), the youngest son 
of Japheth. Gen. 10 : 2 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 5. 
Probably the Thracians are meant. 

TIRATHITES, THE (gate), one 
of three families of Levites at Jabez. 
1 Chr. 2 : 55. 

TIRES. This generally denotes an I 
ornamental head-dress, but it may mean 
other parts of the attire ; and in Isa. 3 : j 
18 the original probably signifies a neck- 
lace, the parts of which might have ] 
resembled the moon in shape. 

TIR'HAKAH (exalted?), king of | 
Ethiopia and Upper Egypt. 2 Kgs. 19 : j 
9 ; Isa. 37 : 9. In legends he was one j 
of the greatest conquerors of antiquity, j 
His triumphs westward are said to have j 
reached the Pillars of Hercules. But in 
the East he seems to have been twice 
badly beaten by the Assyrians and shut 
up in his own domains. Still, he was j 
formidable enough to cause Sennacherib | 
870 



great uneasiness ; for when the latter 
heard of his coming he demanded the 
immediate surrender of Jerusalem. 2 
Kgs. 19 : 9. Tirhakah reigned, prob- 
ably, twenty-eight years. The dates are 
uncertain, but perhaps his rule extended 
from b. c. 695 to 667. 

TIR'HANAH (favor), a son of 
Caleb, son of Hezron. 1 Chr. 2 : 48. 

TIR'IA (godly fear), a descendant 
of Judah. 1 Chr. 4: 16. 

TIRSHATHA, THE (lord of 
the province), the title of the Persian 
governors. Ezr. 2 : 63 ; Neh. 7 : 65, 70 ; 
8:9: 10:1. 

TIR'ZAH (charm), the youngest of 
the five daughters of Zelophehad. Num. 
26 : 33 ; 27 : 1 : 36 : 11 : Josh. 17 : 3. 

TIRZAH (delight), one of the 
thirty-one cities of the Canaanites taken 
by Joshua, Josh. 12 : 24, and for fifty 
years the capital of the northern king- 
dom of Israel, until Omri built Samaria. 
1 Kgs. 14 : 17; 15 : 21, 33; 16 : 6, 23. 
It is also mentioned in the reign of 
Menahem, b. c. 772, 2 Kgs. 15 : 14, 16, 
and its fame for beauty appears from 
Cant. 6 : 4. Tirzah has been usually 
identified with Telluzah, situated on a 
hill 2 miles north-east of Mount Ebal, 5 
miles east of Samaria, and 30 miles north 
of Jerusalem. The village occupies a 
fine elevation in the midst of immense 
olive-groves. Wilson and Conder, how- 
ever, dispute this identification, and favor 
instead that at Teidsir, an important 
and ancient site, standing in the midst 
of a well-wooded country on the main 
road from Naltlus (Shechem) to Beisan 
(Beth-shean), and 12 miles east of Sa- 
maria. There are numerous ancient 
sepulchres and caves north of the village, 
which may perhaps include the tombs of 
the first four kings of Israel, buried at 
Tirzah. 1 Kgs. 16 : 6. 

TISH'BAH, the birthplace of Eli- 
jah, 1 Kgs. 17 : 1, who is therefore called 
the Tishbite, probably identical with El- 
Istib, or Listib, 22 miles in an air line 
south of the Sea of Galilee, and 10 
miles east of the Jordan, in the Wady 
Mareh, amid the hills of Gilead. Parchi. 
a learned Jewish traveller in Palestine in 
the fourteenth century, mentions El-Istib 
as the probable site, but the credit of the 
identification belongs to Dr. Selah Mer- 
rill, who in 1876 found the spot. 

TISHBITE. See Tishbah. 



TIS 



TOB 



TIS'RI. See Month. 
TITHES, or TENTHS, a form 

of tax known long before the time of 
Moses, Gen. 14 : 20 ; 28 : 22, and prac- 
tised under the civil and religious gov- 
ernment of heathen nations. It was 
introduced into the Levitical code, and 
consisted in rendering a fixed propor- 
tion of the produce of the earth, herds, 
etc., to the service of God their King, 
whom they were taught to consider as 
the proprietor of all. One-tenth of this 
produce went to the use of the Levites, 
who had no part in the soil, and of course j 
were dependent on their brethren for the 
means of subsistence. One-tenth of their | 
tenth they paid in their turn to the priests, i 
Num. 18 : 21-32. 

The nine pai'ts were tithed again, and ; 
of this second tithe a feast was made in 
the court of the sanctuary, or in some 
apartment connected with it. If, how- 
ever, the Jew could not with convenience 
carry his tithe thither, he was permitted 
to sell it and to take the money, adding 
one-fifth of the amount — that is, if he 
sold the tithe for a dollar, he should 
bring, in money, a dollar and twenty 
cents — and to purchase therewith what 
was required at the feast after he came 
to the sanctuary. Lev. 27 : 31; Deut. 12 : 
17,18; 14:22-27. 

At this feast of thanksgiving they en- 
tertained their families and friends, and 
also the Levites. It has been supposed 
by some, from Deut. 14 : 28, 29, that in 
every third year a third tithe was re- 
quired, but it is more probable that in 
the third year the second tithe above 
mentioned was consumed at home, in- 
stead of at the sanctuary, so that the 
poor neighbors and friends, and espe- 
cially such as were aged and infirm, I 
might partake of it. 

The cattle were tithed by letting them 
pass out of an enclosure, under a rod 
held by some person, who touched every 
tenth beast, which thereupon became the 
property of the Levites ; so that, if ex- 
changed, both were forfeited. Lev. 27 : 
32, 23. 

It does not appear that the tithe of 
herbs was demanded. The Pharisees, 
however, tithed their mint, anise, cum- 
min, and rue; nor was it for this that 
our Saviour condemned them, but for 
neglecting weightier things, as mercy, ' 
judgment, and faith, while they were ! 



so scrupulously exact in matters of in- 
ferior moment. Matt. 23 : 23. 

TIT'TLE, the very least point, 
Matt. 5:18; used of the fine stroke by 
which some letters were distinguished. 
To omit this stroke condemned the entire 
copy of the Law made by the scribe. 

TI'TUS, a Gentile by descent, and 
probably converted to Christianity under 
the preaching of Paul. Tit. 1 : 4. He, 
however, refused to subject him to the 
rite of circumcision, though, as some 
have inferred, he was strongly urged 
so to do. Gal. 2 : 3-5. Titus was the 
companion of Paul in many of his 
trials and missionary-tours, 2 Cor. 8 : 
6, 16, 23, and was entrusted with sev- 
eral important commissions. 2 Cor. 12 : 
18; 2 Tim. 4 : 10 ; Tit. 1 : 5. 

Epistle of Paul to, was designed to 
instruct Titus in the right discharge of 
his ministerial offices in Crete, a difficult 
field, owing to the character of the in- 
habitants, who were noted for lying, 
idleness, and gluttony. Tit. 1 : 12. The 
Epistle was probably written from Asia 
Minor in the year 65, when Paul was 
on his way to Nicopolis. 

TIZITE, THE, the designation 
given to Joha, one of David's mighty 
men. 1 Chr. 11 : 45. 

TO'AH {inclined), a Kohathite Le- 
vite, 1 Chr. 6:34; called Tohu in 1 
Sam. 1 : 1. 

TOB (good), the place or district be- 
yond the Jordan to which Jephthah fled, 
Jud. 11 : 3, 5 ; also called Ish-tob. 2 Sam. 
10 : 6, 8. It lay beyond Gilead, toward 
the eastern deserts. There is a modern 
place called Taiyibet, an Arabic form of 
" Tob," 12 miles south-east of the Sea of 
Galilee, which would identify it with the 
southern part of Bashan. 

TOB-ADONI'JAH (good is my 
Lord Jehovah), one of the Levites sent 
by Jehoshaphat to teach Judah the law 
of the Lord. 2 Chr. 17 : 8. ' 

TOBI'AH [goodness of Jehovah). 
1. One whose descendants came from 
Babylon with Zerubbabel, but who could 
not prove whether they were of Israel, 
owing to the loss of their family-tree. 
Ezr. 2 : 60 : Keh. 7 : 62. 

2. An Ammonite of considerable in- 
fluence, and a leader in the opposition 
which was made to the rebuilding of 
the temple by Nehemiah. Being con- 
nected by marriage with some influen- 
871 



TOB 



TOG 



tial families, he became the head of a 
formidable party, and maintained a cor- 
respondence with the nobles of Judah 
adverse to the interests of Nehemiah and 
his party, and even descended to threats, 
expecting by these to deter him from 
the prosecution of his purpose. Dur- 
ing the absence of Nehemiah from 
Jerusalem, Tobiah obtained apartments 
in the temple for his private residence; 
but Nehemiah, as soon as he returned to 
Jerusalem, expelled him and his furni- 
ture from the holy place, and ordered 
the chamber which had been thus dese- 
crated to be thoroughly cleansed. Neh. 
2 : 10, etc. 

TOBI'JAH {goodness of Jehovah). 
1. A Levite sent out through Judah by 
Jehoshaphat to teach the Law. 2 Chr. 
17:8. 

2. One to whom a memorial crown was 
given by the prophet. Zech. 6:10, 14. 

TO'BIT {my goodness ; contracted 
from goodness of Jehovah), the hero of 
the book named below. 

TO'BIT, BOOK OF, one of the 
most interesting of the Apocrypha of the 
0. T., but devoid of historical value and 
plainly a romance. The story of Tobit 
may be thus given. He was a Naphta- 
lite who remained faithful to the temple- 
service amidst the defection of his coun- 
trymen, but, notwithstanding, he shared 
with them in their misfortunes and was 
carried to Nineveh by Shalmanezer. His 
wealth and his position at court gave him 
opportunity to help his people and thus 
win their regard, and for a time his life 
was enviable. But a change of rulers 
changed his fortune. When Sennacherib 
came to the throne, he was compelled to 
flee from the king's wrath at his con- 
duct in burying the Jews whom the 
king had killed. All his property was 
confiscated. But on the entreaty of 
a nephew, the new king, Esarhaddon, 
who succeeded Sennacherib, allowed him 
to return to Nineveh. Shortly there- 
after he lost his eyesight through the 
injury his opened eyes received from 
the warm swallows' dung which fell 
upon them, causing albugo — i. e., white, 
hard flakes on the eyes, which are of 
greater or less extent, and not trans- 
parent. A quarrel with his wife about a 
kid led to her reproaches, under which he 
wept grievously and in sorrow prayed. 
At this point the episode of Sarra, of 
872 



Ecbatana in Media, is introduced. She 
was the wife of seven who were success- 
ively killed on the wedding-night by 
Asmodaeus. Her prayer for death was 
made at the same time with Tobit's 
prayer for the same. "And Raphael 
was sent to heal them both " — that is, to 
scale away the white spots from Tobit's 
eyes — " and to give Sarra for a wife to 
Tobias the son of Tobit, and to bind 
Asmodaeus the wicked demon." This 
was thus brought about: Tobit sent his 
son to Media to recover some money lent 
in the days of his prosperity to one 
Gabael. He improved the occasion to 
give his son much good advice. The 
angel Raphael, in the guise of " Azarias, 
son of Ananias the great," saluted Tobias 
and made the journey in his company. 
The capture of a fish put in Tobias' hands 
the means of curing his father and rid- 
ding Sarra of the demon. His journey 
was eminently successful. He recovered 
the money loaned, married Sarra, to 
whom Raphael introduced him, and re- 
turned home with these treasures, greatly 
to the delight of Tobit, who had begun 
to be a little fearful for his safety. The 
book ends with the restoration of Tobit's 
eyesight and prosperity, his consequent 
psalm of gratitude, which is a worthy 
echo of the canonical Psalms and the 
best piece of writing in the book, and 
mention of the death of Tobit and 
Tobias. 

The above narrative is plainly far be- 
neath the dignity of Scripture, and study 
of the book leads to the discovery of 
many serious errors, not only historical, 
but moral, such as the meritoriousness 
of good works, a reliance upon angels, 
and a belief in demons. The book is 
indeed a romance, a good specimen of 
its class, but devoid of probability and 
in part based upon Job. 

The author of the book was undoubt- 
edly a Jew, and probably one who lived 
in the far East. Critics are much divided 
in regard to the time of composition. 
Various dates, from b. c. 333 to A. D. 250, 
have been assigned to it, but it may per- 
haps with most reason be set down to 
the period near the close of the Macca- 
baaan wars. 

TO'CHEN {a measure), a place in 
Simeon, 1 Chr. 4 : 32 ; not identified. 

TOGAR'MAH, a descendant of 
Japheth. Gen. 10 : 3. 



TOG 



TON 



TOGAR'MAH, the name of a 
people descended from the race of Gomer, 
the Cimmerians, and remotely from Ja- 
pheth. Gen. 10 : 3 : I Chr. 1 : 6. The 
" house " or race of Togarmah are men- 
tioned in Eze. 38 : 6, with their swarms 
of mercenary troops, as belonging to the 
extreme north. In Eze. 27 : 14. Togar- 
mah is described as furnishing horses 
and mules to the Tyrian markets. Hence, 
Togarmah seems to be Armenia, derived 
from Thorgom, a descendant of Gomer, 
according to tradition, and rich in horses. 
See Armenia. 

TO'HTJ. 1 Sam. 1 : 1. See Toah. 

TO'I [wandering), king of Hamath, 
2 Sam. 8 : 9, 10; called Tou in 1 Chr. 
18 : 9, 10. 

TOLA [icorm). 1. Eldest child of 
Issachar, progenitor of the Tolaites. 
Gen. 46 : 13 ; Num. 26:23; 1 Chr. 7 : 
1, 2. 

2. A judge of Israel, Abimelech's 
successor; judged twenty-three years. 
Jud. 10 : 1, 2. 

TO'LAD (birth), a city in the South 
of Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 29. See El-tolad. 

TO'LAITES, descendants of Tola. 
Num. 26 : 23. 

TOLL. In Ezr. 4 : 13 ; 7 : 24 there 
is mention of " toll, tribute, and cus- 
tom " as the three branches of the Per- 
sian king's revenue from the Jews. The 
"tribute "was the money-tax imposed 
on each province, and apportioned out 
to the inhabitants by the local author- 
ities. The "custom," or provision, was 
the payment in kind, which was an in- 
tegral part of the Persian system. The 
"toll" was probably a payment re- 
quired of those who used the bridges, 
fords, and Persian highways. See 
Taxes, Tribute. 

TOMB. Matt. 27 : 60. See Burial. 

TONGUES, CONFUSION OF. 
Originally "the whole earth was of one 
language and of one speech." Gen. 11 : 1. 
This biblical statement is confirmed by 
the researches of philologists, which 
show a great resemblance between the 
different families of languages spoken by 
the descendants of the Babel-builders. 
The Bible states that the present differ- 
ences are due to the divine intervention. 
God confused the speech of the builders, 
so that they were obliged to abandon 
their work, thus forestalling "the wide 
dialectical differences which ordinarily 



require time and difference of place hud 
habits to mature." — Fumset. See Lan- 
guage. 

TONGUES, GIFT OF, one of 

the mysterious phenomena connected 
with the work of the apostles. It belongs 
to the miraculous gifts which adorned 
the primitive age of the Church. Our 
Lord, immediately before his ascension, 
promised his disciples that they should 
speak with new tont/ues. Mark 16 : 17. 
This promise had the beginning of its 
fulfilment on the day of Pentecost. Acts 
2. We must, however, distinguish be- 
tween the proper essence of this speaking 
with tongues, as a gift of the apostolic 
Church in general, and the particular 
form under which it made its first ap- 
pearance on that day. Only in this way 
can we understand 1 Cor. 14. Luke does 
not describe as a common event the phe- 
nomenon of Pentecost, nor was that won- 
drous scene repeated in the house of Cor- 
nelius. Acts 10 : 46. Pentecost stands 
alone, and the subsequent gift of tongues 
must be looked upon as a different mani- 
festation of one and the same Spirit. This 
can be made evident. 

1. The tongues of Pentecost were 
tongues like flames of fire. Their com- 
ing upon the disciples was preceded by 
violent noises. It seemed a literal pos- 
session. They spoke involuntarily, and 
with strange power. But in the Cor- 
inthian church there was no such thing. 
The speaking took place in the meetings 
of the church. It was done quietly. It 
came in as part of the service. It could 
be omitted or suppressed. 1 Cor. 14 : 28. 

2. On Pentecost the disciples spoke 
j strange languages, understood by those 

to whom they were native. Acts 2 : 6. 
j The words employed plainly indicate 
j that the miracle was with the disciples. 
But in the Corinthian church the words 
| spoken under this influence were not 
j understood until the speaker had him- 
! self interpreted his words or been inter- 
! preted. 1 Cor. 14 : 13, 27. 

^Ye may, however, find resemblances 
between the Pentecostal phenomenon and 
those in the Corinthian church. In each 
case the speaking with tongues was pri- 
marily an address to God, and not to 
men. It was an act of worship, per- 
formed, not to impress unbelievers, but 
out of the joy of their hearts. Acts 2:4j 
cf. v. 6 ; 1 Cor. 14 : 26. Again, it ap- 
873 



TOO 



TOP 



peared to unfriendly or listless hearers 
as madness or intoxication. Acts 2 : 13 ; 
1 Cor. 14 : 23. To those who understood, 
however, the speaking was edifying. 

It should be remarked that the Cor- 
inthians were by no means the only 
Christians who enjoyed this spiritual 
gift of utterance. It formed, indeed, 
part of the work of the Spirit upon these 
primitive believers. See Acts 10 : 46. 
Nor did it die out in the first century. 
Irenaaus, a father of the latter half of the 
second century, writes : "We hear many 
brethren in the church, having propheti- 
cal gifts, and by the Spirit speaking in 
all kinds of languages." We define this 
phenomenon, in the case of these Chris- 
tians, as an involuntary praying or 
singing in an ecstatic state in which the 
Holy Ghost rules the human mind and 
plays, as it were, upon it as an instru- 
ment. "Vehemently borne along by the 
Spirit, forgetting the world and himself, 
enraptured in the immediate enjoyment 
of the Deity, the speaker with tongues 
broke forth in a communication of di- 
vine mysteries or a song of praise for the 
wonderful works of eternal love." The 
interpretation of this strange speech 
could be made only by those in a simi- 
lar ecstasy. St. Paul advises that where 
there is no interpreter there be no such 
speaking. 

It will be seen that we hold the ability 
of speaking in a foreign language with- 
out any study therein was not part of 
this gift of tongues; that was done only 
on Pentecost. Paul was a master in 
speaking with tongues, but he was igno- 
rant of the language of Lyeaonia. Acts 
14 : 11-14. There is a primitive and 
reliable tradition that Peter used Mark 
as his interpreter in Rome. The fact of 
the Greek language being so widespread 
precluded the necessity of such miraculous 
power. The instances of the " speaking " 
cited in the N. T. are all of one descrip- 
tion — not evangelistic, but declai'ative : 
Christian to Christian, not to foreigner. 
Indeed, the expression " ' to speak with 
new tongues ' seems of itself not to point 
to foreign dialects — for they were not 
new — but to a language different from 
all dialects in use, a language of the 
new Spirit poured out upon the dis- 
ciples." 

In modern times, in the congregation 
of the Rev. Edward Irving, in London, 
874 



1830, there was a marvellous phenomenon 
similar in some respects to that de- 
scribed in 1 Cor. 14. It continued for 
some time in connection with prophetic 
utterances. Out of the excitement it 
caused grew the so-called Catholic Apos- 
tolic Church, of which Mr. Irving was 
first leader, although it was not full}' 
organized till after his death. 

TOOTH. The law of retaliation 

, allowed the Jewish magistrate to give to 

one who had been deprived of a tooth or 

I an eye the tooth or eye of the aggressor 

I in revenge. Ex. 21 : 24. The Jews con- 

I strued this law to justify private revenge, 

and this construction and the whole 

principle of the law were condemned by 

our Saviour, and the law of forbearance 

and forgiveness commended. Matt. 5 : 

j 39. Cleanness of teeth is a figurative 

I expression for famine. Am. 4 : 6. Gnash- 

I ing the teeth indicates terror, rage, and 

j despair. Matt. 8 : 12. The phrase in 

j Eze. 18 : 2 denotes that the children 

suffer for the sins of their fathers. 

TOPAZ. Eze. 28 : 13 ; Rev. 21 : 20. 
It seems quite agreed that this was the 
modern chrysolite, a rather soft and 
transparent or translucent gem, usually 
of a pale green. It is also called peridot 
and olivine. 

The true topaz is ordinarily pellucid 
and of a yellowish tint, but sometimes 
of a brown, blue, or green hue, or even 
colorless. A single gem of this kind has 
been sold (it is said) for upwards of 
$1,000,000. The finest specimens are 
found in the East Indies. 

The " topaz of Ethiopia," Job 28 : 19, 
or Southern Arabia (see Ethiopia), was 
probably distinguished for its beauty and 
value. That the most precious stones 
were once found there profane history 
asserts. 

TO'PHEL (lime), a place east of 
the Arabah. Deut. 1:1. It is identical 
with the TufUeh of Robinson, a large 
village with about six hundred houses, 
a little south-east of the Dead Sea. 
Numerous springs and rivulets and 
plantations of fruit trees — apples, apri- 
cots, figs, pomegranates, and olives — 
make the place very attractive, and it 
might naturally be selected as a land- 
mark. 

TO'PHET, and once TO'- 
PHETH. 2 Kgs. 23 : 10. Various in- 
terpretations are given: "drum," "gar- 



TOR 



TRA 



den," " place of burning " or " burying," 
"abomination," " pleasant," and " tabret- 
grove." Topbet was in "the valley of 
the son of Hinnom," which is " by the 
entry of the east gate." 2 Kgs. 23 : 10. 
Hence it lay in the valley, east or south 
of Jerusalem, and the supposition is 
that it was originally a beautiful place, 
watered from the pool of Siloam, a part 
of the king's garden, and perhaps a 
music- or tabret-garden. But afterward 
it became polluted by abominable idola- 
trous rites, sacrifices to Baal and Moloch, 
Jer. 7 : 31, 32 ; 19 : 13 : was made a re- 
ceptacle for all the filth of the city ; fires 
were kept burning to destroy the refuse; 
and hence "Tophet" became the syno- 
nym for the place of punishment and for 
fearful judgments. Jer. 19 : 6, 11-14. In 
the terrific wars waged around Jerusa- 
lem, Tophet became the receptacle for 
innumerable dead bodies. Isa. 30 : 33. 
See Hinnom. 

TORCHES. John 18 : 3. Resin- 
ous wood, or the twisted fibres of wool 
or flax saturated with inflammable 
matter, served for torches, and in some 
parts of the Old World at this day the 
like substances are borne aloft in iron 
frames. 

TORMENTORS. This probably 
means the keepers of the prison, who 
were often employed to torture criminals 
in various ways. Matt. 18 : 34. 

TOR'TOISE. This translation, 
Lev. 11 : 29, is doubtful. Bochart's view 
has most adherents — that the creature 
intended was the dhabb of the Arabs, a 
slow-moving lizard, sometimes attaining 
the length of 2 feet, and found in the 
Syrian and Arabian wilderness. The 
Septuagint has, in place of " tortoise," 
"land-crocodile," but this reptile seems 
to be meant by the "chameleon" of the 
next verse. A large land-tortoise is 
found in all these regions, and, like the 
dhabb. is eaten by the natives. There is 
also in Palestine a water-tortoise. 

TO'U. 1 Chr. 18 : 9. See Toi. 

TOW, the coarse part of flax. Jud. 
16 : 9. See Flax. 

TOWER. Matt. 21 : 33. Towers 
were common in vineyards, Isa. 5 : 2, 
and are often seen at the present day. 
They are sometimes 30 feet square and 
60 feet high, and are a kind of pleasure- 
house, serving as a shelter for the watch- 
men and as a summer retreat for the 



owner, affording an extensive prospect 
and fresh air. 

TOWER OF BABEL. See 

Babel, Tower op, Language, Tongues, 
Confusion of. 

TOWER OF EDAR, Gen. 35: 21, 
or TOWER OF THE FLOCK, 

as it is called in Mic. 4 : 8. This is sup- 
posed to have been a particular tower 
about a mile from Bethlehem, and to 
have been erected, like other towers, for 
the use of shepherds and herdsmen to 
superintend their flocks and descry the 
approach of danger. 2 Chr. 26 : 10. Some 
have supposed that the phrase "tower 
of the flock" had prophetic reference to 
Bethlehem as the birthplace of the 
Saviour. 

TOWER OF SHECHEM. 
This seems to have been a very strong 
and spacious citadel overlooking the 
town of Shechem, to which the inhabit- 
ants fled for refuge when the town was 
besieged by Abimelech. Fearing that 
this would not protect them, they es- 
caped to the temple of one of their idol- 
gods, which was also fortified, and the 
supposed sanctity of which they hoped 
would deter Abimelech from attacking 
it; but he surrounded it with fire made 
of green boughs, and burned or suffoca- 
ted the whole multitude. Jud. 9 : 46. See 
Millo, House of. 

TOWER OF SILO AM, sup- 
posed to have been a high structure 
erected near the fountain or pool of Si- 
loam. Luke 13 : 4. Christ's reference to 
its destructive fall shows how far he rose 
above the current superstition which con- 
sidered individual misfortunes as indi- 
vidual punishments. 

TOWJV-CLERK, an office of rank 
I and dignity in Ephesus, as is evident 
from the conduct of this functionary as 
recorded in Acts 19 : 35, 41. He appears 
to have been the keeper of the archives 
of the city, presided over municipal 
gatherings, put matters to vote, and 
performed the duties of the chief mag- 
istrate when the latter was away. The 
speech which the town-clerk delivered 
on the occasion referred to was very in- 
| genious, revealing great tact and ability 
! to subdue popular excitement. 
TOWNS. See Cities. 
TRACHONFTIS (a rugged re- 
; gion), one of the five Roman provinces 
\ into which the district north-east of the 
875 



TEA 



TEA 



Jordan was divided in N. T. times. It 
lay to the east of Iturasa and Gaulonitis 
and to the south of Damascus, and in- 
cluded the remarkable region of the 
modern Lejah (see Argob) and part of 
the western slopes of Jebel Haura.ii. 
The emperor Augustus entrusted it to 
Herod the Great on the condition that 
he should clear it of robbers. Herod 
Philip succeeded to the tetrarchy. Luke 
3:1. He died A. D. 33, and the empe- 
ror Caligula bestowed the province of 
Trachonitis upon Herod Agrippa I. 
Later it was part of the dominions of 
Herod Agrippa II., A. D. 53. 

TRADI'TION, a precept or cus- 
tom not contained in the written law, 
but handed down from generation to 
generation. Matt. 15 : 2. The Jews 
maintain that God gave Moses, besides 
the law which we have in the 0. T., a 
variety of precepts, which he made 
known to Joshua, by whom they were 
communicated to the elders, and by 
them to the judges, prophets, etc. ; that 
they were finally collected from various 
sources and recorded in what is called 
the Talmud, which see. Many of their 
traditions were in direct opposition to 
the law of God, a striking example of 
which is given by our Saviour in con- 
nection with the passage above cited. 
There were, however, a variety of tra- 
ditions or doctrines and precepts which 
persons divinely inspired taught by 
word of mouth. 2 Thess. 2:15 and 3 : 
6. The only way in which we can know 
satisfactorily that any tradition is of di- 
vine authority is by its having a place 
in those writings which are generally 
acknowledged to be the genuine produc- 
tions of inspired men. All traditions 
which have not such authority are with- 
out value, and tend greatly to distract 
and mislead the minds of men. 

TRANCE. This word occurs only 
twice in the 0. T., Num. 24 : 4, 16, and 
in both instances is supplied by the 
translators, and not found in the orig- 
inal. In the A. V. of the N. T. it 
occurs three times. Acts 10:10; 11: 
5: 22:17. The word is translated 
elsewhere by "astonishment," " amaze- 
ment." Mark 5 : 42 ; Luke 5 : 26. The 
word etymologically denotes a state of 
mind in which external objects are en- 
tirely unnoticed and forgotten, and the 
soul seems for the time to have pass- 
876 



ed out of the body, and to be occupied 
in purely spiritual contemplations. This 
state may sometimes be the effect of nat- 
ural causes ; but in the case of Peter 
there was an interposition of supernat- 
ural power. 

TRANSFIGURATION, THE. 
This event marks the culminating-point 
in Christ's life. It is recorded almost in 
the same words by the three synoptists. 
Matt. 17 : 1-13 ; Mark 9 : 2-13 ; Luke 
9 : 28-36, but John characteristically 
omits all mention of it. The term de- 
notes a change of aspect or appearance, 
not of substance or body. The change 
was seen in the face of the Redeemer 
and in his apparel. It was exceedingly 
majestic and glorious, and is particularly 
described by the evangelists and alluded 
to by Peter. 2 Pet. 1 : 16-1S. The design 
of this miraculous event was manifold, 
but chiefly to attest in the most solemn 
and mysterious manner the divinity of 
the Messiah's person and mission ; to 
support the faith of the disciples by 
evidence of the existence of a separate 
state, which was furnished by the ap- 
pearance and conversation of Moses and 
Elias ; and as showing, by the audible 
declaration of the Father, a broad dis- 
tinction between this Prophet and all 
others : " This is my beloved Son, hear 
ye him." The place of the Transfigura- 
tion was probably the southern slope of 
Hermon. as it occurred a few days after 
the confession of Peter at Ca??area- 
Philippi, which lay at the foot of Mount 
Hermon. and on the eve of Christ's last 
journey to Jerusalem. Mount Tabor, the 
traditional site, does not answer the con- 
ditions. Its summit was then a fortified 
and occupied camp. 

The time of the event was most likely 
the night, as then it could be better seen ; 
besides, the disciples were awakened by 
the light. Again, it was the next day 
before they descended. Luke 9 : 37. 
Peter, James, and John were the sole 
spectators; our Lord, Moses, and Elijah, 
the actors. It was partly an objective 
appearance, partly a spiritual vision. 

TRANSGRESSION. Heb. 2 : 2. 
The two words "transgression" and 
"disobedience" used in this passage are 
by common usage nearly synonymous. 
The former may be considered as passing 
over the bounds prescribed by a law, or 
doing the things we ought not to do, and 



TBE 



T&t 



"disobedience" as a refusal to do what it 
enjoins, or not doing the things we ought 
to do. The two words are here united, 
so that every violation of the command 
may be included. 

TREASURE-CITIES. Ex. 1 . 
11, TREASURE-HOUSES. Ezr. 
5 : 17. The kings of Judah had keepers 
of their treasure both in city and country, 
1 Chr. 27 : 25, and the towns where 
these treasures were deposited were 
called "treasure-cities," and the maga- 
zines or houses for their safekeeping 
were called "treasure-houses." See 
Pithom. 

TREASURY, John 8 : 20, 
TREASURIES, 1 Chr. 9 : 26, the 
place in the temple where gifts were 
received. See Temple. 

TREE OF KNOWLEDGE. 
Gen. 2 : 9. See Adam. 

TRESPASS usually denotes an 
offence committed against or an injury 
done to another. Lev. 6:2. It implies 
a departure from duty in respect to God 
or man. Matt. 6:15. 

TRESPASS-OFFERING. 
Lev. 5 : 6. See Offering. 

TRI'AL. Judicial procedure was 
usually very swift and simple; no such 
formalities as are common with us could 
have existed in the patriarchal or the 
Mosaic days. The patriarchs were the 
natural guardians of the public peace. 
When the Israelites had multiplied into 
a great nation and were living in the 
wilderness, Moses found his attempted 
imitation of the patriarchal judgeship 
was too laborious, and therefore gladly 
adopted the suggestion of Jethro and 
appointed inferior judges for minor 
cases. Ex. 18:13-26,- Deut. 1:9-17. 
There is an appearance of appellate 
courts in Judah in the days of Jehosh- 
aphat. Originally, it is probable, each 
man or woman pleaded for himself or 
herself; but when the Jews passed under 
the Roman domain, they were required 
to hire pleaders. Acts 24 : 1-9. Judges 
are repeatedly exhorted to act justly. 
Deut. 16 : 18, 19; Isa. 1 : 23, 24; Luke 

18 : 1-6. In criminal cases at least two 
witnesses were necessary. Deut. 17 : 6 ; 

19 : 15. If the witnesses swore falsely, 
then they were to be punished as the 
accused would have been had he been 
guilty. Deut. 19 : 16-21. The cases of 
Christ and Stephen illustrated how short 



an interval elapsed between sentence and 
execution. 

TRIBE. The posterity of each 
of the twelve sons of Jacob is called 
a tribe. Ephraim and Manasseh, the 
sons of Joseph, founded, Gen. 48 : 5, 
two tribes, and are therefore mention- 
ed in the list of the families in Num. 
26 : 28. In the distribution of the 
Promised Land, however, only twelve 
shares were made, for the tribe of Levi 
were to minister in the temple and to be 
supported by the contributions of the 
rest. See Levites, Tithes, etc. The 
twelve tribes continued to be one people 
until after the death of Solomon, when 
ten of them revolted and became a 
separate monarchy under Jeroboam, 
and were called the kingdom of Israel, 
leaving the tribes of Benjamin and Ju- 
dah under the government of Rehoboam, 
with the name of the kingdom of Judah. 
See Hebrews, Israel, Kingdom of, 
Judah, Kingdom of. 

Each was headed by a prince — an ar- 
rangement which lasted, it would seem, 
during the monarchy. Num. 1:16; cf. 
1 Chr. 27 : 22. The tribes possessed 
considerable independence ; they wei*e a 
confederacy rather than a union. Thus 
they waged wars separately. Jud. 1:3; 
1 Chr. 4 : 41, 43; 5 : 10, 18-22. The 
judges were, in some instances at least, 
of only local jurisdiction. The period 
preceding the monarchy contained more 
than one outbreak of hereditary jealousy 
between the tribes, especially between 
the powerful tribes of Judah and Ephra- 
im, 2 Sam. 2 : 4-9 ; 19 : 41-43, in so 
much that it was deemed best to anoint 
Rehoboam in Shechem. 1 Kgs. 12 : 1. 
We see further confirmation of this state 
of feeling in the fact that when the dis- 
ruption took place the rallying-cry of 
the ten tribes was " Israel !" as if this 
shout was territorially understood. 

The tribal idea is kept up in the N. 
T. Our Lord appointed twelve apostles, 
and in the Revelation the seer of 
Patmos carries the division into hea- 
ven itself in the number of the sealed, 
the gates, and the foundation. Rev. 7 : 
4-8 ; 21 : 10-21. 

The names of the twelve tribes were, 
arranged alphabetically and not accord- 
ing to seniority : Asher, Benjamin, Dan, 
Ephraim, Gad, Issachar, Judah, Man- 
asseh, Naphtali, Reuben, Simeon, Zebu- 
877 



TRI 



TBI 



lun. The tribe of Levi, as already re- 
marked, was scattered among the other 
tribes. 

TRIBES. Characteristics and 
Prominent Members of each of the Twelve 
Tribes. — In this article will be contained 
in a condensed form information about 
each tribe additional to and of a dif- 
ferent kind from that given under the 
respective titles, which see. 

Asher. — The tribe of Asher was de- 
scended from the eighth son of Jacob, 
the second son of Zilpah, Leah's maid. 
The name means " happy," in reference 
to Leah's feeling at his birth. Gen. 30 : 

12, 13. Our definite knowledge of 
Asher is of the slightest. Four sons 
and one daughter, besides two grand- 
children, accompanied him into Egypt. 
Gen. 46 : 17, 18. He stood in the re- 
markable group around Jacob's death- 
bed, and received the promise of a 
fruitful land : " Out of Asher his bread 
.shall be fat, and he shall yield royal 
dainties." Gen. 49 : 20. The tribe went 
out of Egypt under Moses, and sent 
its spy from Kadesh-barnea. .Num. 13 : 

13. Its position on the march was 
between Dan and Naphtali, on the 
north side of the tabernacle. Num. 2 : 
27. The territory of Asher has already 
been described. See Asher. It is notice- 
able that the blessing of Moses, Deut. 
33 : 24, 25, like that of Jacob, related 
merely to fruitfulness and general pros- 
perity, so the tribe was never distin- 
guished for mental qualities, although 
it was possessed of a rich territory and 
increased very rapidly. Comp. Num. 1 : 
40 with 26 :*47. With the exception 
of Simeon, it is the only tribe west of 
the Jordan which furnished no hero or 
judge to the nation ; the prophetess 
Anna, however, was an Asherite. Luke 
2 : 36. 

Benjamin. — As in the case of Asher, 
so with Benjamin, the prophetic blessing 
of Jacob was fulfilled. Gen. 49 : 27. 
Fierceness, courage, cunning, and am- 
bition were tribal traits. On the other 
hand, it was not distinguished for zeal 
for Jehovah, like the tribe of Levi. The 
fact that the tribe produced Ehud, Jud. 
3:15: Saul, 1 Sam. 9:1: Shimei, 2 
Sam. 19 : 16, and the nameless but in- 
famous libertines of Gibeah, Jud. 19, 
shows that Benjamin was all through 
its hfstory inclined to lawless conduct. 
878 



But there is a light upon the dark cloud. 
Out of Benjamin came Mordecai, the 
deliverer of the Jews, Esth. 2 : 5, and 
no Christian can utterly condemn a 
people which produced, though late in 
its history, so grand a man and so great 
a leader as the apostle Paul. Rom. 11 : 1 ; 
Phil. 3:5. As he was proud of his own 
Benjamite birth, we must give the tribe 
credit for some excellence, inasmuch as 
it produced one of Israel's first judges, 
her first king, and the great apostle to 
the uncircumcision. The political for- 
tunes of Benjamin were linked with 
those of Judah, and cannot well be 
separated. But, although these two 
tribes were so closely united, they dif- 
fered greatly. One minor but distin- 
guishing characteristic was the preva- 
lence of left-handed slingers. Jud. 20 : 
16. The city of Jerusalem was partly 
on Benjamite territory. The tribe did 
not at first acknowledge the kingship 



of David, 2 



2 : 8, 9, although 



afterward the situation of the capital 
was a strong reason for fidelity to the 
Davidic kings. 

Dan. — These descendants of Jacob's 
coucubine Bilhah were admitted to full 
tribal standing. Gen. 49:16. Then- 
great man is Samson. Jud. 13 : 2, 24. 
In numbers in the wilderness they 
I ranked next to Judah, the largest of 
the tribes. Num. 1 : 38. It was the last 
i tribe to receive" its inheritance, Josh. 
| 19 : 48 ; and, although among the lar- 
j gest tribes, it was assigned the smallest 
; territory, and even all of that did not 
| come to them. The divine intention in 
' this may have been to incite them to 
further conquests; at all events, this 
was the effect, for we soon find them 
sending out five men upon an expedition 
to the northward with a view to new settle- 
ments on their report. The city Laish 
was afterward taken by the tribe. Jud. 
18. The chapter explains " the warlike 
and independent character of the tribe, 
betokened in the fact, specially insisted 
on and reiterated, 18 : 11, 16, 17, of the 
complete equipment of their six hun- 
dred warriors, and in the lawless and 
freebooting style of their behavior to 
Micah." 

Ephraim. — This tribe was the great 
rival to Judah, the chief foraenter of 
trouble, and the staunch supporter of 
revolt from the yoke of Rehoboam. It 



Till 



Titr 



was energetic, restless, conscious of its 
strength, and fulJ of conceit, wish- 
ing to have the lead in every matter. 
Ephraim and Manasseh were usually 
interested in the same enterprises, but 
the former, though really the smaller 
tribe, was the more important. Deut. 
33 : 17. Ephraim acted badly toward 
every leader who did not take special 
pains to please them — e. g., toward 
Gideon, Jephthah, and David. Jud. 8 : 
1 ; 12 : 1 : 2 Sam. 19 : 41-43. In one 
instance, however, they nobly inter- 
posed to clothe, feed, and restore to 
freedom their captive brethren of Ju- 
dah. 2 Chr. 28 : 9-15. The seventy- 
eighth Psalm was designed to soothe 
their tribal soreness at the transfer- 
ence of the religious capital from 
Shiloh to Jerusalem. David had nu- 
merous Ephraimites among his state- 
officers— e. g., 1 Chr. 27 : 10, 14. The 
political history of Ephraim after the 
disruption is treated under Israel, 
Kingdom of. 

Gad. — One of the tribes on the east 
side of the Jordan, because predomi- 
nantly shepherds, but who joined, ac- 
cording to agreement, in the Conquest. 
Josh. 1 : 16. They were very warlike, 
men of might and of war, fit for the 
battle, that could handle shield and 
buckler, whose faces were the faces of 
lions, and as swift as the roes upon 
the mountains. 1 Chr. 12 : 8. The tribe 
produced three men famous in different 
ways — Jephthah, the conqueror and 
judge, Jud. 11 : 1; Barzillai, the noble- 
hearted friend of David, 2 Sam. 17 : 
27-29 ; 19 : 31-40 ; and that meteor, the 
prophet of evil, who appeared and de- 
parted so abruptly, Elijah, the man of 
God. 1 Kgs. 17 : 1. The territory of 
Gad was for a long time the battlefield 
between Syria and Israel. 2 Kgs. 10 : 
'■'>:). Tiglath-pileser finally carried Gad 
away captive, and the Ammonites occu- 
pied their cities. 2 Kgs. 15 : 29 j 1 Chr. 
5 : 26 ; Jer. 49 : 1. 

Issachar. — The "blessing" of Jacob 
upon Issachar was rather equivocal : 
Issachar is a strong he-ass crouching 
down between the cattle-pens, and he 
saw that rest was good, and the land 
that it was pleasant; and bowed his 
shoulder to bear, and became a slave 
unto tribute. The prophecy indicated 
an easy-going people who preferred 



j farming and agricultural labors to po- 
I litical distinction, and who would pur- 
chase ease at the sacrifice of liberty. 
| And the rich territory of the tribe 
j favored just this life. However, it 
was not without national feeling, for 
it responded to the call of Deborah ; 
indeed, some have supposed the battle 
took place in its tribal limits. Jud. 
5 : 15, 19. In David's time it was 
able to furnish 145,000 soldiers. 1 Chr. 
7 : 1-5. " The descendants of Issa- 
char," says Dr. Kalisch, " were men of 
prudence and wise calculation. Hav- 
ing, therefore, gained abundant wealth 
and resolved to enjoy it, they pursued 
a domestic and foreign policy calcu- 
lated to realize this end. Their 
shrewdness not only enabled them 
safely to keep aloof from all external 
dangers and peacefully to yield them- 
selves to secure tranquillity, but to 
win the esteem and deference of the 
fraternal tribes by useful and valuable 
councils." Cf. 1 Chr. 12 : 23, 32. Is- 
sachar seems to have put itself under 
the protection of Zebulun. But the 
tribe produced some men of mark. 
Tola, one of the Judges, was of Issa- 
char. Jud. 10 : 1, 2. The Omri who 
was prince of Issachar during David's 
reign may have been the forefather of 
the Omri who usurped the throne of 
Israel. 1 Chr. 27 : 18; 1 Kgs. 16 : 16. 
Baasha, another usurper, and a fero- 
cious man, was also of Issachar. Some 
men of this tribe responded to the in- 
vitation of Hezekiah, and, although 
not properly cleansed, partook of the 
Passover. 2 Chr. 30 : 18. Shortly 
after this came for them the Assyrian 
captivity. 

Judah. — See Judah, Tribe of, King- 
dom OF. 

Levi. — See Levite. 

Manasseh. — One of the largest of 
the northern tribes, and distinguished 
by its possession of territory on both 
sides of the Jordan. It did not, how- 
ever, play a very prominent part, leav- 
ing the leadership to Ephraim, with 
whom it shared. The prominent men 
in Jewish history who were Manassites 
are the judges Gideon, Jud. 6: 11; 
Jair, 10 : 3; Jephthah. 11 : 1. Manas- 
seh joined the side of Ish-bosheth, but 
finally submitted to David. 1 Chr. 12 : 
31. After the disruption the people 
879 



T&l 



TRO 



followed the example of Ephraim, fell 
into idolatry, and so prepared the way 
for their downfall. There were some, 
however, in the tribe of better mind, 
who came to Jerusalem to take part 
with their brethren in the religious 
revivals under Asa, 2 Chr. 15 : 9 ; 
Hezekiah, 30:1, 10, 11, 18; 31:1; 
and Josiah. 34 : 6-9. 

Nuphtali. — "A hind let loose, he 
giveth goodly words ;" so does Jacob 
describe the tribe, indicating grace and 
eloquence. Barak is the most noted 
member of the tribe. The " hind " sym- 
bolized a swift warrior. 2 Sam. 2:18; 1 
Chr. 12 : 8. In Barak these qualities 
come out. The song of Deborah is also 
his composition, and, as has been said, 
" Even if the tribe gave no other proof 
of its poetical genius, of the careful 
culture of the mind, and of the artistic 
conceptions of which it was capable, it 
amply deserved the encomium bestowed 
upon it that it uttered 'goodly words ' 
(words of beauty)." The territory of 
Naphtali belonged to the northern king- 
dom, and therefore was exposed to all 
its foes. Ben-hadad, king of Syria, 
plundered it, 1 Kgs. 15:20; Tiglath- 
pileser took the inhabitants captive. 2 
Kgs. 16 : 29. But upon God's book of 
remembrance there stood his prophecy 
of a better day for Naphtali, Isa. 9:1, 
2, and God, who " watches the turning 
of the ages," at last carried it out, and 
upon the hills of Naphtali walked the 
Light of the world. Matt. 4 : 3-16. 

Reuben. — One of the trans-Jordanic 
tribes, but without a striking point in 
their history. They fell into idolatry, 
like their neighbors, were carried into 
captivity, 1 Chr. 5 : 26, and their terri- 
tory was occupied by Moab. Comp. 
Josh. 13 : 16-21 with Isa. 15. 

Simeon. — Although one of the most 
numerous tribes at Sinai, Num. 1 : 23, 
they had become the smallest at Shittim. 
26 : 14. They are altogether omitted 
from Moses' blessing. Both facts are to 
be traced to the same cause — the shame- 
less conduct of the tribe in the matter 
of Baal-peor, in which they had the 
example of their chief. 25 : 14. Ja- 
cob foretold that Simeon would " be 
scattered in Israel," Gen. 49 : 7, and, 
as a matter of fact, it was so small that 
its lot was assigned " within the inherit- 
ance of the children of Judah," Josh. 
880 



19 : 1-9, although the ostensible reason 
was that " the part of . . . Judah was too 
much for them." "No eminent person 
is recorded as of this tribe, though the 
Jews have a tradition that it furnished 
schoolmasters to the rest of the nation." 
— Ayre. 

Zebulun. — As already remarked, the 
fortunes of Issachar and Zebulun were 
closely united, as in Moses' blessing : 
" Rejoice, Zebulun, in thy going out; 
and, Issachar, in thy tents." Deut. 33 : 
18. The tribe of Zebulun possessed the 
fisheries of Galilee's lake. Their bravery 
received the praise of Deborah. Jud. 5 : 
IS. Their most noted men were Elon, 
the judge, Jud. 12 : 11, 12, and Ibzan, 
his predecessor, but the great man was 
Jonah. 2 Kgs. 14 : 25. 

TRIBUTE, that which is paid to 
rulers in token of subjection and for the 
support of government. Gen. 49 : 15. 
By the Jewish law, Ex. 30 : 13, a trib- 
ute or capitation-tax was half a shekel, 
or twenty-five cents, which was expended 
in the temple-service. The conversation 
of our Saviour with Peter on the subject 
of paying this tribute-money was de- 
signed to show him that, being himself 
the Son of God, the King for whose 
service the tribute was paid, he might 
justly be exempted from paying it ; but, 
to prevent any needless irritation on the 
part of the officers or nation, he by 
miraculous power provided the means 
of paying the required tribute, which 
amounted to fifty cents for both. Matt. 
17 : 24. 

TRO'AS, a city of Lesser Mysia, in 
the north-eastern part of Asia Minor, on 
the sea-coast, 6 miles south of the en- 
trance to the Hellespont, and 4 miles 
south of the Homeric Troy. It stood 
on a gentle eminence, having Mount 
Ida behind it and the island of Tenedos 
in front. Alexandria Troas, as its name 
implies, owed its origin to Alexander the 
Great. He chose the site with his usual 
happy discernment, but did not live to 
cover it with buildings. These were 
built by Antigonus, whose name the city 
consequently bore for a short time. The 
city was improved by Lysimachus, the 
famous king of Thrace, and received a 
Roman colony during the reign of Au- 
gustus. It was to the Romans, in fact, 
that most of the buildings whose ruins 
still remain were due. Even the walls 



TKO 



TBU 



were repaired and strengthened by them, 
and it was under their rule that the com- 
mercial prosperity of the city reached 
its height. Its port was excellent, and 
made Troas for many centuries the key 
of the commerce between Asia and Eu- 
rope. Paul visited Troas twice, and 
perhaps three times. The first visit 
was on his second missionary journey. 
It was from Troas that, after the visit 
of the "man of Macedonia," he sailed 
to carry the gospel into Europe. Acts 
16 : 8-11. On his return journey he 
stopped at Troas for eight days and 
restored Eutychus to life. Acts 20 : 5- 
10. Upon one visit he left his cloak 
and some books there. 2 Tim. 4 : 13. 
Present Condition. — Troas is now an 
utter ruin. The walls can still be traced 
for a circuit of several miles. The ex- 
ploration of the ruins is somewhat fa- 
tiguing, as the ground is thickly strewn 
with stones and other fragments of an- 
cient buildings, and planted with a for- 
est of valonia oaks, whose branches 
make riding difficult and finding one's 
way still more so. Without a guide 
well acquainted with the place, it would 
be impossible to discover any road at 
all among the mazes of the wood. 
There are the remains of a gymna- 
sium, 413 feet long and 224 feet wide. 
This structure Prof. A. H. Sayce de- 
scribes (1880) as "a vast ruin whose 
desolation was only equalled by the soli- 
tude of the forest in the midst of which 
it stood. It had the shape of a hall, 
with pilasters along the sides, in front 
of which must have risen the columns 
that supported the vaulted roof. The 
line of the hall was broken in the cen- 
tre by four square apartments formerly 
adorned with marble pillars and cor- 
nices. The break had the appearance 
of a transept in a Gothie cathedral, the 
two cross- aisles being entered through 
lofty arches, one of which still remains 
perfect. Within, all is a confused chaos 
of stone and brick, of fallen columns 
and disfigured ornaments. Only enough 
is left to tell us that the building was a 
gymnasium with baths attached. The 
Turks, who call it the Bal Serai, or 
' honey palace,' have long used it as 
an inexhaustible quarry for the neigh- 
boring villages, and repeated earth- 
quakes have aided their endeavors to 
undermine the solid masonry of St. 
56 



: Paul's contemporaries. At the north- 

: eastern angle of the building are a few 

j ruined arches, which once supported 

an aqueduct, and at a little distance, 

among the trees, are the scanty relics 

of a Doric temple. 

" There are ruins of another large 
building of brick, which belongs to the 
Roman period. All that now remains 
of it is a vaulted chamber of consider- 
able size, which opens into smaller 
chambers on each of its four sides. 
Above are other chambers, similarly 
vaulted, while the whole structure 
is surrounded by an enormous plat- 
form of brick. What its original use 
can have been is a matter of dispute. 
According to one conjecture, it was a 
temple ; according to another, a bath- 
house ; but neither conjecture is sup- 
ported by the form and structure of the 
building. All we can say with certainty 
is that the present ruins represent but a 
small part of the original edifice, the 
foundations of which can still be traced 
among the grass and brambles." 

The harbor is blocked by a sand-bar. 
The place is now called Eitki Stamboul, 
or " Old "Constantinople," and it is said 
that Constantine hesitated between Troas 
and Constantinople as the site of his 
capital. 

TROGYL'LIUM, a town and cape 
on the western coast of Asia Minor, be- 
tween Ephesus and the mouth of the 
Meander, opposite Samos, at the foot of 
Mount Mycale. Paul there spent a night 
on his third missionary journey. Acts 
20 : 15. An anchorage a little east of 
the point is still called St. Paul's 
Port. 

TROOP, BAND, often means a 
small body of marauders, as in Gen, 
49 : 19; 2 Sam. 22 : 30; Jer. 18 : 22; 
Mic. 5:1. 

TROPHIMUS (foster-child), a 
native of Ephesus, Acts 21 : 29, and a 
convert to the faith of the gospel, prob- 
ably under Paul's ministry. Acts 20 : 
4. He became one of the apostle's com- 
panions and helpers in missionary trav- 
els and labors. 2 Tim. 4 : 20. 

TROW, in Luke 17:9, means to 
" think," " believe." 

TRUMPET. The trumpet differ- 
ed little from the horn, and in partic- 
ulars which are no longer discoverable. 
Ex. 19 : 16. The silver trumpets were 
881 



TKU 



TYft 




Trumpets. 

used by the priests alone in publishing 
the approach of festivals and giving sig- 
nals of war. 

TRUMPETS, FEAST OF. 

This feast — enjoined Num. 29 : 1-6; 
Lev. 23 : 24 — was the New Year's day 
of the civil year, corning on the first 
of Tisri (October), and was further 
called by the Rabbins "the birthday 
of the world," because in Tisri the late 
fruits were gathered and seed was sown. 
It was characterized by the use of both 
the straight trumpet and the cornet in 
the temple, by the blowing of trumpets 
everywhere, unless the festival fell on a 
Sabbath (in this case no trumpets were 
blown outside of the temple), and by the 
offering of a young bullock, a ram, and 
seven first-year lambs, with meat-offer- 
ings and a kid for a sin-offering in 
addition to the daily sacrifices and the 
eleven victims of the new moon, the 
ordinary feast of the first day of the 
month. It was one of the seven days 
of holy convocation. The feast differed 
from the other feasts of new moon, which 
also had their trumpet-blowings over the 
burnt-offerings, by its being a day of rest 
and service. 

TRYPHE'NA, and TRYPHO'- 
SA, two women of Rome whom Paul 
commended for their zeal. Rom. 16 : 12. 

TSEB'AOTH,LORDOF. This 
is a transliteration from the Hebrew 
which is more accurate than the com- 
mon form " Sabaoth," which occurs in 
Rom. 9 : 29 ; Jas. 5 : 4. See Sabaoth. 

TU'BAL, fifth son of Japheth, whose 
descendants probably peopled a country 
lying south of the Caucasus, between 
the Black Sea and the Aranes, whose 
inhabitants were the Tibareni of the 
Greeks. Gen. 10 : 2. The Circassians, 
882 



who inhabit this region, are slave-deal- 
ers, and they of Tubal traded in the 
"persons of men." Eze. 27 : 13 ; 38:2; 
comp. Rev. 18 : 13. 

TU'BAL-CAIN (hammer-blows of 
the smith?), a son of Lamech by his 
wife Zillah. Gen. 4 : 22. He is said to 
have been an instructor of every artificer 
in brass (copper) and iron. Thus he was 
the original maker of tools. 

TURBAN. See Clothes. 

TURTLE-DOVE. The word 
"turtle," and words of similar sound in 
Latin and Hebrew, are imitative of the 
plaintive notes of several species of 
doves. Ps. 74 : 19. By the Jewish Law, 
the poor who could not afford a more 
costly sacrifice were permitted to bring 
two turtle-doves or two young pigeons. 
Lev. 12 : 6-8. As the former are not 
domesticated and breed everywhere in 
prodigious numbers, this provision was 
a great boon to the needy. The outward 
circumstances of Christ's parents are 
thus indicated in Luke 2 : 24. 

The turtle-dove is a bird of passage. 
Jer. 8:7; Cant. 2 : 12. Early in April, 
Palestine everywhere suddenly swarms 
with these creatures, while a few days 
before not one was to be found. The 
most common species (Turtnr auritus) 
also breeds in England and in many parts 
of Europe. The palm-turtle nests in the 
tree from which it is named, and there- 
fore could have been obtained by Israel 
in the valleys of the Sinaitic desert, 
where this tree is found. The collared 
turtle is the only other species found in 
Palestine. By reason of its pairing for 
life and its unusual fidelity to its mate, 
this bird is the symbol of purity. See 
Dove. 

TUTORS means "guardians." Gal. 
4:2. 

TYCH'ICUS, a companion of Paul, 
Acts 20 : 4, and evidently a devoted and 
faithful disciple. Eph. 6 : 21, 22 ; Col. 4 : 
7, 8. 

TYRAN'NUS (tyrant), the name 
of the Greek rhetorician of Ephesus in 
whose lecture-i'oom Paul delivered dis- 
courses daily for two years. Acts 19 : 
9. Paul and he must have occupied 
the same room at different hours. He 
may have been a convert. 

TYRE, and TY'RUS (Heb. Tsor, 
" rock ;" Arabic Stir), a celebrated city 
of Phoenicia, on the eastern coast of the 



TYR 



TYR 



Mediterranean Sea, 21 miles south of Si- 
don, in lat. 33° 17' N. 

Situation and Extent. — Tyre was situ- 
ated upon what was originally an island, 
or perhaps two islands, about 1 mile 
long, and lying parallel to the shore at 
the distance of half a mile. There was 
also a city called " Palsetyrus " ("Old 
Tyre") upon the mainland. Pliny 
gives the circumference of the island 
Tyre at 2\ miles, and of the whole city, 
including Palsetyrus, at 17 miles. 

History. — Phoenician and Greek tra- 
ditions make Tyre a very ancient city. 
According to Herodotus, the priests at 
Tyre told him the city was founded B. c. 
2750. The first Scripture mention is in 
the time of Joshua, b. c. 1444, and it was 
then " a strong city." Josh. 19 : 29. It 
was coupled with the Zidonians. Jer. 
47 : 4 ; Isa. 23 : 2, 4, 12 : Josh. 13 : 6 ; 
Eze. 32 : 30. The two cities Tyre and 
Sidon, being only 21 miles apart, were 
intimately associated. Indeed, Tyre 
must have included not only the city 
proper, but some of the adjacent coun- 
try. See Phoenicia. Tyre, under King 
Hiram, held friendly relations with Is- 
rael, under David and Solomon. Da- 
vid's census extended thither to embrace 
the Jews. 2 Sam. 24 : 7. The Tyrians 
furnished the timber for the temple and 
great buildings of Jerusalem. The ce- 
dars of Lebanon were floated from Tyre 
to Joppa, some 85 miles, and thence ta- 
ken to Jerusalem. Tyrian artists also 
were skilful in the fine work required. 
As a reward for his services, Hiram was 
presented with twenty cities in Northern 
Galilee, but he was not well pleased with 
them and called them " Cabul " ("dis- 
pleasing" or "despicable"). 2 Sam. 5 : 
11; 1 Kgs. 5:1; 7:13; 9:11, 12; 1 
Chr. 14 : 1 ; 2 Chr. 2:2, 3, 11. Hiram 
and Solomon were also associated in 
commercial enterprises. 1 Kgs. 9:27; 
10:11-22; 2 Chr. 8:17, 18; 9:21. 
From Tyre came the many fatal influ- 
ences toward idolatry which corrupted 
the chosen people. See Zidon and Phoe- 
nicia. At a later period the friendly re- 
lations were changed to hostility. Tyre 
rejoiced in the distress of Israel, and 
God's prophet predicted the terrible 
overthrow of the proud heathen city. 
Isa. 23 : 1, 5, 8, 15-17 ; Jer. 25 : 22 ; 27 : 
3; 47:4; Eze. 26:2-15; 27:2-8, 32; 
29 : 18 ; Hos. 9 : 13 ; Joel 3:4; Am. 1 : 
884 



j 9. 10 ; Zech. 9 : 2, 3 ; comp. Ps. 45 : 12 ; 
| 83 : 7 ; 87 : 4. The prophecies were no- 
\ tably fulfilled. Shalmaneser, king of As- 
syria, besieged Tyre in B. c. 721. The 
| siege lasted for five years, but the city 
! was not taken. Nebuchadnezzar besieg- 
ed it for thirteen years, ending with b. c. 
592 ; whether he captured and destroyed 
this city is, strange to say, a matter which 
history does not enable us to determine. 
Josephus does not make it clear, and the 
passage in Eze. 29 : 18, " Yet had he no 
wages, nor his army, for Tyrus," is dif- 
ferently interpreted, some understanding 
that he did not take the city at all, and 
others that he took it, but found no ade- 
quate booty to compensate for the long 
siege. At any rate, Tyre came under 
' the Persian dominion and furnished 
that power with a large fleet. This ex- 
cited the hostility of Alexander the 
Great, who determined to destroy the 
power of the city. Not being able to 
reach the walls with his engines, he col- 
lected together all the remains of the 
ancient city Palaetyrus — stones, timber, 
rubbish — and threw them into the nar- 
row channel. Thus was fulfilled in a 
most remarkable manner the prophecy 
of Ezekiel. 26 : 3, 4, 12, 21. After a 
siege of seven months the city was ta- 
ken. Some 8000 men were slain in the 
massacre which followed ; 2000 were 
crucified, and 30,000 men, women, and 
children were sold into slavery. The 
city was also set on fire by the victors. 
Zech. 9:4; Joel 3 : 7. After Alexan- 
der's death Tyre fell under the dominion 
of the Seleucidaa, having been besieged 
for fourteen months by Antigonus ; at a 
later period the Romans possessed it. 

In N. T. times Tyre was a populous 
and thriving city. Christ referred to it 
and visited its "borders." Matt. 11:21, 
22; 15:21; Mark 7 : 24. Whether he 
went into the city itself cannot be deter- 
mined. The borders of the territory of 
Tyre (" its coasts ") reached southward 
to Carmel and eastward to Ituraea, ac- 
cording to Josephus. Paul spent seven 
days at Tyre, Acts 21 : 3, 4, which early 
became the seat of a Christian bishop- 
ric. In the fourth century Jerome 
speaks of it as the most noble and 
beautiful city of Phoenicia, and as still 
trading with all the world. During the 
Middle Ages it was a place of some 
consequence, and was regarded as well- 



TYE 



TYR 



nigh impregnable. On the side next the 
sea it had a double, and on the land side 
a triple, wall. After being subject to 
the Romans for four hundred years, 
Tyre came under the dominion of the 
Saracens in the seventh century. In 
a. D. 1124 the Crusaders captured it. In 
1291 the Muslims gained possession of the 
city, which was destroyed by them, and 
has never since regained its prosperity. 

There is an interesting description of 
the siege of Acra (Ptolemais) and the 
possession of Tyre by the army of the 
sultan of Egypt and Damascus. It is 
given by Marinus Sanutus, a Venetian, 
in the century following the capture: 
" On the same day on which Ptolemais 
was taken, the Tyrians, at vespers, leav- 
ing the city empty, without the stroke of 
a sword, without the tumult of wai*, em- 
barked on board their vessels, and aban- 
doned the city to be occupied freely by 
their conquerors. On the morrow the 
Saracens entered, no one attempting to 
prevent them, and they did what they 
pleased." About A. D. 1610-11 it was 
visited by Sandys, who said of it: "But 
this once famous Tyre is now no other 
than a heap of ruins ; yet have they a 
reverent aspect, and do instruct the 
pensive beholder with their exemplary 
frailty. It hath two harbors, that on the 
north side the fairest and best through- 
out all the Levant (which the cursours 
enter at their pleasure), the other choked 
with the decayes of the city." Maundrell 
(1697) says of Tyre : " On the north side 
it has an old Turkish castle, besides which 
there is nothing here but a mere Babel 
of broken walls, pillars, vaults, etc., there 
being not so much as an entire house left. 
Its present inhabitants are only a few 
poor wretches that harbor in vaults and 
subsist on fishing." — Smith's Bible Dic- 
tionary, vol. iv., p. 3337. 

Present Condition. — The present town 
lies in the northern part of the former 



I islands, which had an area of about 200 
I acres. The large embankment or cause- 
1 way thrown up by Alexander the Great 
1 was 60 yards wide and one-fourth of 
a mile long. But this has been widen- 
ed, by the gradual deposit of sand, to 
a mile on the main land and 600 yards 
where it reaches the old ramparts. The 
west and south sides of the island are 
now used for gardens and burial-grounds. 
| Traces of the ancient wall are found. 
One stone is 17 feet long and 6J feet 
thick. There are huge stones and frag- 
ments of marble columns along the shore 
I and beneath the water. They are bare 
as the top of a rock, and there the fish- 
ermen spread their nets — a wonderful 
fulfilment of a prophecy uttered nearly 
twenty-four hundred years ago : " I will 
make thee like the top of a rock; thou 
shalt be a place to spread nets upon." 
Eze. 26 : 14. The most interesting of 
the old buildings yet remaining is the 
church of the Crusaders, which prob- 
ably occupies the site of a church con- 
secrated A. D. 323, when Eusebius preach- 
ed the sermon. 

The mbdern city has miserable streets 
and dilapidated houses. Its shipping 
consists of a few fishing-boats. Cotton, 
tobacco, and millstones from the Hau- 
ran are exported. The population num- 
bers about 5000, nearly half of whom 
are Muslims, while the other half con- 
sists of Christians and a few Jews. A 
Franciscan monastery and a convent of 
the French order of the Sisters of St. 
Joseph are established here, and schools 
have been founded by an English mis- 
sion. A short distance from the city, on 
the main land, is the traditional tomb 
of Hiram : the remains of the ancient 
aqueduct by which the city was supplied 
with water from Rds el 'Ain can be 

TYROPCE'ON. See Jerusalem. 
TYRUS. See Tyre. 

885 



UCA 



UNI 



TJ. 



U'CAL (/ am strong) occurs only 
once, Prov. 30 : 1, as the name of one 
of the persons to whom Agur's words 
are spoken. 

U'EL (will of God) had, during 
the Captivity, married a foreign wife, 
Ezr. 10: 34; called Juel in 1 Esdr. 9: 
34. 

UK'NAZ, in the margin to 1 Chr. 
4:15, is the proper name " Kenaz " 
with the copulative conjunction pre- 
fixed, but the preceding proper name 
has been omitted. 

U'LAI (strong ivaterf), a river of Su- 
siana, on whose banks Daniel saw his 
vision of the ram and he-goat. Dan. 
8 : 2-16. It is doubtless the Euleeus of 
the Greeks and Romans, a large stream 
in the vicinity of Susa (Shushan). Re- 
cent explorations have shown that the 
river Choaspes (Kerkhan) divides about 
20 miles above Susa. The eastern branch, 
which received the Shapnr and fell into 
the Kuran, was probably the Ulai. This 
bifurcation of the stream explains the 
otherwise difficult passage, " I heard a 
man's voice between the banks of Ulai," 
Dan. 8 : 16 — that is, between the banks 
of the two streams of that divided 
river. 

U'LAM (porch, vestibule). 1. A de- 
scendant of Manasseh. 1 Chr. 7 : 17. 

2. A descendant of the house of Saul. 
1 Chr. 8 : 39, 40. 

UL'LA (yoke), an Asherite chieftain. 
1 Chr. 7:39. 

UM'MAH (community), a city of 
Asher. Josh. 19 : 30. Dr. Thomson as- 
sociates it with the modern Alma, north 
of Achzib, some 5 miles from the sea- 
shore; Conder with Uvimieh. 

UNCIRCUMCIS'ION. Rom. 2 : 
25. See Circumcised. 

UNCLEAN'. Lev. 5 : 2. See Clean 
and Unclean. 

UNCLEAN 7 MEATS. Hos. 9 : 3. 
See Clean and Unclean. 

UNCOVERING the head was a 
token of mourning and captivity. Lev. 
10 : 6 ; Isa. 47 : 2. • 

UNCTION is used figuratively with 
reference to the ceremony of anointing, 



and signifying the communication of a 
divine grace. 1 John 2 : 20, 27. 

UNDERGIRD'ING a vessel 
means to pass a strong cable around the 
hull to prevent it from opening. The 
ship which carried St. Paul to Italy was 
undergirded. Acts 27 : 17. Lord Anson 
mentions a Spanish man-of-war that! 
was saved by throwing overboard one 
tier of guns and taking six turns of a 
cable around the ship. 

UNDERSET'TERS, projections 
by which the brazen laver was orna- 
mented and supported. 1 Kgs. 7 : 30. 

U'NICORN (reim, or high), a very 
unfortunate translation of a word which 
occurs seven times in the 0. T. That 
fabulous creature the unicorn certainly 
is not meant by the reem. Critics are 
agreed that the passages mentioning it, 
correctly understood, require an animal 
with two horns. This animal was dis- 
tinguished for his ferocity, Isa. 34 : 7, 
strength, Num. 23:22; 24:8, agility, 
Ps. 29 : 6, wildness, Job 39 : 9, as well 
as for being horned and destroying with 
his horns. Deut. 33 : 17 ; Ps. 22 : 21. 

For various reasons, this animal could 
not have been the rhinoceros. Probably 
it was the now extinct aurochs (Bos 
primigenius), a long-horned and pow- 
erful ox, which existed in the forests 
of Europe nearly, or quite, until the 
Middle Ages. Caesar found it in the Her- 
cynian forest, and gives this description : 
" These uri are scarcely less than ele- 
phants in size, but in their nature, color, 
and form are bulls. Great is their strength, 
and great their speed ; they spare neither 
man nor beast when once they have caught 
sight of them." An allied species of bo- 
vine animals of great size and strength 
is known to have existed in Palestine, 
as the bison (Bison bonasus), and some 
of these, now called aurochs, are still 
found in the forests of Lithuania. 

The Scripture references will be found 
peculiarly appropriate to an animal of 
the ox kind. Assyrian monuments rep- 
resent the king and his warriors hunting 
a wild bison, which "appears to have 
been considered scarcely less formidable 



UNI 



UR 




Bison. (Bison bonasus. After Tristram.) 



and noble game than the lion." In a bone- 
cave in Lebanon the teeth of the aurochs 
or a similar ox have been discovered. Al- 
together, the above interpretation may- 
be regarded as quite established. 

U'NITY OF THE SPIRIT is 
unity of judgment, affection, and feel- 
ing among those who constitute the one 
body of Christ, Eph. 4 : 3, and it is the 
gift of God. Jer. 32 : 39. It was re- 
markably enjoyed in the early ages of 
the Church, John 17 : 21 ; Acts 4 : 32, and 
is to be sought after as among the chief 
of Christian graces. 2 Cor. 13 : 11. 

UN'NI (depressed). 1. A Levite ap- 
pointed to play the psaltery. 1 Chr. 15 : 
18,20. 

2. Another Levite, living after the re- 
turn from Babylon. Neh. 12 : 9. 

UNRIGHTEOUS MAMMON. 
Luke 16 : 11. See Mammon. 

UPHARSIN. Dan. 5 : 25. See 
Mene. 

U'PHAZ, probably the same as 
Ophir, which see. Jer. 10 : 9 ; Dan. 
10:5. 

UP'PER COASTS are the coun- 



tries of Galatia and Phrygia through 
which Paul passed at the beginning of 
his third missionary-tour. Acts 19 : 1. 

UP'PER ROOM. Mark 14 : 15. 
See Dwellings. 

UPPERMOST ROOMS. Luke 
12 : 39. See Synagogues. 

UR (light), the father of one of Da- 
vid's men, 1 Chr. 11 : 35 ; called Ahas- 
bai in 2 Sam. 23 : 34. 

UR OF THE CHAL'DEES 
(light?, or, from the rendering in the 
Septuagint, region), the place at which 
Abraham resided with Terah, his father, 
before he was called to go into the land 
of Canaan. Gen. 11 : 28, 31; 15 : 7. It 
is mentioned in the 0. T. as "of the 
Chaldees," and Josephus calls it "a city 
of the Chaldaeans." Stephen speaks of 
it as in Mesopotamia. Acts 7 : 2. These 
are the only biblical clews to its site, 
and hence the identification has been a 
disputed question. Among the places 
which have been suggested as the site of 
Ur are — ■ 

1. The modern Or/ah, or Urfa, in 
Northern Mesopotamia, some 20 miles 
§87 



UEB 



UEI 



north of Haran and a short distance 
east of the Upper Euphrates. It is 
about 450 miles north-north-east of Je- 
rusalem in a straight line. This is the 
classic Edessa. It is now a city of 
about 50,000 to 60,000 inhabitants, near- 
ly equally divided into Muslims and 
Christians (Jacobites and Armenians). 
Among the arguments for making this 
Ur are : (1) The resemblance in name. 
(2) The long-standing tradition among ] 
both Jews and Mohammedans that Abra- j 
ham dwelt there. At the base of the j 
mountain, to the south-east of the town, | 
is the cave which tradition says was his 
birthplace, and over it is a mosque so 
holy that only Muslims are allowed to 
enter it. There is a -pool called Birket- 
el-Ibrahim el Khaleel, the " pool of Abra- 
ham the beloved." (3) The saying of 
Josh. 24 : 2 that it was " on the other 
side of the flood " — i. e., east of the 
Euphrates. But in opposition to this 
identification it is urged, among other 
things, that Chaldaea did not extend 
into Upper Mesopotamia, that the his- 
tory points to a longer migration be- 
tween Ur and Haran than the 20 miles 
between Orfah and Haran. Uz is also 
connected with Orfah by tradition. 
See Uz. 

2. Warka, in south-eastern Mesopo- 
tamia, 120 miles south-east of Babylon, 
4 miles east of the Euphrates. The 
tract of land is slightly raised above the 
ordinary water-level. Upon a sandy 
platform are situated the remains of 
numerous ancient buildings. A ram- 
part of earth, nearly 6 miles in circum- 
ference and 40 feet high, surrounds the 
area. This is now commonly supposed 
to represent the city of Erech of Scrip- 
ture and the Orchoe of the Greeks. A 
tradition of the Talmud and in early 
Arabic works makes this Ur. Warka 
is a city of tombs, and is now utterly 
desolate. 

3. Mugheir, "mother of bitumen," a 
ruined site about 6 miles west of the 
confluence of the Euphrates and Tigris, 
and about 125 miles north-west of the 
Persian Gulf. The ruins now cover an 
oval space 1000 yards long and 800 
broad. The Koran and the Talmud 
contain legendary accounts of the es- 
cape of Abraham from the fire into 
which idolaters threw him at Ur. The 
most remarkable ruin at Mugheir is a 



temple built of bricks laid in bitumen, 
and many of them inscribed with the 
name of Urukh, a Chaldaean monarch 
whose date is supposed to have been 
B. c. 2230. This is perhaps the most 
ancient Chaldaean site discovered. Raw- 
linson, Porter, Eadie, and others accept 
this as the most probable site of Ur of 
the Chaldees. 

UR'BANE (from the Latin urbanus, 
"refined," " polite "), one of the Chris- 
tians in Rome to whom St. Paul sent a 
salutation. Rom. 16 : 9. 

U RI {fiery). 1. Of the tribe of Ju- 
dah, the father of Bezaleel, one of the 
architects of the tabernacle. Ex. 31:2; 
35:30; 38:22; 1 Chr. 2 : 20 ; 2 Chr. 
1: 5. 

2. The father of Geber, the commis- 
sariat-officer of Solomon in Gilead. 1 
Kgs. 4:19. 

3. A gatekeeper of the temple who in 
the time of Ezra had married a foreign 
wife. Ezr. 10 : 24. 

URIAH, 2 Sam. 11 : 3, or URI'AS, 
Matt. 1:6, a Hittite by descent, but 
probably converted to Judaism, com- 
mander of one of the bands of David's 
army, and the husband of Bathsheba. 
His death was purposely brought about 
by an understanding between Joab and 
David, in order that David's guilt in the 
case of Bathsheba might be concealed, 
and that he might obtain her for his wife. 

URIEL (fire of God). 1. A Le- 
vite of the family of Kohath. 1 Chr. 6 : 
24. 

2. The chief of the Kohathites in the 
time of David. 1 Chr. 15 : 5, 11. 

3. The father of Maachah or Michai- 
ah, Rehoboam's wife and mother of 
Abijah. 2 Chr. 13 : 2. In 2 Chr. 11 : 20 
Maachah is called " the daughter of 
Absalom," which may be explained by 
her mother, Tamar, being a daughter 
of Absalom. 

URI'JAH (flame of Jehovah). 1. 
High priest in the reign of Ahaz, 2 Kgs. 
16 : 10-16 ; called Uriah in Isa. 8:2; 
complied subserviently with the demand 
of the king to make an altar after the 
idolatrous pattern of that of Damascus, 
and to offer sacrifices on it. 

2. The son of Shemaiah of Kirjath- 
jearim : prophesied in the days of Je- 
hoiakim, and fled from the king's wrath 
to Egypt, but was seized there, brought 
back, and slain. Jer. 26 : 20-23. 



UEI 



UZA 



3. A priest of the family of Koz, the 
ancestor of Meremoth, Neh. 3:4, 21 ; 
perhaps the same as mentioned in Neh. 
8:4. 

URIM AND THUM'MIM {light 
and perfection) denote some part of the 
high priest's apparel. In Ex. 28 : 15- 
30 it is prescribed that the Urim and 
Thummim shall be placed beneath the 
breastplate, in order to be on the high 
priest's heart when he goes in before the 
Lord : and when Aaron was arrayed, 
Moses himself put the Urim and Thum- 
mim into the breastplate. Lev. 8:8. In 
the blessings of Moses he speaks of the 
Urim and Thummim as the crowning 
glory of the Levite tribe : and when 
Joshua is solemnly appointed to succeed 
him, Num. 27 : 21, the high priest, Elea- 
zar, is said to ask counsel for him after 
the judgment of Urim. But nowhere in 
Scripture are the Urim and Thummim 
described, and, as Jewish tradition can 
give no information, we do not know 
what they really were. 

U'SURY, by modern usage, means 
exorbitant or unlawful interest, but in 
the Scriptures it means simply interest. 
The Law of Moses prohibited the Jews 
from taking any interest of each other 
for the loan of money or of anything 
else, though they were allowed to take 
it of foreigners. The exchangers of 
money were in the habit of receiving it 
at low interest and loaning it at high 
interest, taking the difference for their 
gain. Eze. 22 : 12. The practice of usu- 
ry is severely denounced in the Scrip- 
tures. Neh. '5 : 7, 10 ; Ps. 15 : 5 : Prov. 
28 : 8. It has sometimes been asked 
why the Jews were permitted to take 
usury of strangers, while they were for- 
bidden to take it of each other. It is 
quite clear that the civil economy of 
the Jewish state excluded the general 
use of usury as a means of gain in 
a medium of exchange. They had no 
commerce with foreign nations, as we 
have in modern times, or as the Gentile 
nations had in that age. They had 
their inheritance apportioned to them 
in the division of the land, and were 
rather branches of the same family set- 
tled together than independent commu- 
nities, and their united business trans- 
actions were to be of the most friendly 
nature. In dealing with foreigners 
whose object was gain, they were allow- 



ed to avail themselves of the ordinary 
principles of trade. 

U'THAI (Jehovah succors). 1. A 

1 descendant of Judah, 1 Chr. 9:4; called 

' Athaiah in Neh. 11:4; was one of 

those dwelling in Jerusalem after the 

Captivity. 

2. A son of Bigvai : returned home in 
the second caravan with Ezra, Ezr. 8 : 
14 : called Uthi in 1 Esd. 8 : 40. 

UZ (fruitful in trees). 1. A sen of 
Aram, and grandson of Shem. Gen. 10 : 
23 : 1 Chr. 1 : 17. 

2. A son of Dishan, and grandson of 
Seir. Gen. 36:28. 

UZ, THE LAND OF (fertile 

land). Uz, or, more correctly, " Huz," 

was the country of Job. Job 1:1. It is 

mentioned in the ethnographical tables, 

Gen. 10 : 23, and it was settled by a son 

i of Aram. Comp. 1 Chr. 1 : 17. Job was 

j " the greatest of all the men of the East " 

— in Hebrew, Bene-Kedem, the people 

who dwelt in Arabia. Job 1 : 3, 15-17. 

• Uz is grouped with Egypt, Philistia, and 

Moab, Jer. 25 : 20, and with Edom. Lam. 

4 : 21. 

Situation. — The position of the land 
of Uz has been a subject of much dis- 
pute. According to Josephus, Uz was 
the father of the inhabitants of Damascus 
and Trachonitis. Many traditions put 
it at Orfah, on the Euphrates. See Ur. 
Near the Haran-gate in that city is 
" Job's well," Avhich is a sacred shrine 
to the people because the patriarch drank 
of its waters. Porter found many tradi- 
tions of Job in the Hauran. and numer- 
ous places named after the patriarch. 
The land of Uz seems most likely to 
have been in general that portion of 
Arabia Deserta east of Edom and south 
of Trachonitis, extending indefinitely 
toward the Euphrates. 

U'ZAI (strong), the father of Palal, 
who assisted Nehemiah in repairing the 
walls of Jerusalem. Neh. 3:25. 

U'ZAL, the sixth son of Joktan. 
Gen. 10:27; 1 Chr. 1:21. His descend- 
ants settled in Yemen and built the city 
of Uzal, which from the earliest times 
was one of the principal towns of the 
country. Its name was afterward changed 
to "Sana," and it is now the capital of 
Yemen. Niebuhr describes it as a beauti- 
ful town, situated on a plateau, and 
resembling Damascus on account of its 
rippling waters and fine trees. 



uzz 



UZZ 



UZ'ZA (strength). 1. An inhabitant 
of Jerusalem in whose garden Manasseh, 
king of Judah, and his son Anion were 
buried. 2 Kgs. 21 : 18, 26. The location 
of the garden is not known. 

2. A Benjamite descending from Ehud, 
1 Chr. 8 : 7, and, according to the Tar- 
gum on Esther, the ancestor of Mordecai. 

3. The ancestor of the family of 
Nethinim which returned from Babylon 
with Zerubbabel. Ezr.' 2 : 49 ; Neh. 7:51. 

4. A Levite of the family of Merari. 
1 Chr. 6 : 29. 

TJZ'ZA, GARDEN OF. 2 Kgs. 
21 : 26. See Uzza, 1. 

UZ'ZAH (strength), a son of Abin- 
adab, in whose house at Kirjath-jearim 
the ark had rested, was instantly killed 
by the immediate action of God for lay- 
ing his hands upon the ark, while guid- 
ing the carriage on which it was brought 
to Jerusalem, in violation of the express 
provisions of the divine law. Num. 4 : 
15 ; 2 Sam. 6 : 3-8. In 1 Chr. 13 : 7-11 
ne is called Uzza. 

UZZEN-SHERAH (ear of She- 
rah), a city of Sherah, the daughter or 
descendant of Ephraim. 1 Chr. 7 : 24. 
Probably it was near Beth-horon, and 
its site may be marked by Beit Sira, 3 
miles south-west of the lower Beth- 
horon. 

UZ / ZI (might of Jehovah). 1. A son 
of Bukki, and the father of Zerahiah, in 
the line of the high priests, 1 Chr. 6 : 5, 
6, 51; Ezr. 7:4, but not a high priest 
himself. 

2. The grandson of Issachar. 1 Chr. 
7 : 2, 3. 

3. A Benjamite, son of Bela. 1 Chr. 
7:7. 

4. Another Benjamite, ancestor of 
several families settled in Jerusalem 
after the Captivity. 1 Chr. 9 : 8. 

5. A son of Bani, a Levite, and over- 
seer of the Levites in Jerusalem in the 
time of Nehemiah. Neh. 11 : 22. 

6. A priest in the time of Jozakim, 
the high priest. Neh. 12 : 19. 

7. A priest assisting Ezra in dedicat- 
ing the walls of Jerusalem ; perhaps the 
same as the preceding. Neh. 12 : 42. 

UZZFA (strength of Jehovah), one 
890 



of David's guard; surnamed the "Ash- 
teratbite." 1 Chr. 11 : 44. 

UZZ I' AH (might of Jehovah). 1. 
The son and successor of Amaziah, 
king of Judab ; called Azariah in 2 
Kgs. 14 : 21 and elsewhere ; began to 
reign at sixteen, and reigned fifty-two 
years, b. c. 808-756. His career was 
most prosperous. He walked in the 
ways of his father David, and as a 
consequence was blessed with victory 
over his enemies and great fame and 
love. But he was puffed up by success 
so long continued, and presumed to 
burn incense on the altar like the 
priests. Azariah, the high priest, and 
eighty others opposed him ; but God 
most effectually checked him by mak- 
ing him a leper, dwelling in a separate 
house until death. 2 Kgs. 15 : 1-7 ; 2 
Chr. 26. A great earthquake occurred 
in his reign. Am. 1:1; Zech. 14 : 5. 

2. A Levite. 1 Chr. 6 : 24. 

3. The father of one of David's 
officers. 1 Chr. 27 : 25. 

4. A priest. Ezr. 10 : 21. 

5. A Judite. Neh. 11 : 4. 
UZZFEL (might of Jehovah). 1. 

The fourth son of Kohath, Ex. 6 : 18, 22; 
Lev. 10 : 4 ; the ancestor of the Uzzielites, 
and, through Elizaphan, also of the Ko- 
hathites, Num. 3 : 19, 27, 30, his house 
numbering one hundred and twelve 
adults in the time of David. 1 Chr. 
15 : 10. 

2. A Simeonite captain who in the 
time of Hezekiah destroyed the remnants 
of the Amalekites in the valley of Gedor. 
1 Chr. 4 : 42. . 

3. A son of Bela the Benjamite. 1 Chr. 
7:7. 

4. A Levite musician in the time of 
David, the son of Heman, 1 Chr. 25 : 4; 
called Azareel in 1 Chr. 25 : 18. 

5. A Levite of the family of Jeduthun 
who was very active in cleansing and 
sanctifying the temple after the pollu- 
tions of Ahaz. 2 Chr. 29 : 14-19. 

6. The son of Harhaiah, active in re- 
pairing the walls of Jerusalem in the 
days of Nehemiah. Neh. 3 : 8. 

TJZZFELITES, descendants of 
Uzziel, 1. Num. 3 : 27; 1 Chr. 26 : 23. 



VAG 



VEN 



V. 



VAGABOND (from the Latin 
vagabundus) means a fugitive, a wan- 
derer, and is so used in the A. V., but 
not opprobriously, as we now use the 
word. Gen. 4 : 12; Ps. 109 : 10 ; Acts 
19: 13. 

VAJEZ'ATHA (Persian, strong as 
the wind), one of the ten sons of Hainan 
slain by the Jews in Shushan. Esth. 

9 : 9. 

VALE, VAL'LEY. Five Hebrew 
words are translated " vale" or "valley." 

1. Emek, signifying a "deep" valley, 
and implying a long, broad sweep be- 
tween parallel ranges of hills, as the 
valley of Achor, Aijalon, Elah, Jezreel, 
Succoth, etc. 

2. Gai or ge, signifying a "bursting" 
or a " flowing together," and used to 
designate narrow ravines or glens, as of 
Hinnom or Salt. This name is given to 
the secluded spot where Moses was 
buried. Deut. 34 : 6. 

3. Nachal, meaning a " wady-bed," 
filled with water in winter, but dry in 
summer; and hence it is sometimes i*en- 
dered "brook," "stream," "river," etc. 
Such beds or valleys were Chereth, Esh- 
col, Sorek, Zered, etc. 

4. Bik'ah, properly a " cleft," but 
applied to a broader space than a cleft 
or valley, and meaning sometimes a 
"plain," as that between Lebanon and 
Anti-Lebanon and Megiddo. Josh. 11 : 
17; 13:17; Zech. 12 : 11. 

5. Ha-shephelah, wrongly rendered 
" valley," meant a broad tract of low 
hills between the mountains of Judah 
and the coast-plain. Deut. 1:7; Josh. 

10 : 40. 
VALLEY-GATE. 2 Chr. 26 : 9. 

See Jerusalem. 

VAL'LEV OF BACA. See Baca. 

VAL'LEY OF DECISION. Joel 
3 : 14. See Jehoshaphat. 

VAL'LEY OF SALT. See Salt. 

VALLEY OF SOREK. Jud. 
16 : 4. See Sorek, Valley op. 

VANI'AH (weak), a son of Bani : 
had married a foreign wife, but sent her 
away on the command of Ezra. Ezr. 
1Q : 36, 



VASH'NI occurs in 1 Chr. 6 : 28 as 
the name of the first-born of Samuel, 
while in 1 Sam. 8 : 2 the name is Joel. 
As Vashni, with a very slight modifica- 
tion, would mean "and the second," it is - 
probable that in 1 Chr. 6 : 28 the name 
of Joel has dropped out. 

VASH'TI (Persian, a beautiful 
tvoman), queen of Persia, and the re- 
pudiated wife of Ahasuerus. Esth. 1 : 9. 
See Esther. 

VAT. Isa, 33 : 2. See Wine-Fat. 

VEIL is, in our translation, the ren- 
dering of several Hebrew words which 
properly mean shawls or mantles. Gen. 
24 : 65 ; 38 : 14 ; Ruth 3:15; Cant. 5 : 
7 ; Isa. 3 : 23. These shawls or mantles 
may occasionally have been drawn over 
the face, but they were not designed for 
that purpose. Veils proper were used 
by the Hebrew women only on special 
occasions, — as ornaments, Cant. 4:1, 3; 
6:7; as a bridal-symbol, Gen. 24 : 65 ; 
29 : 25 ; and for the purpose of conceal- 
ment. Gen. 38 : 14. Generally the He- 
brew women appeared in public without 
veils, Gen. 12 : 14 : 24 : 1 6 : 29 : 10 ; 1 
Sam. 1 : 12, and so did the Egyptian and 
Assyrian women, as seen by the Egyptian 
and Assyrian sculptures and paintings. 
The custom now almost universal among 
Oriental women to be veiled whenever 
they appear in public dates from the 
Koran, 33 : 55, 59, which forbids the 
Mohammedan women to show themselves 
unveiled outside of the circle of their 
nearest relatives. 

VEIL OF THE TAB'ER* 
NACLE, or TEMPLE. See Taber- 
nacle and Temple. 

VEN'GEANCE. Rom. 12: 19. This 
word often denotes merely punishment, 
without any reference to the state of 
mind in which it is inflicted. In the 
passage cited and elsewhere, Deut. 32 : 
35, the exclusive right of God to punish 
wrong-doers and to vindicate the truth 
is plainly asserted. Hence every act of 
revenge is an interference with the divine 
prerogative. The word is applied to God 
in the same manner in which "anger," 
" hatred," etc., are applied— not as de~ 
891 



VER 



VIN 



noting a state or temper of mind, but as 
implying an act or course of proceeding 
such as usually indicates a particular 
state of mind, when done or pursued by 
man. 

VERMII/ION, a chemical sub- 
stance used for coloring red, and much 
valued for ornamenting dwellings, Jer. 
22 : 14, and painting images. Eze. 23 : 
14. The custom of painting, and some- 
times gilding, the ceilings of houses is 
still prevalent in the East. 

VI' AL. 1 Sam. 10 : 1. See Censer. 

VIL/LAGES. Lev. 25 : 31. See City. 

VINE, VIIVEYARD. We first 
read of a vineyard in the history of 
Noah. Gen. 9 : 20. The cultivation of 
the vine had attained to some perfection 
in very early times. In the accounts of 
Melchizedek, who set bread and wine be- 
fore Abraham, of Lot, who was drunken, 
of aged Isaac, when regaled by his sons, 
in the prophecy of dying Jacob, and in 
the book of Job, we have the earliest ac- 
counts of wine as a common drink. Gen. 
14: 18; 19 : 32; 27: 25; 49 : 12; Job 
1 : 18 ; Prov. 23 : 30, 31 ; Isa. 5 : 11. 

The original home of the Eastern 
grape-vine ( Vitis vinifera) was Armenia 
and neighboring countries. But Pales- 
tine seems scarcely second to any country 
in the world in adaptation of soil and 
climate for its culture. Especially is this 
true of its southern districts. "Here, 
more than elsewhere in Palestine, are 
to be seen on the sides of the hills the 
vineyards, marked by their watch-towers 
and walls, seated on their ancient ter- 
races, the earliest and latest symbol of 
Judah. The elevation of the hills and 
table-lands of Judah is the true climate 
of the vine. ' He bound his foal to the 
vine, and his ass's colt to the choice 
vine ; he washed his garments in wine, 
and his clothes in the blood of grapes.' 
It was from the Judaean valley of 
Eshcol, 'the torrent of the cluster,' that 
the spies cut down the gigantic cluster 
of grapes. 'A vineyard on a hill of 
olives,' with the 'fence.' and 'the stones 
gathered out,' and ' the tower in the 
midst of it/ is the natural figure which, 
both in the prophetical and evangelical 
records, represents the kingdom of 
Judah." — Stanley. 

Grapevines were usually propagated 
by layers. They were sometimes planted 
beside ridges of stones, upon which they 
892 



crept, and which afforded a dry and 
warm exposure for ripening the fruit. 
Miles of such stone-heaps remain in 
regions now utterly desert about Beer- 
sheba and east of the Jordan. At other 
times vines were annually trimmed down 
to a permanent stock, which was fastened 
to a stake, or a post was erected with a 
crosspiece, or upon four or more pillars 
a trellis or arbor was supported, upon 
which the boughs spread. Very often, 
however, the Syrian vines are trained 
upon a perpendicular trellis or frame- 
work in straight rows ; sometimes upon 
trees, and particularly the fig tree, 
whence the proverbial expression, " To 
repose under one's own vine and fig 
tree," as an emblem of peace and se- 
curity. Mic. 4:4; Zech. 3 : 10. Vines 
are found at Hebron trained in this 
manner, and bearing clusters of ten 
pounds' weight, or even more. Some- 
times they were trained upon the side 
of the house. Ps. 128 : 3. 

Vineyards were enclosed with a hedge 
or a wall, to defend them from the 
ravages of beasts, to which they were 
often exposed. A tower was also built 
as the station of a watchman. Num. 22 : 
24 ; Ps. 80 : 8-13 ; Prov. 24 : 31 ; Cant. 
2 : 15 ; Matt. 21 : 33. See Tower. 

The Hebrews devoted as much care to 
their vineyards as to their agriculture. 
When Isaiah predicts the invasion of 
the Assyrians, he declares that the vine- 
yard where there were a thousand vines 
for a thousand pieces of silver shall be 
even for briers and thorns. Isa. 7 : 23. 
When he would represent sorrow, he 
says, " The new wine mourneth, the 
vine languisheth, and all the merry- 
hearted do sigh." Isa. 24 : 7. So Zech- 
ariah, 8:12, foretells future prosperity 
thus : " The seed shall be prosperous, 
the vine shall give her fruit." See also 
Hab. 3 : 17; Mai. 3 : 11. 

The pruning of the vine is a familiar 
operation, which we all know to be 
necessary in order to its fruitful n ess. 
The law which forbade the Israelites 
to gather the grapes of the first three 
years, Lev. 19 : 23, gave occasion to the 
more careful and unsparing use of the 
pruning-knife; hence the young stock 
came to much greater strength. A 
traveller mentions a custom of the 
vine-dressers to prune their vines 
thrice in the year; the first time, in 



VIN 



VIS 



March. When clusters begin to form, 
they again lop off those twigs which 
have no fruit ; the stock puts out 
new twigs in April, some of which 
form clusters, and those which have 
none are again cut off in May. The 
vine shoots a third time, and the new 
branches have a third set of clusters. 
See John 15 : 2, in which passage the 
word " purgeth " may be rendered 
" pruneth." 

What remains of the culture of the 
vine is very simple. Once or twice in 
the season the plough was run through 
the vineyard to loosen the earth and 
free it from weeds ; the stones were 
gathered out, and a proper direction 
was given to the growing branches. 
Isa. 5 : 2. The vine-dressers, or keep- 
ers of the vineyard, formed a distinct 
branch of laborers. 2 Kgs. 25 : 12. 

The regular vintage begins in Syria 
about the middle of September, and lasts 
about two months. Lev. 26 : 5 ; Am. 9 : 
13. Ripe clusters, however, are found 
in Palestine as early as June and July, 
although the regular vintage begins in 
September. This difference may arise 
from the threefold growth of the vine, 
already mentioned. The first gathered 
in Canaan is probably meant in Num. 
13 : 20. 

The vintage was celebrated by the 
Hebrews with still more festivity than 
the harvest, Isa. 16 : 9, and was some- 
times a season of wicked mirth. Jud. 
9 : 27. See Grapes. 

VIN'EGAR. The Hebrew word de- 
notes a beverage either consisting simply 
of wine turned sour, and for that reason 
proscribed to the Nazarite, Num. 6 : 3, 
or produced artificially. Its excessive 
acidity, Prov. 10 : 26, made it an un- 
palatable drink, Ps. 69 : 21 ; but, like 
the Roman posca, it was much used for 
sopping bread. Euth 2 : 14. It was 
this beverage which was offered to our 
Saviour in his dving moments. Matt. 
27 : 48 : Mark 15 : 36 : John 19 : 29. 
The effervescence which it produced 
when poured upon nitre was well 
known to the Hebrews, and is used to 
represent in an impressive manner the 
incongruity of mirth and sorrow. Prov. 
25 : 20. 

VINE OF SODOM. There is 
reference to this plant only in Deut. 
32 : 32. Josephus describes fruits grow- 



ing near the Dead Sea, "which indeed 
resemble edible fruit in color, but on 
being plucked by the hand are dissolved 
into smoke and ashes." These are the 
apples of Sodom of which the poets 
sing, and which are supposed to be 
mentioned in the above passage. 

A surprising number of plants has 
been proposed as the vine of Sodom, 
while some have supposed that there 
was here reference merely to a popular 
fiction, as perhaps in the case of the 
dragon, satyr, and unicorn. If we are 
to interpret Deuteronomy and Josephus 
literally, the colocynth seems best to 
answer the conditions, because it is the 
only vine suggested, and abounds in 
these regions, while its fruit, though 
beautiful to the eye, is exceedingly 
nauseous to the taste, and when ripe 
there is nothing within it but seeds 
and a drv powder. See Goupd. 

VINEYARDS, PLAIN OF 
THE, Abel-ceramim. Jud. 11 : 33. 
Possibly marked by the ruin Karenain, 
6 miles south-east of Amman and upon 
the upper Jabbok, as suggested by Dr. 
Merrill. 

VFOIj. This was an instrument of 
music, and supposed to be the same with 
the psaltery. Am. 6 : 5. See Music. 
Chanting to the sound of it was to make 
like sounds with the voice, so modulat- 
ing the tones as to correspond with the 
sounds of the instrument. 

VFPER. This word in the 0. T. 
possibly designates some particular spe- 
cies of hissing and venomous serpent, 
but its exact application cannot be de- 
termined. In the N. T. the Greek word 
thus rendered was used for any poison- 
ous snake. The viper which fastened on 
Paul's hand, Acts 28 : 1-6, was doubtless 
the snake of that name ( Vipera aspis), 
still common in the Mediterranean isl- 
ands. It has now disappeared from 
Malta with the woods to which it is par- 
tial. The viper is an emblem of what- 
ever is deceitful and destructive. Matt. 
3:7:12:34; 23:33; Luke 3 : 7. See 
Cockatrice and Asp. 

VISION. Num. 24:4. Informer 
times God was pleased to reveal himself, 
and communicate his will in visions, 
which were caused either in the night in 
ordinary sleep, Dan. 7 : 1, or by day in 
a temporary trance. Acts 10:11; 26: 
13. See Dream, Trance. 

893 



VOP 



VtJL 



VOPH'Sl {my increase), father of 
Nahbi, the spy selected from the tribe of 
Naphtali. Num. 13 : 14. 

VOW, in the scriptural use, means a 
solemn religious promise or covenant by 
which one binds himself to do or suffer 
certain things, depending on God for 
power to accomplish them. The first in- 
stance of such a vow recorded in Scrip- 
ture is that made by Jacob when on the 
flight to Padan-aram. Gen. 28 : 20-22 ; 
31 : 13. As vows were voluntary en- 
gagements, not prescribed by the Mo- 
saic Law, they were made with prayer 
and paid with thanksgiving. Num. 6 : 2- 



21 ; Jud. 11 : 30, 31 ; Ps. 61 : 5 ; Acts 18 : 
18. See Nazarites. 

VULTURE. In Lev. 11 : 14, Deut. 
14 : 13, and Isa. 34 : 15, in place of this 
word, we should probably read " black 
kite" {Mllvus migrans). This is a bird 
which, except in the winter months, col- 
lects in Palestine in great numbers and 
is very sociable in its habits, according 
to the reference in Isaiah. Another He- 
brew word rendered "vulture" in Job 
28 : 7 is elsewhere correctly rendered 
Kite, which see. 

It is a striking instance of the accu- 
racy of the Scripture writers that, while 




Egyptian Vulture, < 

the peculiar faculty for discovering their 
food which carrion-devourers possess is 
popularly attributed to the sense of smell, 
the Bible attributes it to sight. In the 
book of Job the characteristic of the 
eagle is that "her eyes behold afar off." 
Job 28 : 7 refers to the same peculiarity, 
"There is a path which the vulture's eye 
894 



■ " Pharaoh's Hen." 

hath not seen," implying that its vision 
is most acute and penetrating. It is well 
proved that birds of prey discern their 
booty at vast distances, that the eager 
flight of one is observed and followed 
by another, and so on, till many are 
gathered together wheresoever the car- 
case is. 



WAF 



WAR 



W. 



WATER, a thin cake of fine flour 
used in various offerings anointed with 
oil. Ex. 16:31; 29:2, 23; Lev. 2:4; 
7: 12; 8:26; Num. 6:15, 19. 

WA'GES. When wages are first 
mentioned in the 0. T., they were paid, 
not in money, but in kind. •Gen. 29 : 15, 
20 : 30 : 28 ; 31 : 7, 8, 41. But the Law 
was very strict in requiring daily pay- 
ment of wages, Lev. 19 : 13 ; Deut. 24 : 
14, 15, and employers who withhold the 
laborer's wages or refuse to give him 
sufficient victuals are strongly censured. 
Jer. 22:13; Mai. 3:5; Job 24:11. 
"Wages paid in money are mentioned in 
the N. T. Matt. 20:2; Luke 3:14; 1 
Cor. 9:7. 

WAG'ON. The Egyptian wagon, 
which is well known to us from pictorial 
representations, consisted of two solid 
wooden discs connected with an axle, on 
which a body very similar to that of our 
wheelbarrows was placed. This primi- 
tive vehicle was drawn by oxen, and it 
was sometimes covered. The wagons 
mentioned in Num. 7 : 3, 8, for carrying 
the tabernacle, were no doubt built on 
this pattern. 

WAIL, to mourn with loud and vio- 
lent expressions of distress and despair. 
Eze. 32 : 18. 

WALL OF PARTFTION. Eph. 
2 : 14. See Temple. 

WALLS. The walls with which, in 
ancient times, all cities were surrounded, 
in contradistinction from open or un- 
walled villages, were generally built of 
earth or clay or sun-dried brick. Hence 
it was necessary to build them of great 
thickness, in order to ensure their per- 
manency. Houses were often erected on 
top of them, or they were provided with 
fortifications (fenced walls). When any 
breach took place in such a mass of 
earth, either by heavy rains or some de- 
fect in the foundation, the consequences 
were very serious. Ps. 62 : 3 ; Isa. 30 : 
13. See City. 

WANDERING IN THE WIL- 
DERNESS. See "Wilderness, the, 
of the Wandering. 

WAR. From the nature of the arms 



and the customs of the ancients, their 
battles were truly murderous. Scarcely 
ever was any quarter given, except where 
the vanquished was retained as a slave, 
and consequently the number of killed 
was often immense. 2 Chr. 13 : 17. Al- 
though the military art was comparative- 
ly simple, yet ingenious stratagems of 
various kinds were practised. Enemies 
were then, as now, surprised and over- 
come by unexpected divisions of the 
forces, by ambushes, and by false re- 
treats. Gen. 14 : 15 ; Josh. 8:12; Judg. 
20:36-39; 2 Kgs. 7 : 12. In lack of 
artillery, unwieldy machines for casting 
heavy stones and other destructive mis- 
siles were invented. We find, however, 
little allusion to these in the Bible. 
; About the end of the ninth or the be- 
! ginning of the eighth century before 
j Christ, Uzziah "made in Jerusalem 
j engines invented by cunning men, to 
be on the towers and upon the bulwarks, 
to shoot arrows and great stones withal." 
2 Chr. 26 : 15. 

A siege was thus conducted : All the 
trees in the neighborhood were cut down 
and used in the construction of field- 
fortifications. Deut. 20 : 20. " Mounts " 
or " banks " in the direction of the city 
were thrown up, and gradually increased 
in height until they were half as high as 
the city's wall. 2 Sam. 20 : 15 ; 2 Kgs. 
19 : 32. The next step was to erect 
J towers on the top of these banks. 2 Kgs. 
! 25 : 1. These steps taken, the siege was 
| commenced in earnest. The water-sup- 
plies of the besieged were, as far as pos- 
sible, cut off; intercourse with neighbor- 
ing towns or villages was ended. Thus 
starvation must eventually set in in the 
doomed city. But use was made of other 
measures than these passive ones. The 
towers spoken of bristled with armed 
men. Archers and slingers incessantly 
fired at the soldiers upon the wall. 
Battering-rams, which see, hammered 
against the gates or walls ; scaling- 
ladders were placed against the walls; 
the gates were even at times fired. Jud. 
9 : 52. But the besieged had weapons 
also. Huge stones were hurled with 
895 



WAR 



WAR 



terrible effect from the walls. Boiling 
oil, rings heated red hot, — these were 
employed to cripple the foe. Sallies were 
made to burn the besiegers' works or to 
drive them away. Jud. 9 : 53 ; 2 Sam. 

11 : 21. 

But there was no part of the ancient 
military preparations more terrible 
than chariots. Ex. 14:7; Deut. 20 : 1 ; 
Josh. 17 : 16; Jud. 4 : 3. They were in 
common use wherever there was any cav- 
alry. 2 Sam. 10: 18; 1 Chr. 18:4; 2 Chr. 

12 : 3 ; 14 : 9. See Chariot. Walls and 
towers were used in fortifications, and 
the latter were guarded by soldiers, and 
are called "garrisons." 2 Sam. 8:6; Eze. 
26 : 11. See Ward. 

As to the order of battle we have no 
certain knowledge. The prophet alludes 
to it. Jer. 12 : 5. Among all ancient na- 
tions it was customary to take previous 
refreshment of food, in order to give 
strength to the army. The soldiers, and 
especially the commanders, arrayed them- 
selves in their costliest garments and 
fairest armor, except in cases where dis- 
guise was attempted. 1 Kgs. 22 : 30. 



Various passages lead to the opinion 
that divisions of the army were common, 
as in modern times. Gen. 14:15; Jud. 
7:16; 1 Sam. 11:11. The most fre- 
quent division of the host was into tens, 
hundreds, and thousands, and each of 
these had its commander or captain. 
Jud. 20 : 10 ; 1 Sam. 8:12; 2 Kgs. 11 : 
4. Among the Hebrews these divisions 
had some reference to the several fam- 
ilies, and were under the heads of fam- 
ilies as their officers. 2 Chr. 25 : 5 ; 26 : 
12. The captains of hundreds and of 
thousands were of high rank, or (so to 
speak) staff-officers, who were admitted 
to share in the councils of war. 1 Chr. 
13 : 1. The whole army had its com- 
mander-in-chief or captain, who was 
over the host, and its scribe, or keeper 
of the muster-roll. 1 Kgs. 4:4; 1 Chr. 
18:15,16: 27:32-34; 2 Chr. 17:14; 
26 : 11. In Isa. 33 : 18 the words trans- 
lated " he that counted the towers " prob- 
ably indicate what we should call a chief- 
engineer. 

Under David the army of 288,000 men 
was divided into twelve corps, each of 




Egyptian Troops in Ranks. {From Monuments at Thebes.) 



which was consequently 24,000 strong 
and had its own general. 1 Chr. 27. 
Under Jehoshaphat this was altered, and 
there were five unequal corps, under as 
many commanders. 2 Chr. 17 : 14-19. 
The cohort had five hundred or six hun- 
dred men, and the legion embraced ten 
cohorts. 

896 



The light troops were provided with 
! arms which they used at some distance 
, from the enemy, such as bows and ar- 
I rows. They are designated in 2 Chr. 14: 
8 ; while the heavy-armed were those who 
I bore shield and spear. 1 Chr. 12 : 24. The 
i light troops of the army of Asa were taken 
| principally from the tribe of Benjamin 



WAR 



WAT 



because of their extraordinary accuracy 
of aim. Jud. 20 : 1 6. See Armor, Arms. 

Kings and generals had armor-bear- 
ers, selected from the bravest of their fa- 
vorites, who not only carried their ar- 
mor, which was in those days a neces- 
sary service, but stood by them in the 
hour of danger, carried their orders, and 
were not unlike modern adjutants. 1 Sam. 
31:4. 

The troops were excited to ardor and 
bravery by addresses from their priests, 
who were commanded to appeal to them. 
Deut. 20 : 2. In later times kings them- 
selves were accustomed to harangue their 
armies. 2 Chr. 13 : 4. Finally (perhaps 
after the sacrifices had been offered), the 
summons was given by the holy trum- 
pets. Num. 10 : 9, 10 ; 2 Chr. 13 : 12-14. 

It was the practice of the Greeks, when 
they were within half a mile of the en- 
emy, to sing their war-song. A similar 
custom probably prevailed among the 
Jews. 2 Chr. 20': 21. Next followed the 
shout, or war-cry, which the Romans ac- 
companied with the noise of shields and 
spears struck violently together. This 
war-cry was common in the East, as it 
is to this day among the Turks. It was 
the " alarm " or " shout" so often men- 
tioned in Scripture. 1 Sam. 17:52; 2 
Chr. 13 : 1 5 ; Job 39 : 25 ; Jer. 4 : 19. 

War, like slavery and all forms of 
violence, is a consequence of sin; it is 
organized cruelty and wholesale murder; 
as Gen. Moltke ("the thinker of battles") 
says, even a victorious war is a great 
national calamity; but it is overruled 
for good by that all-wise Providence 
which maketh the wrath of man to praise 
him. Christianity was introduced into 
the world by the angelic announcement 
of "on earth peace, good-will toward 
men." It has done much to prevent the 
passions of war, to mitigate its horrors, 
to counteract its evils by individual and 
organized care of the sick, the wounded, 
and the prisoners, to encourage the settle- 
ment of international disputes by peace- 
ful arbitration (as in the Alabama dif- 
ficulty, which threatened war between 
England and the United States, but was 
peacefully adjusted by the Geneva tribu- 
nal Dec, 1871), and it looks forward to the 
time when men "shall beat their swords 
into ploughshares and their spears into 
pruning-hooks, when nation shall not 
lift up sword against nation, neither 
57 



shall they learn war any more." Isa. 2 : 
4: Mic. 4:3; Joel 3 : 10 ; Rev. 21 : 3, 4. 

WARD, a prison, or an apartment 
thereof. Gen. 40 : 3 ; Acts 12 : 10. Also 
a garrison or military post, Neh. 12 : 25, 
or a class or detachment of persons for 
any particular service. 1 Chr. 9:23; 
25 : 8 ; Neh. 13 : 30. See Prison. 

WARDROBE, the place where the 
royal robes or priests' vestments were de- 
posited. 2 Kgs. 22:14. 

WARES. See Commerce. 

WASHING OF THE HANDS 
AND FEET, THE, was rendered 
necessary and refreshing by Oriental 
customs and climate. The hands should 
be scrupulously clean, inasmuch as all 
persons at table put their fingers into the 
same dish. The feet should be washed 
because the sandals afforded no protec- 
tion against soil; and besides, the feet 




Washing the Hands. 

would be hot. The protest of Christ 
against the handwashings of the Phari- 
sees was directed against their character- 
istic elevation of it into a matter of 
religious observance. Mark 7 : 3. He 
and his disciples were exposed to unjust 
insinuations because they neglected the 
Pharisaic rules. Matt. 15 : 2 ; Luke 11 : 
38. 

The washing, by the host, of the feet 
of the guest was a significant attention, 
1 Sam. 25 : 41 ; Luke 7 : 38, 44; John 
13 : 5-14; but usually water was pro- 
vided and the guests washed their own 
feet, or had them washed by servants. 
Gen. 18:4: Jud. 19:21. 

WATCHES OF THE NIGHT. 
The original division of the night was 
into three watches — " the beginning of 
the watches," from sunset to 10 o'clock, 
Lam. 2 : 19 ; "the middle watch," from 
10 to 2 o'clock, Jud. 7:19: and "the 
' 897 



WAT 



WAT 



morning watch," from 2 o'clock to sun- 
rise, Ex. 14 : 24; 1 Sam. 11 : 11— but 
after the Captivity the Jews adopted 
the custom of Rome and Greece, which 
divided the twelve hours of the night 
into four watches, beginning with 6 
in the afternoon — "even," from 6 to 9 
o'clock ; " midnight," from 9 to 12 ; 
" cock-crowing," from 12 to 3 ; and 
morning, from 3 to &; Matt. 14:25; 
Mark 13 : 35 ; Luke 12 : 38. 

WATCHMAN. Cant. 5:7; Isa. 
21 : 11. In Persia the watchmen were 
required to indemnify those who were 
robbed in the streets, and hence they 
were extremely vigilant to give the 
alarm and protect the city and its in- 
habitants from violence. Eze. 33 : 2-6. 
The watchman was also required to call 
the hours of the night in a loud voice 
as he patrolled the streets. This is 
customary at the present day in some 
large cities. In time of danger the 
watchmen were posted in towers over 
the gates of the city. Isa. 21 : 8 ; 62 : 6. 

WATER. The scarcity of water 
is one of the calamities of the Eastern 
world, and the distress which is often 
experienced by man and beast for want 
of it, is indescribable. Thus the gather- 
ing of water in cisterns and reservoirs 
and its distribution through canals, form 
a conspicuous feature of Eastern life. 

In Prov. 21 : 1 the original term, ren- 
dered "rivers," signifies "divisions," 
" partitions," " sections," and refers to 
the ancient Oriental methods of convey- 
ing water to orchards and gardens. This 
was by means of canals or rivulets flow- 
ing in artificial channels, called in He- 
brew "divisions" — i. e., "cuts" or 
" trenches " — which distributed the 
water in every direction, to irrigate 
abundantly the otherwise parched and 
barren soil. With a similar allusion, 
the Psalmist (Ps. 1 : 3) says of the godly 
man, the lover of the divine law, that 
" he shall be like a tree planted by the 
rivers of water" (divisions or sections 
of water), " that bringeth forth his fruit 
in his season, his leaf also shall not 
wither." The reference is doubtless to 
trees nourished by artificial irrigation, 
and the manner of this irrigation has 
been elaborately described by several 
modern travellers. Generally, gardens 
contain a large quadrangular plat of 
ground, divided into lesser squares, with 



walks between them. The walks are 
shaded with orange trees of a large- 
spreading size. Every one of these 
lesser squares is bordered with stone, 
and in the stone-work are troughs, very 
artificially contrived, for conveying the 
water all over the garden, there being 
little outlets cut at every tree for the 
stream, as it passes by, to flow out and 
water it. In Deut. 11 : 10 it is said of 
the Land of Promise, " The land whither 
thou goest in to possess it. is not as the 
land of Egypt, from whence ye came 
out, where thou sowedst thy seed, and 
wateredst it with thy foot, as a garden 
of herbs." The phrase " watering with 
the foot " may refer to the construction 
or opening of the channels and water- 
courses like those above mentioned, 
which was accomplished by the action 
of the foot. So also in 2 Kgs. 19 : 24, " I 
have digged and drunk strange waters 
and with the sole of my feet have I 
dried up all the rivers of besieged 
places" — i. e., "I have digged new 
channels by the labors of the spade, 
have turned the rivers out of their an- 
cient courses " — which consequently were 
dried up — " and thus have made my 
army to drink of strange waters, flow- 
ing in channels to which they had never 
before been accustomed." Another, and 
some think much more natural, opinion 
is that allusion is made to the machinery 
for drawing up water by means of a rope 
or string of buckets attached to a wheel, 
which was turned like a modern tread- 
wheel. Besides its ordinary use, water 
was employed symbolically, as in the 
Tabernacles. Feast of, which see, and 
once at least on a fast-day. 1 Sam. 7 : 6. 
Water indicates cleansing, and therefore 
is used in baptism and also of spiritual 
blessings. John 3:5; 7 : 37-39; Rev. 
22: 17. 

WATER OF JE4JL/OUSY. 
Num. 5 : 11-31. See Adultrry. 

WATER OF SEPARATION, 
or WATER OF UNCLEAN'- 
NESS, was sprinkled upon a person 
defiled by contact with the dead. See 
Num. 19. 

WATER-POT. The custom of 
washing the feet necessitated the use 
of a large amount of water on festive 
occasions. Hence, in John 2 : 6 there is 
mention made of six stone water-pots 
which held about 25 gallons apiece. 



WAV 



WEE 




Stone Water-jars. 

The water-pot of the woman of Samaria, 
John 4 : 28. was much smaller. 

WAVE-OFFERING, a peculiar 
feature of the rite of peace-offering, the 
right shoulder of the victim, considered 
the choicest piece, being " heaved," and 
eaten only by the priests, while the breast 
was " waved," and eaten by the wor- 
shippers. On the second day of the 
Passover a sheaf of corn was waved to- 
gether with an unblemished lamb of the 
first year. From this ceremony the days 
were to be counted till Pentecost, on 
which feast the first-fruits of the ripe 
corn and two lambs of the first year 
were waved. Ex. 29 : 24, 27 ; Lev. 7 : 
30, 34 : 8 : 27 ; 9 : 21 ; 10 : 14. 15 : 23 : 
10, 15, 20 ; Num. 6 : 20 ; 18 : 11, 18, 26- 
29. 

^AX, a well-known substance made 
from the combs of bees, easily softened 
and dissolved by heat, is often used in 
Scripture as a means of illustration. Ps. 
38 : 2: 97 : 5; Mic. 1 : 4. 

WEAN. Asa daily portion was not 
allotted to Levite children until they 
reached the age of three years, 2 Chr. 
31 : 16, it has been inferred that among 
the Jews children continued to suckle 
up to that time. The weaning was cele- 
brated by a feast. Gen. 21 : 8. 

WEAPONS. Neh. 4 : 17. See 
Arms. 

WEA'SEL, generally agreed to 
mean the mole. See Mole. Lev. 11 : 
29. 

WEAVE. Various woven fabrics 
are spoken of as having been produced 
by the Israelites during their wander- 



ings — such as curtains of goats' hair, 
Ex. 26 : 7 ; woollen garments, Lev. 13 : 
47 : twined linen, Ex. 26 : 1 ; and the 
embroidered raiment of the priests. 
Ex. 28 : 4, 39. Afterward the art of 
weaving is often mentioned, 1 Chr. 4 : 
21; 2 Kgs. 23 : 7; Prov. 31 : 13, 24; 
also the various tools — such as the 
shuttle, the beam, the thrum, etc. Job 




Ancient Roman Loom. 

7 : 6 ; 1 Sam. 17 : 7 : Isa. 38 : 12. The 
loom itself is not mentioned, however. 
WEDDING- GARMENT. The 

wedding-garments were furnished by the 
host, and were required to be worn by 
those who were admitted as guests at 
marriage-suppers. Matt. 22 : 11. 

WEEK. The division of time into 
portions of seven days found among 
many different nations which cannot 
have adopted it from one another — 
such as the Chinese, Peruvians, etc. — 
is by some referred back to the order 
of the creation, and by others to the 
" seven planets," the principal fact in 
ancient astronomy. 

The Jews gave no special names to the 
days of the week, but simply distin- 
guished them by their number, as the 
first, second, or third day. The names 
of the days now in use in the English 
language are derived from the Saxon, in 
which they had a mythological signifi- 
cation. 

Besides weeks of seven days, which 
were rendered from one Sabbath to an- 
other, the Jews had a week of years, or 
seven years, and a week of seven times 
seven years, which brought in the fiftieth 
or jubilee vear. 

WEEKS, FEAST OF. See 
Pentecost. 

899 



WEI 



WHI 



WEIGHTS. See Measures. 

WELLS were very essential in a 
dry and hot country like Palestine, and 
were generally provided at each place 
of pasturage with a great outlay of 
labor. They were deep, John 4 : 11, 
and difficult both to dig and preserve, 
and hence were a valuable part of the 
husbandman's property. Num. 20 : 17- 
19. They were sometimes owned in 
common. Gen. 29 : 2, 3. To protect 
them from the sand and from being 
used by others, they were covered, 
usually with a stone, and surrounded 
with a low wall. Gen. 29 : 2, 8. To 
stop them up was, and still is, regarded 
as an act of hostility, Gen. 26 : 15, and 
to invade the right of property in them 
was often the cause of sharp contention. 
Gen. 21 : 25. The water was sometimes 
drawn by a well-sweep and bucket, some- 
times by a windlass, but generally by 
pitchers and a rope. In a country where 
water was so valuable and so difficult to 
be procured, the well naturally became 
the centre of many scenes of actual life 
— the halting-place of the traveller, Gen. 
24: 11; the camping-place of armies, 
Jud. 7 : 1, etc. — and it furnished an 
appropriate emblem of rich blessings. 
Jer. 2:13; 17 : 13. See Jacob's Well 
and Bkrr-sheba. 

WHALE. In the Mosaic account 
of the creation, when we are told that on 
the fifth day God created gi*eat whales, 
sea-monsters in general are doubtless 
meant. Gen. 1 : 21. The original of 
"whale" is often translated "dragon" 
or "leviathan," and, according to the 
derivation of the Hebrew, the word de- 
notes a creature of great length, without 
being restricted to marine animals. 

Neither the 0. T. nor the N. T., when 
correctly rendered, affirms that it was 
a whale which swallowed Jonah, but 
" a great fish." Jon. 1:17; Matt. 12 : 40. 
The creature referred to is very likely 
to have been the white shark, which is 
abundantly capable of such a feat. 
The whale is, however, occasionally 
found in the Mediterranean Sea. The 
skeleton of one was to be seen in Bey- 
rout in 1877. See Jonah, Leviathan. 

WHEAT. In Palestine this most 
important of all grains was sown after 
barley, late in the fall. It was not only 
scattered broadcast and then ploughed, 
harrowed, or trodden in, Isa. 32 : 20, but 



it seems, according to the Hebrew of 
Isa. 28 : 25, to have been planted in rows 
or drills, as it certainly often is at pres- 
ent in Syria. Wheat-harvest is about a 
month later than barley-harvest, usually 
in May. 

Sixty, or even one hundred, grains 
may sometimes be counted in an ear of 
this cereal, according to Tristram, and, 
as several stalks may spring from a 
single seed with thorough cultivation, 
the increase of Matt. 13 : 8 is not at all 
incredible. 

Wheat is still produced for export 
east of the Jordan, where probably 
Minnith, Eze. 27 : 17, was located. The 
whole land once produced vast quantities 
of this cereal, and will again when agri- 
culture is protected and encouraged. 
Deut. 8:8. In the days of Jacob this 
grain was already so much cultivated in 
Mesopotamia that " wheat-harvest " de- 
noted a well-known season. Gen. 30 : 14. 

The many-eared variety, or mummy- 
wheat, still sometimes cultivated in 
Egypt and represented on its monu- 
ments, is referred to in Pharaoh's dream. 




Egyptian Wheat. 

Gen. 41 : 22. In our translation this 
grain is often mentioned under the 
general name of " corn." See Corn, 
Thresh. 

WHIT'ED SEPULCHRES. 
Matt. 23 : 27. It was customary to 



WID 



WIL 



whitewash the Jewish sepulchres annu- 
ally, that they might be distinctly seen 
and avoided, inasmuch as coming in 
contact with them was the occasion of 
ceremonial defilement. Num. 19 : 16. 
This practice gave them a clean and 
beautiful appearance, and presented a 
striking contrast to the dark and offen- 
sive mass of putrefaction within. 

WID'OW. By the Jewish law, Deut. 
25 : 5, if a married man died leaving no 
children, his brother was required to 
marry the widow, in order, first, that the 
estate might be kept in the family, and, 
second, that he might, in their descend- 
ants, perpetuate the name. This pre- 
scription refers only to the family and 
the estate, and pays no regard to the 
individual ; but there are other prescrip- 
tions in the Mosaic Law which show 
great kindness and circumspection in 
behalf of the widowed woman. Ex. 22 : 
22 ; Deut. 14 : 29 ; 16 : 11, 14; 24 : 17, 
19-21; 26:12,- 27:19. 

WIFE. See Marriage. 

WILD BEASTS. See Beast. 

WII/DERNESS, Ex. 14 : 3, and 
DESERT. These words do not 
necessarily imply a mere waste, but 
rather extensive tracts not under culti- 
vation and affording rich and abundant 
pasturage. Josh. 15 : 61 ; Isa. 42 : 11. 
The principal tracts of this description 
were the wilderness of Jericho, those of 
Judah, En-gedi, Ziph-maon, Beer-sheba, 
Tekoa, Gibeon, and Bethaven. See these 
under their respective heads. 

WILDERNESS OF SIN. Ex. 
16 : 1. See Wilderness, the, of the 
Wandering, and Zin, Wilderness of. 

WILDERNESS, THE, OF 
THE WANDERING, usually 
spoken of as THE WIL DERNESS, 
the region in which the Israelites spent 
forty years, between Egypt and Canaan. 
It is called sometimes the " great and 
terrible wilderness" by way of eminence. 
Deut. 1:1; 8:2; Josh. 5:6; Neh. 9 : 
19, 21 ; Ps. 78 : 40, 52 : 107 : 4 ; Jer. 2 : 
2. In general, it may be identified with 
the great peninsula of Sinai, the tri- 
angular region between the Gulf of 
Akabah, Seir, and Edom on the east, 
and the Gulf of Suez and Egypt on the 
west. See Sinai. In this region there are 
several smaller wildernesses, as Etham, 
Paran, Shur, Zin, which see. What is 
known distinctively as the "wilderness 



of the Wandering," Bad/iet et-Tih, is the 
great central limestone plateau between 
the granite region of Sinai on the south, 
the sandy desert on the north, and the 
valley of the Arabah on the east. The 
explorations of travellers and the British 
Ordnance Survey have made this region 
quite well known. 

The route of the Israelites from Egypt 
to Kadesh can be traced with reasonable 
accuracy. Instead of entering the Prom- 
ised Land immediately from Kadesh, 
they were driven back into the wilder- 
ness for their disobedience, and there 
wandered for forty years. It need not 
be supposed that they were continually 
on the move or that they were unable to 
find their way. They probably lived a 
nomad life, as do the Bedouin Arabs of 
the present day, moving from place to 
place and pitching their tents wherever 
they could find pasture for their flocks. 
Some of the stations named cannot be 
identified, though the line of march 
may be traced until they left the wil- 
derness and advanced toward the Prom- 
ised Land by Mount Seir and Edom. 
See Map at end of book. 

It is said of those composing the 
British Survey : " Not a single member 
of the expedition returned home without 
feeling more firmly convinced than ever 
of the truth of that sacred history which 
he found illustrated and confirmed by 
the natural features of the desert. The 
mountains and valleys, the very rocks, 
barren and sun-scorched as they now 
are. only seem to furnish evidence which 
none who behold them can gainsay that 
this was that ' great and terrible wilder- 
ness' through which Moses, under God's 
direction, led his people." — Recovery of 
Jerusalem, p. 429. (See also Palmer's 
Desert of the Exodus.) See Sinai, Ex- 
odus, Jttd^ea, Wilderness of. 

WILL, in the sense of a testament- 
ary writing, does not occur in Scripture, 
and, with respect to landed property, 
such a disposition must have been very 
limited, on account of the right of re- 
demption and general re-entry in the 
jubilee year. With respect to houses in 
walled towns such difficulties did not 
exist, and it is apparent, from 2 Sam. 
17 : 23 ; 2 Kgs. 20 : 1 ; Isa. 38 : 1, that 
property of this kind was bequeathed by 
will. 

WIL'LOW, a familiar tree, often 

99J 



WIL 



WIN 



referred to in the Bible, which flourishes 
best in marshy ground and on the 
borders of watercourses. Several species 
grow in Palestine. The beautiful weep- 
ing willow is also called the Babylonian 
willow, in allusion to Ps. 137 : 2 ; and, 
as this tree flourishes on the banks of 
the Euphrates, the name is otherwise 
appropriate. Before the Captivity the 
willow was an emblem of joy, Lev. 23 : 
40, but afterward, through the influence 
of the Psalm mentioned above, it ceased 
to be associated with the palm, and, like 
the cypress, became significant of sorrow. 
The oleander of our conservatories is 
indigenous in the Holy Land and fringes 
many of its waters with living green, the 
lower Jordan, however, being too warm 
for it. Sometimes it grows to such size 
that travellers encamp under its shade. 
On the western shore of the Sea of Galilee 
it is especially abundant, as the poet 
Keble beautifully sings : 

"Where Gennesaret's wave 
Delights the flowers to lave, 
That o'er her western slope breathe airs of 
balm. 
All through the summer's night 
Those blossoms, red and bright, 
Spread their soft breasts, unheeding, to the 
breeze. 
Like hermits watching still 
Around the sacred hill, 
Where erst, our Saviour watch'd upon his 
knees." 

As the oleander resembles the willow 
in leaf, general appearance, and love of 
water, it may be sometimes referred to 
under that name. Dean Stanley has sug- 
gested that it may be the tree "planted 
by the rivers of water," mentioned in 
Ps. 1 : 3. But the oleander was a wild 
shrub, and was not planted. The palm 
meets the conditions better. 

WIL'LOWS, BROOK OF 
THE, on the southern boundary of 
Moab. Isa. 15 : 7. It is now the Wddy 
el- Akxa. 

WIM'PLES, supposed by some to 
mean a broad, full mantle or shawl, like 
the veil which Ruth had, Ruth 3:15, 
and by others a veil, coif, or hood. Isa. 
3:22. 

WIND. The east wind was, in 
Palestine, injurious to vegetation. Its 
general character may be inferred from 
Gen. 41 : 6 ; Job 1 : 19 ; Ps. 11 : 6 ; Isa. 
27:8: Jer. 4: 11-13; Eze. 17:10: 19: 
12 ; 27 : 26; Hos. 13 : 15. The south 



wind brought heat, Luke 12 : 55, coming 
from Arabia ; the simoom, however, did 
not reach Palestine. The south-west and 
the north gave fair weather. Job 37 : 9, 
22 ; Prov. 25 : 23. The west wind, com- 
ing from the Mediterranean, gave rain. 

WINDOW. In Eastern houses the 
windows are single apertures in the 
wall, opening upon the court within, not 
upon the street without, which gives a 
melancholy aspect to the streets. There 
is, however, sometimes a projecting 
balcony or porch in front of the house, 
carefully closed by lattice-work, and 
opened only at the occasion of some 
festival. Erom such a place Jezebel is 
supposed to have been looking out when 
she was seized and put to death by Jehu. 
2 Kgs. 9 : 30. And this was probably 
called the "casement." Prov. 7:6; see 
also Cant. 2 : 9. Glazed windows were 
entirely unknown among the Hebrews, 
and are scarcely ever seen in the East 
at the present day. Before the Christian 
era, and, indeed, for several centuries 
after, glass was too costly to come into 
general use. 

WINE. There has been some con- 
troversy as to the nature and qualities 
of the liquor which is called wine in our 
Scriptures. Various words are used in 
the Hebrew text, and no doubt various 
products are thus denoted, but the cha- 
racteristic common to them all seems to 
be that of an intoxicating drink. Lev. 10 : 
9; Num. 28 : 7 : Prov. 3:10: Dan. 5 : 1. 

Like all other countries, Canaan had 
wines of various strength and character. 
The vine grew luxuriantly in Palestine, 
bearing immense clusters of grapes, and 
various kinds of wine produced in Pal- 
estine were remarkable both for their 
power and their flavor, such as the wine 
of Lebanon and that of Helbon, near 
Damascus. Eze. 27:18; Hos. 14:7. 
Often mentioned in connection with corn 
and oil as one of the great gifts of Na- 
ture to man, it was kept in every house- 
hold and produced on occasions of hos- 
pitality or festivals. Gen. 14: 18; John 
2 : 3. But by the Jews, as by other peo- 
ple, it was often misused, and its misuse 
is most severely condemned not only in 
the N. T., but also in the O. T., Prov. 
20 : 1 ; 23 : 29-35 ; Isa. 5:22; 28 : 
1-7 ; 56 : 12 ; Hos. 4:11, and in some 
cases it is expressly forbidden. Lev. 10 : 
9; Num. 6:3, In the Mosaic ritual it 



WIN 



WIN 



formed the usual drink-offering at the 
daily sacrifices, Ex. 29 : 40, at the pres- 
entation of the first-fruits, Lev. 23 : 13, 
and at other offerings, Num. 15 : 5, and 
a tithe was paid of it. Deut. 18 : 4. The 
Nazarite was forbidden to drink wine 
during the continuance of his vow, Num. 
6 : 3, and the priest before performing 
the services of the temple. Lev. 10 : 9. 

The "mixed wine" often mentioned 
by the sacred writers, Ps. 75 : 8 ; Prov. 
23 : 30, was not diluted with water, but, 
on the contrary, was increased in strength 
or improved in flavor and color by a mix- 
ture of drugs, herbs, and spices. Cant. 8 : 
2. Some suppose, however, that the 
phrase "mixed wine" denotes wine ren- 
dered stronger by being shaken up and 
mingled with the lees. 

WINE-FAT, WINE-PRESS. 
An excavation (probably rectangular) 
was made in the rock, or was formed in 
the ground and lined with mason-work, 
in which to crush the grapes. This was 
the press (Heb. gaih), and another cavity, 
arranged to catch the juice, was the fat 
or vat. Ancient excavations of this kind 
remain in Palestine, and one of them is 
thus described by Robinson with his 
usual accuracy : " Advantage had been 
taken of a ledge of rock ; on the upper 
side a shallow vat had been dug out, 8 
feet square and 15 inches deep. Two 
feet lower down another smaller vat was 
excavated, 4 feet square by 3 feet deep. 
The grapes were trodden in the shallow 
upper vat, and the juice drawn off by a 
hole at the bottom (still remaining) into 
the lower vat." Both these vats are re- 



ferred to in Joel 3:13. By the larger or 
upper receptacle Gideon threshed wheat 
for the sake of concealment. Jud. 6 : 
11. Such rock presses as these are still 
used in some parts of Syria. 

Travellers tell us that the first vin- 
tage usually begins in the latter part of 
August; that they often see the black 
grapes spread on the ground in beds, ex- 
posed to the sun to dry for raisins, while 



ywwwwwwwwi ////////////////////////< 




Treading the Wine-Press. 

at a little distance one or two, and some- 
times as many as five, men are seen, with 
feet and legs bare, treading the fruit in a 
kind of cistern, or vat, usually about 8 
feet square and 4 feet high, with a grated 
aperture near the bottom, through which 




the expressed juice runs into a vessel be- 
neath. Isa. 63 : 3 ; Hag. 2:16. The tread - 
ers sung and shouted, Isa. 16 : 10, while 
the red blood of the grapes flowed around 



Egyptians expressing the Juice of the Grape. 

them and thoroughly stained their flesh 
and garments. Isa. 63 : 1-3 ; Jer. 25 : 
30 ; 48 : 33 j Lam. 1:15; Rev. 19 : 13- 
15. 

903 



WIN 



WIT 



The ancient Egyptian mode of express- 
ing the juice of grapes may be learned 
from the preceding cut. The fruit is 
placed in a cloth, which is twisted and 
strained until the liquor is wrung out 
into a vessel below. 

" Gath," a wine-press, is of common 
occurrence in the names of Hebrew lo- 
calities. "Gethsernane" means "an oil- 
press." 

WINE-VES'SELS. The Hebrews, 
as well as the Greeks, preserved their 
wine in large earthen vessels or jars, 
which were buried up to their necks in 
the ground. These jars were quite large, 
containing often as much as one of our 
barrels. The must, or new wine, after 
being poured into such vessels, was stirred 
thrice a day for about twenty days with 
wooden rods. When wine was to be trans- 
ported, the Persians sometimes decanted 
it into flasks or bottles, but skins are now 
in common use, as they were among the 
ancients. The Hebrews poured even the 
must, or new wine, into skins, but for 
this purpose they used such as were 
fresh and flexible, and therefore not lia- 
ble to be broken by the fermentation of 
the liquor. Matt. 9 : 17. 

By "new wine," Joel 1 : 5, is intended 
sweet wine, which was purer and strong- 
er and more capable of preservation, and 
of course more inebriating. Isa. 49 : 26; 
Acts 2 : 13. 

Drinking wine in bowls, Am. 6 : 6, is 
supposed to refer to the richness and 
magnificence of the vessels, and not to 
the quantitv of wine drank. 

WIN'NOW. The process of win- 
nowing among the Hebrews was much 
like that sometimes in use at the present 
day. The grain was taken upon a shovel 
and thrown up in the wind, and the light- 
er chaff and straw separated, sometimes 
by the help of a fan. Isa. 30 : 24 ; 41 : 
15, 16; Matt. 3 : 12. It was common to 
winnow grain at evening, when, in Pal- 
estine, the sea-breeze usually blows. 
Ruth 3 : 2. See Fan, Thresh. 

WIN'TER lasts, in Palestine, from 
the beginning of December to the begin- 
ning of February, and is characterized 
by severe winds, frost, and snow-falls in 
the mountains, and by vehement winds, 
rain, and hail-storms in the lowland. 
Cant. 2:11. See Seasons. 

WIS'DOM OF SOLOMON, 
THE BOOK OF, one of the most 
904 



interesting and valuable of the Old Testa- 
ment Apocrypha. It gives a glowing ex- 
position and commendation of true wis- 
dom, similar to that in Job 28 : 12 et seq. 
and Prov. 8 and 9, showing that only 
by it can a blessed immortality be ob- 
tained (chaps. 1-5), what are its nature 
and results ; its value as a guide (chaps. 
6-9), and what are its benefits as par- 
ticularly illustrated in the early history 
of Israel (chaps. 10-19). Wisdom was 
with God when he created the world, 
is in his secret counsels, emanates 
from him, and rules the world with 
him (cf. Wis. 9 : 4, 9, 11). The literary 
form of its exposition resembles that of 
the Ecclesiasticus and the Proverbs. 
The Solomonic authorship is assumed, 
8:10: 9:7, but only in the sense of 
personation. The author was probably 
a Jewish philosopher or theologian of 
Alexandria. He was a full believer in 
the 0. T. revelations, but also acquaint- 
ed with Hellenic culture. From his 
school proceeded Philo, to whom the 
book has sometimes been ascribed; but 
the author was no doubt older, and 
stands between Jesus, son of Sirach, 
and Philo, about b. c. 100. The book, 
which was composed in Greek and is 
somewhat artificial in style, is not 
quoted before Irenaeus. 

WISE MEN. Matt. 2 :1. See Magi. 

WIST, identical with "knew." Ex. 
16 : 15: Acts 12 : 9; 23 : 5. 

WIT, from the A. V. witnn, to know, 
Gen. 24 : 21 ; Ex. 2 : 4. Hence " to do 
to wit" is "to cause you to know." 2 
Cor. 8 : 1. 

WITCHCRAFT, 1 Sam. 15 : 23, 
WITCH, Deut. 18 : 10, WIZ'ARD. 
Lev. 20 : 27. A man who pretends to 
supernatural power, so that he can fore- 
tell future events, cure diseases, call up 
or drive away spirits, or disclose infor- 
mation beyond the reach of the natural 
powers, is called a wizard. A woman 
of like practices is called a witch, and 
the evil art itself is called witchcraft 
Not only those who made such foolish 
and wicked pretensions, but also those 
who suffered themselves to be duped 
thereby, are most severely denounced 
both in the O. T. and in the N. T. Ex. 
22 : 18; Deut. 18 : 11, 12; Lev. 20 : 6; 
Nah. 3:4: Gal. 5 : 20. 

WITHERED HAND. Matt. 12 : 
10; Mark 3 : 1, 3; Luke 6 : 6, 8, The 



WIT 



WOR 



man's hand was not only paralyzed, but 
dried up. 

WITHS, a band of pliable twigs 
(as of the willow or osier kind), twisted 
closely together while green, and used 
instead of ropes. The marginal reading 
of Jud. 16 : 7 is " small cords." 

WITNESS, one who gives testi- 
mony. Two or more witnesses were 
required by the Mosaic Law in judicial 
investigations, Deut. 17 : 6, 7; and when 
the sentence of stoning was pronounced, 
they were required to commence the pro- 
cess of execution. Acts 7 : 58. A false 
witness was to suffer that penalty which 
his testimony might have brought over 
the accused. 

The witness of the Spirit with our 
spirit, Rom. 8 : 16, denotes the con- 
sciousness, more or less distinct, of the 
operations of the Spirit upon the mind, 
enlightening the understanding and in- 
clining the subject of them to do the will 
of God. 

John often exhibits the gospel in the 
light of a testimony, 1 John 5 : 9, and 
Christ himself is called "the faithful and 
true Witness," Rev. 1 : 5 ; 3 : 14, not only 
to the glory and perfection of the Father, 
but also to his own divine mission and 
to the universality and perpetuity of his 
kingdom. 

WIZ'ARD. See Witchcraft. 

WOE. Num. 21 : 29. This term often 
denotes a feeling of compassion or sym- 
pathy, Matt. 24 : 19, or a simple lamen- 
tation as, "Alas for me !" Ps. 120 : 5. In 
other connections it is equivalent to the 
threatening of punishment. Hab. 2 : 6, 
9, 15. 19: Zech. 11 : 17. 

WOLF, a fierce, cruel, ravenous 
animal, in size and general appearance 
resembling a dog, and a most terrible 
enemy to sheep. Isa. 65 : 25 ; Matt. 7 : 
15: 10:16; John 10 :12; Acts 20 : 29. 
The rapaciousness of the tribe of Ben- 
jamin was foretold by Jacob by a com- 
parison with the wolf. Gen. 49 : 27. See 
Jud. 20 and 21 and comp. 1 Sam. 9 : 
1 and 20 : 31 and Acts 9:1; Rom. 11 : 
1 ; Phil. 3 : 5. The Bible-writers also 
illustrate the cruelty of Israel's oppress- 
ors by an allusion to the wolf, Eze. 22 : 
27, and the sallying forth of the evening 
wolf in search of prey, Hab. 1:8, is 
emblematical of the destruction which 
awaits wicked men. Jer. 5 : 5, 6. The 
allusion Zeph. 3 : 3 is to the circum- 



stance that the wolf in its greediness 
often seizes on more than it can con- 
sume. The wolf still lurks in Palestine, 
the dread of shepherds. As there found, 
it is of a pale fawn-color, but, although 
thus lighter than the common European 
species {Cants lupus), seems to be only a 
variety of it. 

WO'MAN, the companion and helper 
of man, and by express command made 
subject to him. Gen. 3 : 16. The social 
position, however, of the Hebrew women 
contrasted very favorably with that now 
occupied by Oriental women, especially 
among Muslims. They managed the af- 
fairs of the household, bringing the water 
from the well, Gen. 24 : 15 ; 1 Sam. 9 : 
11, attending to the flocks, Gen. 29 : 6 ; 
Ex. 2:16, preparing the meals, Gen. 18 : 
6: 2 Sam. 13 : 8, spinning, Ex. 35 : 26 ; 
Prov. 31 : 19, and making clothes. 1 
Sam. 2:19: Prov. 31:21. Women 
mixed very freely in social life, par- 
taking in festivals both as hostess and 
guest. Job 1:4; John 2:3; 12:2. 
See also Miriam, Ex. 15 : 20, 21 ; Jeph- 
thah's daughter, Jud. 11 : 34 ; the maid- 
ens of Shiloh dancing in the vineyards, 
Jud. 21 : 21 ; the woman feting Saul and 
David. 1 Sam. 18 : 6, 7, etc. They even 
held positions in public life. See Mir- 
iam, Ex. 15 : 20 ; Huldah, 2 Kgs. 22 : 
14; Noadiah, Neh. 6 : 14; Anna, Luke 
2 : 36; and Deborah. 

The word " woman," when used as a 
term of salutation, as in Matt. 15 : 28; 
John 2 : 4, implies no disrespect, but 
| great tenderness and courtesy. It was 
j thus that our Saviour addressed Mary 
under the most touching circumstances. 
John 20 : 15. 

WOOL, as the principal material for 
the manufacture of clothing, was highly 
valued by the Jews, Lev. 13 : 47 ; Deut. 
22 : 11 ; Job 31 : 20 ; Prov. 31 : 13 ; Eze. 
34 : 3 ; Hos. 2 : 5, and the wool of Da- 
mascus enjoyed a great reputation in 
the market of Tyre. Eze. 27 : 18. 

WORD (Logos), THE, is one of 
the titles of Jesus Christ. Just as we 
express ourselves by words, so God ex- 
presses his mind to the world, his bound- 
less love, his inflexible justice, through 
Christ, his Word. The term occurs only 
in the writings of John. John 1 : 1-1 4 ; 1 
John 1:1; Rev. 19 : 13. It has been 
made a question whether John borrowed 
the term from Philo, who also usee 
905 



WOE 



WOE 



it, or whether he used it independently. 
But they do not mean the same thing. 
The "Word" of Philo was an abstrac- 
tion; the "Word" of John was the Son 
of God. 

WORD OF GOD. See Bible. 

WORKS. Good works, Eph. 2 : 10, 
are such as proceed from love to God 
and are done in obedience to his law and 
from a regard to his glory. We are saved 
by faith, "but faith without works is dead" 
— i. e., it is without any evidence of life. 
Works constitute the evidence and deter- 
mine the strength and character of faith. 
Jas. 2 : 17, 18, 26. In some places the 
word is used in our translation to de- 
note miracles. Num. 16 : 28; John 5 : 
20 ; 10 : 25. 

WORLD. This word in the A. V. 
is the translation of five Hebrew and four 
Greek words. It is therefore not always 
plain in what sense it is used. The He- 
brew terms have these literal meanings : 
"The earth," "rest," "the grave," Isa. 
38 : 11; "the world," corresponding to 
aion in the N. T., or that which is finite, 
temporary, Job 11 : 17; " the veiled," un- 
limited time, whether past or future ; used 
very frequently, and generally translated 
"for ever ;" and finally, the poetical term 
for " world," which occurs some thirty- 
seven times,, but in various meanings 
which are easily understood. When the 
Hebrews desired to express the universe, 
they employed a phrase like " heaven and 
earth and the sea, and all that in them 
is." Ex. 20 : 11. 

In the N. T. the Greek words are 
equally diverse: 

1. Aion, "duration," thus used of time 
past, Luke 1 : 70, of time present, with 
the idea of evil, both moral and physical. 
Mark 4:19. Hence "children of this 
world," or worldly men, Luke 16 : 8 ; and 
so Satan is called " the god of this world." 
2 Cor. 4 : 4. Aion is also put for endless 
duration, eternity. 1 Tim. 6 : 16, to signify 
the material world as created by the Deity, 
Heb. 11 : 3 ; also the world to come, the 
kingdom of the Messiah. 

2. Ge, the earth, in contrast to the 
heavens. Rev. 13 : 3. 

3. Kosmos, used in several senses : (a) 
the universe, the heavens, and the earth, 
Matt. 13 : 35, and thence for the inhabit- 
ants of the universe, 1 Cor. 4 : 9, and an 
aggregate. Jas. 3 : 6. (b) This lower 
world as the abode of man, John 16 ; 18 ; 

906 



the inhabitants of the earth or mankind. 
Matt. 5 : 14. (c) The present world, as 
opposed to the kingdom of Christ. John 
12 : 25 ; specifically, the wealth and en- 
joyments and cares of this world, Matt. 
16 : 26, and so for those who seek the 
opposite things to the kingdom of God, 
the worldlings. John 15 : 19. 

4. Oikoumene, the inhabited earth, 
Matt. 24 : 14, the people of it. Acts 17 : 
j 31, sometimes the Roman empire (the 
| then civilized world), Acts 17 : 6, in- 
cluding Palestine and adjacent parts. 
Luke 2:1; Acts 11 : 28. 

The Jews distinguished two worlds, 
or aeons, the present aeon to the appear- 
ance of the Messiah, and the future 
aeon, or the Messianic era, which is 
to last for ever. The closing days of 
the present order of things were called 
"the last days." Isa. 2:2; Mic. 4:1; 
Acts 2 : 17. The same phraseology is 
found in the N. T., but the divid- 
ing-line is marked by the second in- 
stead of the first advent of the Mes- 
siah. Matt. 12 : 32 ; 1 Cor. 10 : 11 ; Gal. 
4:3: Heb. 1:2; 6:5: 9 : 26. 

WORM. Several Hebrew words are 
thus translated which seem to designate 
indefinitely caterpillars or maggots, 
either as destructive, as loathsome, or 
as helpless and insignificant. For the 
larva of the clothes-moth, evidently 
mentioned in Isa. 51 : 8, see Moth. In 
Mic. 7:17, "worm" should be " ser- 
pent " or "reptile." From the circum- 
stance that maggots are found in putre- 
fying flesh, we have the figurative ex- 
pressions in Job 19 : 26 ; 21 : 26 ; 24 : 
20 ; Isa. 14 : 11. Owing to the constant 
accumulation of filth and putrefaction 
in a valley near Jerusalem it was always 
alive with worms, and fires were main- 
tained day and night to consume the 
sources of pestilence. Hence the allu- 
sion Isa. 66 : 24 ; Mark 9 : 44, 46, 48. 
At an advanced stage of some diseases 
worms are bred in the flesh from the 
eggs of the insect. Job 7:5; 17 : 14 ; 
Acts 12 : 23. The meanness of these 
creatures, and their liability to be trod- 
den under foot, afford the illustrations 
in Job 25 : 6; Ps. 22 : 6: Isa. 41 : 14. 

WORMWOOD. At least five 
species of this plant (Artemisia) are 
found in the Holy Land, and are dis- 
tinguished for intense bitterness. Hence 
this word is often joined with or used in 



WOE 



WEI 



the same sense as "gall" and "hem- 
lock " to denote what is offensive and 
nauseous. Deut. 29:18; Prov. 5:4; 
Am. 5 : 7 ; 6 : 12. To be obliged to use 
it as food expresses the extreme of suf- 
fering. Jer. 9 : 15 ; 23 : 15 ; Lam. 3 : 15, 19. 

WORSHIP. This word, as used 
in our Bible, has various significations. 
In most instances it means simply an 
act of respect, Matt. 9 : 18 ; Acts 10 : 
25, and does not imply any religious 
emotion. Where the act respects the 
divine Being, the only proper object 
of religious worship, the connection 
shows it. John 4 : 24 ; Heb. 1:6; Rev. 
22 : 9. It becomes idolatry when ten- 
dered to any other person or thing. 
Dan. 3 : 5, 12. 14; Acts 19 : 27. 

WORSHIPPER, in Acts 19 : 35, 
should be "temple-keeper," a term ap- 
plied to cities devoted to the worship of 
some special idol, as Ephesus was to that 
of Diana. 

WOT, WOT'TETH, indicative 
present of the old verb "to wit" — i.e., 
"to know." Gen. 39 : 8. 

WREST'LING. See Games. 

WRIT'ING is either ideographic or 
phonetic. In ideographic writing the 
signs used represent the ideas them- 
selves, either pictorially by direct imi- 
tation of the object, or symbolically, as 
when the picture of an eye is used to 
convey the idea of sight or knowledge, 
and the picture of a lion the idea of 
courage. In phonetic writing the signs 
simply represent the sounds of which a 
word is composed, sometimes encompass- 
ing them in whole syllables, sometimes 
dissolving them in single letters. Ideo- 
graphic writing — that is, writing by 
pictures or in hieroglyphics — is an art 
of very ancient date, and is even now 
common in many savage nations. In 
its most unimproved form it is found 
among our American aborigines, and 
was the common method used by the 
Mexicans, some of whose ancient pic- 
tures of this kind are preserved. 

The most numerous and remarkable 
specimens of hieroglyphic writing exist 
in Egypt; they have been sought out by 
travellers and copied in drawings and 
copperplates, but have baffled the in- 
genuity and labor of many ages. A 
distinguished French antiquary, Cham- 
pollion, was the first who succeeded in 
deciphering a great number of them, 



and his labors have thrown great light 
upon the Scriptures and vindicated the 
Mosaic history from a multitude of ob- 
jections. Now a hieroglyphic inscrip- 
tion can be read as accurately as a class- 
ical one. 

As an example of an old method of 
phonetic writing may be mentioned the 
cuneiform inscriptions found on old As- 
syrian, Babylonian, and Persian monu- 
ments. The characters very much re- 
semble arrow-heads, and the key to 
decipher them was not found until be- 
tween 1800 and 1815, by Grotefend. It 
is evident also that the Jews were very 
early in possession of phonetic writing. 

Through all the Mosaic history books 
and writing are mentioned as in familiar 
use. Ex. 17 : 14; 2 Sam. 11 : 14 ; 1 Kgs. 
21 : 8, 9, 11 ; 2 Kgs. 10 : 1, 2, 6, 7. The 
alphabet which the Jews used was a de- 
velopment of the Phoenician alphabet, 
and underwent various changes in course 
of time. The materials used in writing 
were tablets of stone, Ex. 31 : 18; 32 : 
15, 16, 19 ; 34 : 1, 4, 28, 29, or box-wood 
and brass, or plaster, Deut. 27 : 2 ; Josh. 
8 : 32, or skin, which was made into the 
finest parchment or vellum. For hard 
materials an iron stylus or engraver's 
tool was used, Job 19 : 24 ; Ps. 45 : 1 ; 
Isa. 8:1; Jer. 8:8; 17 : 1, but for 
parchment a reed pen and ink. 2 Cor. 
3:3; 2 John 12 ; 3 John 13. The 
parchment was not cut in leaves, form- 
ing a book, but put together in long 
rolls. See Pen. 

The practice of employing an aman- 
uensis was much more common in an- 
cient days than now. Hence, Paul 
gives as an authentication of his letters 
a few words written with his own hand. 
1 Cor. 16 : 21; Col. 4 : 18; 2 Thess. 3 : 
17. This fact also explains Rom. 16 : 
22. The size of the apostle's writing is 
indicated. Gal. 6 : 11. 

The ink of the ancients was made of 
pulverized charcoal or the black of burnt 
ivory and water, with the addition of 
some kind of gum. The ink of the 
East at the present day is a much 
thicker substance than ours, but is not 
permanent ; a wet sponge will obliterate 
the finest of their writing. The inkhorn 
was, and is, a long tube containing the 
reed pens, with a little case fastened at 
the side to hold the ink. The whole is 
thrust into the girdle. See Book. 
907 



YAR 



YOK 



YARN, LINEN. 1 Kgs. 10 : 28. 
There is a diversity of opinion as to the 
meaning of this term. There is very 
strong reason to doubt the correctness 
of the rendering in our translation, and 
to substitute for it '"the drove" — i.e., 
of horses. See Eze. 27 : 7. 

YEAR. The Jewish year had two 
commencements. The religious year be- 
gan with the month Abib (April), the 
civil with Tisri (October). The year was 
solar. There were two seasons, summer 
and winter. Ps. 74 : 17; Zech. 14 : 8; 
Jer. 36 : 22; Am. 3 : 15. The months 
were lunar, of thirty days each, and 
twelve in number, although a thirteenth 
was sometimes necessarily intercalated. 
It was called Ve-adar. The festivals, 
holy days, and fasts of the year were as 
follows : 

1. The feast of the Passover, the 14th 
day of the first month. 

2. The feast of unleavened bread, in 
the same month, from the 15th to 21st, 
inclusive. 

3. The feast of Pentecost, called also 
feast of harvest and " day of first 
fruits," on the day which ended seven 
weeks, counted from the 16th of the 
first month, that day being excluded. 

4. The feast of trumpets, on the first 
day of the seventh month. 

5. The day of atonement, a fast, on 
the 10th day of the seventh month. 

6. The feast of tabernacles, or of 
gathering, from the 15th to the 22d 
day, inclusive, of the seventh month. 

The post-Mosaic festivals are Purim, 
in the twelfth month of Adar, loth to 
15th day, and dedication, on the 25th 
dav of the ninth month. 

YEAR OF JU'BILEE. Lev. 25 : 
8-10. See Jubilee, Year of. 

YEAR, SABBATICAL. In the 
seventh year all agricultural labor was 
suspended, and spontaneous productions 
were left to the poor, the traveller, and 
the wild beasts. Lev. 25 : 1-7. This was 
(1) For the sake of the ground; (2) For 
the preservation of wild beasts ; and (3) 
To make the people provident and sen- 
sible of dependence. The people could 



fish, hunt, take care of bees and flocks, 
repair buildings, manufacture clothes, 
and carry on commerce. This year was 
religiously observed. Deut. 31 : 10-13. 
There was, moreover, a general release-; 
no debt to a Jew was allowed to stand, but 
must be forgiven. Deut. 15 : 1-11. 

It has been inferred from 2 Chr. 36 : 
21 that this sabbatical year was neglect- 
ed during seventy Sabbatical cycles — 
?'. e., four hundred and ninety years. 
Whether it was ever observed is not a 
matter of certain record, but there is an 
allusion to it in 1 Mace. 6 : 49, and Luke 
6 : 1 has been interpreted to refer to the 
" first Sabbath of the second year in the 
cycle." 

YOKE. This was much lighter than 
ours, and probably much larger, so that 
the cattle stood farther apart and the 
plough could more easily be made to 
avoid obstructions. It was simply a stick 




Yoke in Use in Palestine. 
a, b, timber of the yoke ; c, d, the bows ; e, e, pegs 
between which, at g, the end of the shaft comes, the 
shaft itself having been run through the rope between 
/ and the cross-piece of wood h, i. 

laid upon the necks of the cattle, to 
which it was held by thongs instead of 
wooden bows, and in a similar manner 
it was attached to the plough-beam. In 
modern Syria wooden pins are sometimes 
used instead of thongs, the lower ends 
of which are held by a parallel stick 
under the necks of the oxen. 

The yoke was an appropriate emblem 
of subjection and of slavery, imprison- 
ment, and severe rule, while the removal 
of it indicated the corresponding deliver- 
ance. Gen. 27 : 40 : Jer. 2:20; Matt. 11 : 
29, 30. Breaking the voke also represents 
the rejection of authority. Nah, \ ; 13, 



ZAA 



ZAC 



ZAANA'IN (removals), THE 
PLAIN OF, more accurately "the oak 
of," where Heber the Kenite pitched his 
tent. Jud. 4:11. This has been identi- 
fied with a plain some 2 or 3 miles 
north-west of the Waters of Merom (Lake 
Huleh), in the line of the hills which 
form the western boundary of the Jordan 
valley. The plain is about 2 miles long 
and 1 mile wide, and completely sur- 
rounded by hills. The hills are well 
wooded and have many "oaks." In the 
middle of the western side of this plain 
is the site of Kedesh-naphtali, or Kedesh. 
Conder says that Kedesh-naphtali is 30 
miles from Tabor, over a difficult country. 
He suggests another Kedesh, and the 
identification of Zaanaim with Bessum, 
east of Tabor. See Zaanannim. 

ZA'ANAN [place of flocks). Mic. 1 : 
11. Conder suggests for it Khurbet 
S&me'h. See Zenan. 

ZAANAN'NIM (removals), a place 
on the border of Naphtali, not far from 
Kedesh. Josh. 19 : 33. Identical with 
Zaanatm. which see. 

ZA'AVAN (disquieted), a Horite 
chipf. Gen. 36 : 27 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 42. 

ZA'BAD (gift). 1. One of David's 
mighty men. 1 Chr. 2 : 36. 37 ; 11 : 41. 

2. An Ephraimite slain by the Gath- 
ites. 1 Chr. 7:21. 

3. One of the murderers of King Joash, 
2 Chr. 24 : 26 : called Jozachar in 2 Kgs. 
12 : 21, probably the more correct form. 

4. 5, 6. Three who had foreign wives. 
Ezr. 10 : 27, 33, 43. 

ZAB'BAI (pure). 1. One who had 
a foreign wife. Ezr. 10 : 28. 

2. The father of a repairer of the 
wall. Neh. 3:20. 

ZAB'BUD (givet}), one who returned 
with Ezra. Ezr. 8:14. 

ZAB'DI (gift of Jehovah). 1. A 
Judite. Josh. 7:1, 17, 18. 

2. A Benjamite. 1 Chr. 8:19. 

3. The superintendent of David's vint- 
age. 1 Chr. 27 : 27. 

4. A musical Levite. Neh. 11: 17. 
ZAB'DIEL (gift of God). 1. The 

father of the chief of David's guard. 1 
Chr. 27 : 2. 



2. A prominent priest who returned. 
Neh. 11 : 14. 

ZA'BUD (given), "the friend" of 
Solomon. 1 Kgs. 4: 5. 

ZAB'ULON, the Greek form of 
Zebulun, which see. Matt. 4:13,15; 
Rev. 7 : 8. 

ZAC'CAI (pure), the ancestor of 
seven hundred and sixty persons who 
returned with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2:9; 
Neh. 7:14. 

ZACCH^E'US (pure). The story 
of his conversion is related only by 
Luke. 19 : 2-10. He was a rich Jew, 
resident in Jericho, and chief officer of 
the tax- or tribute-collectors in that 
place, and hence " a sinner," for the 
Jews regarded all publicans or tax- 
gatherers in this light. The revenue in 
Jericho was doubtless considerable, and 
mainly derived from taxes on the balsam 
so abundantly produced in the neighbor- 
hood, all along the banks of the Jordan. 
His desire to see Christ was so much 
excited that he took pains to climb into 
a tree by the roadside that he might 
have a fair view of him as the crowd 
passed. Jesus, knowing his character 
and motives, proposed to spend the day 
with him, to which Zacchaeus gladly 
assented. His mind was probably 
brought at once under the influence of 
the Spirit of God, and on that very day 
he and his family became interested in 
the salvation of the gospel. He gave 
the best evidence of the sincerity of his 
conversion by declaring his intention to 
give half his goods to the poor and to 
restore fourfold for every illegal exaction 
he had made. Our Lord probably passed 
the night in his house, and on the next 
morning passed on -with the Passover pil- 
grims to Jerusalem. The name Zacchaeus 
appears in the O. T. in the form " Zaccai." 

ZACCHE'US. See ZacchjEus. 

ZAC'CHUR (mindful), a Simeonite. 
1 Chr. 4:26. 

ZAC'CUR (mindful). I. A Reu- 
benite, the father of the spy from that 
tribe. Num. 13 : 4. 

2. A Merarite Levite. 1 Chr. 24:27. 

3. A son of Asaph, and head of a 



ZAC 



2AL 



course of singers. 1 Chr. 25 : 2, 10; Neh. 
12 : 35. 

4. One who helped to build the wall. 
Neh. 3 : 2. 

5. A Levite who sealed the covenant. 
Neh. 10 : 12. 

6. A Levite, father of a treasurer under 
Nehemiah. Neh. 13 : 13. 

ZACHARI'AH {remembered by 
Jehovah). The name is the same in 
Hebrew as Zechariah, which also see. 
1. Son and successor of Jeroboam II., 
king of Israel, and the last of the house 
of Jehu. 2 Kgs. 14 : 29. He reigned only 
six months, and then fell by the hand 
of Shall um, who took the throne. 2 Kgs. 
15: 8-11; comp. Am. 7: 9. 

2. The father of Abi or Abijah, King 
Hezekiah's mother, 2 Kgs. 18 : 2 ; called 
Zechariah in 2 Chr. 29 : 1. 

ZACHARI'AS, properly ZACH- 
ARI'AH (remembered by Jehovah). 1. 
Our Lord mentions a Zacharias, son of 
Barachias, as having been slain between 
the " sanctuary " (not " temple." but the 
inner shrine) and the altar, Matt. 23 : 
35 ; Luke 11 : 51 ; probably the person 
of that name whose death under such 
circumstances is mentioned in 2 Chr. 24 : 
20-22. It is true that not this Zachariah, 
but Urijah, was the last 0. T. martyr, 
Jer. 26:23; but inasmuch as Second 
Chronicles was the last book of the canon 
according to the Jewish arrangement, 
our Lord took an instance from it, as he 
took Abel from Genesis, the first. The 
principal objection to this identification 
is that this Zacharias is stated to have 
been the son of Jehoiada, and not of 
Barachiah; but the word "son" may be 
used in its usual lax sense, and Barachiah 
may have been his grandfather. 

2. The father of John the Baptist, and 
husband of Elisabeth, which it is inter- 
esting to remark is the same name as 
° Elisheba," the name of the wife of 
Aaron. Ex. 6 : 23. He was a priest of 
the course of Abia, which was the eighth 
of the twenty-four classes into which the 
descendants of Eleazar and Ithamar, the 
sons of Aaron, were divided. 1 Chr. 24. 
Each of these ministered in the temple 
one week. But this fact does not enable 
us in any wise to determine the date of 
the occurrence mentioned in Luke 1. 
Of Zacharias and Elisabeth we read : 
" They were both righteous before God. | 
walking in all the commandments and ! 
910 



ordinances of the Lord blameless. And 
they had no child, because that Elisa- 
beth was barren, and they were both 
now well stricken in years." It was 
while Zacharias served one day in the 
temple that an angel appeared to him 
and prophesied the birth of a son. But, 
although for this he had long been pray- 
ing, he did not believe that God would 
thus signally answer his prayer. He 
required a sign, and he received one — 
dumbness up to the time of the circum- 
cision of the child. To the wonder of 
the attendant people he silently dis- 
missed, but conveyed by action enough 
to let them know he had seen a vision, 
he was a deaf-mute until, in obedience 
to the angelic direction, he had named 
the infant born to him John. Then 
he not only spoke, but was filled with 
the Holy Ghost, and in a strain of the 
most devout gratitude and praise he 
poured out his soul. And, thus singing, 
he passes out of history. 

ZA'CHER (memorial)^ a Benjamite, 

1 Chr. 8:31; called Zechariah in 1 Chr. 
9 : 37. 

ZADOK (just). 1. Son of Ahitub, 
of the family of Eleazar, and one of the 
two high priests in the time of David, 
Abiathar being the other. 2 Sam. 8:17. 
He joined David at Hebron, 1 Chr. 12 : 
28, and was always faithful to him, 
staying behind in Jerusalem at his re- 
quest during Absalom's rebellion, and 
subsequently anointed Solomon king, 1 
Kgs. 1 : 39, and was rewarded by Solo- 
mon for his faithful service by being 
made sole high priest. See Abiathar. 

2. A priest in the time of King Ahaz- 
iah. 1 Chr. 6 : 12. 

3. The father of King Uzziah's wife. 

2 Kgs. 15:33; 2 Chr. 27:1. 

4. One who repaired a part of the 
wall. Neh. 3 : 4. 

5. 6, 7. Three other persons. Neh. 3 : 
29; 10:21: 13:13. 

ZA'HAM (loathing), son of Reho- 
boam. 2 Chr. 11 : 19. 

ZA'IR (small), a place in Idumaea 
where Joram overcame the Edomites. 
2 Kgs. 8 : 21. The name does not occur 
elsewhere. It has been regarded as 
equivalent to Zoar, and again to Seir, 
but more probably is identical with 
Zueirah, on the south-western side of 
the Dead Sea. 

ZA'LAPH (bruise), the father of 



ZAL 



ZAE 



one who helped to build the wall. Neh. 
3 : 80. 

ZAL/MON (shady), one of David's 
guard, 2 Sam. 23 : 28 j called Ilai in 1 
Chr. 11 : 29. 

ZALMON (shady), MOUNT, a 
hill near Shechem from which Abimelech 
cut boughs to burn the citadel. Jud. 9 : 
48. Possibly the same as Salmon. Ps. 
68 : 14. Mount Ebal is now called Jebel 
Salamuyeh, in which some trace a resem- 
blance to " Zalmon." 

ZALMO'NAH (shady), a station of 
the Israelites in the wilderness. Num. 
33 : 41, 42. It lay to the east of Edom. 
Palmer and Raumer suggest its identity 
with Ma' an, a short distance east of 
Petra. Another suggested site is in 
Wddy el-Ithm. 

ZALMUN'NA (shelter denied to 
onef), one of the two kings of Midian 
slain by Gideon. Jud. 8 : 5-21 ; Ps. 83 : 
11. 

ZAMZUM'MIMS. Deut. 2 : 20. See : 

ZtJZIMS. 

ZANO'AH. Jekuthiel is called, in 
the A. V. of 1 Chr. 4 : 18, the father of 
Zanoah, but this means he was the 
founder of the village of that name. 
See Zanoah, 2. 

ZANO'AH (marsh, bog), a name for | 
two towns, 

1. A town in Judah, in the lowlands i 
or "valley." Josh. 15 : 34; Neh. 3:13; j 
11 : 30. Robinson fixed its site up the \ 
valley of Sorek, east of Beth-shemesh, 
at Zdnud, on the slope of a hill, 14 miles 
west-south-west of Jerusalem. The Pal. 
Memoirs also accept this large ruin as 
the site of Zanoah. 

2. A town in the highlands of Judah. 
Josh. 15 : 56. Robinson proposed Za'nn- j 
tah, 10 miles south-south-west of Hebron, i 
and Conder, after proposing and aban- 
doning another site, appears to accept 
Robinson's identification. 

ZAPH'NATH-PAANEAH, the 
name or title given by Pharaoh to Joseph 
immediately after his elevation. Gen. 41 : 
45. The etymology of the word is un- j 
certain, some deriving it from a Hebrew 
root, " the revealer of mysteries," others 
from an Egyptian root, " the preserver 
of the asre." 

ZA'PHON (the north), a city of Gad, 
east of the Jordan, " in the valley." Josh. 
13:27. The word translated "north- 
ward " in Jud. 12 : 1 is rendered in the 



Septuagint "to Zaphon." The Talmud 
identifies it as Amathus, and it is now 
represented by the ruined site Amateh, 
south-east of the Sea of Galilee. 

ZA'RA (rising of light), the son of 
Judah. Matt. 1 : 3. See below. 

ZA'RAH (rising of light), a son of 
Judah by Tamar, Gen. 38 : 30 ; 46 : 12 ; 
called Zerah in Num. 26 : 20 ; Josh. 7 : 
1, 18 ; 22 : 20 ; 1 Chr. 2 : 4, 6 ; 9 : 6 ; Neh. 
11 : 24, and Zara. Matt. 1 : 3. The name 
is properlv Zerah. 

ZA'REAH (hornets' town). Neh. 11 : 
29. See Zorah. 

ZAREATHITES, the inhabitants 
of Zareah or Zorah. 1 Chr. 2 : 53. 

ZA'RED (exuberant growth). Num. 
21 : 12. See Zered, Valley or Brook 
of. 

ZAR'EPHATH (smelting-house), 
and SAREPTA. Luke 4: 26. Zar- 
ephath was a town of Phoenicia, on the 
shore of the Mediterranean, between 
Tyre, which is 14 miles southward, and 
Sidon, which is 7 miles north. 

Scripture History. — At Zarephath, Eli- 
jah found shelter with a widow-woman 
during the great famine in Israel. 1 Kgs. 
17 : 8-24'. The prophet Obadiah men- 
tions it as marking the limits of Israel's 
victory. Ob. 20. Jesus made reference 
to this incident in Elijah's life. Luke 4 : 
26. 

Present Appearance. — Not a house now 
remains ; only ruins mark the site. They 
extend for a mile along the seashore, 
and contain many fragments of columns. 
A little chapel, or icely, bears the name 
of El-Khuds, the Mohammedan title of 
Elijah, and possibly marks the site of 
the chapel erected by the Crusaders over 
the spot where the widow's house is sup- 
posed to have stood. There is no tomb 
within, because, as the Mussulmans say, 
Elijah is not yet dead : he "flies round 
and round the world." Tradition also 
claims this as the spot where our Lord 
rested when he visited these coasts. 

On the slope of a hill more than a mile 
back from the coast is the modern village 
of Sura/end, which represents the ancient 
Zarephath. 

ZARETAN (cooling ?). Josh. 3 : 16. 
See Zrrkrath or Zereda. 

ZARETH-SHA'HAR (splendor 

of the dawn), a city in Reuben, on a hill 

in a valley. Josh. 13 : 19. About a mile 

and a half east of the Dead Sea, near 

911 



ZAR 



ZEB 



the mouth of the Wddy Zerha Main, is 
a place called Zara, or Sara, a heap of 
stones in a little green plain, which may 
mark the site. 

ZAR'HITES, THE, the descend- 
ants of Zarah, the son of Judah. Num. 
26 : 13, 20 ; Josh. 7 : 17 ; 1 Chr. 27 : 11, 
13. 

ZAR'TANAH (cooling), probably 
the present ruin Sarem, near Beth- 
shean ; but Drake would identify Sarem 
with Zarthan. I Kgs. 4 : 12. 

ZAR'THAN {cooling), a town in the 
Jordan valley. 1 Kgs. 7 : 46. Between 
it and Succoth were the clay-grounds in 
which Solomon cast the brass utensils 
for the temple-services. Drake mentions 
a very conspicuous mound, 3 miles south 
of Bethshean, called Tell Sarem — a name 
identical with Siapaju, which the Alexan- 
drine Codex has for Zarthan. This may 
be the same as Zereda, which see. 

ZAT'THU, or ZAT'TU (a sprout), 
one whose descendants returned with Ze- 
rubbabel, Ezr. 2:8; Neh. 7:13, and 
married foreign wives. Ezr. 10 : 27. 

ZA'VAN (disquieted). See Zaavast. 

ZA'ZA (plenty), a son of Jonathan, 
and a descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 2 : 
33. 

ZEAL'OTS, the name of a party 
among the Jews, half religious and half 
political, founded by Judas the Galilean 
or the Gaulanite, Acts 5 : 37, and, after 
the death of him and his sons, led by 
Eleazar, one of his descendants. Con- 
tending that God was the only king of 
Israel and refusing to pay the tribute to 
the Romans, they broke out into open 
rebellion under the lead of Judas, but 
were soon dispersed, and, while after- 
ward attempting to maintain themselves 
by a kind of guerilla-warfare, they grad- 
ually sunk into mere bands of robbers 
and brigands, and were called Sicarii, 
from the Latin sica, " a dagger." 

ZEBADIAH (gift of Jehovah). 1, 
2. 3. Three Benjamites, sons of Beriah, 
1 Chr. 8 : 15, Elpaal, 1 Chr. 8 : 17, and 
Jeroham of Gedor. 1 Chr. 12 : 7. 

4. A Korhite Levite. 1 Chr. 26 : 2. 

5. A Levite teaching the Law in the 
cities of Judah during the reign of Je- 
hoshaphat. 2 Chr. 17 : 8. 

6. A son of Asahel. the brother of Joab. 
1 Chr. 27 : 7. 

7. A son of Ishmael, of the house of 
Judah. 2 Chr. 19:11. 

912 



8. One who returned with Ezra. Ezr 
8:8. 

9. A priest who had married a foreign 
wife after the return from Babylon. Ezr. 
10 : 2D. 

ZE'BAH (sacrifice), a Midianite 
king captured and killed by Gideon. 
Jud. 8 : 5-21; Ps. 83 : 11. 

ZEBAIM (the gazelles). In Ezr. 2 : 
57; Neh. 7:59 we read of a person 
named " Pochereth of Zebaim." Some, 
and Grove among them, suppose this 
name to be identical with " Zeboim." 
Others translate " Zebaim " as the plu- 
ral of the Hebrew word signifying " an- 
telope" or " gazelle," and render it " Po- 
chereth-zebaim," "snaring the ante- 
lopes," as the name of some mighty 
hunter. 

ZEB'EDEE (Jehovah's gift), the 
husband of Salome, Matt. 27 : 56 ; Mark 
15 : 40, and father of the apostles James 
the Great and John, Matt. 4 : 21 ; lived 
as a fisherman in or near Bethsaida. 
When his two sons left him to follow 
Jesus, he made no objections, Matt. 4 : 
21, 22 : Mark 1 : 19, 20, and his wife was 
one of the women who were in constant 
attendance on our Saviour, but he him- 
self is not mentioned as being among 
the disciples, although doubtless friend- 
ly to Christ. 

ZEBI'NA (bought), one who had 
taken a foreign wife after the return 
from Babvlon. Ezr. 10 : 43. 

ZEBOIM, and ZEBOI'OI (roes). 
1. One of the "five cities of the plain ;" 
grouped with Sodom and Gomorrah. Gen. 
10 : 19 : 14 : 2, 8 ; Deut, 29 : 23 ; Hos. 11 : 
8. The question of the site of these cities 
is more fully discussed under Siddim, Sod- 
om, and Zoar, which see. 

2. A place inhabited by the Benjamites 
after the Captivity. Neh. 11 : 34. Its 
site is unknown. 

ZEBOIM (valley of hyenas), THE 
VALLEY OF. It was a gorge or 
ravine apparently east of Michmash, and 
mentioned only in 1 Sam. 13 : 18. The 
"wilderness" is the wild tract between 
the central hills and the valley of the 
Jordan. There are two ravines, 4 miles 
apart, near Jericho, called Shnkh ed 
Dubd, " ravine of the hyaena," which is 
the equivalent of the Hebrew. 

ZEBUDAH (given, bestowed), wife 
of Josiah and mother of Jehoiachim. 2 
Kgs. 23 : 36. 



ZEB 



ZEC 



ZE'BUL (habitation), Abimelech's 
officer in the city of Shechem during his 
contest with the Canaanites. Jud. 9 : 28- 
41. 

ZEB'ULONITE, Jud. 12 : 11, or 
ZEBULUJVITES, Num. 26 : 27, 
the descendants of Zebulun. 

ZEB'ULUN (habitation). Gen. 30 : 
20; Rev. 7 : 8, the sixth son of Jacob 
and Leah, Gen. 49 : 13, and the father 
of three sons who became the heads of 
large families. 

ZEB'ULUN (a habitation), the ter- 
ritory possessed by the tribe of Israel 
descended from the sixth and last son 
of Leah and the tenth-born of Jacob, 
Gen. 30 : 20 ; 35 : 23, lay in the North 
of Canaan and between those of Issachar, 
Asher, and Naphtali. At the census of 
the wilderness Zebulun numbered 57,400. 
Num. 1 : 30, 31. In the encampment their 
position was to the east of the tabernacle, 
Num. 2 : 7, 8, and on the march they fol- 
lowed third under the standard of Judah. 
Num. 10 : 14-16. At the second census 
their number was 60,500. Num. 26 : 26. 
Zebulun was one of the six tribes sta- 
tioned on Ebal to pronounce the curses. 
Deut. 27 : 13. They joined Barak and 
Deborah against the army of Jabin. Jud. 
5 : 18. 

Situation and Extent. — In the prophet- 
ic blessing upon Zebulun, Jacob declared 
that "his border should be unto Zidon." 
Gen. 49 : 3. The boundaries of the tribe 
are given in Josh. 19 : 10-16, but many 
of those landmarks cannot be traced, 
and hence the exact limits of Zebulun 
are hard to determine. Asher lay to the 
west and north-west, Naphtali to the 
north-east, the Sea of Galilee and the 
Jordan on the east, and Issachar on the 
south. Some writers suppose that Zeb- 
ulun did not touch the Sea of Galilee at 
any point, but others are of the opposite 
opinion, and suppose the borders of Zeb- 
ulun and Naphtali to have met on the 
Sea of Galilee, not far from Capernaum. 
Matt. 4 : 13, 16. The territory included 
the great plain of Esdraelon and Mount 
Carmel and the plain of Acre, thus 
bringing it into immediate connection 
with the trade of Phoenicia and fulfill- 
ing the prophecy of Jacob. Gen. 49 : 13. 
The territory was rich and fertile. It 
belonged to the hill-country, but the 
hills are lower and the strips of plain 
more productive than in the district of 
68 



Naphtali, to the north. The plains and 
ridges toward the north melt away into 
the great plain. 

History. — Zebulun was one of the four 
northern tribes which bore little part in 
the great events of Jewish history, being 
comparatively isolated from Israel, and 
at the same time thrown into more inti- 
mate association with the adjoining 
heathen nations, especially with the 
Phoenicians. They did not drive out 
the natives. Jud. 1 : 30. However, Zeb- 
ulun bore a prominent part in the great 
victory celebrated by Deborah and Ba- 
rak. Jud. 5:14, 18; assisted Gideon, 
Jud. 6 : 35, and David. 1 Chr. 12 : 33, 40. 
This tribe became involved in gross idol- 
atry, and some mocked the messengers 
of Hezekiah, although others united in 
the penitential services. 2 Chr. 30 : 10- 
18. The territory of this tribe was de- 
populated in the captivity of Israel un- 
der Tiglath-pileser, 2 Kgs. 15 : 29, and 
after that had no distinct tribal history. 
The tribe produced Elon, one of the 
judges, Jud. 12 : 12, and also Jonah. 
2 Kgs. 14:25. 

In N. T. times the territory once occu- 
pied by Zebulun was a part of Galilee 
and honored by the presence and works 
of Jesus. Within its limits were Naz- 
areth, Capernaum, Cana, and Tiberias. 
The great prophecy of Isaiah, 9:1, 2, 
was fulfilled by Jesus. Matt. 4 : 13-16. 
The tribe is mentioned in Rev. 7 : 8. 

ZEB'ULUN (habitation), a place 
named in tracing the southern bound- 
ary of Asher, Josh. 19 : 27 ; according to 
Josephus, " city of men." Perhaps the 
modern Sha'ab. 

ZECHARI'AH (Jehovah remem- 
bers). 1. The eleventh of the twelve 
minor prophets, of priestly descent, and 
a contemporary of Haggai, returning 
from exile with Zerubbabel and the high 
priest Joshua. Ezr. 5 : 1. He was the son of 
Berechiah, was born in Babylon, and was 
both a priest and a prophet. Scarcely 
I anything is known of his life. His 
I prophecies may be set down between 
B. c. 520 and 518. 

The Book of Zechariah consists of 

two divisions: I. Chs. 1-8; II. Chs. 9- 

14. The first division contains visions 

J and prophecies from the second year of 

j the reign of Darius Hystaspes, while the 

i temple was rebuilding, exhortations to 

I turn to Jehovah, and warnings against 

913 



ZED 



ZED 



the enemies of the people of God. About 
the authorship of this part of the book 
there is no doubt. The second division 
gives a prophetic description of the fu- 
ture fortunes of the theocracy in conflict 
with the secular powers, the sufferings 
and death of the Messiah under the figure 
of the shepherd, the conversion of Israel 
to him, and the final glorification of the 
kingdom of God. About the author- 
ship of this part of the book doubts have 
been raised, some ascribing it to Jere- 
miah because in Matt. 27 : 9, 10 a pas- 
sage is quoted under the name of Jere- 
miah, while others have put it at a much 
earlier or much later period on account 
of the peculiarities of the style. 

Of all the prophets, Zechariah is the 
most obscure, owing to the brevity and 
conciseness of the diction, the predomi- 
nance of symbolical and figurative lan- 
guage, and the peculiar character of the 
subject — the suffering Messiah. But he 
has a profound insight both into the 
spiritual meaning and object of the Mo- 
saic dispensation as a schoolmaster lead- 
ing to Christ, and into the character of 
the Messiah and the universality of his 
kingdom. The book contains six spe- 
cific references to Christ: 3:8; 6 : 12 ; 
9:9; 11 : 12; 12 : 10; 13 : 7, represent- 
ing him as a lowly servant, a priest and 
king building Jehovah's temple, the 
meek and peaceful but universal mon- 
arch, the shepherd betrayed for the 
price of a slave (thirty pieces of sil- 
ver), the leader to repentance, and the 
Fellow of Jehovah smitten by Jehovah 
himself, at once the Kedeemer and the 
Pattern of his flock. 

Besides the prophet, twenty-seven other 
persons of the name Zechariah are men- 
tioned in Scripture, among whom are — 

2. Seven Levites. 1 Chr. 9 : 21 ; 15 : 
18; 24:25; 26:11; 2 Chr. 20: 14; 29: 
13; 34:12. 

3. Four priests. 2 Chr. 35 : 8; Neh. 11 : 
12; 12:16,35,41. 

4. The son of the high priest Jehoi- 
ada, stoned in the court of the house of 
the Lord on the command of Joash, king 
of Judah. 2 Chr. 24 : 20. 

5. Two chiefs who returned with Ezra 
from Babylon. Ezr. 8 : 3, 11. 

6. The 'father of Iddo, ruler of Ma- 
nasseh in Gilead. 1 Chr. 27 : 21. 

7. The son of Jeberechiah, whom the 
prophet Isaiah took as one of the faith- 

914 



ful witnesses when he wrote about 
Maher-shalal-hash-baz. Isa. 8 : 2. 

ZE'DAD (mountain-side), a city on 
the northern boundary of the Israelites, 
as described by Moses and Ezekiel. Num. 
34 : 8 ; Eze. 47 : 15. It has been identi- 
fied with the modern Sudud, some 70 
miles north-east of Damascus, and 35 
miles south-south-east of Hums, the an- 
cient Emesa. Sudud is still a large vil- 
lage, though it does not contain any 
relics of antiquity except a few frag- 
ments of columns built into the mud 
walls of the modern houses. It is sur- 
rounded by gardens and cultivated fields. 
The inhabitants are all members of the 
Jacobite Church, and constitute the only 
remnant of that ancient sect in Syria. 

ZEDEKFAH (Justice of Jehovah). 
1. The last king of Judah, the son of Josi- 
ah, and the uncle of Jehoiachin. His prop- 
er name was ''Mattaniah," but Nebuchad- 
nezzar changed it to " Zedekiah" when 
raising him to the throne. He commenced 
his reign at twenty-one, and reigned elev- 
en years, 598-588 B. c. 2 Chr. 36 : 11. 
He was a weak man, and the people 
were completely demoralized. He had 
not courage to vindicate Jeremiah, but 
allowed the people to be led astray by 
false prophets ; and the consequence was 
disastrous. In the ninth year of his reign 
he revolted against Nebuchadnezzar, in 
consequence of which the Assyrian 
monarch marched his army into Judaea 
and took all the fortified places. In the 
eleventh year of his reign, on the ninth 
day of the fourth month (July), Jerusa- 
lem was taken. The king and his peo- 
ple endeavored to escape by night, but, 
the Chaldaean troops pursuing them, they 
were overtaken in the plain of Jericho. 
Zedekiah was seized and carried to 
Nebuchadnezzar, then at Riblah, in 
Syria, who reproached him with his 
perfidy, caused all his children to be 
slain before his face and his own eyes 
to be put out, and then, loading him 
with chains of brass, ordered him to be 
sent to Babylon. 2 Kgs. 25 : 1-11 ; 2 Chr. 
36 : 12, 20. Thus the double prophecy 
concerning him — that he should be car- 
ried to Babylon, but never see it — was 
literally fulfilled. Jer. 32 : 4, 5; 34 : 3; 
comp. Eze. 12 : 13. 

2. A false prophet in the reign of 
Ahab. 1 Kgs. 22:11, 24, 25; 2 Chr. 
18 : 10, 23, 24. 



ZEE 



ZEP 



3. A false prophet who was put to 
death by Nebuchadnezzar. Jer. 29 : 
21, 22. 

4. One of the princes at the court of 
Jehoiakim. Jer. 36 : 12. 

ZEEB (icolf), a Midianite prince 
who was slain by the Ephraimites after 
the great victory of Gideon. Jud. 7 : 25 ; 
Ps. 83 : 11. 

ZEEB, THE WINE-PRESS 
OF, where Zeeb was slain. Jud. 7 : 25. 
It was near a ford of the Jordan as one 
comes down from the mountains of 
Ephraim. 

ZE'LAH (a rib), a city of Benjamin, 
Josh. 18 : 28, the site of the family tomb 
of Kish, the father of Saul, 2 Sam. 21 : 
14, and probably Saul's birthplace. Con- 
der suggests Rummon as its site. See 
also Zelzah. 

ZE'LEK (fissure), one of David's 
warriors. 2 Sam. 23 : 37; 1 Chr. 11 : 39. 

ZELOTHEHAD (first-bom), a 
descendant of Manasseh who died in 
the wilderness and left only daughters. 
It was then ordained .that, in want of 
male heirs, females should succeed to 
the inheritance, but not be allowed to 
marry out of the tribe. Num. 26 : 33; 
27 : 1, 7; 36 : 2, 6, 10, 11; Josh. 17:3; 
1 Chr. 7: 15. 

ZELO'TES. See Simon, Zealots. 

ZELZAH (shade from the sun), a 
place in Benjamin not far from Rachel's 
tomb, 1 Sam. 10 : 2; identified by sev- 
eral writers (although Grove disputes 
the identification) with the little village 
of Beit. Jala, about a mile west of 
Rachel's tomb and 3 miles south-west 
of Jerusalem. Perhaps Zelah was the 
same place. 

ZEMARA'IM (double mount?), a 
name of two places. 

1. A town in Benjamin. Josh. 18 : 22. 
It has long been identified with es Sum- 
rdh, in the Jordan valley, 4 miles north 
of Jericho. The name is in the plural, 
and two ruins bearing the name es Sum- 
rah have been found close together. 

2. Mount Zemaraim, in the highlands 
of Ephraim, 2 Chr. 13 : 4 ; possibly the 
name survives in the modern Tal'at es- 

Snmra. 

ZEM'ARITES, THE, descend- 
ant, f Canaan. Gen. 10 : 18; 1 Chr. 
1:16. 

ZEMI'RA (a song), a descendant of 
Benjamin. 1 Chr. 7 : 8. 



ZE'NAN (place of flocks), a place in 
the plain of Judah, apparently near the 
western coast, Josh. 15 : 37 ; perhaps the 
same as the " Zaanan" of Micah. 1 : 11. 
Among the suggested sites are Jem'u, a 
little village south-east of Ascalon ; Zan- 
abra, 2£ miles south-east of Mareshah 
(Schwartz) ; and Kirbetes Senat, a little 
north of Beit Jibrin (Knb'bel). 

ZE'NAS, a Christian whom Paul 
wished Titus to bring along with him. 
Tit 3 • 13 

ZEPHANFAH (Jehovah hides). 1. 
The ninth of the minor prophets, was the 
son of Cushi, and lived in the days of 
Josiah. His prophecy was uttered in 
the early part of the ministry of Jer- 
emiah, between B. c. 620 and 609. It 
is mainly designed to excite the Jewish 
nation to repentance, in view of threat- 
ened judgments, and to comfort the 
people of God with promises of the 
final triumph of righteousness. The 
description of the judgment in ch. 1 : 14, 
15, " The great day of Jehovah is near" 
(in the Latin version Dies iree, dies ilia), 
has furnished the keynote to the sub- 
limest hymn of the Middle Ages, the 
Dies Irse of Thomas a Celano (1250) — 
so often translated, but never equalled 
— which brings before us, with most 
thrilling effect, the final judgment as 
an awful impending reality. 

2. A priest in the reign of Zedekiah. 
2 Kgs. 25 : 18-21 ; Jer. 21 : 1 ; 29 : 25- 
29 ; 37 : 3 ; 52 : 24-27. 

3. A Kohathite Levite. 1 Chr. 6 : 36. 

4. The father of Josiah. Zech. 6 : 10. 
ZEPHATH (watch-tower), a city 

and tower in the mountains of the 
Amorites, near Kadesh, Jud. 1:17; 
identified by Palmer and Drake with 
the ruins of a city called Sebaita, in 
the midst of a fertile plain. It was the 
same as Hormah. which see. 

ZEPHATHAH (watch-tower), 
VALLEY OF, near Mareshah. 2 Chr. 
14: 10. A deep valley is found near the 
site of Mareshah, running down to Beit 
Jibrin (Eleutheropolis), and thence into 
the plain of Philistia, which Porter 
identified with Zephathah. See Mare- 
shah. 

ZEPHI. 1 Chr. 1 : 36. See Zepho. 

ZE'PHO (watch-tower), Gen. 36 : 
11, 15, or ZEPHI, 1 Chr. 1 : 36, a 
son of Eliphaz, the son of Esau. 

ZE'PHON (a looking-oui), a son of 
915 



mv 



ZIB 



Gad, Num. 26 : 15 j called Ziphion in 
Gen. 46: 16. 

ZEPH'ONITES, the descendants 
of Zephon. Num. 26 : 15. 

ZER {flint), a place in Naphtali ; 
probably near the Lake of Gennesaret. 
Josh. 19 : 35. 

ZE'RAH (a rising of light). 1. An 
Ethiopian or Cushite king who with an 
immense army invaded the kingdom of 
Judah in the reign of Asa, but was com- 
pletely routed at Mareshah, in the valley 
of Zephathah, 2 Chr. 14 : 9 ; has by some 
been identified with Uraken I. or II. of 
the twenty-second dynasty of Egypt. 

2. A son of Reuel, and grandson of 
Esau. Gen. 36 : 13, 17, 33 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 
37, 44. 

3. A son of Simeon, Num. 26 : 13 ; 

1 Chr. 4 : 24; called Zohar in Gen. 46 : 
10. 

4. A Gershonite Levite. 1 Chr. 6 : 21, 
41. 

ZERAHI'AH (whom Jehovah 
caused to be born). 1. A priest of the 
line of Eleazar. 1 Chr. 6:6, 51; Ezr. 
7:4. 

2. One whose descendants returned 
from Babylon with Ezra. Ezr. 8 : 4. 

ZE'RED (exuberant growth — i.e., of 
trees), VALLEY or BROOK OF, a 
valley separating Moab from Edom. Deut. 

2 : 13, 14 : called " Zared " in Num. 21 : 
12. Robinson identified it with Wd ly 
el-Aksi ; others, including Tristram, pro- 
pose Wddy Sidiyeh or the Sell Gharabi, 
a branch of the Sediyeh, down which 
runs a fine stream that empties into the 
south-eastern corner of the Dead Sea. 
This wddy most likely constituted the 
boundary between Moab and Edom, as 
it is now the recognized boundary be- 
tween Kerak and Petra. 

ZER'EDA (cooling?), a place in 
Ephraim,in the plain of Jordan. 1 Kgs. 
11 : 26. Possibly it is the same as Zare- 
tan, Josh. 3:16; Zererath, Jud. 7:22; 
Zartanah, 1 Kgs. 4 : 12 ; Zevedathah, 
2 Chr. 4:17; and Zarthan, 1 Kgs. 7 : 46. 
There seems to be much confusion about 
these names, but the Pal. Memoirs sug- 
gest as the site of Zereda, Snrdah, 2£ 
miles no'th-west of Beitin (Bethel). 

ZERED'ATHAH. 2 Cl.r. 4 : 17. 
Conder identifies it with Zartanah and 
the modern Tell es Sdrem, 3 miles south 
of Beisan. 

ZERERATH. Jud. 7 : 22. This 
916 



would appear to be the name of a dis- 
trict, and is generally connected with 
the Zarthan and Zaretan of other pas- 
sages of the 0. T. Conder formerly 
placed it below Jezreel and near Beisan, 
but later investigations have afforded 
little confirmation of this identification 
of Zererath. See Zereda. 

ZE'RESH, the wife of Haman, and 
his counsellor and instigator in iniquity. 
Esth. 5 : 10. 

ZE'RETH (splendor), a descend- 
ant of Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 7. 

ZE'RI (built), a son of Jeduthun. 1 
Chr. 25 : 3. 

ZE'ROR (a bundle), one of Saul's 
ancestors. 1 Sam. 9 : 1. 

ZERU'AH (leprous), the mother of 
Jeroboam I. 1 Kgs. 11: 26. 

ZERUB'BABEL (begotten in Bab- 
ylon), 1 Chr. 3 : 19, or ZOROB'- 
ABEL, Matt. 1:12, was the leader 
of the first colony of Jews that returned 
from the captivity in Babylon, Ezr. 2 : 
2, and was of the family of David, a son 
of Salathiel or Shealtiel, Hag. 1:1; Matt. 
1 : 12, but called a son of Pedaiah, the 
brother or son of Salathiel, in 1 Chr. 3 : 
17-19. To him Cyrus committed the 
sacred vessels that were returned to 
Jerusalem. He laid the foundations of 
the temple, Zech. 4 : 6-1 0, and was chiefly 
instrumental in restoring the religious 
rites of the nation. The advances of the 
mixed population of Samaria, who wish- 
ed to participate in the building of the 
temple, he refused, and their intrigues 
at the Persian court caused the work to 
be stopped, but only for a short time; 
finally, he succeeded in completing the 
building. Ezr. 5:2; Hag. 1 : 12, 14; 2: 
2, 4; Zech. 4 : 6, 10. He was the gov- 
ernor of Judaea. Neh. 12 : 47. 

ZERUI'AH (cleft, wounded), a sister 
of David, and the mother of Joab. 1 Sam. 
26:6; 1 Chr. 2:16. 

ZE'THAM (olive tree), a Levite. 

1 Chr. 23 : 8 ; 26 : 22. 
ZE'THAN, a Benjamite chief. 1 

Chr. 7:10. 

ZETHAR (star?), a eunuch of 
Ahasuerus. Esth. 1 : 10. 

ZI'A (motion), a Gadite. 1 Chr. 5 : 13. 

ZI'BA (statue), a servant of Saul, 

2 Sam. 19 : 17, whom David appointed a 
sort of steward to Mephibosheth. 2 Sam. 
9 • 2—1 2 

ZIB'EON (dyed), a son of Seir the 



ZIB 



ZID 



Horite, but called a Hivite himself. Gen. 
36 : 2, 14, 20, 24, 29 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 38. 

ZIB'IA (a roe), a Benjamite. 1 Chr. 
8:9. 

ZIB'IAH, the mother of Joash. 2 
Kgs. 12 : 1 ; 2 Chr. 24 : 1. 

ZICH'RI {remembered, renowned). 
1. A Levite. Ex. 6 : 21. 

2, 3, 4. Three Benjamite chiefs. 1 Chr. 
8 : 19, 23, 27. 

5. A Levite, 1 Chr. 9:15; called Zabdi 
in Neh. 11:17. 

6. A Levite who descended from Moses. 
1 Chr. 26:25. 

7. A Reubenite. 1 Chr. 27 : 16. 

8. The father of one of Jehoshaphat's 
captains. 2 Chr. 17 : 16. 

9. One instrumental in making Joash 
king. 2 Chr. 23 : 1. 

10. An Ephraimite who distinguished 
himself in the war between Pekah and 
Ahaz. 2 Chr. 28 : 7. 

11. A Benjamite. Neh. 11 : 9. 

12. A priest during the reign of Joia- 
kim. Neh. 12 : 17. 

ZID'DIM {the sides), a place in 
Naphtali, Josh. 19 : 35 ; perhaps the vil- 
lage of Kefr-Hattin, 5 miles west of 
Tiberias. 

ZIDKI'JAH {justice of Jehovah), 
one who sealed the covenant with Nehe- 
miah. Neh. 10 : 1. 

ZI'DON {hunting; Heb. Tsidon). 
" Sidon," the Greek form, is found in 
Gen. 10 : 15, 19, in the Apocrypha gener- 
ally, and in the N. T. Zidon was a rich 
and ancient Phoenician city. 

Situation. — It was situated on the 
Mediterranean coast, on the northern 
slope of a small promontory which juts 
out from a low plain, less than 2 miles 
broad, between the Lebanon and the sea. 
The city was 25 miles south of the 
modern Beirut, 25 miles north of Tyre, 
and 123 miles in a direct line northward 
of Jerusalem. Its latitude is 33° 34' 
north. 

Scripture References. — Zidon is one 
of the most ancient cities of the world. 
The person after whom it is named was 
the " first-born " of Canaan, the grand- 
son of Noah. Gen. 10 : 15 ; 1 Chr. 1 : 13. 
This was b. c. 2218. In Joshua's time 
it was " great Zidon," Josh. 11 : 8 ; 19 : 
28, and seems to have been the metrop- 
olis of Phoenicia. Zidon was one of 
the limits of the tribe of Asher, Josh. 
19 : 28, but was never possessed by the 



Israelites. Jud. 1 : 31 ; 3 : 3. In fact, 
the Zidonians oppressed Israel, Jud. 10 : 
12, seeming themselves to be secure from 
all attacks and living " careless." Jud. 
18 : 7, 28. 

Tyre was one of the colonies — a "vir- 
gin daughter," Isa. 23 : 12 — of Zidon, but 
subsequently became the more important 
town. The two names frequently recur 
together as denoting not only the cities, 
but the adjacent country; but the name 
of Zidon alone was sometimes used to 
denote the Phoenicians in general. Jud. 
3 : 3. The Zidonians were famous for 
commerce, manufactures, and arts. Their 
sailors and workmen were noted. Zidoni- 
ans assisted in the work of building the 
temple. 1 Chr. 22 : 4 : 1 Kgs. 5:6; Eze. 
27 : 8. From Zidon also came idolatrous 
abominations to corrupt Israel. 1 Kgs. 
11 : 5, 33 ; 2 Kgs. 23 : 13. The city 
was mentioned frequently in prophetic 
threatenings, but with much less severity 
than Tyre. Isa. 23 : 2, 4, 12 ; Jer. 25 : 22 ; 
27 : 3 ; 47 : 4 : Eze. 27 : 8 ; 28 : 21, 22 ; 
32 : 30; Joel 3:4; Zech. 9 : 2. 

In N. T. times Zidon ( called "Sidon") 
was visited by Jesus, Matt. 15 : 21 ; Mark 
7 : 24 ; Luke 4:26, although the " coasts " 
of Tyre and Sidon denoted the adjacent 
region as well as the cities themselves, 
and some think that the Saviour did not 
enter the cities. Hearers from among 
those people were drawn to his preach- 
ing. Mark 3:8; Luke 6:17; comp. 
Matt. 11 : 22 ; Luke 10 : 14. Herod's 
displeasure with this region is noted. 
Acts 12 : 20. The apostle Paul touched 
at Zidon on his way to Rome, and visited 
the Christians there. Acts 27 : 3. 

Secular History. — Homer makes special 
mention of the skill of the Zidonian 
workmen. The embroidered robes of 
Andromache, the silver bowl given as a 
prize by Achilles at the games in honor 
of Patrocles, the bowl which Menelaus 
gave Telemachus, the purple of fierce 
Achilles, were specimens of Zidonian 
handicraft. Zidonian ships were pres- 
ent at the siege of Troy, and Herod- 
otus declares that the Zidonian ships 
in the fleet of Xerxes were the best and 
the most i-enowned of the famous ar- 
mada. Xerxes sat in a Zidonian ship, 
and the king of Zidon sat near to him. 
in council. Zidon flourished under the 
Chaldasan and Persian dominion. It 
revolted against the Persians in the time 
917 



ZID 



ZIM 



of Artaxerxes III. Ochus, but was sub- 
dued, and 40,000 of its citizens perished 
in the conflagration of the city, the fire 
being kindled by the people themselves. 
The gates of the city were willingly 
opened to Alexander the Great after the 
battle of Issus, b. c. 333. During the 
Roman period it had its own archons, 
senate, and national council. A bishop 
of Zidon attended the council of Nicaea, 
A. d. 325. After the conquest of Syria 
by the Muslims, A. D. 636, Zidon sur- 
rendered to these new masters. During 
the crusades it experienced terrible vicis- 
situdes. Baldwin I. took it, after a six 
weeks' siege, in a. d. 1111 ; Saladin razed 
the town and its fortifications in 1187; 
the Crusaders again gained possession 
of it in 1197, but could not retain the 
town, which was once more destroyed. 
It was rebuilt and razed, refortified and 
again devastated. In 1291 it became the 
permanent possession of the Muslims, 
and was destroyed. For several centuries 
it was neglected, but gradually revived 
in the seventeenth century, and still 
continues to exist. 

Present Condition. — The site of ancient 
Zidon is occupied by the modern Saida, 
beautifully situated on a promontory in 
front of which lies an island. The 
northern harbor, protected by a ledge 
of rocks, is now used; the southern one 
is abandoned. The anchorage is bad, 
and the trade of the city is unimportant. 
Around the island are the remains of 
quays built of large hewn stones. The 
ruins of the ancient castle are approached 
by a causeway. The burying-grounds 
are extensive, and many curious sarco- 
phagi have been discovered. One was 
the sarcophagus of King Ashmanezer ; 
it has been placed in the Museum at 
Paris, and antiquarians fix its date at 
from B. c. 300 to b. c. 1000. The ancient 
ruins are few. There are fragments of 
marble and granite columns, mosaic 
pavement, pottery, etc. 

In its situation and surroundings 
Zidon is one of the most picturesque 
cities in Syria. The gardens and or- 
chards environing it are charming and 
afford a great variety of fruits, such as 
oranges, lemons, citrons, bananas, and 
dates. The oranges of Zidon are very 
famous and better than those of Jaffa. 
The population is estimated at 10,000, 
of whom about 7000 are Muslims and 



the rest Greeks, Catholics, Maronites, 
and Jews. There are nine mosques in 
the town. The American Presbyterian 
Board has established a flourishing Prot- 
estant mission there. 

ZIDO'NIAIVS, the inhabitants of 
Zidon. Jud. 10 : 12. 

ZIF (bloom). 1 Kgs. 6 : 1. See Moxth. 
ZI'HA (dry). 1. One whose descend- 
ants returned with Zerubbabel. Ezr. 2 : 
43 ; Neh. 7 : 46. 

2. A ruler among the Nethinim. Neh. 
11:21. 

ZIK/LAG (outpouring of a foun- 
tain?), a city in the South of Judah, 
Josh. 15 : 31 ; afterward given to Simeon. 
19 : 5. It was at times held by the 
Philistines. Achish, king of Gath, gave 
it to David, and it subsequently belonged 
to Judah. Its chief interest is in con- 
j nection with the life of David. 1 Sam. 
i 27 : 6 ; 30 : 1, 14, 26 ; 2 Sam. 1:1; 4 : 
j 10 ; 1 Chr. 4 : 30 ; 12 : 1-20. It was also 
j inhabited after the return from the 
I Captivity. Neh. 11 : 28. Wilton sug- 
gested its identification with 'Asluj, or 
Kasluj, in a deep valley among the hills 
j of the south country, some 12 miles 
! south of Beer-sheba. Conder suggested 
its identification with Zuheilikah, 11 
miles south of east from Gaza, and 19 
miles south-west of Beit Jibrin. The 
site is in the open, rolling plain, some 
! distance from the low, open hills of the 
I Shefalah. The ruins occur on three 
i small hills, in the form of an equilateral 
J triangle, nearly half a mile apart. There 
: is a number of ancient ruined cisterns, 
of which the stones have been removed 
and the sites ploughed over. Neither of 
the above has been accepted as the site 
of Ziklag. 

ZIJL/LiAH (shade), one of the wives 
of Lamech. (ien. 4 : 19, 22, 23. 

ZIL/PAH (dropping), the hand- 
maid of Leah, and the mother of Gad 
and Asher. Gen. 30 : 9. 

ZIL'THAI (shade). 1. A Benjam- 
ite. 1 Chr. 8 : 20. 

2. A chieftain of Manasseh. 1 Chr. 
12 : 20. 

ZIM'MAH (mischief), a Gershonite 

Levi'e. 1 Ch.-. 6 : 20, 42; 2 Chr. 29 : 12. 

ZIM'RAN (celebrated), a son of 

Abraham by Keturah. Gen. 25 : 2 ; 1 

Chr. 1 : 32. 

ZIM'RI (snnr/). 1, A Simeonite 
chief. Num. 25 : 14. 

919 



ZIN 



ZIO 



2. A captain under Elah, and a king 
of Israel. 1 Kgs. 16 : 9-20. 

3. A descendant of Judah, 1 Chr. 2:6; 
called Zabdi in Josh. 7 : 1, 17, 18. 

4. A descendant of Saul. 1 Chr. 8:36; 
9 : 42. 

ZIN (a low palm tree). The wilder- 
ness of Zin was a part of the Arabian 
desert south of Palestine. Num. 13 : 21, 
22: 34:3. It joined the territory of 
Judah, Josh. 15: 1, 3, and lay west of 
Idumaea. Num. 20 : 1 ; 27 : 14: 33 : 36. 
Kadesh is sometimes spoken of as in the 
wilderness of Zin, Num. 33 : 36, and 
again as in the wilderness of Paran. 
Num. 13 : 26. This is explained by the fact 
that " Paran " was the general name for 
the whole desert of et-Tih, while Zin was 
the north-eastern corner of that desert, 
between the Gulf of Akabah on the south 
and the head of Wddy Garaiyeh. It 
was south and south-west of 'Azazimeh 
Mountains, and east of the Ghor and 
Arabah. 

Zl'NA. See Zizah. 

ZION, and SI 7 ON {dry, sunny 
mount). " Zion " is sometimes used to 
denote the whole of Jerusalem, but in 
its literal and restricted meaning it was 
the south-western hill of Jerusalem. 
This hill was surrounded on every side 
but the north with deep valleys having 
precipitous sides. To the east was the 
valley of the Tyropoeon, separating Zion 
from Moriah, the temple-mount, and 
from Ophel. On the south and west was 
the deep valley of Hinnom, called on the 
west the " valley of Gihon." Upon the 
north only is the boundary of Zion in- 
definite. Some authorities think it 
extended to the tower of David, near the 
Damascus-gate, and suppose the Tyro- 
poeon valley to have ended here. Others 
would extend Zion farther northward 
toward the Jaffa-gate. Zion was the 
higher hill, being 105 feet above Moriah 
and 2539 feet above the level of the 
Mediterranean. It was in the shape of 
a parallelogram. The valleys were orig- 
inally much deeper than at present, so 
that Zion was really compassed on three 
sides by precipices. It was also guarded 
by a strong wall. 

Scripture History. — The hill is first 
mentioned as a stronghold of the Jebus- 
ites. Josh. 15 : 63. It remained in their 
possession until captured by David, who 
made it " the city of David," the capital 
920 



of his kingdom. He built there a citadel, 
his own palace, houses for the people, 
and a place for the ark of God. 2 Sam. 
5:7; I Kgs. 8 : 1 ; 2 Kgs. 19 : 21, 31 ; 
1 Chr. 11: 5; 2 Chr. 5 : 2. The foregoing 
six passages are all in the historical 
books of the 0. T. in which the name 
of Zion appears. But in the prophetical 
and poetical books it occurs no less than 
one hundred and forty-eight times — viz., 
in Psalms, 38 times; Canticles, 1 ; Isaiah, 
47: Jeremiah, 17; Lamentations, 15; 
Joel, 7; Amos, 2: Obadiah, 2; Micah, 9 ; 
Zephaniah, 2; Zechariah, 8. In the N. 
T. it occurs seven times as "Sion." mak- 
ing the total number of times the name 
occurs one hundred and sixty-one. It 
was in the later books no longer confined 
to the south-western hill, but denoted 
sometimes Jerusalem in general, Ps. 
149 : 2 ; 87 : 2 ; Isa. 33 : 14 ; Joel 2 : 2, 
etc. ; sometimes God's chosen people, 
Ps. 51 : 18 ; 87 : 5, etc. ; sometimes the 
Church, Heb. 12 : 22, etc. ; and sometimes 
the heavenly city. Rev. 14 : 1, etc. Hence, 
Zion has passed into its present common 
use in religious literature to denote the 
aspirations and hopes of God's children. 

Josephus does not use the word " Zion," 
but speaks of that quarter of the city as 
the '• city of David," "the upper city," 
and the "upper market-place." It was 
then the aristocratic quarter of the city, 
and contained the mansions of the great. 
At the north-west corner stood the mag- 
nificent palace erected by Herod the 
Great and afterward called " Praetorium," 
the residence of the Roman procurator. 
Mark 15 : 1 6. On the north of this were 
three famous towers or fortresses, of 
which one is now the "tower of David." 

Present Condition. — Less than one-half 
of the ancient hill of Zion is enclosed 
within the Avail of modern Jerusalem. 
In this part are now the Armenian con- 
vent with its extensive grounds, syna- 
gogues of the Ashkenasim, St. James' 
church of the Armenians, the English 
Protestant church and school, the tower 
of David, etc. The only building out- 
side the walls is the mosque and tomb 
of David, supposed to contain the tombs 
of David, Solomon, and other kings of 
Judah. In the upper part is the tradi- 
tional " upper room '' in which the Lord's 
Supper was instituted and the disciples 
waited for the descent of the Holy Ghost. 
Upon the slope of the hill are several 



ZIO 



ZIZ 



cemeteries of different Christian denom- 
inations and nationalities, including the 
American and English. A part of the 
hill is cultivated, and thus the traveller 
is frequently reminded of the prophecy, 
" Zion shall be ploughed like a field." 
Jer. 28 : 18 ; Mic. 3 : 12. The hill sinks 
into the valley of Hinnom in steep ter- 
raced slopes covered with grain-fields, 
vineyards, and olive trees. The excava- 
tions of the British Ordnance Survey 
brought to light many interesting facts 
in regard to the original levels, the 
ancient walls, etc., etc. See Jerusalem. 

Conder notes the fact that the name 
"Zion" has not been recovered, and 
says : " According to Gesenius, it means 
' sunny,' and the proper equivalent in 
Arabic or Syriac, according to this same 
authority, is Saht/dn. It is a remarkable 
fact that about If miles west of the Jaffa- 
gate there exists a valley having exactly 
this name, Wady Sahyiln. . . . This dis- 
covery may perhaps lead students to 
consider the name 'Zion' as a name of 
a district rather than that of a particular 
mountain, but it would not accord with 
the scriptural representations of Zion." 

ZI'OR (smallness), a place in the 
mountains of Judah, near Hebron. Josh. 
15 : 54. Its probable site is at Sialr, a 
ruin on a hill 5 miles north-north-east 
of Hebron. 

ZIPH (a flowing), a descendant of 
Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 16. 

ZIPH (a flowing), a name for two 
places. 

1. A city in the South of Judah. Josh. 
15 : 2-1. 

2. A town in the highlands of Judah, 
Josh. 15 : 55 ; fortified by Rehoboam. 2 
Chr. 11 : 8. When pursued by Saul, David 
hid himself "in the wilderness of Ziph." 
1 Sam. 23 : 14, 15, 24; 26 : 2. The site 
is Tell es Zif, about 4 miles south-east 
of Hebron, on the road to En-gedi. It 
is a conspicuous mound, and shows at 
the present day no trace of buildings, 
but there are large Jewish tombs and a 
quarry. On a low hill half a mile east 
are the remains of a town. 

As to the " wood of Ziph," 1 Sam. 
23 : 15, Conder asserts that in all 
probability it never had any real ex- 
istence as a "wood." but was rather a 
town. "The existence," he says, "at 
any time, of a wood in this part of the 
country is geologically almost an im- 



possibility. From Hebron to Beer- 
sheba not a single spring of any im- 
portance exists in the eastern hills. 
. . . The country is emphatically a dry 
land. Looking down on the barren 
wastes which lie above the Dead Sea 
between Masada and En-gedi, there is 
no moisture capable of supporting vege- 
table growth. The cistus and the belan 
bushes grow among the ledges, but not 
a single tree exists in the whole coun- 
try." The translation in Josepbus is 
said to be " in the new place belonging 
to Ziph," and the Vatican and Alexan- 
drine manuscripts support this. One 
mile south of Tell Zif is Khurbet 
Khorei8a, an ancient locality of which 
Conder says : " We can have little 
hesitation in identifying with Choresh 
of Zif a village or hamlet belonging to 
the larger town of Tell Zif." Tristram, 
however {Land of Moab, pp. 19, 20), 
says : " How far the forest of Ziph ex- 
tended it is not easy to say, but there 
are traces of it in an occasional tree, 
and there seems no reason, from the 
nature of the soil, why the woods may 
not have stretched nearly to the barren, 
sandy marl which overlies the limestone 
for a few miles west of the Dead Sea." 

ZITHAH, a descendant of Judah. 
1 Chr. 4 : 16. 

ZIPH'IMS, the inhabitants of Ziph. 
Ps. 54. 

ZIPHITES, the inhabitants of 
Ziph. I Sam. 23 : 19 ; 26 : 1. 

ZIPH'ROX. See Zephon. 

ZIPHROiV, or ZIPHRON 
(sweet odor), a city on the northern 
frontier of the dominions of Israel. 
Num. 34 : 9. There is a place called 
Zaferdneh on the road from Hams 
(Emesa) to Hamah (Hamath), and 
about six hours' journey south-south- 
east of the latter, which may be the 
ancient Ziphron. 

ZIP'POR (a little bird), the father 
of Balak, king of Moab. Num. 22 : 2, 4, 
10, 16; 23: IS: Josh. 24: 9; Jud. 11 : 25. 

ZIPPO'RAH, a daughter of a Mid- 
ianite priest, who was married to Moses 
and bore him two sons. Ex. 2 : 21, 22. 

ZITH'RI (protection of Jehovah), a 
Levite. Ex. 6 : 22. 

ZIZ, THE CLIFF OF. 2 Chr. 
20 : 16. The paraphrase of this pas- 
sage is "the going up of Ha-Ziz," and 
Grove suggests the name may survive 
921 



ZIZ 



ZOA 



A chieftain 
2 Chr. 11.: 



in Hfisasah. The Pal. Memoirs note a 
Wady Husasah, 8 miles north of'Ain July 
(En-gedi). The similarity of the name is 
striking, but the site seems too far from 
En-gedi. Others have identified Ziz with 
the pass and cliff near En-gedi, a route 
now taken by Arab marauding -parties. 
This pass was the ascent through which 
invaders from the south and east, after 
doubling the south end of the Dead Sea, 
tmtered the hill-country of Judasa. Ziz 
ivas the key of the pass. 

ZI'ZA (abundance). 1 
t>f Simeon. 1 Chr. 4 : 37. 

2. A son of Rehoboam. 
SO. 

ZI'ZAH (abundance), a Gershonite j 
Levite, 1 Chr. 23: 11; the same as Zina. I 
1 Chr. 23:10. 

ZO'AN (low region? or place of de- I 
parture?), a city of Lower Egypt; called | 
by the Greeks Tanis ; now San. Zoan | 
was situated in Lower Egypt, on the I 
east bank of the ancient Tanitic branch j 
of the Nile. It stood in lat. 31° N. and j 
long. 31° 55' E. To the east was a great 
plain, representing "the field of Zoan." 

History. — Zoan was an exceedingly 
ancient city, built seven years after 
Hebron. Num. 13 : 22. Manetho gave 
an account of a city called "Avaris," 
fortified by the Shepherd-kings and 
garrisoned by 240,000 men. Avaris and 
Zoan are supposed to have been iden- 
tical. Tradition makes it the town in 
which Moses had his memorable inter- 
views with Pharaoh, recorded in the 
book of Exodus. The "field of Zoan" 
was the place of God's wonders. Ps. 
78 : 12, 43. When Isaiah wrote, it 
would appear to have been one of the 
chief cities in Egypt, as he speaks of 
"the princes of Zoan." Isa. 19 : 11, 13; 
30 : 4. Ezekiel foretells the fate of the 
city in the words : " I will set fire in 
Zoan." Eze. 30 : 14. There are no 
other Scripture references to Zoan. 

Present Condition. — Zoan has been 
satisfactorily identified with the ancient 
Avaris and Tanis and the modern San. 
Very interesting discoveries have been 
made there within a few years past 
by Brugsch Bey and others. Among 
the inscriptions has been found one 
with the expression Sechet Tanet, which 
exactly corresponds to the " field of 
Zoan." Ps. 78 : 43. Several colossal 
Statues of kings of the various dynas- 
922 



ties and a number of sphinxes have 
been brought to light by excavations. 
The mounds which mark the site of 
the town are remarkable for their 
height and extent, and cover an area 
a mile in length by three-fourths of a 
mile in width. The sacred enclosure 
of the great temple was 1500 feet long 
and 1250 feet wide. This temple was 
adorned by Barneses II. There are 
some dozen obelisks of great size, all 
fallen and broken, with numerous stat- 
ues. " The whole constitutes," says 
Macgregor, "one of the grandest and 
oldest ruins in the world." The " field 
of Zoan" was a rich plain extending 
some 30 miles to the east. It is now 
almost covered by the great Lake 
Menzeleh, but some portions exhibit a 
rich black loam without fences or 
towns, and with only a few trees in 
sight. Brugsch-Bey is of the opinion 
that Zoan was identical with Rameses, 
but this location was made to fit his 
theory that the Israelites crossed the 
Serbonian bog instead of the Bed Sea. 
An English Exploration Society is en- 
gaged in making explorations in San. 
It promises rich historical results in this 
ancient land. 

ZO'AR (smallness), one of the "cities 
of the plain," Gen. 13 : 10; originally 
called " Bela." Gen. 14 : 2, 8. This 
"little city" was spared from the de- 
struction which overtook Sodom and the 
other cities, and made a refuge for Lot. 
Gen. ""9 : 20-30. Zoar was included in 
the view Moses had from Pisgah. Deut. 
34 : 3. The prophets Isaiah, 15 : 5, and 
Jeremiah, 48 : 34, reckon Zoar among 
the cities of Moab. 

Situation. — The situation of Zoar, like 
that of the other cities of the plain, has 
been much discussed. The great major- 
ity of scholars, from Ptolemy, Josephus, 
Eusebius, and Jerome to the present 
time, have located it near the south- 
eastern shore of the Dead Sea. The 
shore of the bay, which extends from 
the Dead Sea into the Lisan Peninsula, 
has been regarded as a probable site for 
Zoar. For the general discussion as to 
the relative merits of the sites at the 
northern and at the southern ends of 
the Dead Sea, see SinniM and Sodom. 
Tristram was confident that he had dis- 
covered the site of Zoar at Ziara, some 
3 miles north-west of Nebo and 11 miles 



ZOB 



ZOP 



west of the northern end of the Dead 
Sea. Among the points he urges for 
this special identification are the strong 
resemblance of the names and the fact 
that this place would be in plain view 
of Moses from Nebo. Deut. 34 : 3. He 
cites also several arguments for putting 
all the cities at the upper end of the Dead j 
Sea. This seems to be among the moun- j 
tains, and too far from the other to be a 
likely position for Zoar. Merrill sug- j 
gests, as the site for Zoar, Tell Ektauu, 
in the Shittim plain, north-east of the 
Dead Sea, near to the mountains of 
Moab, although it cannot be reckoned 
as one of the foot-hills. There are ru- 
ins here of great age, and the name 
Ektanu, which has no meaning in 
Arabic, appears to be the Hebrew 
word Katan, which means "little," or 
"the little one." The site would be in 
the direction Lot would naturally take 
in hastening to the neighboring city, 
and its distance from other mounds in 
the Shittim plain (which Dr. Merrill 
would identify with the plain in which 
stood Sodom and Gomorrah) corresponds 
well with the time allowed the fugitive — 
namely, from dawn to sunrise. Conder, 
who would place the lost cities at the 
north " end " of the Dead Sea, suggests 
Tell esh-Shaghur as the site of Zoar. 
It is at the foot of the eastern moun- 
tains, immediately north of the Dead 
Sea, and about 6 miles south of Nim- 
rin. 

ZO'BA, and ZO'BAH (station), a 
portion of Syria. It was one of the 
kingdoms of Aram, known as Aram- 
zobah. See Aram. It embraced the 
country between the north-east of Pal- 
estine and the Euphrates. It was the 
home of a powerful nation, whose kings 
were engaged in frequent wars with Is- 
rael during the reigns of Saul, David, 
and Solomon. Saul "vexed them." 1 
Sam. 14 : 47. David defeated King Ha- 
dadezer and the Syrians who came to his 
assistance with great loss. 2 Sam. 8 : 3- 
8, 12 ; 1 Chr. 18 : 3-8 ; Ps. 60, title. 
Again, in David's time, they and the 
" Syrians beyond the river," their allies, 
were defeated by Joab. 2 Sam. 10 : 6-13; 

1 Chr. 19 : 6. One of David's mighty 
men was " the son of Nathan of Zobah." 

2 Sam. 23 : 36. The nation, though se- 
verely punished, was not destroyed, and 
we read of a Hadadezer, king of Zobah, 



in Solomon's time, 1 Kgs. 11 : 23, and 
Solomon took Hamath-zobah. 2 Chr. 8 : 
3. See Hamath. Other towns of Zo- 
bah are mentioned — Betah, Berothai, 
and perhaps Helam. 2 Sam. 8:8; 10 : 
6. Porter suggests it as just possible 
that the biblical Zobah, which was sit- 
uated between Hamath and Damascus, 
may be identical with Emesa, the mod- 
ern Hums. The region possesses a rich 
soil, abundant water, and a genial cli- 
mate, but the towns and villages are in 
ruins and the Bedouins are the princi- 
pal inhabitants. The cities of Zobah 
are forsaken. 

ZOBEBAH (slow-moving), a de- 
scendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 8. 

ZO'HAR (whiteness). 1. The fa- 
ther of Ephron. Gen. 23 : 8 ; 25 : 9. 

2. See Zerah, 3. 

ZO'HELETH (serpent), a stone 
by " En-rogel," by which Adonijah 
" slew sheep and oxen and fat cattle." 
1 Kgs. 1 : 9. M. Ganneau found the 
steep rock-cut steps by which people 
from the village of Siloam pass down to 
the "Virgin's Fount," in the Kedron 
valley, bear among the Arabs the name 
of Zahweileh. This he would identify 
with the stone of Zoheleth, and En-ro- 
gel would be the Virgin's Fount instead 
of the Well of Job ( Bir Eyub), as has 
been usuallv supposed. 

ZO'HETH (derivation unknown), 
a descendant of Judah. 1 Chr. 4 : 20. 

ZO'PHAH (a cruse), an Asherite 
chief. 1 Chr. 7 : 35, 36. 

ZO'PHAI (honeycomb), a Kohathite 
Levite, ancestor of Samuel. 1 Chr. 6 : 
26. 

ZOPHAR, one of Job's three friends, 
Job 2 : 1 1, is called the Naamathite, prob- 
ably because he belonged to Naamah, 
Josh. 15 : 41, a town assigned to Judah. 

ZO'PHIM (watchers). The field of 
Zophim was the place on the " top of 
Pisgah" to which Balak brought Ba- 
laam that the false prophet might see 
the camp of Israel. Num. 23 : 14. Grove 
says that if the word rendered "field" 
be taken in its usual sense, then the 
" field of Zophim " was a cultivated spot 
high up on the top of Pisgah. The po- 
sition of the field must of course depend 
upon the site assigned for Pisgah. If 
Jebel Sidghnh be Pisgah, as supposed by 
Paine (but not confirmed), then Zophim, 
or " the top of Pisgah," was the third 
923 



ZOR 



zuz 



summit of Siaghah, running westward 
from Nebo, which is a little higher than 
the others and appears to look down 
upon them. See Pisgah. 

ZORAH, and ZORE'AH {hor- 
nets' town), and ZA'REAH, Neh. 11 : 
29, a town in the low-country of Judah; 
afterward assigned to Dan, Josh. 15 : 33 ; 
19 : 41 ; the birthplace and burialplace 
of Samson. Jud. 13 : 2, 25 ; 16 : 3 1 . From 
Zorah the Danites sent spies to search 
the land for a place of inheritance. Jud. 
18 : 2. Zorah was fortified by Reho- 
boam, 2 Chr. 11: 10, and inhabited af- 
ter the return from captivity. Neh. 11 : 
29. The place still exists as Surah, 13 
miles west of Jerusalem, 23 miles south- 
east of Joppa, and 2 miles north of Beth- 
shemesh. It is situated on the crest of 
a hill, 1150 feet above the sea. It over- 
looks the valley of Sorek. Timnah 
stands some 2 or 3 miles to the south- 
west, across- the valley. 

ZO'RATHITES, a family of the 
tribe of Judah, probably inhabitants 
of Zorah. 1 Chr. 4 : 2. 

ZO'REAH. Josh. 15 : 33. See Zo- 
rah. 

ZO 'RITES, probably inhabitants 
of Zorah. 1 Chr. 2 : 54. 

ZOROB'ABEL. See Zerubbabel. 

ZUAR (smallness), father of Nethan- 
eel. Num. 1:8; 2 : 5 ; 7 : 18, 23 ; 10 : 
15. 

ZXJPH (honeycomb), a Kohathite 
Levite, an ancestor of Samuel the prophet. 
1 Sam. 1 : 1 ; 1 Chr. 6 : 35. 

ZUPH (flag, sedge). Deut. 1 : 1, mar- 
gin. From the Hebrew Suph, signify- 
ing a kind of sea-weed, and the Hebrew 
name for the Rep Sea, which see. 

ZUPH, THE LAND OF, the 
farthest point of the journey of Saul, 
and where he encountered Samuel at a 
certain city, the name of which is not 
given. 1 Sam. 9 : 5, 6. The whole of 
this journey has been a curious puzzle 
in Scripture topography, " for the start- 



ing-point is unknown, the point to which 
he returned doubtful," and the interme- 
diate places have not been satisfactorily 
identified. Some resemblance to Zuph 
was thought to be found in Soba, 7 miles 
west of Jerusalem and 5 miles south- 
west of Neby Samwil. Conder notes 
that the Targum on the passage connects 
the name "Zuph" with the root zephah, 
meaning "to shine," and hence "to be 
conspicuous," whence come the words 
" Zephathah," " Zophim," " Zephir," 
and 'Mizpeh." In other Targums the 
words "Zophim" and " Mizpeh " are 
used indiscriminately in speaking of 
one place, both words being applicable 
to a " watch-tower " or city in an ele- 
vated situation. "Zuph" was, howev- 
er, also the name of a man, and it is not 
impossible that the land of Zuph may 
have been named after him. 1 Sam. 1 : 
1. In the first case the city in the land 
of Zuph would possibly be Shu/a : in 
the second it would be Bethlehem, the 
home of Zuph. See Mizpeh. 

ZUR (rock). 1. A Midianitish prince, 
Num. 25 : 15 : Josh. 13 : 21, who was 
slain, with others, by the Israelites 
when the Midianites suffered the judg- 
ments of God for their sins. Num.25: 
18. 

2. Son of the founder of Gibeon. 1 
Chr. 8 : 30 : 9 : 36. 

ZU'RIEL (my rock is God), a chief 
Levite in the time of the Exodus. Num. 
3 : 35. 

ZU'RISHAD'DAI (my rock is the 
Almighty), the father of the chief of 
Simeon at the time of the Exodus. 
Num.l : 6: 2: 12; 7 : 36, 41 ; 10 : 19. 

ZU'ZIM S, the Ammonite name, Gen. 
14 : 5, of doubtful derivation, for a tribe 
of gigantic stature and strength which 
inhabited the country east of the Jordan 
and the Dead Sea, probably between the 
Arnon and the Jabbok. They were at- 
tacked and routed by Chedorlaomer, and 
afterward expelled by the Ammonites. 



"All scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for 
doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness: 

THAT THE MAN OF GOD MAT BE PERFECT, THOROUGHLY FURNISHED UNTO ALL 

good works." — 2 Tim. 3 : 16, 17. 
924 






APPENDIX 



CONTENTS OF APPENDIX. 



Chronological Tables: page 

1. Of the Old Testament 927-931 

2. Between the Testaments 932-933 

3. Of the New Testament 934-936 

Origin of Nations 936 

Herodian Family 937 

Weights, Measures, and Money 938 

Time and Jewish Year 939 

Miracles in the Old Testament . . 940 

Our Lord's Miracles 941 

Parables in the Old Testament 941 

Our Lord's Parables , 942 

Names, Titles, and Offices of Christ : 942-943 

Prophecies Relating to Christ 943 

Special Prayers in the Bible 944 

Summary of the Mammalia in the Bible 945 

Birds in Palestine 946-947 

Reptiles in Scripture 948 

Insects in Scripture 949 

Fisheries in Palestine 949 

Table of Obsolete Words in Scripture 950-954 

Books, Chapters, and Verses in the Bible 905 

Index of Illustrations in Bible Dictionary 957-9C0 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES. 



INTRODUCTORY NOTE. 



The chronology of the Bible, up to the building of Solomon's temple, is very largely 
a matter of conjecture. The usual dates, which are here given, were computed by Arch- 
bishop Ussher and Dr. Hales. The difference between them arises from their different 
source. Archbishop Ussher took the ages of the patriarchs at the birth of their eldest 
sons, as given in the Hebrew original text, and added them together, and thus arrived 
at the conclusion that the Deluge came in the sixteen hundred and fifty-sixth year 
after the Creation. Dr. Hales made the Septuagint Version (see Bible) his oasis, and, add- 
ing these ages as given in it, put the Deluge at two thousand two hundred and fifty-six 
years after the Creation, the two texts differing by this amount. Josephus, it is worthy 
of note, has the latter date for the event. The dates from the Deluge to the entrance 
into Canaan are found and differ in the same way. It is manifest that neither table can 
be implicitly relied upon. The longer Chronology of Dr. Hales is probably nearer the 
fact, inasmuch as it allows more time for the spread of population and the development 
of kingdoms; as, for instance, Egypt. 

The tables we give are those of Mr. J. Gurney, revised in 1878 by the Rev. S. G. Green, 
D. D., and added to the Bible for Bible-Teachers "printed by Eyre & Spottiswoode, Queen's 
Printers, London. But the table relating to the New Testament times has been again 
revised and materially altered and enlarged by the editor of this Dictionary on the 
basis of his History of the Apostolic Church. 



1. 


THE PRINCIPAL EPOCHS FROM THE CREATION TO THE ENTRANCE 




INTO CANAAN, ACCORDING TO THE DATES GIVEN BY 




USSHER AND BY HALES. 


USSHER. 


EVENTS. 


HALES. 


USSHER." 


EVENTS. 


HALES. 




Yr. of 






Yr.of 




Yr of 






Yr.of 


B. c. 


the 
Wld. 




B. c. 


the 
Wld. 


B. C. 


the 
Wld. 




B. C. 


the 
Wld. 


4004 
3874 




The Creation 


5411 


230 


2217 


1787 


Birth of Reu .. 


2624 


2787 


130 


Birth ofSeth 


5181 


Dispersion of man- 


3769 
3679 


235 Birth of Enos 4976 

325 Birth of Cainan J4786 


435 
625 


21 Rn 


1819 


kind (Hales) 


2554 


2857 


Birth of Serug 

Birth of Naiior 


2492 2919 


3609 


395 Birth of Mahalaleel.... 4616 
iDeath of Adam 


795 


2155 
2126 


1849 
1878 


2362 3049 


Birth of Terah 


2283 3128 




(Hales) 4481 


930 


1998 


2006 Death of Noah ( Ussher) 




3544 


460 Birth of Jared... 4451 


960 


1996 


2008 Birth of Abram 


2153 3258 


3382 


622 Birth of Enoch 4289 


1122 


1921 


2083 Abram arrives in 


| 


3317 


687 Birth of Methuselah... 4124 


1287 




| Canaan 


2078' 3333 


3130 


874 Birth of Lamech 3937 


1474 


1896 


2108 Birth of Isaac 


2053 S 3358 


3074 


930 Death of Adam 




1836 


2168 Birth of Jacob and 






| ( Ussher). 






I Esau 


1993 3418 


3017 


987 Translation of Enoch. 3914 


1487 


1728 


2276 Joseph goes to Egvpt.. 


1885i 3526 


2948 


1056 Birth of Noah 3755 


1656 


1706 


2298 Jacob and all his fam- 


1 


2348 


1656 The Deluge 3155 


2256 




i ilv go to Egvnt 


1863 1 3548 


2346 


1658 Birth of Arphaxad 3153 


2258 


1689 2315 Death of Jacob 


1846 2365 


2311 


1693 Birth of Salah 3018 2393 1 


1635 2369 Death of Joseph 


1792 3619 


2281 


1723 Birth of Heber 2888 2523 

Death of Noah (Hdes). 2805 2606 


1571 2433 
1491 2513 


Birth of Moses 


1728 3683 
1648 3763 


The Exodus*^. 


2247 


1757 Birth of Peleg 2754 2657 


1451 2553 Death of Moses ; En-| 


2233 


1771 Dispersion of man- 


trance of Israel intOj 




1 kind {Ussher). 1 


1 Canaan 1608 3803 


* 


There are two prominent dates for the Exodus : The old view that it occurred under 


Th< 


>thmes or Tutmes II., who reigned about b. c. 1485. But the best Egyptologists now 


con 


sider Menephthah I., the son of Rameses II. the Great, to be the Pharaoh of the 


Ext 


)dus, and put the event in the year b. c. 1317. See Exodus. This change of date of 


cou 


rse alters the subsequent dates, but the time thus apparently lost is regained by 


sho 


rtening the period of the Judges; which is allowable, inasmuch as it is not known 


hov 


j many of the Judges were contemporaries. 



927 



CHKONOLOGICAL TABLES. 


2. EVENTS FROM THE ENTRANCE INTO CANAAN, WITH CONTEMPORA- 


NEOUS PERSONS AND EVENTS IN HEATHEN COUNTRIES, TO 


THE CLOSE OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 


Years 

B.C. 




CONTEMPORANEOUS PERSONS 


EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF THE ISRAELITES. 


AND EVENTS IN HEATHEN 




COUNTRIES. 


1429 


Ioshua dies. From that time till 1169, Othniel, 


Chusan, king of Mesopotamia ; 




Ehud, Deborah and Barak, Gideon, Abime- 


Eglon, king of Moab ; Jabin, 




lech, Tola, Jair, Jephthah, Ibzan, Elon, 


king of Canaan, etc. 




Abdon, Samson. 




1169 


Eli. 




1129 Samuel. 




1099 


Saul. 


Nahash, king of Ammon. 


1058 


David reigns at Hebron, and Ish-Bosheth at 
Mahanaim. 




1050 


David reigns at Jerusalem over all Israel. 


Hiram I. (Ahibalh), king of; 




Prophets Nathan and Gad. 


Tyre; Hadadezer of Aram- 




David brings up the ark, and places it in Zion ; 
extends his kingdom from Egypt to the 


zohah; Toi of Hamath; Ha-I 




nun of Ammon. 




Euphrates. 


! 


1017 


Solomon succeeds. 


Psinaches in Egypt; Hadad 1 




Prophet Nathan. 


and Genubath in Edom (?); 
Rezon in Damascus. 


1014 


Commencement of the building of the temple. 


Hiram of Tyre; Pseusennesj 
II. in Egypt. 


1007 


Completion of the temple, and beginning of the 
palace-building. 










Prophet Ahijah. 




977 


Solomon dies. Division of the kingdom. 


Sesonchis (Shishak) in Egypt,] 
first king of the 22d dynasty. 




Kingdom of Judah. 




Kingdom of Israel. 




977 


Rehoboam (reigns 17 

years). 
Prophet Shemaiah. 




Jeroboam (reigns 22 

years). 
Prophet Ahijah. 




973 


Jerusalem plundered 








959 


hy 






Shishak. 

Tabrimmon in Damascus. 


Abijah, or Abijam (3 
years). 
War between Judah 














956 


and 




Israel. 

Nadab (2 years). 


Zerah (Osorkon II.) in Egypt. 


Asa (41 years). 


"956 


943 


Victory over Zerah. 


954 


Baasha (24 years). 
Prophet Jehu. 
Baasha by the aid of... 
Elah (2 years). 


Ben-hadad I. iu Damascus. 


932 


Repulse of 




the Syrians under Ben-hadad. 


Prophets Azariah and 
Hanani. 


"930 




929 


Zimri. Civil war (4 










vears). 








929 


Omri. 








926 


Samaria made the 
capital. 








918 


Ahab (22 years) 
marries Jezebel, 
daughter of. 


Ethbaal (Itobal) of Tyre and 


916 


Jehoshaphat (25 
years) fights in alli- 






Sidon. 


900 


ance with 




Ahab unsuccessfully 
against 


Ben-hadad II. of Damascus. 


conquers Ammon 




Prophets Elijah and 




and Moab ; 


897 
896 


Micaiah. 
Ahaziah (2 years). 
Revolt of Moab. 
Jehoram, or Joram 

(12 years). 






fights in alliance with 




Jehoram against 


Moab. 




Prophets Jehu, Jaha- 










ziel, and Eliezer. 









928 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES. 


Years 

B.C. 




contemporaneous persons 


EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF THE ISRAELITES. 


AND EVENTS IN HEATHEN 




COUNTRIES. 


892 


Jehoram (8 years); 
having previously 
married Athaliah, 
daughter of 




Ah ah. 






Edom revolts. 




Prophet Elisha. 




885 


Ahaziah (1 year) 

fights in alliance 

with 




Joram unsuccessfully 










against TTAZATrr. nf Damnsmis 


884 


Ahaziah and 





Joram killed by Jehu. 






Athaliah's 'usurpa- 










tion (6 years). 


884 


Jehu (28 years). 




878 


Jehoash," or Joash (40 
years). 




The country east of 










Jordan conquered by Hazael. 








Prophet Jonah. 




856 


Repairing of the tem- 




Prophet Joe/'?). 






ple. 


856 


Jehoahaz (17 years). 






Gatli taken, Jerusalem 










threatened, 


847 


and Israel greatly 










reduced bv Hazael. 


840 


The Syrians invade 




(Close of the 22d dynasty in 




Judali. 


839 


Jehoash (16 years) Egypt. 


838 


Amaziah (29 years). 




defeats the Syrians! 

three times under... Ben-hadad III. of Damascus. 




conquers Edom, 










is defeated by 




Jehoash, who enters 










Jerusalem. 








823 


Jeroboam II. (41 years); restores the houndary of 
Israel by war with the Syrians. 


809 


Azariah, or Uzziah 
(52 years*, 
fortifies the Edomite 
seaport Elath. 












Prophet Amos. 


782 


Interregnum 
(10 years;. 












Prophet Hosea. 


776 


The first Olympiad. 






772 


Zechariah 
(6 months). 










771Shallum(1 month). 












Menahkm (10 years). 












Israel tributary to the 




Assyrians under Pul. 






760 


Pekahiah (2 years). 










758 


Pekah (20 years). 






757 


Jotham (16 years). 
Prophets Micah and 
Isaiah. 






752 


Founding of Rome. 


742 


Ahaz '16 years) 






747 Nabonassar in Babylon. 




obtains against 




Israel and the 


Syrians, under Rezin, 




the help of the 








Assyrians under Tiolath- 
pilesf.r II. 




















Era of Nabonassar. 




Prophet Oded. 
Ahaz is dependent on 
Assyria. 




Many of the people 
transported to 




Assyria. 
Syracuse founded. 






740 


Interregnum (9 years). 


734 






730 


Hoshka (9 years) trib- 
utarv to the 




Assyrians. 








attempts to fr^e him- 










self by an alliance 






726 


Hezekiah (29 years) 
conquers the Philis- 
tines. 




with 




So, king of Euvpt 'Shebek 
I.), first king of the 25th 
dynasty. 



59 



929 



CHKONOLOGICAL TABLES. 



Years 
B. c. 



EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF THE ISRAELITES. 



CONTEMPORANEOUS PERSONS 

AND EVENTS IN HEATHEN 

COUNTRIES. 



726 

713 

712 
697 

642 

640 

628 

609 

609 
606 



723 Samaria besieged by. 



721 .Samaria taken by 

I Israel led captive into 
The land peopled by 
1 Assyrian colonists. 



The surviving kingdom of Judah invaded by. 



Destruction of the Assyrian army. Embassy to 
Hezekiah from 



Manasseh (55 years). 

More Assyrian colonists are sent into the land of 
Israel by 

Amon (2 years). Prophet Nahum (?). 



Josiah (31 years). 

Prophets Jeremiah and Zephanidh. 



Josiah falls in battle against Necho, king of Egypt 

Jehoahaz (3 months). 
Jehoiakim (11 years). 
Judah made tributary by Nebuchadnezzar. Date 

usually fixed for commencement of the seventy 

years' subjection to Babylon. 



Prophet UabaMcvk. 
598 Jehoiachin (3 months). Jerusalem taken by the 

! Chaldeans. Jehoiachin in exile. 
597 iZEDEKiAH (Mattaniah) reigns, under the Chal- 

I deans (11 vears). 
594 <Ezekiel appears as prophet at the river Chebar, in 
! Babylonia. 

589 Zedekiah applies for help to 

588 Commencement of the siege of Jerusalem by the 

Chaldeans. 
586 Jerusalem destroyed; the king taken prisoner; 

many of the people transported to 

Gedaliah is appointed governor by Nebuchad- 
nezzar, and is killed by Ishmael ; the remnant 
of the Jews flee to Egypt. 
Prophet Obndiah (?). 
574 Ez^kiel's visions, fifty years after Josiah's refor- 
mation. 



561 



Jehoiachin's captivity at Babylon relieved by. 



Shalmaneser IV. of As 

syria. 
Sargon. 
Assyria, 



Senna chertb* 

Tirhakah (Tearkon) of 
Egypt ; war with Sen- 
nacherib. 

Merodach-baladan in 
Babylon. 



ESAR-HADDON. 

Egypt subject to Assyria. 
664 Psammetichus in Egvpt, 
first king of the 26th 

I dynasty. 
633 Cyaxares, the Median 

I king. 
630 Egypt regains independ 

I ence. 

625 Nabopolassar independ- 

I ent in Babylon. 

I P'all of Nineveh. 
610 Necho reigns in Egypt. 



610 Eclipse of Thales. 



605 Necho defeated at Car 
| chemish by Nebuchad- 
I nezzar. 

604 Nebuchadnezzar, king 
I of Babylon. 

595 HoPHRA(Apries), king of 
Egypt. 

594 Solon at Athens. 



the king of Egypt. 



Babylon. 

Nebuchadnezzar captures 
Tvre under Ethbaal II. 



570 Birth of Pythagoras. 
569 Amasis, king of Egypt. 
561 Death of Nebuchadnez- 



EVIL-MERODACH. 

559 Neriglissar at Babylon. 



* According to Schrader, who is an authority upon Assyriology, the date.s of Shal- 
manezer. Sargon. and Sennacherib should be: Shalmanezer, B. c, 727-722 ; Sargon, B. c. 

722-705 ; Sennacherib, B. c. 705-682. __^_ . 

g 30 — — — 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES. 


Years 


CONTEMPORANEOUS PERSONS 


EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF THE ISRAELITES. 


AND EVENTS IN HEATHEN 


B. C. 




COUNTRIES. 


561 


Daniel's prophetic visions. 


555 


Nabonadius or Labyne- 
tus, last king of Baby- 
lon ; associated with his 
son Belshazzar. 






538 


Capture of Babylon by 
Cyrus. 




Palestine, a province of Persia. 




Darius (Astyages?) rules 










in Babylon. 


536 


Return of first company 
of exiles to Jerusalem 
under Zerubbabel in 
the 


1st year of Cyrus. 








Rebuilding of the temple 








begun. 


Cambyses (Ahasuerus of 


534 
529 


Tarquin at Rome. 






Ezra iv.). 


525 


Cambyses conquers Egypt. 


522 


Building of the temple 
stopped by 


Pseudo-Smerdis (Arta- 
xerxes of Ezra iv.). 


















Darius Hystaspes (Da- 


521 








rius of Ezra iv. 24; v. ; 

vi.). 






520 


Temple recommenced in 








the 


2d year of Darius. 








Prophets Haggai and 










Zechariah. 








517 


The temple completed. 




509 


Rome's first treaty with 
Carthage. 






Darius invades Gree,ce. 


490 
486 


Battle of Marathon. 
Egypt revolts from Persia, 
and is reconquered, 484. 






Xerxes I. (Ahasuerus of 










book of Esther)....... 


486 








Invasion of Greece 


480 
479 


Battles of Thermopylae 

and Salamis. 
Battle of Platea ; sea-fight 

of Mycale. 






7th year, return from 










Greece. 










Esther made queen... 


478 








12th year, Hainan's 










plot and death 


474 




Feast of Purim estab- 






lished. 










Art a xerxes I. or Lon- 










gimanus (Artaxerxes 










of Ezra vii.) 


465 
461 


Pericles at Athens. 


457 


Return of second large 
company of Jews to 
Jerusalem, under Ezra, 
with a commission 
from 


the king of Persia. 






444 


Neheniiah, at Jerusalem, 








governor for twelve 










years, till the year 432. 


Xerxes IT. (45 days) 

Sogdianus ifi months)... 


431 

425 
425 


Herodotus the historian. 
Pelopounesian war begins. 




The Prophet Malachi 


Darius 11. (Nothus) 


424 


Socrates, Xenophon, and 




concludes the Old Tes- 






Thucydides at Athens. 




tament Scriptures.* 








* See chronological list of the prophets under Prophets. 



931 



— . , . , , 

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES. 


3. EVENTS BETWEEN THE CLOSE OF THE OLD AND THE BEGINNING 
OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 


Years 

B.C. 


EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF THE ISRAELITES. 


CONTEMPORANEOUS PERSONS 

AND EVENTS IN HEATHEN 

COUNTRIES. 


409 
366 

332 

320 

314 
301 

203 

176 

170 

167 
165 
161 


Manasseh the priest 
builds a temple on 
Mount Geriziin. 

Jesliua killed in the 
temple by his brother 
Johanan, the high 
priest. 

Jaddua the high priest 
averts Alexander's 
anger from Jerusalem. 

Palestine under 

Palestine seized by 

Many Jews carried to.... 


Artaxerxes II. 


405 
401 

359 
342 
338 
337 

336 

334 
333 

331 
326 
323 

312 

298 

284 

280 
247 
221 

212 
204 
197 

187 

175 
168 


Dionysius in Sicily. 

1 

1st Samnite war. 

Battle of Chseronea. 

Philip of Macedon ap- 
pointed general of the 
Greeks. 

Alexander succeeds 
Philip. 

Alexander at Granicus; 

at Issus ; 

at Arbela. 

2d Samnite war. 

Era of the Seleucidse. 
3d Samnite war. 

The Achaean League. 
1st Punic war, 264-241. 
2d Punic war, 218-201. 

Capture of Syracuse. 

Battle of Cynocephalse. 

Defeat of Perseus. 

End of the kingdom of 

Macedon. 
3d Punic war, 149-146. 




Artaxerxes III. 


Arses (or Arogus) 

Darius IIT. (Codoman- 








Death of Alexander 

Alexander's success- 
ors and the Romans. 

Ptolemy Soter, king of 

Egypt. 
Egypt and settled at 

Alexandria. 
Antigonus of Syria. 
Ptolemy. 

Ptolemy Philadel- 


reverts to 


The Hebrew Scriptures 
translated into Greek 
about this time. 

Ptolemy Euergetes.... 

Ptolemy Philopator... 

Ptolemy Epiphanes 

Antiochus of Syria. 
Seleuous Philopator... 

SpIpucus general. 
Antiochus Epiphanes.. 

Antiochus. 


The temple preserved 
from the attempts of.. 

Jerusalem captured, and 
the temple plundered 


Many Jews slain or sold 
as slaves. 

Martyrdom of the Mac- 
cabees. 

Jerusalem recovered by 
Judas Maccabeus. 

Jonathan succeeds Ju- 
das. 



932 



CHEONOLOGICAL TABLES. 


Years 




contemporaneous persons 


EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF THE ISRAELITES. 


AND EVENTS IN HEATHEN 


B. C. 




COUNTRIES. 








146 Carthage and Corinth de- 










stroyed. 


141 


Simon frees the Jews 
from foreign rule. 








135 


John Hyrcanus. 








129 


subjugates the Edom- 
ites; 








109 


takes Samaria, and ob- 
tains Galilee. 








107 


Aristobulus. 








106 


Alexander Jann^eus 




90 


1st Mithridatic war. 


94 


subdues the Gileadites 
and Moa bites. 




82 


2d Mithridatic war. 


79 


Alexandra. 








70 


Hyrcanus and Aristobu- 
lus contend for the su- 


















premacy. 




66 


3d Mithridatic war. 


63 


They appeal to 


Pompey, who subjugates 
Judsea. 










60 


1st triumvirate. 


54 


The temple plundered 








47 


by 


Crassus. 






Antipater appointed 




governor by 


G<esar. 












48 


Battle of Pbarsalia. 


43 


Herod and Phasael. 




43 


2d triumvirate. 


40 


Jerusalem taken by the 










Parthians. 




42 


Battle of Philippi. 


37 


Herod retakes Jerusa- 










lem. 




31 


Battle of Actium. 


17 


Herod begins to rebuild 










the temple. 




27 


Augustus made Emperor. 


5or4 


Birth of CHRIST (the common era of A. D. com- 
mences four years later). 






Note. — In the first part of the above tables, comprising the principal epochs in the 


Pentateuch, the dates assigned by Ussher and Hales respectively are given in separate 


columns, Ussher following in the main the present Hebrew text," and Hales the Septua- 


gint. After the entrance upon Canaan, the dates given in the tables differ from both 


systems, and are the result of careful computation, together with a comparison of the 


best authorities. Although it must be admitted that in the earlier parts of the history 


there are few instances in which perfect exactness can be asserted, there are so many 


checks upon any serious mistake as to give a reasonable degree of probability to the 


general line of the chronology. 


It will be observed that no dates of contemporary events in heathen countries are 


given before the first Olympiad, b. c. 776, secular chronology before that era being un- 


certain. And some of the later dates which appear in the table have been placed there 
according to the usual chronology, without reference to the questions which have been 


raised as to the events themselves. 



933 



CHKONOLOGICAL TABLES. 



4. PRINCIPAL EVENTS OF NEW TESTAMENT TIMES. 



B.C. 5 

or 4 



SCRIPTURE HISTORY. 



30 



37 



40 



45 



Birth of Christ (see above). 
His return from Egypt. 
(B. c. 3.) 



His visit to the Temple 
at twelve years of age. 



For chronological table 
of the gospel history 
see article Christ. 



EVENTS IN PALESTINE. 



Death of Herod. 

(B. C. 4.) 

Archelaus in Judaea, 
Samaria, and Iduinea; 
Herod Antipas in 
Galilee aud Peraea, 
and Philip in Auran- 
itis, Trachonitis, Pan- 
eas, and Batanea. 

Archelaus deposed, and 
Judaea made a Roman 
province 

Cyrenius (Quirinius), 
Governor of Syria for 
the second time. The 
registration, or "tax- 
ing." Acts 5 : 37. 

Revolt of "Judas of Gal- 
ilee." 

Coponius Procurator of 
Judaea. 

Marcus Ambivius Pro- 
curator 



His Crucifixion, Resur- 
rection, and Ascension. 

Descent of the Holy 
Spirit at Pentecost. 

Martyrdom of Stephen. 

Conversion of Saul. 



Saul's escape from Da- 
mascus, and first visit 
to Jerusalem. Gal. 1 : 18. 



Admission of Cornelius 
into the Church. 

James the Elder, the son 
of Zebedee, beheaded, 
and Peter delivered. 
Acts 12:2, 23. 

Paul's second visit to Je- 
rusalem, with alms 
from the church at 
Antioch. Acts 11 : 30. 

Paul is set apart as an 
apostle. Acts 13 : 2. 

934 



Annius Rufus Procura- 
tor (aboutl 

Valerius Gratus Pro 
curator 



Pontius Pilate Pro- 
curator 



Marcellus Procurator. 
Pilate sent to Rome by 

the Prefect of Syria.... 
Maryllus appointed 

Hipparch. 



Herod Agrippa I., king 
of Judaea and Samaria. 



Herod Agrippa I. dies 
at Caesarea 



Cuspius Fadus Procura- 
tor. 



contemporaneous 
events in the roman 

EMPIRE. 



Augustus Emperor of 
Rome, B. c. 27-a. d. 14. 



Tiberius colleague of 
Augustus 



Augustus dies, Tiberius 
sole Emperor (14-37; 



Caligula Emperor (37-41) 37 



Philj at Rome 

Claudius Emperor (41-54) 



War in Britain, 43-51. 



44 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES. 








CONTEMPORANEOUS 


1 


A. D. 


SCRIPTURE HISTORY. 


EVENTS IN PALESTINE. 


EVENTS IN THE ROMAN 
EMPIRE. 


A.D. 


45 


Paul's first missionary 


Tiberius Alexander 






journey, occupying 


Procurator 




46 




about a vear. 










The Epistle of James (?). 


Vrntidius Cumanus 






50 


Paul's third visit to Jeru- 
salem, respecting the 


Procurator 




47 








obligations of the Mo- 










saic Law on Gentile 










converts. The apos- 










tolic council of Jeru- 










salem. Peaceful ad- 










justment of the ques- 










tion of circumcision. 










Acts ch. 15; Gal. 2: 1-10. 








51 


Paul sets out on his sec- 
ond missionary jour- 
ney, occupying rather 


Antonius Felix Pro- 








more than 3 years, and 
including his fourth 


curator 




51 


The Tetrarchy of Tra- 


Decree of Claudius ban- 




visit to Jerusalem. 


chonitis given to 


ishing the Jews from 




53 


He enters Europe. 
Paul writes First and Sec- 


Herod Agrippa II. 
(the last of the Hero- 


Rome 


52 






ond Epistles to the Thes- 


dian family). 








salonians from Corinth. 








54 


begins his third mis- 
sionary journey, occu- 
pying about four 










years. 




Nero Emperor (54-68) 


54 


56 


writes to the Gala- 
tians (?) from Ephesus, 


Revolt of the Sicarii, 
headed by an Egyptian 








or from some part of 
Greece on his journey 


(Acts 21: 38) "... 




55 












to Corinth (57). 








57 


Paul writes First Epistle 
to the Corinthians from 
Ephesus; Second Epistle 
from Macedonia. 




i 




58 


Paul writes to the Ro- 
mans from Corinth. 








58 


He visits (the fifth time) 
Jerusalem ; is appre- 
hended, brought before 
Felix, and imprisoned 
for two years at Csesa- 
rea. Acts 21 : 17-26, 32. 








60 


Paul appears before Fes- 


Porcius Festus Pro- 






61 


tus, and is sent to Italy. 
Paul arrives a prisoner 


curator 




60 


Embassy from Jerusalem 


War with Boadicea in 




at Rome in spring. 


to Rome respecting the 


Britain 


61 




Epistle of James the 


wall. 


, 






Lord's brother (?). His 




Apollonius of Tyana at 






martyrdom (or 69). 




the Olympic games. 




61-63 


Paul writes to the 
Ephesians, Colossians, 
Philemon, Philippians 
from Rome. 








63 


Paul is supposed to have 


Albinus Procurator 




63 




been released (?). 








64 


Epistle to the Hebrews. 
Timothy set free (13: 
23). 








64-67 


First Epistle of Peter. 
Jude writes his Epistle. (?) 


Gessius Florus Pro- 








Pen>r writes his Second, 


curator. v 


Great fire at Rome; first 






Epistle (?). 




imperial persecution of 
the Christians 


64 





935 



CHEONOLOGICAL TABLES. 



80-90 

95 
98-100 



64-67 



SCRIPTURE HISTORY. 



Paul writes First Epistle 
to Timothy and Epistle to 
Titustf). After visiting 
Crete andMacedonia(?) 

Paul writes Second Ep. to 
Timothy from second 
Human captivity (?).* 

Paul's and Peter's mar- 
tyrdom in Roine(?;. 



The Revelation of John(?). 



John writes his Gospel 

and Epistles (?). 
John writes the Revela- 

ion (?). 
Death of John. 



EVENTS IN PALESTINE. 



Beginning of the great 
war between the Ro- 
mans and Jews 

Vespasian General in 
Palestine 



Destruction of Jerusa- 
lem by Titus 



contemporaneous 
events in the roman 

EMPIRE. 



Galba Emperor 

Otho and Vitellius Em- 
perors 

Vespasian Emperor 



Titus Emperor 

Domitian Emperor 

Persecution of Christians. 

Nerva Emperor 

Death of Apollonius 



Trajan Emperor. 



67 



* Those who deny a second Roman captivity of Paul and put his martvrdom in a.d. 
64, assign Eirst Timothy and Titus to the period of his three vears' residence in Ephesus, 
a. D. 54 to 57, and Second Timothy to a. d. 63 or 64. For fuller chronology of Paul's life 
see Paul. 

OEIGIN OF NATIONS. 

NOAH'S SONS. 



Sons of Japheth.f 

Gomer 

Maeog 

Madai 

Javan 

Tubal 



Meshech . 



Tiras. 



Sons of Shem. 

Elam 

Asshur 

Arphaxad 

Lud 

Aram 



Sons of Ham. 

Cush 

Misraim 

Phut i 

Canaan I 



principal countries 
peopled by them. 



Asia Minor, Armenia, 
Caucasus, Europe. 



principal nations sprung from them. 



Assyria, Syria, Persia, 
Arahia, Northern Mes- 
opotamia. 



Arabia, Egypt, North 
coast of Africa. 



Russians, Germans, Gauls, Britons. 

Scythians — i. e., peoples north of Mt. Caucasus. 

M edes. — Josephus. 

lonians, and Greeks generally. 

Iberians (between Black and Caspian Seas). — 
Josephus. 

Probably Moschi (between Black Sea and Ar- 
menia). 

Thracians (so classical writers; no biblical 
clew). 



Elamites of Susiana: north of Persian Gulf. 
Assyrians. 

'Chaldseans are Arphaxadeans." — Josephus. 
Lydians. — So Bishop Watson. 
Syrians (and Northern Mesopotamians: Padan- 
aram). 



Ethiopians or Abyssinians. 

Egyptians. 

Libyans. 

Canaanites. 



t Gen. 10 : 5 : " By these were the isles" etc. The word translated " isles " rather means 
countries, especially those washed by the sea. 

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937 



WEIGHTS, MEASURES, MONEY, AND TIME. 

{From the Oxford Sunday-School Teacher's Bible, with Additions.) 



WEIGHTS. 



lbs. 

A gerah — 

10 gerahs = 1 bekah — 

2 bekahs = 1 shekel — 

60 shekels = 1 uianeh 2 

50 manehs = 1 talent 102 



Avoirdupois. 



drs. lbs. 

.439 = — 

4.39 = — 

8.9 = — 

14.628 = 2 

11.428 = 125 



Troy. 
i. dwt. 



MEASUEES. 

Long Measure. 

ft. 

A digit, or finger CJer. 52 : 21) — 

4 digits = 1 paltn (Ex. 25 : 25) — 

3 palms = 1 span (Ex. 28 : 16) — 

2 spans = 1 cubit (Gen. 6 : 15) 1 

4 cubits = 1 fathom (Acts 27 : 28) 7 

1.5 fathoms = 1 reed (Eze. 40 : 3, 5) . 10 

13.3 reeds = 1 line (Eze. 40 : 3) 145 

Land Measure. 

Eng. miles, paces. 

A cubit — — 

400 cubits = 1 furlong (Luke 24 : 13) — 145 

10 furlongs = 1 mile (Matt. 5 : 41) 1 403 

15 furlougs = 1 Sabbath-day's journey (John 11:18; Acts 

1:12) 2 132 

24 miles = 1 day's journey 33 172 

Liquid Measure. 

gals. 

A caph — 

1.3 caph = 1 log (Lev. 14 : 10) — 

4 logs = 1 cab — 

3 cabs = 1 hin (Ex. 30 : 24) 1 

2 bins — 1 seah 2 

3seahs = 1 bath or ephah (1 Kgs. 7 : 26; John 2 : 6) 7 

10 ephahs = 1 kor or homer (Isa. 5 : 10 ; Eze. 45 : 14) 75 

Dry Measure. 

pecks, gals. 

A gachal — — 

20gachals = 1 cab (2 Kgs. 6 : 25 ; Rev. 6 : 6) — — 

1.8 cabs = 1 mik'r (Ex. 16 : 36) — — 

3.3 omers = 1 seah (Matt. 13 : 33) 1 

3seahs = 1 ephah (Eze. 45 : 11) 3 

5 ephahs = 1 letech (Hos. 3 : 2) 16 

2 1etechs = 1 kor or homer (Num. 11 : 32; Hos. 3 : 2) 32 



in. 

0.912 
3.648 
10.944 
9.888 
3.552 
11.328 
11.04 



ft. 
1.824 
4.6 
1 



pts. 
0.625 
0.833 
3.333 
2 
4 

4.5 
5.25 



pts. 
0.1416 
2.8333 
5.1 
1 



MONEY. 

ROMAN MONEY. 

Amite (Mark 12 : 42) = 80 00.187 

2 mitos = 1 farthing (Mark 12 : 42) = 00.375 

4farthings= 1 pennv (Matt. 22 : 19) = 15 

100 pence = 1 pound (Matt. 18 : 24) = 15 00 



JEWISH MONEY, 

With its value in American money. 

A gerah (Ex. 30 : 13) = $0 02.73 

10 gerahs = 1 bekah (Ex. 38 : 26) = o 27.37 

2 bekahs = 1 shekel (Ex. 30 : 13; Isa. 7 : 23 ; Matt. 17 : 27) = 54.74 

50 shekels = 1 minah* (Luke 19 : 13) = 27 37.50 

60 min ahs = 1 talent = 1,642 50 

A gold shekel = 8 76 

A talent of gold = 26,280 00 

N. B — A shekel would probably purchase nearly ten times as much as the same 
nominal amount will now. Eemember that one Roman penny (15 cents) was a good 
day's wages for a laborer. 



TIME. 



The natural day was from sunrise to sunset. 

The natural night was from sunset to sunrise. 

The civil day was from sunset one evening to sunset the next 

Night {Ancient). 
First watch (Lam. 2 : 19), till midnight 
Middle watch (Jud. 7 : 19), till 3 A. M. 
Morning watch (Ex. 14 : 24) till 6 A. m. 



Night {New Testament). 
First watch, evening = 6 to 9 p.m. 
Second watch, midnight = 9 to 12 p. m. 
Third watch, cockcrow = 12 to 3 a.m. 
Fourth watch, morning = 3 to 6 a.m. 



Day {Ancient). 
Morning, till about 10 a. m. 
Heat of day, till about 2 p. m. 
Cool of dav, till about 6 p. m. 



Day {New 
Third hour = 6 to 9 a. m. 
Sixth hour = 9 to 12 midday. 
Ninth hour = 12 to 3 p. m. 
Twelfth hour = 3 to 6 p. m. 



N. B. Our Lord's predictions of his resurrection are in accordance with the usual ex- 
pressions respecting the civil, not the natural, day. Thus," three days and three nights" 
is in the Greek all one word, which would be more correctly translated, " three civil 
days." 

THE JEWISH YEAR. 



Month of 


Sacred 


Civil 


year. 


year. 


I. 


VII. 


II. 
III. 
IV. 
V. 
VI. 


VTII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 
XII. 


VII. 


I. 


VIII. 
IX. 

X. 

XT. 

XII. 
XIII. 


II. 
III. 
IV. 

V. 
VI. 



Abib or Nisan 
(Ex. 12:2; 13:4). 

Jyar or . '.. 
Sisan or Sivan. 

Thammuz. 

Ab (Ezr. 7 : 91. 

Lhll (Neh. 6 : 15). 



Tizri (1 Kgs. 8 : 2). 



Bui (1 Kgs. 6 : 38). 
Chisleu (Zech.7:l). 
Thebeth(Esth.2:16) 
Shebat (Zech. 1 :7). 

Adar (Ezr. 6 : 15). 
Ve- Adar, Intercalary 



No. of 
days. 



English 
mouths. 



March, April. 

April and May. 
May and June. 
June. July. 
July, August. 
August, Sept. 



Sept., Oct. 



Oct., Nov. 
Nov., Dec. 
Dec . Jan. 
Jan., Feb. 
Feb., March. 



Products. 



Barley ripe. 
Fig in blossom. 

Barley harvest. 

Wheat harvest. 

Early vintage. 

Ripe figs. 

General vintage 



Ploughing and 
sowing. 

Latter grapes. 

Snow. 

Grass after rain. 

Winter fig. 
Almond blossom. 



Jewish 
Festivals. 



Passover. 

Unleavened 

bread. 

Pentecost. 



I Feast of Trum- 
j pets. 
■4 Atonement. 

Feast of Taber- 
L nacles. 

Dedication. 



N. B. The Sacked year was reckoned from the moon after the vernal equinox. 

The Civil year began in September (the fruitless part of the year). The prophets speak of the 
sacred year; those engaged in secular pursuits, of the civil year. The year was divided into 
twelve lunar months, with a thirteenth or intercalary month seven times in every nineteen vears. 

* The minah or maneh, according to 1 Kgs. 10 : 17 compared with 2Chr. 9:16. contained 100 
shekels ; but according to one interpretation of Eze. 45 : 12. it contained 60. but more probably 
50. The passage reads thus: " Twentv shekels, five and twenty shekels, fifteen shekels shall be 
your maneh." This is variously interpreted, il) 20 + 25 + 15"= 60. (2) 20, 25, 15 are different 
coins in gold, silver, and copper, bearing the same name. 

939 



PRINCIPAL MIRACLES IN THE OLD TESTAMENT. 



Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah 

Lot's wife turned to a pillar of salt 

Birth of Isaac 

The burning bush not consumed 

Aaron's rod changed into a serpent 

The Plagues of Egypt.— (1.) Waters made blood. 
(2.) Frogs. (3.) Lice. (4.) Flies. (5.) Murrain. 
(6.) Boils. (7.) Thunder, etc. (8.) Locusts. (9.) 
Darkness. (10.) Death of the first-born 

Bed Sea divided by E. wind ; Israel passes through. .Moses 

Marah's waters sweetened do. 

Manna sent daily — the Sabbath excepted 

Water from the rock Moses. 

Part of Israel burned lor ungrateful and faithless dis- 
content , 

Nadal) and Abihu consumed for offering "strange 
fire" Mose 

The earth swallows Korah, e>c. — fire and plague follow 

Aaron's rod budding shows his choice by God 

Water from the rock (smitten by Moses twice; Mose 

Brazen serpent; Israel healed do. 

Balaam's ass speaks 

The river Jordan stopped ; Israel crosses dryshod.. Joshua 

Walls of Jericho fall down .* do. 

Sun and moon stayed ; hail-storm in aid of Israel, do. 

Strength of Samson 

Water flows from hollow place " in Lehi." (Heb.) Samson 

Dagon falls twice before the ark : emerods on Philis- 



WEOUGHT AT 



Men of Beth-shemesh smitten for looking into the ark... 
Thunder-storm causes a panic in the Philistines' army... 

Thunder and rain in harvest Samuel 

Sound in the mulberry trees — i.e. God goeth before..David 

Uzzah struck dead for touching the ark 

Jeroboam's hand withered and his newaltar destroyed... 

Widow of Zarephath's meal and oil increased Elijah 

Widow's son raised from death do. 

Drought, fire, and rain at Elijah's prayer ; Elijah fed by 

ravens Elijah 

Ahaziah's captains consumed by fire do. 

River Jordan divided by Elijah and Elisha successively.. 

Elijah carried up into heaven 

Waters of Jericho healed with salt Elisha 

Bears destroy 42 mocking " young men" (Heb.)... do. 

Water for Jehoshaphat and the allied army do. 

The widow's oil multiplied .". do. 

Shunammite'* son given, and raised from the dead do. 

The deadly pottage cured with meal do. 

Hundred men fed witn twenty loaves do. 

Naaman cured of leprosy ; it is inflicted on Gehazi do. 

The iron axe-head swim's do. 

Benhadad's plans discerned; Hazael's thoughts, etc. do. 

Syrian army smitten with blindness do. 

Syrian army cured of blindness 

Elisha's hones revive the dead 

Sennacherib's army destroyed by a blast 

Sun's shadow goes back 10 degrees on the sun-dial of 

Ahaz 

Uzziah struck with leprosv 

Shadrach, Meshach, Abednego, delivered from the fur- 



Daniel saved in the den of lions 

Jonah saved by a great fish and safely landed. 

940 



End of Dead Sea.... 
End of Dead Sea.... 

Gerar 

Mt. Horeb 

Egypt 



EECOEDED IH 



Gen. 19 : 24. 

19 : 26. 

21: 1. 
Ex. 3 : 3. 

7: 10-12. 



Jgypt. 



I 7 : 20-25. 
8:5-14,16-18,20-24 

I 9: 3-6,8-11,22-26. 

10 : 12-19, 21-23. 
112: 29,30. 

Egvpt 14: 21-31. 

Ma'rah To : 23-25. 

Wilderness of Sin... 16: 14-35. 
Rephidim 17 : 5-7 



Taberah Num.11: 1-3. 



Sinai. 



Kadesh 

Desert of Zin 

Desert of Zin 

On road fromPethor 

Biver Jordan 

Jericho 

Gibeon 

Philistia 

En-hakkore 



Ashdod 

Beth-shemesh. 

Ebenezer 

Gilgal 

Rephaim , 

Perez-uzzah...., 

Beth-el , 

Zarephatn 

Zarephath , 



Carmel.Cherith.etc. 

Near Samaria , 

Near Jericho 

East of Jordan 

Jericho , 



Land of Moab., 



Shunem 

Gilgal 

Gilgal 

Samaria 

River Jordan. 



Dothan... 
Samaria . 



Jerusalem 



Jerusalem . 
Jerusalem . 



Babylon. 
Babylon.. 



Josh. 



Lev. 10: 1,2. 
Num. 16 : 32. 

17: 1, etc. 
20 : 7-11. 
21 : 8, 9. 
22: 21-35. 
3: 14-17. 
6: 6-20. 
10: 12-14. 
Jud. 14toch. 16. 
15 : 19, margin 

1 Sam. 5 : 1-12. 

6: 19. 
7: 10-12. 
12: 18. 

2 Sam. 5 : 23-25. 

6:7. 

1 Kgs. 13 : 4, 6. 

17: 14-16. 
17-24. 

17andch.l8 

2 Kgs. 1 : 10-12 

2 : 7, 8, 14. 

11. 

21, 22. 

24. 
3: 16-20. 
4: 2-7. 
32-37. 
38-41. 
42-44. 
5: 10-27. 
6: 5-7. 

12, etc. 

18. 

20. 
13: 21. 
19: 35. 

20: 9-11. 
2Chron. 26: 16-21. 

Dan. 3: 19-27. 

6 : 16-23. 

Jonah 2: 1-10. 



OUR LORD'S MIRACLES. 



I. Narrated only in one Gospel. 

Two blind men healed j Capernaum. 

A dumb demoniac healed | Capernaum. 

Stater in the luouth of the fish j Capernaum. 

The deaf and dumb man healed ; Decapolis.... 

A blind man healed j Bethsaida.... 

When Christ passed unseen through the; 

multitude j Nazareth 

Draught of fish j Bethsaida.... 

Raising the widow's son i Nain 

Healing the woman with an infirmity j Jerusalem... 

Jerusalem... 

Samaria , 



Gethsemane. 

Cana 

Cana 



Healing the man with the dropsy 

Healing the ten lepers 

Healing the ear of Malchus, servant of the 

high priest 

Turning water into wine 

Healing the nobleman's son (of fever) 

Healing the impotent man at Bethesda j Jerusalem 

Healing the man born blind ; Jerusalem 

Raising of Lazarus j Bethany 

Draught of fish Bethsaida 

II. Narrated in two Gospels. 

Healing the daughter of theSyrophoenician j Tyre 

Feeding the four thousand i Gennesaret (?) 

Cursing the fig tree ! Mount of Olives 

Healing the centurion's servant (of palsy)., Capernaum 

The blind and dumb demoniac ; Galilee 

The demoniac in a synagogue Capernaum 



Matt. 



Mark. 



III. Narrated in three Gospels. 

Stilling the storm 

The legions of devils entering the swine... 

Healing Jairus' daughter 

Healing the woman with an issue of blood. 

Healing the man sick of the palsy 

Healing the leper 

Healing Peter's mother-in-law 

Healing the man with a withered hand 

Healing demoniac child 

Healing blind Bartimaaus 

Walking on the sea 



IV. Narrated in four Gospels. 
Feeding the five thousand 



Sea of Galilee... 

Gadara 

Capernaum 

Gennesaret 

Capernaum 

Gennesaret 

Bethsaida 

Capernaum 

Mount Hermon 

Jericho 

Sea of Galilee... 



Bethsaida., 

(Julias.) 



Luke. John. 



CHIEF PARABLES IN THE OLD TESTAMENT. 



PARABLES. 



SPOKEN AT 



Jotham.— Trees making a king (to men of Shechern) Mount Gerizim 

Samson.— Riddle (to liis marriage-guests) Timiiath 

Nathan.— Poor man's ewe lamb (to David) Jerusalem 

Woman of Tekoah.— Two brothers' suite, and) , 

avenger of blood j 

The smitten prophet.— The escaped prisoner (toAhab) Near Aphek 

Micaiah.—W\* vision do. 

Jeh 'ash. king of Israel. — The thistle and cedar(toAmaziah) 

Isaiah. — Vineyard yielding wild grapes (to Israel) 

EzekxeL. — I.iori "s whelps do. 

The great eagles and the vine do. 

The boiling pot do. 



RECORDED IN 



Jud. 9 : 7-15. 
! Jud. 14: 14. 
2 Sam. 12:5-11. 
Jerusalem 2 Sam. 14: 6-11. 

.1 1 Kgs. 20:35-40. 
. 1 Kgs. 22: 19-23. 
. 2 Kgs. 14 : 9. 
.i Isa. 5 : 1-6. 
. Eze. 14: 2-9. 
. Eze. 17 : 3-10. 
.| Eze. 24 : 3-5. 

941 



Samaria . 

Jerusalem 

Jerusalem 

Bahy'onia 

Babylonia 

Babylonia 



OUK LORD'S PAEABLES. 



T. Recorded in one Gospel only, 

The tares Gennesaret... 

The hid treasure Gennesaret... 

The goodly pearl Gennesaret... 

The draw net Gennesaret.., 

The unmerciful servant jCapernaum... 

The laborers in the vineyard.... Jerusalem. ... 

The two sons in the vineyard... 'Jerusalem 

The marriage of the king's son.:Mt. of Olives. 

The ten virgins Mt. of Olives. 

The ten talents >It. of Olives. 

The sheep and goats :Mt. of Olives. 

The seed growing secretly 'Gennesaret... 

The householder Gennesaret... 

The two debtors Galilee 

The good Samaritan ^Jerusalem 

The friend at midnight (Jerusalem .... 

The rich fool Jerusalem.... 

The wedding-feast 'Jerusalem 

The wise steward Jerusalem.... 

The barren fig tree [Jerusalem.... 

The great supper | Jerusalem 

The piece of money (Jerusalem 

The prodigal son (Jerusalem 

The unjust steward Jerusalem 

The rich man and Lazarus ! Jerusalem.... 

The unprofitable servants (Jerusalem.... 



H 


« 


a 


H 


- 


M 


< 


•< 


p 


s 


5 


A 


13 






13 






13 


... 




13 


... 





The unjust judge. 

The Pharisee and publican. 

The pounds 



Jerusalem.. 
Jerusalem.. 
Jerusalem.., 



II. Recorded in two Gospels. 

House on rock and sand Galilee. 

The leaven Gennesaret., 

The lost sheep Jerusalem... 



III. Recorded in three Gospels. 

New cloth and old garment 

New wine in old bottles 

The sower , 

The mustard-seed 

The wicked husbandmen 



Good and evil in life and judgment 

Value of gospel. 

Christian seeking salvation. 

Visible Church of Christ. 

Danger of ingratitude. 

Call at various epochs. 

Insincerity and repentance. 

Need of righteousness. 

Watchful and careless profession. 

Use of advantages. 

Final separation of good and bad. 
4 .- Gradual growth of religion. 
18... 

...; 7 Gratitude for pardon. 
...|10 Compassion to suffering. 
...ill; Perseverance in prayer. 
...12 Worldly-mindedness. 
...12 Vigilance toward second advent. 
... 12|Conscientiousness in trust. 
...13 Unprofitableness under grace. 
... 14 Universality of divine call. 
...15 Joy over penitence. 
...15 Fatherly love to penitent son. 
...16 Preparation for eternity. 
... 16 Recompense of future life. 
... 17 God's claim to all our services. 
...118 Advantage of persevering prayer. 
...18 Self-righteousness and humility. 
19 Diligence rewarded, sloth pun- 
I ished. 

6 Consistent and false profession. 
8 Pervading influence of religion. 
15:Joy over penitent. 



Capernaum... 9: 2 5 New doctrine on old prejudices. 
Capernaum...i 9! 2 5 New spirit in unregenerate heart 
Gennesaret.. .]l3l 4| 8 Hearers divided into classes. 
Gennesaret...; 13: 4 13 Spread of Gospel. 
Jerusalem 21 12 20 Rejection of Christ by Jews, 



rhe fig tree and all the trees |Mt. of Olives. 124 13 21 Indications of second advent. 



N. B.— These miracles and parables in the N. T. are grouped according to their record 
by the evangelists. 



THE NAMES, TITLES, AND OFFICES OF CHRIST. 

45, 47. 



Adam, The Second, 1 Cor. 15 

Advocate, An, 1 John 2:1. 

Alpha and Omega, Rev. 1:8; 22 : 13. 

A men, Rev. 3 : 14. 

Author and Finisher of our faith, Heb. 12 : 2. 

Beginning of the creation of God, Rev. 3 : 14. 

Blessed and only Potentate, 1 Tim. 6 : 15. 

Branch, Zech. 3: 8; 6: 12. 

Captain of salvation, Heb. 2 : 10. 

Corner-stone, 1 Pet. 2 : 6. 

David, Jer. 30 : 9 ; Eze. 34 : 23 ; 37 : 24 ; Hos. 

3:5. 
Day-spring, Luke 1 : 78. 

~942 



Deliverer, Rom. 11 : 26. 

Desire of all nations, Hag. 2 : 7. 

Emmanuel, Isa. 7:14; Matt. 1 : 23. 

Everlasting Father, Isa. 9 : 6. 

Faithful Witness, Rev. 1 : 5 ; 3 : 14. 

First and Last, Rev. 1 : 17. 

First-begotten of the dead, Rev. 1 : 5. 

God, Isa. 40 : 9 ; John 20 : 28 ; 1 John 5 : 20. 

God blessed for ever, Rom. 9 : 5. 

Good Shepherd, John 10 : 11. 

Governor, Matt. 2: 6. 

Great High Priest, Heb. 4 : 14. 

Holy One, Luke 4 : 34 ; Acts 3 : 14 ; Rev. 3 : 7. 



PROPHECIES RELATING TO CHEIST. 



Horn of saltation, Luke 1 : 69. 

/ AM, Ex. 3 : 14. with John 8 : 58. 

Image of God, 2 Cor. 4 : 4. 

Jehovah. Isa. 26 : 4. 

Jesus, Matt. 1 : 21; 1 Thess. 1 : 10. 

Just, One, Acts 3 : 14 ; 7 : 52 ; 22 : 14. 

King everlasting, Luke 1 : 33. 

King of Israel, John 1 : 49. 

King of the Jews, Matt. 2 : 2. 

King uf kings, Rev. 17 : 14 ; 19 : 16. 

Lamb of God, John 1 : 29, 36. 

Lawgiver, Isa. 33 : 22. 

Light of the world, John 8 : 12. 

Light, 'True, Joh n 1 : 8, 9 ; 3 : 19 ; 8 : 12 ; 9 : 5 ; 

12:35,46. 
Lion of the tribe of Judah, Rev. 5 : 5. 
Living stone, 1 Pet. 2 : 4. 
Lord, Matt. 3:3; Mark 11 : 3. 
Lord God Almighty, Rev. 15:3; of holy 

prophets, 22 : 6. 
Lord of all, Acts 10 : 36. 
Lord of glory, 1 Cor. 2 : 8. 
Lord of lords, Rev. 17 : 14; 19 : 16. 
Lord our righteousness, Jer. 23 : 6. 
Maker and Preserver of all things, John 1 : 3, 

10; 1 Cor. 8:6; Col. 1:16; Heb. 1:2, 10; 

Rev. 4:11. 
Mediator, 1 Tim. 2 : 5. 
Mediator of the neiv covenant, Heb. 12 : 24. 
Messiah, Dan. 9 : 25 ; John 1 : 41. 
Mighty One of Jacob, Isa. 60 : 16. 



Morning Mar. Rev. 22 : 16. 

Nazarene, Matt. 2 : 23. 

Our Passover. 1 Cor. 5 : 7. 

Prince, Acts 5 : 31. 

Prince of life, Acts 3 : 15. 

Prince of peace, Isa. 9 : 6. 

Prince of the kings of the earth. Rev. 1 : 5. 

Prophet, Deut. 18 : 15; Luke 24 : 19. 

Redeemer, Job 19 : 25 : Isa. 59 : 20. 

Root and offspring of David, Rev. 22 : 16. 

Root of David, Rev. 5:5. 

Ruler in Israel, Mic. 5 : 2. 

Same yesterday, to-day. and for ever, Heb. 13:8. 

Saviour, Luke 2:11; Acts 5 : 31. 

Shepherd and Bishop of souls, 1 Pet. 2 : 25. 

Shepherd in the land, Zech. 11 : 16. 

Shepherd of the sheep, Great, Heb. 13 : 20. 

Shi/oh, Gen. 49 : 10. 

Son of David, Matt. 9 : 27 ; 21 : 9. 

Son of God, Matt. 3 : 17 ; 8 : 29 ; Luke 1 : 35. 

Son of man, Matt, 8 : 20 ; John 1 : 51 ; Acts 

7:56. 
Son of the Hiqhest, Luke 1 : 32. 
Son, Only-begotten, John 1 : 14, 18; 3 : 16, 18. 
| Star and Sceptre, Num. 24 : 17. 

True Vine, John 15:1. 

Way, Truth, and Life, John 14:6. 

Witness, Faithful and true, Rev. 3 : 14. 

Wonderful, Counsellor, Mighty God, Isa. 9 : 6. 

Word, John 1 : 1. 
| Word of God. Rev. 19 : 13. 



PROPHECIES RELATING TO CHRIST. 



Adoration by magi, Ps. 72 : 10. 15 ; Isa. 60 : 3, 6. 
Advent, Gen. 3 : 15 : Deut. 18 : 15 ; Ps. 89 : 20 ; 

Isa.2:2: 9:6; 28:16; 32:1; 35:4; 42:6; 

49 : 1 : 55 : 4 ; Eze. 34 : 24 ; Dan. 2 : 44 ; Mic. 

4:1; Z<-ch. 3:8. 
Advent, Time of, Gen. 49 : 10 : Num. 24 : 17; 

Dan. 9 : 24 ; Hagr. 2:7; Mai. 3 : 1. 
Ascension and exaltation, Ps. 16 : 11 ; 24 : 7; 

68:18; 110:1; 118:19. 
Betrayal by own friend, Ps. 41 : 9 ; 55 : 13. 
Betrayal for thirty pieces, Zech. 11 : 12. 
Betrayer's death, Ps. 55 : 15, 23 ; 109 : 17. 
Bone 'not to be broken, Ps. 34 : 20. 
Burial with the rich, Isa. 53 : 9. 
CasVng lots for vesture, Ps. 22 : 18. 
Conversion of Gentiles, Isa. 11 : 10 ; 42 : 1. 
Crucifixion, Ps. 22 : 14, 17. 
Death with malefactors, Isa. 53 : 9, 12. 
Death in prime of life, Ps. 89 : 45 ; 102 : 24. 
Death attested hy convulsions of nature, Am. 

5:20: 8:9; Zech. 14:4,6. 
Descent into Egypt, Hos. 11:1. 
Desertion by disciples, Zech. 13 : 7. 
Divinity, Ps. 2:11; 45 : 7 ; 72 : 8 ; 110 : 1 ; Isa. 

9 : 6 ; 25 : 9 ; 40 : 10 ; Jer. 23 : 6 ; Mic. 5:2; 

Mai. 3:1. 
Dominion universal and everlasting, Ps. 72 : 8 ; 

Isa. 9:7; Dan. 7 : 14. 
False accusation, Ps. 27 : 12 ; 35 : 11 : 109 : 2. 
Forerunner of Christ, Isa. 40 : 3 ; Mai. 3:1; 

4:5. 
Galilee, Ministry in, Tsa. 9 : 1, 2. 
Gall and vinegar. Offer of, Ps. 69 : 21. 
Generation, Human, Gen. 12:3; 18 : 18 ; 21 : 

12 ; 22 : 18 ; 26 : 4 ; 28 : 14 ; 49 : 10 ; Ps. 18 : 



50 ; 89 : 4, 29, 36 ; 132 : 11 ; Isa. 11:1; Jer 

23 : 5 ; 33 : 15. 
Insult, buffeting, spitting, scourging, Ps. 35 : 15 

21 ; Isa. 50 : 6. 
Massacre of innocents, Jer. 31 : 15. 
Miraculous power, Isa. 35 : 5. 
Mission. Gen. 12 : 3; 49 : 10; Num. 24 : 19 

Deut. 18 : 18 ; Ps. 21 : 1 ; Isa. 59 : 20 ; Jer 

33 : 16. 
Mocking, Ps. 22 : 16 ; 109 : 25. 
Nativity from virgin, Gen. 3 : 15 ; Isa. 7 : 14 

Jer. 31 : 32. 
Nativity, Place of, Num. 24:17, 19; Mic 

5:2. 
Patience under suffering, Isa. 53 : 7, 9. 
Persecution. Ps. 22 : 6 ; 35 : 7, 12 ; 109 : 2 ; Isa, 

49 : 7 ; 53 : 3. 
Piercing, Ps. 22 : 16 ; Zech. 12 : 10 ; 13 : 6. 
Prayer for enemies, Ps. 109 : 4. 
Preacher, Ps. 2 : 7 ; Isa. 2 : 3 ; 61 : 1 ; Mic. 4 : 2 
Priest like Melchizedek, Ps. 110 : 4. 
Prophet like 3Ioses, Deut. 18 : 15. 
Purchase of potter's field, Z^ch. 11 : 13. 
Purification of temple, Ps. 69 : 9. 
Reaction by Jews and Gentiles, Ps. 2 : 1 ; 22 

12 ; 41 : 5. 
Resurrection. Ps. 16 : 10 ; 30 : 3 ; 41 : 10 ; 118 

17; Hos. 6:2. 
Silence against accusation, Ps. 38 : 13 ; Isa 

53: 7. 
Spiritual graces, Ps. 45 : 7 ; Isa. 11:2; 42 : 1 

61 : 1. 
Triumphal entry into Jerusalem, Ps. 8:2 

Zech. 9:9. 
Vicarious suffering. Isa. 53 : 4-6,12; Dan. 9 :26. 

943 



SPECIAL PEAYERS. 


Persons. 


Recorded. 


Subjects. 


Aaron and priests.. 
Abraham 


'Num. 6:22-26 


The Aaronic blessing of Israel. 

For a son. 

For Ishmael's acceptance. 

For mercy on Sodom. [wife for Isaac. 

Success in his mission when sent to find a 

For moderation in his desires. 

On choosing an apostle. [opian. 

When going to battle with Zerah the Ethi- 

For the restoration of Jerusalem. 

For a blessing on his house. 

Alter his sin with Bath-sheba. 

After numbering the people. 

Thanksgiving at close of life. 

For support under persecution. 

For the restoration of the widow's sou. 

For divine attestation of his mission. 

For death. 

For his servant's eyes 1o he opened. 

That the army sent to take him may be 
blinded. 

Intercession for the people. 

Confession of sin in the people's alliances 
with the heathen. 

For revival of God's work. 

For the gift of a son. 

For protection against Sennacherib. 

When dangerously ill. [Passover. 

For the unprepared who had eaten of 

Expiation of undiscovered murder. 

Confession on presenting first-fruits. 

The prayer of the tithing year. 

For the divine blessing. 

For deliverance from Esau. 

For protection against the armies of the 
Moaliites and Ammonites. 

In a great famine. 

For comfort. 

Thanksgiving. [of his prayer. 

Thanksgiving for the Father's acceptance 

Imploring his Father's aid. 

For himself, his apostles, and all believers. 
For unity. 

Under suffering in Gethsemane. 

For his murderers. 

Under suspension of divine consolation. 

For deliverance from the great fish. 

After Achan's sin. [nation's sins. 

Confession of God's goodness and their 

The model of supplication for relief of hu- 
man needs. 

For divine guidance in training his child. 

Forgiveness for the people's idolatry. 

For the divine presence. 

At the setting forth and stopping of the ark. 

For divine help to govern the Israelites. 

For Miriam, for cure from leprosy, [report. 

For the people, disappointed at the spies' 

For a successor. 

To enter Canaan. 

For the remnant in captivity. [biah. 

For protection against Sanballat and To- 

To be remembered by Jesus. 

Thanksgiving for his own righteousness. 

For divine mercy. 

To be avenged on his enemies. 

For wi-dom to govern Israel. 

Dedication of temple. [his murderers. 

Commendation of bis soul ; forgiveness of 


Gen. 15:2 '. 

Gen. 17:17, 18 

!Gen. 18:28 

Gen. 24:12 

Prov.30: 1 

Actsl :24 

2Chr. 14:11 

Dan. 9:4 

2 Sam. 7: 18 

Ps.51 


Abraham 

Abraham 

Abraham's servant. 










David 




2 Sam. 24: 17 


David 


1 Chr. 29:10-19 

Acts 4: 24 

1 Kgs. 18:36 




E ijah 


Elijah 


Elijah 


1 Kgs. 19:4 

2 Kgs. 6: 17 


Elisha 


Elisha 


2 Kgs. 6: 18 




Ezek. 9: 8 


Ezra 


Ezra. 9 : 6 




Hab. 3:1-16 


Hannah 

Hezekiah 

Hezekiah 

Hezekiah 


1 Sam. 1:11 


2 Kgs. 19 : 15 ; Isa. 37 : 16. 

2 Kgs. 20:3; Isa. 38:3 

2 Chr. 30:18 

Deut.21:6-8 

Dent. 26:5-10 

Deut. 26: 13-15 

1 Chr. 4:10 

Gen. 32:9 


Israel 

Israel 

Jab j z 


Jehoshaphat 

Jeremiah 

Jeremiah 

Jesus... 

Jesus 

Jesus 

Jesus 

Jesus 

Jesus 

Jesus 

Jonah 


2 Chr. 20: 6.... 


Jer. 14:7 


Jer. 15: 15-18 


Matt. 11: 25, 26 


John 11 :41, 42 


John 12:27 

John 17 


Matt. 26:39; Luke 22: 42 
Luke 23:34 


Matt. 27: 46 


Jonah 2: 2 


Josh. 7:7-9 




Neh. 9: 5 


Lord's Prayer 

Manoah. 

Moses..... 

Moses 

Moses 

Moses 

Moses 

Moses 

Moses 


Matt. 6:9; Luke 11 : 2. 

Jud. 13:8, 9 

Ex. 32: 11; Deut. 9 : 26.... 

Ex. 33:12 

Num. 10:35, 36 

Num. 11 -.11-15 

Num. 12: 13 

Num. 14: 13-19 

Num. 27: 15 

Deut. 3:24 

Neh. 1 :5 

Neh. 4: 4 

Luke23:42 

Luke 18:11 

Luke 18: 13 

Jud. 16:28 

1 Kgs. 3:5-9 

1 Kgs. 8:23; 2 Chr. 6: 14. 
Acts 7:59, 60 


Neiiemiah 

Nehemiah 

Penitent thief 

Pharisee's prayer.... 
Publican's prayer... 






Stephen 



944 



SUMMARY OF MAMMALIA OF THE BIBLE. 

Grounded on the Rev. W. Houghton's Paper (" Transactions of Society of 
Biblical Archaeology "). 

{From the Oxford Edition Sunday-School Teacher's Bible.) 



Animal de- 
noted. 



English 
Translation. 



Antelope Pygarg 

Antelope [Wild ox 

Ape Ape 

Ass (tome)... Ass 

Ass (wild)... Wild ass 

Bear Bear 

Bull (domes-\ 

tic) iCattle, oxen. 

Bull (wild)... | Unicorn 

Camel i Cam el 



Hebrew 
Original. 



Septuagint 
Translation. 



Assyrian 
Inscrip- 
tions. 



Zoological Genus 
or Species. 



Dishon nvyapyos Da-as-su... Addax. 

To, or Teo....jeAac/)o? Burkhiis.. Oryx leucoryx. 

Koph 7u07]ko? Udumu.... Presbytes entellus. 

Khamor :6i/o? Imiru ;Asinus vulgaris. 

Pereh rinmiros jTseri lAsinus hemippus. 

Dob apKTos ,Dabuu Ursus Syriacus. 



Cat Cat 

Deer Fallow deer... 

Dolphin | 

Dog Dog 

Fallow deer Hart, hind..... 

Gazelle | 

Gazelle jRoe, roebuck, 

Goat (he) |He-goat 

Goat He-goat 

Goat (wild).. jChamois 

Goat .. 



.. Wild goat... 

Greyhound. Greyhound. 
Hare Hare 



Eleph \KTrjvr] JAlap 

Re'em yovoKepw? . 'Ri-i-mu., 

Gamal Ka/arjAos jGammalu, 

None cuAovpo? I None. 

Yachmur.... /3ov'j3a-Ao? 

iNakhiru 

Keleb /cucov Kalbu 

Ay gal eAa$o? 'Ailu 

Azul Utsalu 

Tsebi Sop/ca? Tsabii. 

Yatud.., Tpayo? jAtudu. 

Tsaphir rpdyos ^Tsapparu. 

Zemer /cajUTjAon-ap- Ditanu 

Sis. 
Ya'el. 



Horse. Horse 

Hippopota- 
mus Behemoth , 

Hyaena .Doleful crea- 
tures 

Jackal Fox 

Leopard 'Leopard 

Lion Lion 

Mole-rat Mole 

Mouse Mouse 

Mule... 

Ox 

Ox 



Tsartsir... 
Arnebeth 



Sus. 



Ram 

Rhinoceros 

Sheep 

Sheep (wild) 
(See Wild 
Goats.) 
Unicorn (see 
Wild Bull). 

Wolf. 

Wolf. 



Mule 

Young bull.... 
Oxen 



Behemoth... 

[Oach 

pi. Okhim]. 

Shual 

Namer 

Aryeh 

Tinshemeth 

Yakhbar 

Pered 

Shor 

Bakar 



aAe'/iTwp ... 

\oipoypv\- 

Aios. 

t7T7TOS 



Q-qpia. 

None.. 



\a.\u>Trr)(; ... 
J7rap5aAi5.. 

jAewv 

danayaj-. 

1/u.v? 

■qp.iovo<; ... 
juda"X05.... 
ravpos 



None 

Annabu. 



Susu 



Akhu 



Asi (?) 

Ni'imru.... 

Ne-essu ... 



Ram. 



Sheep. 



Wolf.. 



Ayil.. 
Tso'n. 



Zeeb 

Rt. acal, de~ 

vour. 



Parie. 



xpios 

npoPaTa. . 



Av/co? . 



Bnehal 
rimi. 

Ailur 

AlapNahr 

Tsieni 

Arnu 



Bos taurus. 

Bos priniigenius. 

(Camel us Arabicus. 

jCanielus Bactrianus. 
Felis domestica. 
Alcephalus bubalis. 
Delphi mis. 
,Canis fainiliaris. 
Cervus Mesopotamicus. 
Gazella dorcas. 
Gazella gutturosa. 
Capra hircus. 
Capra segagrus. 
Rupicapra tragus. 

Ibex Bedeanus, or Capra 

Sinaitica. 
Doubtful. 

( Lepus Sinaiticus. 

I Lepus Caspius. 

Equus caballus. 



Hyaena striata. 

Can is Vulpes. 
Leopardus varius. 
Felis leo. 
Spalax typhlus. 
Dipus, and Alactaga. 

Bos taurus. 



Ovis aries. 

Rhinoceros unicornis. 
Ovis laticaudatus. 
Capra segagrus. 



Ziibu... 
Aciluv . 



!• Canis lupus. 



60 



945 



BIEDS FOUND IN PALESTINE, 

AND KEFERRED TO IN SCRIPTURE. 
{From Oxford Bible.) 



English name. 



Avocet. 



Bat (Lev. 11:19) 

Bee-eater 

Bittern (Zeph. 2 : 14). 



Blackbird. 
Blackcap.. 
Blue Jay. 

Bulbul 

Chat 



Cock (Mark 14 : 30).... 

Cormorant (Lev. 11 

17) • 



Corn-bunting , 

Cretchmaker's bunt- 
ing 

Crane (Isa. 38 : 14) , 



Cuckoo (Lev. 11 : 16). 



Crow (Prov. 30: 17) 

Dove (Isa. 38: 14) 

Dunlin 

Ducks 

Eagle (Deut. 32 : 11).... 

" gier (Lev. 11:18). 

Fowl,/a«ed (1 Kgs. 4 : 

23) 

Glede(Deut. 14:13).... 



Goldfinch. 

Grakle 

Grouse 

Harrier.... 



Hawk (Job 39 • 26) 

" night (Lev. 11 

16) 

Hen (Luke 13 : 34). 
Heron (Lev. 11:19) 



Hoopoe . 
Jar , 



Kestrel 

Kingfisher. 



Kite (Lev. 11 : 14)., 
946 



Hebrew. 



Atalleph 



Kippod. 



Sbalak. 



aAe'KTwp. 

KOLTap&KTt)? , 



Agur 

Shachaph. 



'Oreb... 
Yonah. 



Nesher.. 
Bacham. 



(Barburim. 

| Abusim 

Raah 



Netz 

Tachmas., 
Anaphah. 
Dukipath 



Netz. 



Greek. 



Specimens found by 
Palestine explorers. 



c^i^os. 



Recurvirostra avo 

cetta 

Vesper u go Kuhlii. 

Merops apiaster 

Bo taunts stellaris. 

Ardeola minuta , 

Merula. 

Silvia atricapilla...., 



Where found. 



Ixus xanthopygius 
Saxieola libanotica. 
Pratincola rubicola. 
Dromolsea leucopy- 
gia 



XeAifiuiv. 
Aapo?.... 



Kopai- 

irepLcrrepa. 



aeros 

1TOplj)Vpi<i}V.... 



yvxj,. 



Upa£.. 
■yAavf. 



XapaSpio?., 
eiroxjj 



Ardeola comata 

A idea cinerea. 

Upupa epops 

Caprimulgus Euro- 
paeus 

Tinnunculus alau- 
darius 

T. Cenchris 

Alcedo ispida 

| jCeryle rudis 

I..... Alcyon Smyrnensis. 

Ayah(generic) | iKTii'os [Milvus regalis. 



Phalacrocorax car- 
bo. 
Emberiza miliaria.. 



Emberiza csesia 

Grus cinerea. (See 

Stork.) 

Cuculus canorns 

Oxylophus glanda- 

rius 

Corvus umbrinus 
(See Pigeon.) 
Tringa cinclus. 



Circaetus Gallicus 
Gyps ful v us. 
Neoph ron percno- 
pterus. 

Geese. 

Buteo ferox (buz- 
zard). 
Carduelis elegans.... 
Amydrus Tristrami. 
Pteroels Senegallus. 
Circus seruginosus... 

C. cineraceus 

Accipiter nisus 



Caprimulgus (?) 



Sur. 

Anti-Libanus. 

(?) 

Jericho. 

Beit Atab. 
Bethlehem. 

Ain Feshkah. 



Ain Fasail. 



Jordan Valley. 
Ain Fasail. 



Everywhere. 
Yebua. 



Bethlehem. 
Mar-Saba. 
Desert. 
Dead Sea. 
Jericho. 



Jordan Valley. 
Bludan. 
Beit Atab. 



Ramleh. 
Jericho. 



BIRDS FOUND IN PALESTINE. 



English name. 



Lark. 



Lapwing (Lev. 11 : 19). 

Nuthatch 

Owl (Isa. 34 : 13) 



" great (Lev. 11: 17) 

Isa. 34:15 

" little (Lev. 11: 17). 

" of desert (Ps. 102: 
6) 

" screech (Isa. 34 : 

14) 

Osprey (Lev. 11 :13)... 

Ossifrage (Lev. 11 : 13). 

Ostrich (Lam. 4 : 13)... 
Partridge (Jer. 17 : 11). 

" (1 Sam. 26: 20). 

Peacock (1 Kgs. 10:22). 

Pelican (Ps. 102:6).... 

Pigeon (dove) (Ps. 68 : 

13; Matt, 3:16).. 

" (Gen. 15: 9) 

Plover 



Yon ah. 
Gozal... 



Quail (Ex. 16:13) 

Raven (Prov. 30 : 17).. 
Redstart 



Robin. 



Sandpiper. 
Shrike 



Sparrow (Ps. 102 : 7). 



Starling 

Stork (Jer. 8 : 7) 

Sunbird 

Swallow (Prov. 26:2 

Ps. 84:3) 

Isa. 38:14 



Swan (Lev. 11:18).. 
Swift (Isa. 38:14).. 



Thrush. 



Tit, great 

Turtledove (Gen. 15 
9; Lev.- 1:14) 



Hebrew. 



Dukipath. 



Bath-hay a'; 

nah. 
Yanshoop.. 

Kippos 

Kos 



Greek. 



enoxf/ , 



Specimens found by 
Palestine explorers. 



Galerida cristata... 
Otocoris penicillats 
(See Hoopoe.) 
Sitta Syriaca 



Kos., 



Lilith 

Asuiyah. 



Peres. 



Ya'anah. 
Kore 



Tucciyini , 
Kaath 



Selav. 
Oreb. 



Tzippor. 



Khasidah 



Deror. 
Agur... 



Tinshemeth. 
Sis, sus 



Tor-yonah 



Vulture (Lev. 11 : 14)... Dayah ... 

Ex. 19:4 iRacham. 

Wagtail 



Water-rail. 



<TTpOV06s. 

ijSis Bubo Ascalaphus.... 

e^tvos. 

wKTiKopag... Athense meridion 
alis. 



VVKTlKOpaj;. 

bvoxevTavpoi 
aAicu'eros 



yptty 

arpovOiov., 
iripSii- 



TOlOl' 

7reAe/cas. 



nepiarepa. 
Trepiarepd. 



opTvyop.t)Tpa 
nopag 



(TrpovQiov .... 



crrpovflos. 



kvkvos 

7rept(7Tepa. 



aeros. 



Otus vulgaris 

Pandion haliaetus 

(fish-eater). 
Gypaetus barbatus 

(bone-breaker). 
Strut hio camelus. 
Caccabis Grascus 

(Greek partridge). 
Ammoperdix heyii.. 
Pavo cristatus. 



Charadrius hiati- 

cula 

Coturnix vulgaris. 
(See Crow.) 
Ruticilla phcenicura 

" tithys 

Erythseus rubicula.. 

Ruticilla Suecica 

Coracias garrula 

Tringoides hypo- 

leucos 

Lanius lathora 

" auriculatus.. 

" nubicus 

Passer salicarius 

Fringilla patronia... 

Sturnus vulgaris 

Ciconiaalba 

Cinnyris osea 



Hirundo rustica 

[Agtir = crane ; sus 
= swift,] 



Cypsellus melba 

" ap-is. 

" aflBnis. 
Petrocincta cyanus. 
Trateropus chaly- 

beus 

Parus major 



Turtur auritus.. 
" risorius. 



Where found. 



Jaffa. 
Anti-Libanus. 



Jericho. 
Bethlehem 



Jericho. 



Jericho. 



Jaffa. 



Jordan Valley. 

Bludan. 

Jericho. 

Gaza. 

Solomon'sPools. 
Jericho. 
Jordan Valley. 

Ain Fasail. 
Jericho. 



Jordan Valley. 



Mar-Saba. 

Jericho. 
Beit Atab. 

Yebua. 

Jericho. 

Plentiful. 



Motacilla alba.... iRamleh. 

" sulphurea.lJericho. 
Rallus aquaticus | " 



947 



REPTILES OF SCRIPTURE. 

N. B. — The names printed in italics do not occur in the A. V., though the reptiles so 
called are now found, and probably were intended by the Hebrew writers. 



English Name. 



Hebrew. 



Greek. 



Zoological Species. 



Adder (Ps. 58: 4) 

Gen. 49: 17 

Ps. 140: 3 

Prov. 23 : 32 ; Job 20 : 14-16.... 

As t . .^a. 11:8) 

Caterpillar. 

Chameleon (Lev. 11: 30) 



Cockatrice (Isa. 59: 5) 



Crocodile (Lev. 11 : 29). 
Dabba (Lev. 11 : 29) 



Dragon (Isa. 34 : 13 ; Eze. 29 : 3) 
Frog (Ex. 8:2; Rev. 16 : 13)... 



Gecko (Lev. 11:30) 

(Ferret in A.V.). 
Horseleech (Prov. 30 : 15). 



Leviathan (Ps. 74: 14; Job 

41: 1) 

Lizard (Lev. 11: 30) 

Mole 

Scorpion (Deut. 8: 15; Luke 

10: 19) 

Serpent (Ps. 58 : 4 ; Prov. 30 : 19) 

Ex.7: 9, 10 

Ps. 58: 4 

Gen. 49: 17 



1. Pethen aants 

2. Sbephipbon '6(/>i? 

3. 'Achsub l/SouriAiV/cos. 

4. Tziph'oni d<77ri? 

Pethen jd<r7ri's 



1. Coach '^ap-aiAec. 



2. Tinshemeth ;d<nraAa£ 

(Mole, A. V.) 

Tzeph'a ido-n-i's 

Tziph'oni. 

JKpo/coSeiAo?. 

Tzab JKpo/c66etAos 

Xepo-aios. 

Tan 

Tannin 

Tzepharde'a. 



Anakah. 



0dTpaxos . 
/avyaAij.... 



Job 20: 16. 
Ps. 140:3.. 



Prov. 23:32; Isa. 11: 8 

Serpent. Fierv (Num. 21 : 6-8).. 
" Fiery flying (Isa. 14:29) 



Snail (Lev. 11:30). 

Ps. 58: 8 

Snake. 

Toad 



Alukah 

LXX. (?) 



Livyathan Spa>cwv 

Letaah x a ^ a ^^ Tr l^- 

Tinshemeth .a<rird\o.g .... 

Akrabim !o-Kop7U05.... 

1. Nacbash :6</>t? 

2. Tannin SpaKcav. 

3. Pethen aants 

4. Shepbiphon o<£is 



Cobra. 

Cerastes Hasselquistii. 
Vipera Eupbratica. 
Daboia xanthina. 
Egyptian cobra {Naja 

haje). 
Psammosaurus scincus. 
Hydrosaurus Niloticus. 
Chameleo vulgaris. 

Daboia xanthina. 



Uromastis spinispes 

(Lizard). 
Probably crocodile. 

Rana esculenta. 
Hyla arhorea. 
Ptyodactylus gecko. 

Hoemopis sanguisuga. 
iHirudo medicinalis. 

ICrocodilus vulgaris. 
Generic '?). 
[See Chameleon. 



5. Epheh \acrms 

6. Achshub BaaiKianos. 



Tortoise (Lev. 11: 29) 

Viper (Job 20 : 16 ; Isa. 
59:5) 



Worm (Isa. 51:8) 

Ex. 16: 20; Job 25:6; Isa. 
14: 11 

Job 25: 6; Isa. 14: 11 

Worm, Earth 

" Canker 

" Palmer. 

" C rimson. ^_^ 

948 



7. Tsepha ao-ms. 

Sarapb ;6</>is Qavariav.. 

d(T7TlS, 5(|u? ) 

x/uevo? J 

1. Chomet. 

2. Shablul , 



Tzab. 



Epheh. 



1. Sas 

2. Rimmah. 



Tole'ah. 



TreTa/uevo? 
(Tavpa . 
/crjpos... 



/cpo/coSeiAos 
Xepcratos 



e'xiSva. 



cranpia. 
(tki6Atj£.. 



Numerous. 
Generic term. 

Cobra iEgyptiaca. 
Cerastes Hasselquistii 

(Adder). 
Echidna Mauritanica. 
Vipera Eupbratica, or 

Vipera ammodytes. 
Daboia xanthina (?). 



Generic. 



Bufo Pantherinus. 

(1. Testudo Grseca. 
-I 2. Testudo marginata 

(3. Emys Caspica. 

Echis arenicola (Sand 
viper). 



Tortrix vitisana(?). 

Lutnbricus. 

Myriapoda. 



INSECTS. 

Under this head are classed all those smaller animals not included in the previous 
tables. They are arranged not scientifically, but rather, for facility of reference, in 
alphabetical order. 


English Name. 


Hebrew. 


Grppk Zoological Species 
^ reeK - found. 


Ant (Prov. 6:6-8; 30: 24) 

Bee (Ps. 118 : 12 ; 1 Sam. 14 : 25) 

Beetle (Lev. 11: 21,22) 

Hah 2: 11 












Chargol bfyioixaxn 

Chaphis K*v6apos. 


Apis Ligustica. 
Buprestis (!). 

Coccus ilicis. 






Fleafl Sara. 24: 14; 26: 20).... 
Fly (Ex. 8: 21; Ps. 78:45) 

EccleslO: 1 

I sa 7-18 






1. Aroh, or Oreb... 
2 Zebub 


KVVOfJLl 


la 


Musca, or Culex. 

Scaraliseus coprophagus. 
Hippo bosca, or Oestrus. 






Gadfly. 

Gnat (Matt 23*24) 




d/cpi's. 




Culex. 

Vespa Crabro. 

CSdipoda migratoria. 
Locusta peregrina. 
Truxalis. 
Unidentified. 

Larva of Arctia caja. 
GUdipoda migratoria. 

Coccus manniparus. 
Ehrenb. 

Tinea. 
Epeira. 


Grasshopper (Jud. 6:5: Lev. \ 

11:22) / 

Hornet (Ex. 23: 28) 

Lice (Ex. 8: 16) 

Locust (Ex. 10 : 4-6 ; Lev. 11 : 22) 

■ Bald " 

«> >i a « 

Joel 1: 4 






Chagab. 

Tzir'ah 




?. 








3. Chargol 

4. Chagob 


b<f>LOfxa 

a/cpt?. 

Ka/u.,7nj 


M 




Joel 1 • 4- Nah 3-15 


6. Yelek 




Ps. 105:34; Jer. 51 : 14.27. 

Deut. 28: 42 

Isa 33- 4* Am 7: 1 


7. Tzelatzlal 


epiervjSTj. 

adept's. 

eptcrv'jSij. 


8. Gob 


Ps 78- 46 


9. Chasil 






Mosquito. 

Moth (Isa. 50: 9; Job 13: 28; 
27- 18) 


'Ash 








apdxvy 




Prov. 30: 28 


2. Semamith. 










Waters. 


English Name. 


Ichthyological Species. 






Chromis Nilotica. 

(Clarias macracanthus. 
■1 Coracinus. 

(Hemichromis. 

Labeo barbns canis. 
Barbus longicpps. 
Cyprinodon Hammonis. 




Sheat-fish 


Carp. 

Perch. 

Dog-fish 


BarbH 








Barbel. 
Bream. 









949 



WOEDS OBSOLETE OE AMBIGUOUS. 


Word. 


Passage. 


Explanation. 




Ps. 35 : 15 


Outcasts ; despised persons. 

A stone of impenetrable (lit. " indomitable ") 

hardness. 
Bind under a curse ; charge solemnly. 
Stir; tumult; commotion. 
Although it be so. 
(Lat. laudare) to praise ; to approve. 
Entirely; completely. 
(Of sing num.) = charitable gift. 
From all off = afar off; at a distance. 
Punish by fine. 
A sort of parsley. 
i. e., in one instant = quickly. 
Dressed. 
Plainly ; openly. 

(Lat. area) covered chest. 

Dress or clothe. 

Bow and arrows. 

Old form of astonished, astounded. 

Reconciliation of two persons at variance; 
from this adverb springs the verb " atone " 
(to reconcile), and " at-onement." 

An old part, of attend, used for "attentive." 

" Put up with " or endure. 

Fringed or bearded with projecting points. 

Tree; large timber. 

Plvr. of " beef;" used of oxen or cows. 

Circumstanced ; situated. 

Discover; report; inform; reveal; accuse. 

Imprison or confine closely. 

Pimples; pustules; swellings. 

Publish loudly ; blazon. 

Balled ; heading to blossom. 

Large studs ; projecting ornaments. 

Eruption of the skin. 

Splendor ; finery. 

Pound or bruise. 

Easily broken ; brittle. 

Coat of mail. 

(Fr. bruit, noise) report ; fame. 

About, in bad sense. 

Immediately. 

Men who stop the seams or leaks of ships 
with tow. 

That which is carried ; baggage. 

Heated ; exasperated. 

Capital of a pillar. 

Cracked through heat and drought. 

A large dish. 

Discharge the cost or pay expenses. 

Sympathetic, unselfish habit of the soul, in- 
cluding our words love, charity, sympathy, 
benevolence, beneficence, philanthropy. 

(Lat. cithara) a stringed instrument; the 
name has now become "guitar." 

Adhere: remain faithful. 

A kind of crested serpent ; the basilisk. 

Indulge so as to spoil a child. 

The corn-rose, a weed found among corn. 

Slices or flakes of meat or fat. 


Adamant or dia- 


Eze. 3:9 




Josh. 6:26 


Ado 


Mark 5:39 


Albeit 

Allow 

All to 


Eze. 13:7 


Luke 11 :48 


Jud. 9:53 

Acts 3:3; 10:2 

Ps. 38: 11 




Aloof 


Deut. 22: 19 




Matt. 23:23 

Matt. 13:20 

Luke 7:25 








Num. 12: 8 


Ark .* 


Gen. 6 : 14 ; Ex. 2 : 5, 6 ; 
37:1 




Matt. 6:29 




1 Sam. 20: 40 




Job 17 :8 




Acts 7:26 




2 Chr. 6:40 




Isa. 1 : 13 




Job 41 : 7 


Beam {see Mote) 


Matt. 7 : 3 


Lev. 22:21 

Isa 8: 21 




Bewray 

Bind 


Matt. 26 : 73 


Job 26: 8; Acts 9:14... 
Ex. 9:9... „ 


Blains 

Blaze abroad 

Boiled 


Ex. 9:31 


Job 15:26 


Botch 

Bravery 

Brav 


Deut. 28 : 27 


Isa. 3: 18 


Prov. 27 : 22 


Brickie 


Wisd 15: 13 


Jer. 46:4 


Bruit 

By 

By and by 

Calkers 

Carriage 

Chafed 


Jer. 10:22 


1 Cor. 4:4 


Matt.l3:21;Luke21:9. 
Eze. 27:9, 27 


lSam.l7:22;Acts21:15. 
2 Sam. 17:8 


Ex. 36: 38 




Jer. 14:4.. 




Num. 7: 13; Matt. 14: 8. 
Acts 21 :24 


Charges (be at) 


1 Cor. 13 








Gen. 2: 24; Rom. 12 :9. 
Isa. 11:8 


Cockatrice 

Cocker 

Cockle 


Ecclus. 30:9 

Job 31: 40 

Job 15:27 





950 



WORDS OBSOLETE OR AMBIGUOUS. 


Word. 


Passage. 


Explanation. 




Acts 16 :12 


(Lat. colonia) a foreign town to whose in- 
habitants were accorded, for distinguished 
services, the same rights and privileges as 
the citizens of Rome itself. 

Draw commendation upon or enhance. 

Parley; hold a conference; converse. 
Comprise; include; measure; contain. 
Mere cutting off; opposed to circumcision as 

religious symbol. 
(Lat. cvniculus) a rabbit ; small animal like 

a rabbit. 
Compound of various ingredients. 
Associate with. 
(Lat. contritus) bruised; ground to powder; 

so of one humbled to the dust. 

Becoming; decorous. 

(1) Citizenship; (2) conduct and habits of 

life. 
Convict. 

(Used as a subst.) a reckoning. 
(Lat. contra valere) compensate for. 
Hard, brittle cakes. 
Irons for crimping or curling hair. 

Small cup or vessel for holding liquid. 

Encumber; occupy unprofitably. 

That with which great pains has been taken. 

These words were used as equivalent terms 
when the A. V. was made ; sometimes with 
a deep, sometimes with a lighter, meaning. 

Umpire; arnit rator. 

A part or portion. 

One bound by or under an obligation. 

Conclude ; judge. 

Fenced ; defended by fortifications. 

Tenderly; mincingly. 
Delightful. 
Uncover. 
Drain. 

Cesspool ; depository of drainage. 
Plough ; till the ground. 
Ploughing. 

(Gr. haemorrhoids) discharging piles. 
Injure. 
Example. 
Pursue diligently. 
Avoid ; shun. 

Service performed only when under super- 
vision. 
Glad, and gladly. 
Vessel for liquor; same as "vat." 
Vetches; small kind of pea. 

To corrode ; to perforate by eating, as a moth 

does. 
To scare ; frighten away. 
Speak against — i. c, contradict. 
Granary ; barn. 
Trap or snare for birds. 
Shine ; sparkle ; glitter. 




Rom. 3:5 


Commune 

Comprehend 


Ex. 25 : 22 ; 1 Sam. 19 : 
3; Ps. 4 : 4 


Tsa. 40:12; Pom. 13:9. 
Phil. 3:2 




Lev. 11:5; Ps. 104:18. 

Ex.30:35;Ecclus.38:8. 
Acts 17:4 








Ps. 51 :17 




Acts 24 : 25 ; Rom. 1 : 
28; Epli. 5:4 


Conversation 


(1) Phil. 3:20; (2) 1 
Pet. 1:15 

Job 32: 12; John 8:46. 
Ex. 12:4 




Countervail 


Esth. 7:4 


1 Kgs. 14:3 


Crisping pins 

Cruse 


Isa. 3:22 


1 Sam. 26:11; 1 Kgs. 
14:3; 17:12; 2 Kgs. 
2:20 


Luke 10:40; 13:7 

Ex. 28 : 8 ; Acts. 19 : 19. 




Damnation or con- 
demnation 


Job 9: 33 


Deal, a 


Ex. 29:40 

Rom. 1 : 14 ; Gal. 5 : 3... 
Acts 27:27 




Defenced 


isa. 36:1 


Deut. 28:56; 1 Sam. 
15:32 




Mai. 3: 12 

Isa. 22:8 




Draught 

Draught house 

Ear, to 


Matt. 15:17 

2 Kgs. 10:27 

Isa. 30:24 


Gen. 45 :6 




1 Sam. 5:6 








2 Cor. 10:11 

1 Pet 3: 11 


Ensue 




1 Pet. 3:11 




Eph. 6:6 

Luke 15: 16 


Fain 


Fat 


Joel 2: 24 

Isa. 28:25, 27 


Fitches 

Fret 


Lev. 13 : 51, 55 ; Ps. 39 : 
Deut. 28:26 


Fray 

Gainsay 

Garner 


Luke 21: 15 

Matt. 3: 12 

Am 3 5 


Glister 


Luke 9: 29 



051 



WOKDS OBSOLETE OR AMBIGUOUS. 


Word. 


Passage. 


Explanation. 




1 Sam. 17 :6 


Armor-plates for legs. 

Coat-of-mail. 

Handle of knife, dagger, etc. 

Forcibly drag, as au arrested person. 

{Verb and part.) walk lame ; crippled. 

Body-armor of a soldier. 

Head-dress; turban. 

A ruin. 

Hole or covered pit ; grave. 

Nudes, place of departed spirits. 

Gehenna, place of torment for the wicked. 

Handle of an axe. 

Used often for neut. " its." 

Trowsers and stockings in one piece. 

Hocks ; joints of a beast's hind-legs. 

Hungry. 

Insupportable. 

Earnestly ; with urgent importunity. 

To hazard or risk life. 

"Jot" is "jod," the smallest Hebrew letter 
(i or iota in Gr.). Tittle is a little stroke or 
horn distinguishing one letter from an- 
other, like that which in English distin- 
guishes E from F, or G from C. 

The old plural of " cow ;" milch-kiue = 
milking-cows. 

The bud of a flower ; carved imitation of 
one; now spelled " knob." 

Subst., want or deficiency ; v., to he deficient. 

An expounder of the Mosaic Law. 

Lying or falsehood. 

Hinder; prevent. 

Wickedness; crime. 

The child of a freed slave. 

Desire; will; like. 

Desire of any kind. 

Healthy; vigorous; strong. 

Magnificent. 

Marsh ; swampy ground. 

Heavy hammer, of which "mallet" is the 
diminutive. 

Stomach of animals. 

Suitable; accordant. 

(Lat. metior) measure. 

Measuring- rod ; yard-measure. 

Walking with very short steps. 

Diminish ; lessen. 

(Sax. mot) minute particle; grain ; atom. 

Fortifications; ramparts. 

Cattle-plague, resembling " rinderpest." 

Bad; worthless; nothing. 
Old form of "sneeze." 
Lower, from obsolete " neath." 
Noxious; hurtful; grievous. 
Nothing (same as " naught"). 
Education; training. 

Used in various senses: (1) instead of "by;" 

(2) for "concerning;" (3) "out of." 
That against which one stumbles. 
Strike or stumble against; cause to stumble. 

Ere; before. 


Habergeon 

Halt 

Hale 

Halt 

Harness 


Job 41 :26 


Jud. 3:22 

Luke 12: 58; Acts 8: 3.. 
Gen. 32 : 31 ; Luke 14 : 

21 

1 Kgs. 22 : 34 

1 Esd. 3:6 

Deut. 13:16; Jer. 49:2. 
Ps. 49: 14 


Heap 

Hell -| 

Helve 

His 


Acts 2: 27 

2 Pet. 2:4 

Deut. 19:5 

1 Cor. 15:38 

Dan. 3: 21 

2 Esd. 15:36 

Matt. 12: 1 

Prayer of Manasses.... 
Acts 26 : 7 


Hosen 

Houghs 

Hungered, a 

Importable 

Instantly 

Jeopard, to 


Jud. 5:18 


Matt. 5:18 


Kine 


Gen. 41:2; 1 Sam. 6:7. 
Ex. 25:33 






Ex. 16: 18; Mark 10: 21. 

Matt. 22 :35 

Ps. 4:2 

2Tbess. 2:7 

Acts 18: 14 

Acts 6:9 

John 3:8 

Ex. 15:9; 2 Tim. 4:3.. 
Jud. 3:29 


Lawyer 


Let 

Lewdness 




Lust 


Lusty 


IChr. 22:5 

Eze. 47: 11 

Prov. 25:18 

Deut. 18:3 

Matt. 3 : 8 

Matt. 7:2 

Lev. 19 :35. 

Isa. 3:16 

Ex.5: 19 

Matt. 7:3 

Nah.2: 1 

Ex 9 :3 , 

2 Kgs. 2:19; Prov. 20: 

14 

2 Kgs. 4: 35 

Deut, 24 :6 

Ps. 91 :3 

Gen. 29:15 

Eph. 6:4 

(1) Mark 1:9; (2) Acts 

13: 29; (3)1 Cor. 15:47. 

Rom. 9:33 

Matt. 18:9 


Marish 

Maul 








Meteyard 




Mote (see Beam) 












Nought 




Of 


Offence 


Offend 




Ps. 90 :2: Cant. 6 : 12; 
Dan. 6 : 24; Acts 23 : 
15 





WORDS OBSOLETE OR AMBIGUOUS. 


Word. 


Passage. 


Explanation. 




Ex. 28:11 


Settings of gold or silver for precious stones. 

Strive in pain or pangs. 

Hard to do ; needing effort. 

Unsparing toil. 

Surpass. 

Strip off bark; rob and plunder. 

Small level piece of ground. 

Lop; cut off, es}>. hair. 

Fragment of broken pottery. 

Vat to receive grape-juice from the wine- 
press. 

Go before ; precede. 

Preacher, or proclaimer of divine message. 

Stimulate; challenge to actiou. 

Farmers of public revenue; esp. native col- 
lectors of the odious tribute imposed by 
the Roman government. 

Alive; lively; active. 
Make alive. 

Acquit; conduct. 
Greediness; rapacity. 
Make prey ; capture spoil. 
(Lat. renes. kidneys) emotions; affections. 
Rear-eruard ; the defence behind an army. 
Streaked or marked with circular bands or 
rings. 

A place or spot for one to sit or stand in. 

Except, adv. 

Taste ; relish ; met. relish in mind. 
Short; deficient; scanty. 
Scratch ; make unmeaning marks. 

Small bag or wallet. 

Boil ; per/. " sod," part. " sodden." 

Servant or attendant. 

(Sax. sceard) fragment ; shred, esp. of pottery. 

(Sax. scrvd) shelter; covering, esp. of a tree. 

A small silver coin. 

Since; forasmuch as. 

Boiled ; from the verb "seethe." 

(Fr. sejourner) to dwell temporarily, as a 
stranger or visitor, not a settled inhabitant. 
Once ; formerly ; of old time. 

Sadly; grievously. 
Succeed ; or subst. success. 

Rise, source, commencement, e. g., "springs 
of Pisgah " (Deut. 4 : 49)— i. e., roots or foot 
of the mountain. 

(Sax. stede) places. 

A catapult or engine for throwing stones. 

Immediately ; at once. 

Strictly. 

Scarcity of food; severe famin6. 

A streak. 

Past tense of verb to " strike." 

Strew or scatter. 


Pain 


Rev. 12:2 

Ps. 73:16 

2 Cor. 11:27 


Painful 


Pass 

Pill, Peel 

Plat 

Poll, to 


Eze. 32:19 

Gen. 30: 37, 38: Isa. 18: 
2. 7 


2 Kgs. 9:26 


2 Sam. 14:26 


Ps. 22:15 




Hag. 2:16 




1 Thess. 4 : 15 




1 Cor. 14: 22; Acts 13:1. 

2 Cor. 9: 2 






Matt. 9 : 10 ; Luke 5 : 27. 

Num. 16:30; Heb. 4: 
12 




Quicken 


Ps. 71 :20 


Quit 


1 Sam. 4:9; 1 Cor. 16 : 
13 




Luke 11 :39 




Gen. 49 :27.... 




Ps. 7 :9 




Isa. 52: 12; 58 :8.... 


Ringstraked 


Gen. 30: 35 


Luke 14: 8; 1 Cor. 14: 
16 


Save 


1 Kgs. 3:18; Matt. 11 : 
27 




Matt. 16:23 

Mic. 6: 10 






1 Sam. 21 : 13 




1 Sam. 17:40; Luke 22: 
36 


Seethe 


Ex. 16:23 




2 Kgs. 4:43 


Sherd 


Isa. 30: 14 




Eze. 31 : 3 




Isa. 7:23 

Eze. 35:6 

Gen. 25:29; Ex. 12:9.. 

Gen. 12:10; 19:9; Ex. 

12:48 


Sith 


Sod, Sodden 






Eph. 2 : 13 ;1 Pet. 3: 20. 
Gen. 19:9; 43:1; Deut. 

6:22; Jud. 21:2 

Gen. 24:12; Jud. 5: 30. 
Deut. 4 : 49 ; 1 Sam. 9 : 

26 








Steads 


1 Chr. 5: 22 




Wisd 5:22 


Straightway 


1 Sam. 9:13; Luke 5 : 
39 


Straitly 


Gen. 43 : 7; Josh. 6:1; 

Mark 1:43 

Deut. 28:5.3; Jer. 19:9. 

Gen. 30: 37 

Acts 27: 17 


Straitness 


Strake 




Matt. 21 :8 







953 



WOKDS OBSOLETE OR AMBIGUOUS. 


WOBTT. 


Passage. 


Explanation. 


Sunder, to 

Sundry ,„. 

Tabering 

Taclies 

Tale 

Target 

Tire 


Job 41: 17 


Separate; part asunder. 
Several; various; divers. 
Beating, as on a taber. 
Catches or buttons ; any fastening. 

(Sax. tellan) reckoning; total. 
Light shield ; buckler. 

Dress, adorn, esp. the head; subst. a head- 
dress. 

Prep.=concerning. 

Languages, esp. those foreign to, or unknown 
by, the speaker. 

Labor; pain; trouble generally. 

Think ; imagine ; suppose. 

Two. 

Pass ropes round hull of a ship, from gun- 
wale to gunwale, and then stretch them 
tight, so as to keep the timbers from 
starting in a gale. 

The pedestal or plinth on which the brazen 
bases of the lavers stood in Solomon's 
temple. 

Generally allowed to be a wild bull. See 
Dictionary. 

Unconsciously ; unintentionally. 

Aware; expectant. 

Grow or become. 

(Sax. whit) a bit; atom. 

Veil, or covering for face, throat, or neck; 

probably the original of the Eastern 

"yashmak." 
Immoderate drinker of wine ; drunkard. 

(Sax. wise) mode or manner, or means. 

(Sax. wiste) knew. 

(Sax. witan) to know. 

Young twig of a willow ; osier. 

With the same; therewith. 
Intentionally : knowingly. 


Heb. 1:1 

Nah. 2 : 7 


Ex. 26 :6 


Ex. 5 : 8, 18 ; 1 Sam. 18 : 
27 


1 Sam. 17: 6 


2Kgs. 9:30; Isa. 3:18. 

Lev. 5 : 13 ; Ps. 45 : 1 ; 
Matt. 18: 19 


Tittle. {See Jot.) 




Acts 10:46 

Isa. 53:11; Jer. 30:6... 
Luke 17:9 




Trow 

Twain 


Isa. 6: 2 




Acts 27: 17 




1 Kgs. 7 : 30, 34 




Ps. 92 :10 




Josh. 20 :3 

Acts 14 : 6 


Ware 

Wax 

Whit 


Luke 1 :80 


1 Sam. 3:18; 2 Cor. 
11 :5 


Isa. 3:22 


Winebi'ober 

Winein. (See Fat.) 

Wise., 

Wist 


Matt. 11:19 


Lev. 19:17 


Ex. 16 : 15; 34 : 29 ; 
Mark 14 :40 


Wit *o 


2 Cor. 8: 1 


With 


Jud. 16:7 


Withal 


1 Kgs. 19 : 1 ; Acts 25 : 

27 

Gen. 48: 14 


"fittingly 


Wont 

, Wot 


Matt. 27: 15 Accustomed. 




Ex. 28:14 

Gen. 34 : 7 ; Ex. 36 : 1 : 

Matt. 20:12; 26:10.. 
Gen. 43 : 30 ; 1 Kgs. 

3 : 26 


Twisted; turned; " wreathen work." 

Worked. 

Feel pain of longing desire ; hence, express- 
ing the working up of uncontrollable 
emotion. 

















954 



BOOKS, CHAPTERS, AND VERSES IN THE BIBLE. 



Number of books in Old Testament 39 

Number of books in New Testament 27 

Total number of books in Bible 66 

Number of chapters in Old Testament 929 

Number of chapters in New Testament 260 

Total chapters 1189 

Number of verses in Old Testament 23,214 

Number of verses in New Testament 7,959 

Total verses 31,173 

Number of words in Old Testament 592,439 

Number of words in New Testament 181,253 

Total words 773,692 

Number of letters in Old Testament 2,728,110 

Number of letters in New Testament 838,380 

Total letters 3,566,490 

The word Jehovah or Lord occurs 6S55 times. 

The middle chapter in the Bible, and the shortest one, is Ps. 117 ; the middle verse 
is Ps. 118:8; the middle book of the Old Testament is Proverbs; the middle chapter 
is Job 29; middle verse, 2 Chron. 20:17; the shortest verse, 1 Chron. 1:25. The 
middle book of the New Testament is 2 Thess. ; .middle verse, Acts 17:17; the 
shortest verse, John 11 : 35. Ezra 7:21 has all the letters of the alphabet. 

REVISED NEW TESTAMENT. 

(Computation in Rev. Rufus Wendell's "Student?s Edition of 
the Revised Version," Albany, 1882.) 

No. of paragraphs 1,128 

No. of verses 7,943 

No. of words 179,914 

The total number of woi'ds belonging to each writer is as follows : 

Paul (fourteen books) 50.649 | Mark (one book) 14,854 

Luke (two books) 49.865 j Peter (two books) 3,966 

John (five books) 34,236 i James (one book) 2,306 

Matthew (one book) 23,407 | Jude (one book) 631 



955 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Abana and Pharpar 11 

Abraham's Oak 19 

Absalom's Tomb 21 

Addax 716 

Adder, Horned 24 

Adrammelech, Figure of 26 

Ain Sultan (Fountain of Elisha) 432 

Alabaster Vases 37 

Alexander the Great, Head of 37 

Alexandria, Ancient, Map of 39 

Almond 40 

Aloes 41 

Altar of Burnt-offering 42 

Altar of Burnt-offering (from the 

Mishna) 42 

Altar of Incense 43 

Amon 47 

Amulets, Egyptian 49 

Anchor 50 

Anise 52 

Anklets, Assyrian 52 

Egyptian 52 

Antioch in Syria 56 

Antiochus Epiphanes, Coin of 55 

a w, Monogram of Christ 9 

Apis 151 

Arab, A Modern 190 

Water Carrier 141 

Arabia, Sketch Map of 61 

Ararat, View of 63 

Arcli, Robinson's 64 

Archers, Assyrian 70 

Egyptian 71 

Areopagus, Mars' Hill 65 

Ark of Covenant 67 

Armor and Arms 68-72 

Ass, Eastern Wild 77 

Assarion 580 

Assyria, etc., Sketch Map of 81 

Assyrian King and Cup Bearer 210 

Palace 80 

Astarte, Figure of. 76 

Athens, View of 83 

Augustus, Coin of 85 

Statue of. 85 

Baal, Altar of. 88 

Baalbec, Ruins of. 89 

Babylon, Plan of. 91 

Bake-oven, Arabian 96 

Balances, Egyptian 97 

Balm 98 

Banias 149 

Banner, Roman, etc 208 

Basins, Assyrian 102 

Baskets, Egyptian 103 

Battering-ram, Ancient 104 

Battle-axes 69 

Egyptian 69 

Bear, Syrian 105 

Beards, Assyrian 105 

Egyptian 105 

Beds, Asiatic 106 



Beer-sheba, Well at 107 

Bebemotn 108 

Bellows, Egyptian 110 

Beui-Hassan, Tomb at 259 

Bernice, Head of 112 

Bethanv 113 

Bethesda, Pool of 115 

Bethlehem, Picture of 116 

Birs Nimrud 93 

Reconstructed 91 

Bison 887 

Boar, Wild 137 

Book of Law closed 140 

Bottle inscribed witli name of Thothmes 

III 338 

Bottles of Skin 141 

Bound between Two Soldiers 718 

Bows 718 

and Quivers 71 

Bracelets, Assyrian 142 

Bronze 142 

Gold, Egyptian 142 

Iron 142 

of Cowries 142 

Brick, Assyrian 143 

Egyptian 143 

Bricks, Jewish Captives making, in 

Egypt 143 

Bridge, Ruins of. 64 

Bubale, The 299 

Bulrush 145 

Burnt-offering, Altars of. 42 

C^esarea 149 

Philippi 149 

Camel 153 

Camp, Plan of 154 

Camphire 155 

Canaan, Sketch Map of 156 

Candlestick, Golden 157 

Captives, Jewish, before Darius., 163 

Carmel, Mount 164 

Castor and Pollux 166 

Castor-oil Plant 344 

Cedars of Lebanon 167 

Censers, Egyptian 169 

Centurion, Roman 162 

Cerastes, Horned 24 

Chameleon 172 

Chariot, Egyptian 173 

Chest or Box, Egyptian.. , 176 

Christ, Monogram of .207,208 

Cinnamon 186 

Claudius, Coin of 189 

Cobra, Egyptian 76 

Coin, Alexander the Great 37 

Antiochus Epiphanes 55 

Augustus 85 

Claudius 189 

Polemo 112 

Coins to Commemorate the Capture of 

Judaea 162 

Colossi at Thebes 616 

957 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Columns, Street of. 844 

Coney, Syrian 197 

Corinth and Acro-corintbus 200 

Cormorant 203 

Crane 203 

Cross, Three Forms of the 207 

Crown of Aretas 209 

Assyrian 209 

Herod the Great 209 

Lower Egypt 209 

Upper Egypt 209 

Cucumber, Squirting 210 

Cyprus, Map of 212 

Cyrus, Reputed Tomb of. 213 

Daggers 70 

Damascus, View of 215 

Wall of. 216 

David, Tomb of. 222 

Dead Sea, Map of. 753 

View of, N. VV 755 

View of, South 755 

Dead, The Judgment of. 266 

Decapolis, Map of 226 

Denarius 580 

Roman 228 

Denderah, Temple at 265 

Diana of Ephesus 251 

Temple of. 231 

Temple of, at Ephesus 281 

Dog Modelled in Clay 236 

Dove, Turtle 238 

Eagle 245 

Eastern House, Plan of 241 

Ecce Homo Arch 455 

Edom, View of. 251 

Egypt, Sketch Map of. 254 

Egyptian Triad 256 

Elijah's Sacrifice, Place of 272 

Elim 273 

Embalming 276 

Environs of Jerusalem 453 

Ephesian Temple 281 

Er-Rahah, Plain of. 805 

Esdra.'lon, Plain of. 461 

Exodus, Sketch Map of. 294 

Eyes, Painting of. 295 

Fallow Deer 298 

Fans, Winnowing 300 

Farthimr 580 

Farthing, A 301 

Fennel Flower 308 

Ferret, The , 302 

Fisjsand Fig-leaves 303 

Firman, Turkish 517 

Fish-God, The 214 

Fishes of Sea of Galilee 307 

Fitches 308 

Flagellum 771 

Flax 309 

Preparation of. 309 

Foot-Race 324 

Fountain of Elisha 432 

Fox. The Syrian 313 

Frankincense 314 

Fringed Garment, Eastern 193 

Furnace, Egyptian 316 

Furniture, Eastern 316 

958 



Galilee, Sea of, Sketch Map of 320 

Sea of, from Tiberias 321 

Gallinule, The Purple 831 

Garment, Fringed 193 

Gate of Damascus 326 

Gazelle 740 

Gecko, The 302 

Geunesaret 160 

Gethsemane, Garden of 333 

Girdles, Ancient 337 

Glassblowers 338 

Glass-Bottles, Egyptian 338 

Goat, Syrian * 339 

Gods of the Chief Egyptian Triad 256 

Golden Daric 580 

Gourd, Wild 344 

Greece, Sketch Map of 347 

Greek, A Modern 190 

Guest-Chamber 242 

Hair, Egyptian Mode of Wearing 351 

Hamath, "inscription at 353 

Hands, Washing the 897 

Haram Area 451 

Hare ot Mount Sinai 358 

Harp, Egvptiau 359 

Hawk 363 

Head-dress, Assyrian King and Queen... 365 

Damascus 365 

Syrian 365 

Hebron, Mosque at 536 

View of. 371 

Heliopolis, Obelisk at 629 

Herdsmen, Egyptian 376 

Hermon, Little 596 

Mount 371 

Herod Agrippa, Coin of 579 

the Great, Bronze Coin of 378 

Herod's Temple, Plan of 856 

Hezekiah, Pool of 450 

Hieroglyphics, Alexander 255 

Ptolemais 255 

High Priest 385 

Hippopotamus 108 

Hoe, Egyptian 553 

Holy Land, Map of .-. 646-7 

Hoopoe, or Lapwing 509 

Hor, Mount, View of. 389 

Horns as Ornaments 391 

Houseiop, Eastern 243 

Huleh, Lake 564 

Husks 396 

Hvena, Striped 397 

Hyssop. 397 

Incense, Altar of. 43 

Inn, Eastern 403 

Inner Prison, Ancient 705 

Instruments, Stringed 590 

Isis, Egyptian 256 

Jacob's Well.. 414 

Jaffa-Gate, Interior of the 413 

Jaffa (Joppa) 475 

Jerusalem, Eastern Wall of. 443 

Plans of 447 

View of, from the South 435 

Jews, Wailinsj-Place of. 454 

Jezreel, Plain of 461 

Jonah, Traditional Tomb of 472 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Jordan, Course of 478 

Source of. 477 

Sources of 149 

Joshua. Traditional Tomb of 482 

Judges, Tomb of. 147 

Tombs of, Plan of. 146 

Judgment of the D^ad (Egyptian) 266 

Juniper Bush 491 

Karnak, Avenue of Sphinxes 265 

Temple at 257 

Kestrel 363 

K v, Egyptian Iron 495 

Kite 502 

Lachish, Plan of. 506 

Lamp,. Assyrian Terra-Cotta and Glass... 50.S 

Chaldsean 508 

Lamps, Chris ian 508 

Laud in sea, Ruins of 509 

Lapwing 509 

Laver, Brazen 510 

Lebanon, Cedars of. 167 

"View of. 513 

Leek, Common 514 

Leutiles 515 

Leopard 515 

Leper. Head of. 516 

Leprous Beggars 516 

Leviathan 517 

Lily 521 

Scarlet 520 

Lion 522 

Sculptured 93 

Lizard 523 

Locust, Flying 525 

Locusts 524 

Loom, Ancient Roman 899 

Macedonia, Map of 535 

Maces and Clubs 70 

Mail, Coats of. Assyrian 69 

Coats of, Creek 69 

Coals of, Persian 69 

Mandrake 542 

Manna Tree 543 

Map, Abana and Pharpar 11 

Alexandria 39 

Arabia 61 

Assyria and Mesopotamia 81 

Mars' Hill 65 

Mattock 553 

Measures of Capacity 554 

Medeba, Ruined Columns at 555 

Memnon, Vocal 616 

Menephthah 1 261 

Meruit), Waters of 564 

Mesopotamia, Sketch Map of 81 

Mill, Women Grinding at 571 

Millet 572 

Mint 572 

Moab, Mountains of 577 

Moabite Stone. The 232 

Money Bags, Egyptian 96 

Mosque at Hebron 536 

Mourners, Eastern 588 

MSS., Facsimile of. 123 

Mummies, Bandaging of 276 

Making Cases for 276 

Mummy-Case, Lid of. 277 



Mummy-Cases. Forms of 276 

Muslim Tombs 443 

Mustard 591 

Myrrh 591 

Myrtle 592 

Nain, View of. 596 

Nazareth, View of. 600 

Nebo, The god 602 

Nebuchadnezzar, Brick of 603 

Cameo of. 602 

Nergal's Emblem 612 

Night-Jar 609 

Nilometer, The 611 

Nineveh, Plan of. 613 

Nisroch 614 

Nose-Jewels 617 

Oak, Abraham's 19 

Obelisk at On 264 

Oil-Press 624 

Oli Tree 624 

Olives 623 

Olivet from the West 626 

Omar, Mosque of 451 

On, Obelisk at 629 

Osiris, Egyptian 256 

Ossifrage.." 633 

Ostrich 634 

Owl, Eagle 635 

Palace, Assvrian 80 

Solomon's, Plan of 638 

Palm, Date 653 

Partridge, The Greek 658 

Patmos, Isle of. 661 

Paul, House where Imprisoned 662 

Place of Shipwreck of 500 

Portrait of 6o3 

Peacock 663 

Pelican, The 667 

Penny. Roman 580 

Pens, etc 668 

Pentateuch, Samaritan 7G2 

Pergamos. 672 

x'eter, Portrait of. 675 

Pharaoh of Exodus 261 

of Oppression 260 

Philistine 683 

Phvlacterv 687 

Pine The Eastern 690 

Pistachio-Nuts 618 

Plough, Eastern 695 

Pomegranate 697 

Postures in Prayer, Arab 701 

Egyptian 701 

Hebrew 701 

Potter, Egyptian.. 699 

Pottery, Egyptian 699 

Priest, A...." 385, 703 

Prison, Ancient Inner 705 

Prisoners before Sargon 163 

Propvlon atKarnak.; 265 

Pygarg, The 716 

Pyramid of Egypt, Ascent of 263 

Quail 717 

Quivers, Egyptian 718 

Rachel, Tomb of. 721 

959 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Rameses II 260 

Raven 72n 

Reeds 151 

Rehoboam 730 

Retem 491 

Rings and Signets, Assyrian 738 

Egyptian 738 

Porcelain 738 

Robinson's Arch 440 

Roe 740 

Rome, View of. 743 

Rue 745 



Sackcloth, Sitting in 749 

Sacred Bull, Mummy of 561 

Salsola Kali 815 

Salt, Sea, Map of 753 

Salutation, Modes of 758 

Samaria, Colonnade of 759 

Sandals 192 

Sarcophagus 561 

Lid, Egyptian 277 

Sargon, Prisoners before 163 

Scorpion 770 

Scourge 771 

Scribes 772 

Seal, Phoenician 773 

Seilun 794 

Selah or Petra. 777 

Sennacherib on his Throne 779 

Shadoof, Egyptian 610 

Shechem 787 

Sheepfoid, Eastern 789 

Shekel ascribed to Simon Maccabseus 579 

She- -Bread, Table of 792 

Shields and Spears 68, 70 

Assyrian 70 

Egyptian 68 

Shiloh'Ancient 794 

Shishak, Head of 796 

Shittim-Wood 797 

Siloam, Pool of 802 

Simon the Tanner, House of 479 

Sinai, Mount 805 

Outline Map of. 807 

Sistrum 590 

Slinger, Assyrian 72 

Smvrna .". 813 

Snail 815 

Solomon's Pools 819 

Sparrow 822 

Spears, Assyrian 70 

Spikenard 823 

Standards, Roman 16 

State, Chair of 865 

Stocks, Ancient 826 

Stone Water-Jars 899 

Stork, The 828 

Street of Columns 844! 

Sun, Temple of, at Baalbec 89 

Swift, The 831 

Swords and Daggers, Assyrian 70 

Sycamore 832 

Synagogue at Meiron 834 



Tabor, Mount 844 

Tadmor or Palmyra 845 

Tamarisk " 543 

Tares 848 

Tell Hum, Ruins at , 161 

Temple according to Fergusson 854 

according to Lewin 854 

according to Porter 854 

according to Wilkinson 854 

at Aboo Simbel 265 

at Hathor 265 

at Karnak 257 

at Thebes 257 

Great, Columns of 89 

Herod's 856 

of Diana 281 

of the Sun 844 

Platform of 853 

Reconstruction of 854 

Teraphim 858 

Thebes, Temple at 257 

Thessalonica 860 

Thorn. Palestine 861 

Threshing Floor, Egyptian 30 

Instrument (Lower View) 863 

Instrument (Upper View) 864 

Sledge of Palestine 864 

Throne or Chair of State 865 

Thvatira 866 

Thvine Wood 865 

Tiberias 321 

Tiberius, Head of Emperor 867 

Timbrel 868 

Tomh, Aaron's 389 

Absalom's 21 

at Beni-Hassan 259 





443 




472 




482 




147 




721 




822 


Triclinium, Roman 


248 

896 




882 


Tyre 


883 



Unicorn 887 

Upper Room 242 

Vases, Alabaster 37 

Vulture, Egyptian 894 

Griffon, or Eagle 245 

Walking, Girded for 191 

Water-Carrier, Arab 141 

Water-Jars, Stone 899 

Wheat. Egyptian 900 

Wind Instruments 590 

Wine Making, Esvptian 904 

Wine Press, Treading of 903 

Winged Figures, Egyptian 175 

Winnowihjf-Fans 300 

Writing-Materials 668 



Tabernacle, General View of. 839 Yoke in Use in Palestine 908 

8. E. View 840 

Table or Triclinium 248, Zidon 918 

960 



CANAAN 

in Patriarchal times 

Scale of English. Mies 




3 5 T.oagitode E.oJC Crt-oen-wich 36 



fnp\ r-i^nx. JBSO.. 



77ie Ancerican, Sunday SchootUniuruThiJLaJ^lphiab. 




' Ooay-yte I860.) 



The. American Sunday School I rum '£7aZade?p7Mb. 

5 




Copjrtaht 1829. 



Th& American Sundew Schx/ol Union. PhzLadeip7vLa. 

■ " 6 




Longitude E. of Green-wio] 



' CopyHohl 1880., 



The. Jlrnsrican, Sunday School Union. VhHadbd-pln 

8 




longittide E. of Greenwich 36 



'Copyright 1880. j 



The American Sunday Softool TJrrijcmy.Fhiladebp'lvLa.. 

10 




' Copyright, 2880.,' 



The American. Sunday Scfiool Union. Philadelphia. 

U 



MODERN JERUSALEM 

Tire divisions ofJiuxent Jerusalem are 

distinguished by colours and named irv light letters 

Scale ..English Feet 




Copyngyx, 188C 



The American .Sunday School Union, Philadelphia. 

12 



if' 



